AE 206 AIRCRAFT SYSTEMS AND INSTRUMENTATION

Two Marks
Unit-I
1. What is the purpose of an accumulator in a hydraulic system?
The accumulator serves a twofold purpose: (1) it acts as a cushion or shock absorber
by maintaining an even pressure in the system, and (2) it stores an enough fluid under
pressure to provide for emergency operation of certain actuating units. Accumulators are
designed with a compressed air chamber which is separated from the fluid by a flexible
diaphragm or movable piston.
2. Write down the classification of air brakes (or) Classify the aircraft landing gear
system. (Or) Classify A/C brake system & Landing gear?
Classification of Aircraft Brake systems are
- Power Boosted brake system
- Independent brake system
- Multi power brake actuating system
- Power brake system
Classification of Landing gear systems are
- Non absorbing landing gear
- Shock absorbing landing gear
- Fixed gear
- Retractable landing gear.
The following are the classification of aircraft brake system and corresponding Landing
gear systems used in the aircraft are
- Independent brake system - Non absorbing landing gear
- Power boosted brake system - Shock absorbing landing gear
- Power brake system - Fixed gear
- Multi power brake actuating system - Retractable landing gear.
3. List out the types of selector valves used in hydraulic systems?
Types of selector valves used in hydraulic systems are:
- Plug type selector valve
- Popper type selector valve
- Spool type selector valve
- Open centre system type
4. What are the advantages of pneumatic system over hydraulic system?
 Simplicity of Design And Control
 Machines are easily designed using standard cylinders & other components.
Control is as easy as it is simple ON - OFF type control.
 Reliability
  Pneumatic systems tend to have long operating lives and require very little
maintenance.
 Because gas is compressible, the equipment is less likely to be damaged by
shock. The gas in pneumatics absorbs excessive force, whereas the fluid of
hydraulics directly transfers force.
 Storage
 Compressed Gas can be stored, allowing the use of machines when electrical
power is lost.
 Safety
 Very low chance of fire (compared to hydraulic oil).
 Machines can be designed to be overload safe.
5. What are the different types of shock absorbers used in landing gears?
There are two types of shock absorbing landing gear commonly used are springs
oleo struts and Air oleo struts types.
In spring oleo struts, the spring supports the A/C weight on the ground and during
taxiing and oleo strut absorbs the shock of landing.
In air oleo struts, the air supports the A/C weight on the ground and absorbs shocks
During taxiing and oleo strut absorbs the shock of landing.

6. List out main requirements of hydraulic fuels.

The hydraulic fluid used in the aircraft should possess the following properties:
• Be free flowing at all temperatures.
• Have low freezing and high boiling point.
• Not affected or be affected by the materials in the components.
• Have good lubricating qualities.
• Not deteriorate or form sludge.
• Have a high flash point.

7. Sketch and write down the functions of the following hydraulic valves:
a) Sequence valve b) De-booster valve
a) Sequence Valve / Timing Valve
A sequence valve sometimes called a timing valve because it times certain hydraulic
operations in proper sequence i.e., Ensures sequence/ in time hydraulic operation. Eg., in
landing gear extension system it ensures that the doors are opened first before the landing
gear extended down.
b) De-booster valve
De-booster valve operates by the differential area of two pistons. If a small area
piston is connected by rod to a large piston, the two pistons will be capable of developing
pressure in inverse proportion to their areas.

8. Why is a gear type pump described as a positive displacement pump?

A gear type pump is classed as positive displacement pump, because each revolution
of the pump will deliver a given volume of fluid (for each revolution).
 It has two gears and one of the two gears is driven by either engine or electric motor
and the other gear is meshed with and driven by the first gear. As the gear rotate in one
direction (say clock wise) fluid enter the in port to the gears, where it is trapped between
the gear teeth and carried around the pump case to the out port. The fluid cannot flow
between the gears because of their closely meshed design; therefore, it is forced out
through the out port.
9. Distinguish between hydraulic and pneumatic systems?
Pneumatic systems used primarily as emergency sources of pressure for many of
the hydraulically actuated sub-systems. The air in a pneumatic system is compressible;
therefore, the pressure in the system can reduce gradually from the maximum system
pressure to zero pressure. There is no need for return lines. After the compressed air has
served its purpose, it can be overboard, which saves tubing, fittings, and valves.
Hydraulic systems have two major parts or sections, the power section and
actuating section. The power section provides for fluid flow, regulates and limits the
pressure, and carries the fluid to various selector valves in the systems. The actuating
section or subsystems are the section containing the various operating units such as the
wing flaps, landing gear, breaks, boost systems and steering mechanism. As soon as the
accumulator fluid has been used and the pump is not operating, the fluid pressure
immediately drops from accumulator pressure to zero pressure.
10. Give four names of hydraulic pumps used in a typical hydraulic system
 Gear type or positive displacement pump
 Vane type pump
 Gerotor pump
 Multiple piston pump
 Hand pump
11. Write down the difference between pressure relief valve and regulator.
Pressure relief valve: System pressure relief valve is set to relieve any pressure above that
maintained by the system pressure regulator, and only in the event of a malfunction of
regulator, the pressure relief valve comes into operation and release the excess pressure.
Pressure regulator: a closed centre hydraulic system whose pressure is supplied by and
EDP (engine driven Pump) needs a regulator to maintain the pressure within a specified
range to keep the pump unloaded any time, no unit is being actuated.
12) What you mean by heat exchanger?
A heat exchanges is any device by which heat in transferred from one
independent system to another independent system.

13) What is thermal relief value?

A thermal relief value is similar to a regular system relief value bit such values are
installed in parts of the hydraulic system where fluid pressure is trapped and may need to
be relieved because of the increase caused by higher temperatures.
14) Differentiate between single-acting and double acting actuating cylinder?
A single acting actuator is normally used as a locking device the lock being
engaged by spring pressure and released by hydraulic pressure. The double acting actuator
is used in most aircraft systems eg landing gear.

15) Differentiate between capon and closed hydraulic system?

An open system is one having fluid flow but no appreciable pressure in the
system whenever the actuating mechanisms are idle. Its simple but only one service can be
operated by this system at a time. A closed system is one that directs fluid flow to the main
system manifold and builds up pressure in that portion of the system the leads to all the
selector values. Its bit complicated but more than one service can be operated by this
system at a time.

16) Classify air pressure sources?

- Super charger
- Turbo charger
- Engine bleed air
- Independent cabin compressors

17) What is a moisture control?

The great reduction in temperature causes the moisture in the air to condense and
thin moisture is removed by means of a water repeater.

18) Differentiate between springs oleo struts and air oleo struts?
In spring oleo struts, the spring supports the A/C weight on the ground and during
taxiing and oleo strut aborts the shock of landing. In air oleo struts, the air supports the A/C
weight on the ground and abserts shocks during taxiing and oleo strut aborts the shock of
landing.

19) What is trunnion?

The trunion is the portion of landing gear assembly attached to the airframe. The
trunnion in supported at its ends by bearing assemblies which allows the gear to pivot
during retraction and extension.

20) Explain the difference between dray strut and side strut?
Draglink or drag strut is designed to stabilize the landing gear assembly
longitudinally. Side link or side assembly laterally.

21) Classify the types of retraction system?

- Mechanical retraction system
- Electrical retraction system
- Hydraulic retraction system
22) What is bungee cylinder used in landing gear? What is artificial bungee?
The bungee cylinder: are mechanically linked to side brace links. They are
hydraulically actuated & help in retraction of landing gears. Artificial bungee: gives feel
factor to the pilot.

23) What is a master cylinder?

The master cylinder in the energizing unit. There is one for each main landing year
wheel. It is a feet operated single action reciprocating pump, the purpose of which is to
build up hydraulic fluid pressure in the brake system.

24) What is ply rating?

Ply rating is an index of tire strength. The term is used to identity a given tire with
its maximum recommended load. The higher the rating, the greater the load a tire will
carry.

25) Differentiate between expander – shoe brake and expands – tube brake?
Expander shoe brake: Relation of break drum adds braking energy to the break
shoes and makes them operate more effectively & with Len effort by the pilot. They are
also known as serve brakes.
Expander tube break: The pressure of hydraulic fluid in the tube forces the blocks
radically outward against the break drum.

26) Differentiate between single disk brake and multiple disk break?
Single disk brakes are used in smaller aircraft single disk may be conducted with a
many separate pistons and linings as needed for the airplane. Each piston in equipped with
separate sets of linings, which bear against the brake disk when the brake see applied
multiple disk brakes are used in large aircraft. Braking action is produced by hydraulic
pressures forcing the pistons against the pressures plate, which, in turn, forces the disk
together and creater friction between the reetratiny and stationary disks.

27) Differentiate between segmented reetear disk brake and carbon composite
brakes?
Segmented rater disk brakes are heavy duty brakes designed for use with high
pressure hydraulic systems using power brake control values or power boost master
cylinders. Braking action results from several sets of stationary linings making contact with
rotating segments
Carbon composite brakes: In this the disks are made of carbon. Its long-life, light weight
compared to steel brakes and more reliable.

28) What do you mean by anti skid system?

Anti skid system are used to prevent loss of airplane control on the ground
caused by skidding of the wheels. The system consists of electronic controller,
transducers, servo values, indicating light & switch.
 Unit-II
1. What is fly by wire system?
For a fly by wire system all the inputs are converted corresponding electrical signals
and transmitted to the actuators through electrical wires. Some of advantage of fly by wire
system
 Weight saving
 Improved handling
 Fuel saving
 Reduced maintenance

2. What is meant by ILS?

An instrument landing system (ILS) is a ground-based instrument approach system
that provides precision guidance to an aircraftapproaching and landing on a runway, using
a combination of radio signals and, in many cases, high-intensity lighting arrays to enable a
safe landing during instrument meteorological conditions (IMC), such as low ceilings or
reduced visibility due to fog, rain, or blowing snow.

3. What are the advantages of fly by wire system?

 Weight saving
 Improved handling
 Fuel saving
 Reduced maintenance

4. What do you understand by push pull rod system?

A stiff rod or hollow tube in an aircraft control system that moves a control surface
by either pushing it or pulling it.
5. List out the components of instruments landing system.
Localizer, Marker beacons (Inner, Middle & Outer), Glide scope

6. In what way the instrument landing system differ from ground controlled
approach?
In aviation a ground-controlled approach (GCA), is a type of service provided by
airtraffic controllers whereby they guide aircraft to a safe landing in adverse weather
Conditions based on radar images. An instrument landing system (ILS) is a ground-based
instrument approach system that provides precision guidance to an aircraft approaching
and landing on a runway.

7. What are the purposes of SELCAL and INTERPHONE systems?

The selective calling (SELCAL) system operates in conjunction with the VHF and
HF systems, and provides a visual and aural indication when the airplane is being called.
SELCAL enables ground facilities to selectively call an individual airplane. The service
interphone system allows communication between the various service and maintenance
areas, the cockpit, and the cabin attendant stations. Telephone-type handsets in the cockpit
and at the forward, mid and aft attendant panels are used for both the service interphone
system and the PA system.

8. List down the uses of the communication system in a modern airliner.

 HF (High Frequency) communication for long range
 VHF (Very High Frequency) communication for short range
 Sat Com (Satellite Communication)
 ACARS/AIRCOM
 To communicate between aircraft to aircraft, aircraft to airport, aircraft to ATC

9. Name any four modern control systems?

 Fly by wire (computer):- May be Analog computer or digital computer
 Fly by optics (light):-
 Power by size (user electro-hydraulic actuators
 Intelligent flight control system

10. What do you mean by active control technology? Give at least three examples?
Activate control technology helps to improve the handling of aircraft and to reduce
the time lag or control delays by increasing the no. of computers, etc., in the aircraft (i.e.
redundancy). This advance concept in applicable to following e.g.
 Fly by wire
 Control configured vehicles
 Automatic flight control system.

Unit-III
1. What are the primary requirements of a fuel system?
a. The fuel system must supply fuel to the carburetor or other metering device under
all.
b. It must function properly at constantly changing altitudes and in any climate.
c. It should be free from vapor lock.

2. Name four basic types of fuel tanks used in aircrafts

a. Integral type
b. Rigid removal type
c. Bladder type
d. Surge tank

3. What are the difference between the fuel system of piston and jet engine?
In piston engine, the fuel metering system consists of the air and fuel control devices
from the point where the fuel enters the first control unit until the fuel is injected into the
supercharger section intake pipe or cylinder.
 In gas turbine engine the fuel metering system consists of a Jet fuel control and may
extend to and include fuel nozzles. On turbo propeller engine the temperature datum valve
is a part of engine fuel systems.

4. Enumerate the lubricating systems used for jet engines.

a. Wet- sump lubrication
b. Dry- sump engine lubrication
c. Lubricating oil stored in the engine proper.

5. Distinguish between fuel system of piston and jet engines?

In piston engine, the fuel metering system consists of the air and fuel control
devices from the point where the fuel enters the first control unit until the fuel is injected
into the supercharger section intake pipe or cylinder.
In gas turbine engine the fuel metering system consists of a Jet fuel control and may
extend to and include fuel nozzles. On turbo propeller engine the temperature datum valve
is a part of engine fuel system.

6. Why lubricating system is necessary for an aircraft?

There are many moving parts in the aircraft engine the contacts between surfaces
moving in relation to each other produce friction, which consumes energy and this energy
is transformed to heat, therefore reduces the power output of the engine. Hence to reduce
wear and to lower the power loss lubricating system in an aircraft is mandatory.

7. What is vapour lock and list down its causes?

Vaporization of fuel under certain conditions in the fuel system, thus resulting
partial or complete interruption of the fuel flow is called vapor lock.
Following are the causes of vapor lock:
1. Low pressure in the aircraft fuel tank at high altitude
2. High fuel temperature
3. Excessive fuel turbulence in the fuel tank & fuel system

8. What are the advantages of air turbine starters?

(a) It provides high starting torque from a small light weight source.
(b) It is capable of developing twice as much torque as electric starter.
( c) It weighs one-fourth to one-half as much as an electric starter

9. Distinguish oil system of piston and jet engines

PISTON ENGINES JET ENGINES
1. More number of moving parts 1. Less number of moving parts
2. More lubricating problems exists because 2. Less lubricating problems exists as
of reciprocating motion. there is no reciprocating motion.
3. High viscosity lubricant used. 3. Low viscosity lubricant used.
10. How do you select the ignition system for an Aircraft?
To select the ignition system of an aircraft, the following are to be considered:
1. Type of engine used in the aircraft: reciprocating engine, jet engine
2. Type of Ignition system used for the particular engine:
For Reciprocating Engine: Battery ignition system and Magneto ignition system
Magneto ignition system: low or high tension
For jet engine: high energy capacitor discharge ignition system using one or
more igniters plugs or electronic type ignition system.

11. How will you select the starting system for an aircraft?
To select the starting system of an aircraft, the following are to be considered:
1. Type of engine used in the aircraft: reciprocating engine, jet engine
2. Type of Starting system used for the particular engine:
For Reciprocating Engine: Cartridge starting system,
 Hand inertia starting system,
 Electric inertia starting system,
 Combination of hand and electric inertia starting,
 Direct cracking system.
For jet engine electric staring system
a. Direct cracking electric system
b. Starter generator system
c. Air turbine starting system
d. Cartridge/pneumatic turbine engine starting system
e. Fuel/air combustion turbine starter

12. Differentiate between the fuel system of the piston and jet engines?
In piston engine, the fuel metering system consists of the air and fuel control devices
from the point where the fuel enters the first control unit until the fuel is injected into the
supercharger section intake pipe or cylinder.
In gas turbine engine the fuel metering system consists of a Jet fuel control and may
extend to and include fuel nozzles. On turbo propeller engine the temperature datum valve
is a part of engine fuel system.

13. What are the various types of turbine starter?

(a) Electric starting system:
(i) Direct cranking starter
(ii) Starter generator
(b) Air turbine starter
( c) Turbine engine cartridge starters
(d) Fuel / air combustion turbine starters.

14. What are the disadvantages of wet sump lubrication system in reciprocating
engines?
a. oil supply is limited by the sump capacity.
b. cooling of oil is difficult because the system is a self contained unit.
 c. oil temperature is higher because oil supply is close to the engine.
d. not suitable for inverted flying since the entire oil will flood the engine.

15.What are the main contaminants of the engine oil?

a. gasoline
b. moisture
c. acids
d. dirt
e. carbon
f. metal particles

16 What are the main functions of engine oil in the oil system?
There are at least five main functions of engine oil:
 Cool absorbs heat as it is circulated, cooling the engine.
 Lubricate creates a viscous barrier between moving parts that reduces friction,
which means less heat and longer life for those parts.
 Clean small particles of dirt or other contaminants are suspended in oil and carried
away to be filtered out.
 Seal helps to seal the space between the pistons and the cylinder walls so that
compression is more effective and power is not lost during combustion.
 Protect coats parts to provide a layer of protection against corrosion/rust

17. Differentiate between nigh tension ignition system & low tension ignition system?
 Magneto Ignition system operate on the principles of electromagnetic induction.
They can be high tension & low tension ignition system.
 High tension magnetic Ignition system High voltages are induced either by rotating
the transformer windings between poles of permanent magnet or by rotating the
magnet between fixed transformer windings car by rotating soft iron bass between
fixed permanent magnets and transformers winding.
 Low tension magnate Ignition system then system were developed far engineer
having large no of better then high tension. In this, the low voltage impulses from
the magneto primary are directly supplied to the distributor. The low tension
magnets are suited on and off similar to the high tension magneto.

Unit-IV

1. Explain the principle involved in Systron-donner fire detection technique used in

aircrafts.
It is a continuous loop system, and is pneumatic in operation. The pressure of the gas
inside the element is increased by heat and the increased actuates the diaphragm switch
inside the responder which closes the circuit and provides the warning signal.
2. List down the methods of fire detection in reciprocating engine aircrafts?
Fires are detected in reciprocating engine aircraft using one or more of the following:
1. Over heat detectors
2. Rate of temperature rise detectors
 3. Flame detectors
4. Observation by crew members
5. Carbon monoxide detectors
3. List out the different smoke detection techniques used in aircraft fire protection
system
Types of smoke detectors
1. Carbon monoxide detectors
2. Photoelectric Smoke detectors
3. Visual smoke detectors
4.Write down the different types of fire detection techniques.
1. Thermocouple fire detection
2. Thermo switch fire detection
3. Tubuler type fire detection:
a. Fenwal fire detection
b. Kidde fire detection
c. Pneumatic (systron Donner) fire detection
d. Lindberg fire detection

5. What is meant by anti icing and deicing?

_ De-icing means removing ice that has already farmed.
_ Thermal anti-icing heated air flowing through passages in the leading edge of wings,
Stabilizers and engine cowlings tee pre unit the formation of ice

6. List out the types of over heat detectors used in fire protection system.
 Thermal switch system
 Fenwal spot detector
 Thermocouple system

7. What are the methods available to provide heated air to the thermal anti-icing
system?
 Anti icing using combustion heater
 Anti icing using exhaust heater
 Anti icing using engine bleed air

8. Distinguish between air cycle cooling and vapour cycle cooling.

Air cycle machine:- The turbine, compressor unit by which air is cooled is called air
cycle machine(ACM) The ACM user compression and expansion of air to lower the
temperature of cabin air.
Vapor cycle machine: - User refrigerant instead of air the vapor cycle machine in a
closed system usury the evaporation and condensation of Freon to remove heat from the
cabin interior.

9. What is the need for pressurizing the aircraft cabin?

Cabin pressurization is the pumping of compressed air into an aircraft cabin to
maintain a safe and comfortable environment for crew and passengers when flying at
altitude. Pressurization becomes necessary at altitudes beyond 10,000 feet (3,000 m) above
sea level to protect crew and passengers from the risk of a number of physiological
problems caused by the low outside air pressure above that altitude
 Hypoxia.
 Altitude sickness.
 Decompression sickness.
 Barotrauma

10. How is cabin pressure dumped?

All exhaust air is dumped to atmosphere via an outflow valve, usually at the rear of
the fuselage. This valve controls the cabin pressure and also acts as a safety relief valve, in
addition to other safety relief valves.

11. Differentiate between the anti-icing and de-icing method used in aircrafts.
De-icing is defined as removal of snow, ice or frost from a surface. Anti-icing
prevent adhesion of ice to make mechanical removal easier.

12. What do you mean by purging the system?

In vapor cycle refrigeration system, purging means releasing the refrigerant. In fuel
system, purging means draining the fuel from tank by introducing inert gas as co2 or N2
to the tank. In oxygen system, purging means releasing oxygen from the system.

13. What is shirt sleeve environment?

In order to make the cabin environment comfortable for the air craft occupants,
the cabin must normally be pressurized to maintain the cabin air pressure at the level
reahed at no higher than 800 it. This enables the crew and passengers to function without
the uses of supplemental oxygen and, with adjustments of the cabin air temperature,
allows them to be in a shirt sleeve” environment.

13. Differentiate between super changer and turbo charger?

A supercharger is an engine drive air pump; mechanically drive for engine, which
compresses air for use by the engine in the combustion process. A turbocharger is used in a
similar manner as a system charger except that the turbo charger is driven by exhaust gases
from the engine, which driver an air compressed to supply an air charge to the engine.

Unit –V

1. What is meant by compensated altimeter?

Because of the high speeds and altitudes at which many aircraft fly, the altimeters
employed in such aircraft must be much more accurate than those used on aircraft designed
to operate at more moderate altitudes. To provide an altimeter that will be sufficiently
accurate for all conditions of operation, certain corrections and compensations must be
made. First an accurate altimeter must be corrected for installation or position error. This
error applies to a particular aircraft or airplane. Secondly the instrument must have
automatic compensation for temperature changes. Thirdly the changes in static pressure
due to changes in Mach number must be compensated. An altimeter designed to make the
necessary adjustments for accuracy is mechanically compensated pneumatically operated
altimeter.

2. Define sensitivity and speed of response of an instrument.

The simple instrument is not sensitive with a single pointer. The three pointers give
a much more sensitive indication reading and change of readings. The range of readings
will be more accurate by adding the number of pointer on the same dial to indicate the sub
division of the higher units is known as sensitivity. Or other words, sensitivity of an
instrument is nothing indications are measured in subdivision or from fraction of units to
higher units. Speed of response of an instrument is that the time taken by an instrument to
respond for indicating the final measurement or information or reading.

3. Explain Indicated Calibrated and True airspeeds.

INDICATED AIRSPEED: IAS is the airspeed indicated on the instrument. It is the
measurement of the difference between the total pressure and the atmospheric pressure in
the pitot static system. (That is the pitot pressure which is the sum of the atmospheric
pressure and the dynamic pressure.)
CALIBRATED AIRSPED: CAS is the indicated airspeed corrected for instrument and
sensor position error. This correction is a result of location of the Pitot tube and static ports
and the changing airflow around these sensors with different aircraft flight attitude various
flap positions and door, window and vent positions
TRUE AIRSPEED: TAS is the calibrated airspeed corrected for compressibility error and
density error or TRUE AIRSPEED adjusts the IAS for the given temperature and
pressure. TAS is the actual speed of airspeed of the aircraft through the air mass.
The F-15E receives TAS from the Air Data Computer which measures the outside
temperature & pressure. True airspeed is calculated incorporating pressure and temperature
corrections corresponding to flight altitude.

VT = True airspeed, Vi = Indicated airspeed, p & T are pressure and temperature with
subscripts std and actual indicating standard and actual (altitude / ambient) conditions.
True Air Speed and Ground Speed will be the same in a perfectly still air.

4. What are TAS and EAS?

TRUE AIRSPEED: TAS is the calibrated airspeed corrected for compressibility error and
density error or TRUE AIRSPEED adjusts the IAS for the given temperature and
pressure. TAS is the actual speed of airspeed of the aircraft through the air mass.
 The F-15E receives TAS from the Air Data Computer which measures the outside
temperature & pressure. True airspeed is calculated incorporating pressure and temperature
corrections corresponding to flight altitude.

VT = True airspeed, Vi = Indicated airspeed, p & T are pressure and temperature with
subscripts std and actual indicating standard and actual (altitude / ambient) conditions.
True Air Speed and Ground Speed will be the same in a perfectly still air.
EQUIVALENT AIR SPEED: EAS is the calibrated airspeed corrected for
compressibility factor. This value is very significant to pilots of high speed aircraft, but
relatively unimportant to pilots operating at speed below 250 knots at altitudes below
10,000 feet.

5. What is the principle involved in an airspeed indicator?

Principle:
An aircraft on the ground in still air is subject only to atmospheric (static) pressure
(S), the leading edges of an aircraft in forward flight are subject to an additional (dynamic)
pressure. This results in a total (pitot) pressure (P) on the leading edges of dynamic
pressure plus static pressure.
Pitot = Dynamic + Static or P = Dy + S
The dynamic pressure is often called pitot excess pressure (PE) so we have:
P = PE + S
The pitot head senses pitot pressure and the static/vent senses static pressure. These
two pressures are fed to the airspeed indicator, a differential pressure gauge, which
measures their difference PE (dynamic pressure). Now the dynamic pressure is a measure
of airspeed, because Dynamic Pressure = ½ρV² where V is the true air speed and ρ is the
density of the surrounding air. Thus the ASI Measures airspeed by measuring dynamic
pressure, displaying the result, (usually in knots) on a suitably calibrated scale.

6. What are the functions of Mach meter and airspeed indicator?

FUNCTIONS OF MACH METER:
A mach meter provides a continuous indication of the ratio of an aircraft’s airspeed
to the local speed of sound at the particular altitude and temperature existing at any time
during flight.
It expresses airspeed as Mach number by measuring and correlating dynamic
and static pressures. The ratio of true airspeed to the speed of sound is called MACH
number, which is measured by the mach meter.
FUNCTIONS OF AIRSPEED INDICATOR:
The airspeed indicator indicates the pilot the speed at which he is travelling (not over
the ground) by measuring dynamic pressure. Pitot = Dynamic + Static or P = Dy + S
The dynamic pressure is often called pitot excess pressure (PE) so we have:
P = PE + S
The pitot head senses pitot pressure and the static/vent senses static pressure. These two
pressures are fed to the airspeed indicator, a differential pressure gauge, which measures
their difference PE (dynamic pressure).The dial is calibrated in knots and or miles per
hour.

7. What are the limitations of a free gyroscope?

If the aircraft exceeds the pitch or roll limits of 85º (55º in air driven gyro) the gyro
will topple as the inner gimbal comes up against the stops, the precession causing the outer
gimbal and scale to spin rapidly. Exceptions to this can occur:-
a. If the rotor axis is athwart ships - 360º of aircraft rotation in the looping plane then
being possible without toppling the gyro.
b. If the rotor axis is fore and aft - 360º of roll then being possible without toppling.
The actual indications on the scale at which these two situations can arise depend on the
vintage and manufacture of the instrument.

8. What are the common errors associated with Flight instruments?

1. Instrument Error
2. Position Error
3. Manoeuvre Induced Error
4. Mechanical Error
5. Inherent Error
6. Cold weather Error

9. List of aircraft pressure gauges

1. Bourdon tube pressure gauge
2. Diaphragm pressure gauge
3. Bellows capsule pressure gauge
4. Aneroid capsule pressure gauge
5. Engine pressure gauge
6. De-icing pressure gauge
7. Hydraulic pressure gauge
8. Suction pressure gauge
9. Manifold pressure gauge

10. What are the design factors influencing in a gyroscopic instrument?

Gyroscopic rigidity depends upon several design factors:
1. Weight
2. Angular Velocity
3. Radius at which the weight is concentrated
4. Bearing friction
Gyroscopic precession is illustrated by applying a force or pressure to the gyro about the
horizontal axis. The design factor is Applied Force Or Pressure.
1. Weight: for a given size a heavy mass is more resistant to disturbing forces on a light
mass.
2. Angular Velocity: the higher the rotational speed, greater the rigidity or resistance to
deflection.
 3. Radius at which the weight is concentrated: maximum effect is obtained from a mass
when its principal weight is concentrated near the rim rotating at high speed.
4. Bearing friction: any friction applies a deflecting force to a gyro, minimum bearing
friction keeps deflecting forces at a minimum.
11. Write down the working principles of gyroscopic instruments.
The gyroscope is a rotor, spinning wheel, rotating at high speed in a universal
mounting called Gimbals, so its axel can be pointed in any direction. The peculiar actions
of a gyroscope though they may appear to defy physical laws, actually depend entirely
upon Sir Isaac Newton’s law of motion. All of the practical applications of the gyroscope
based upon two fundamental characteristics: gyroscopic inertia (rigidity in space) and
precession.
12. Give the working principle of Resistance type temperature measuring system with
neat sketch
The electrical resistance type thermometer operates on the principle of the change in
the electrical resistance of most metals with changes in temperature. The electrical
resistance of a metal increases as the temperature increases. The electrical resistance of a
metal increases more than the resistance of others with a given rise in temperature. If a
metallic resistor with a high temperature resistant coefficient is subjected to a temperature
to be measured and a resistance indicator is connected it, all the requirements for an
electrical thermometer system are present.

13. Distinguish between engine instruments and navigation instruments.

Engine instrument - are designed to measure the quantity and pressure of liquids (fuel and
oils), r.p.m, and temperature
Navigation instruments - provides information that enables the pilot to guide the aircraft
accurately along the definite courses
14. What are the navigation instruments?
 VHF Direction Finder (VDF)
 NDB non- directional beacon
 ADF Automatic direction finder
 GPS global positioning system
15. How can use measure RPM of engine?
 By Electronic Tachometer
 By electrical Tachometer
 By Magnetic Tachometer

16. Mention the aircraft pressure gauges.

 Oil pressure gauge
 Manifold pressure gauge
 Air pressure gauges