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ORACLE components and commands

ORACLE Components
SQLPLUS Commands
SQL Commands
Modification Commands
Create Table Command
Select Command
Table Constraints

Oracle Components
I. Oracle DBMS

A. Oracle Display System (ODS) - activities in the system displayed on the system console.

B. Oracle Data Loader (ODL) - loads raw data into tables.

C. After Image Journaling (AIJ) - program for journaling each change to data in case of need for
recovery.

D. System Global Information (SGI) - shows shared memory set up.

E. IOR - program for start and stopping ORACLE system for the DBA. This contains the setups
and saves.

F. Export/Import - for use to restore of backup archival storage.

II. Pro*SQL - host language interface - group of subroutines which translates SQL statements into machine
code.

III. SQL*Plus - include SQL and SQL*Plus commands.

IV. Oracle Report Writer:

A. Report text formatter - similar to a word processor.

B. Report generator - procedural language that creates a report from the data base.

V. SQL*FORMS - interactive facility to create and edit forms (screens).

A. IAG - Interactive Applications Generator.

B. IAC - Interactive Applications Converter.

C. IAD - Interactive Applications Designer.

D. IAP - Intaeractive Applications Processor.

E. Crt Utility - for different types of displays.

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VI. Audit- Trail - enables DBA to monitor activities in system for security or tuning purposes.

VII. SORT/MERGE - to improve efficiency.

The commands are listed in the following order: SQL*Plus commands,

PL/SQL commands, and then SQL commands.

SQL*PLUS COMMANDS

@ @@ /

ACCEPT APPEND BREAK

BTITLE CHANGE CLEAR

COLUMN COMPUTE CONNECT

COPY DEFINE DEL

DESCRIBE DISCONNECT EDIT

EXECUTE EXIT GET

HELP HOST INPUT

LIST PAUSE PRINT

PROMPT REMARK RUN

RUNFORM SAVE SET

SHOW SPOOL SQLPLUS

START TIMING TTITLE

UNDEFINE VARIABLE WHENEVER OSERROR

WHENEVER SQLERROR

PL/SQL COMMANDS (Statements)

CLOSE Statement EXIT Statement FETCH Statement

GOTO Statement IF Statement LOOP Statement

NULL Statement OPEN Statement RAISE Statement

RETURN Statement

SQL COMMANDS

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The SQL commands are divided into these categories:

* Data Definition Language commands

* Data Manipulation Language commands

* Transaction Control commands

* Session Control commands

* System Control commands

SQL Data Definition Language commands include the following:

ALTER CLUSTER ALTER SEQUENCE COMMENT

ALTER DATABASE ALTER SNAPSHOT CREATE CLUSTER

ALTER FUNCTION ALTER SNAPSHOT LOG CREATE CONTROLFILE

ALTER INDEX ALTER TABLE CREATE DATABASE

ALTER PACKAGE ALTER TABLESPACE CREATE DATABASE LINK

ALTER PROCEDURE ALTER TRIGGER CREATE FUNCTION

ALTER PROFILE ALTER USER CREATE INDEX

ALTER RESOURCE COST ALTER VIEW CREATE PACKAGE

ALTER ROLE ANALYZE CREATE PACKAGE BODY

ALTER ROLLBACK SEGMENT AUDIT CREATE PROCEDURE

CREATE PROFILE DROP ROLE

CREATE ROLE DROP ROLLBACK SEGMENT

CREATE ROLLBACK SEGMENT DROP SEQUENCE

CREATE SCHEMA DROP SNAPSHOT

CREATE SEQUENCE DROP SNAPSHOT LOG

CREATE SNAPSHOT DROP SYNONYM

CREATE SNAPSHOT LOG DROP TABLE

CREATE SYNONYM DROP TABLESPACE

CREATE TABLE DROP TRIGGER

CREATE TABLESPACE DROP USER

CREATE TRIGGER DROP VIEW

CREATE USER GRANT

CREATE VIEW NOAUDIT

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DROP CLUSTER RENAME

DROP DATABASE LINK REVOKE

DROP FUNCTION TRUNCATE

DROP INDEX UPDATE

DROP PROCEDURE

DROP PROFILE

SQL Data Manipulation Language commands include the following:

DELETE

EXPLAIN PLAN

INSERT

LOCK TABLE

SELECT

SQL Transaction Control commands include the following:

COMMIT

ROLLBACK

SAVEPOINT

SET TRANSACTION

SQL Session Control commands include the following:

ALTER SESSION

SET ROLE

SQL System Control command (only one command):

ALTER SYSTEM

Insert Command

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INSERT INTO t/v_name (column, column,...) --(column list) optional

VALUES(value, value,...);

INSERT INTO t/v_name (column, column,...) SELECT...;

INSERT adds rows to the table or view specified. Names in the column

list may be in any order. Unlisted columns are set to NULL; you must

list any column created NOT NULL, and supply a value for it.

VALUES inserts each item in its list of values into the corresponding

column in the list of columns. The datatypes of each pair of items in

the two lists must be compatible or convertible. CHAR and DATE values

must be enclosed in 'single quotes'.

Use a subquery to INSERT rows from another table. SELECT must return

a value for each column listed.

Update Command

UPDATE table/view_name SET

column_name = sql_expression --SQL option

column_name = (one_value_SELECT_statement) --SQL option

(column_name, column_name,...) = SELECT_statement --SQL option

WHERE_clause;

UPDATE replaces the values in rows of one or more specified columns

with the values from a SQL expression or a SELECT statement. SELECT

must return at least one row, and every column to the left of the =

sign. SELECT may not contain an INTO clause. Use the WHERE clause

to specify conditions rows must meet in order to be updated; if you

omit the WHERE clause, all rows are updated.

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DELETE FROM table_or_view WHERE clause;

DELETE removes one or more rows from the table or view you specify.

The WHERE clause specifies the rows to remove. To remove all rows,

omit the WHERE clause.

SELECT command

PURPOSE:

To retrieve data from one or more tables, views, or snapshots.

SYNTAX:

SELECT [DISTINCT | ALL] { *

| { [schema.]{table | view | snapshot}.*

| expr [c_alias] }

[, { [schema.]{table | view | snapshot}.*

| expr [c_alias] } ] ... }

FROM [schema.]{table | view | snapshot}[@dblink] [t_alias]

[, [schema.]{table | view | snapshot}[@dblink] [t_alias] ] ...

[WHERE condition ]

[ [START WITH condition] CONNECT BY condition]

[GROUP BY expr [, expr] ... [HAVING condition] ]

[{UNION | UNION ALL | INTERSECT | MINUS} SELECT command ]

[ORDER BY {expr|position} [ASC | DESC]

[, {expr|position} [ASC | DESC]] ...]

[FOR UPDATE [OF [[schema.]{table | view}.]column

[, [[schema.]{table | view}.]column] ...] [NOWAIT] ]

where:
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DISTINCT

returns only one copy of each set of duplicate rows selected.

Duplicate rows are those with matching values for each expression in

the select list.

ALL

returns all rows selected, including all copies of duplicates.

The default is ALL.

selects all columns from all tables, views, or snapshots listed in

the FROM clause.

table.*

view.*

snapshot.*

selects all columns from the specified table, view, or snapshot.

You can use the schema qualifier to select from a table, view, or

snapshot in a schema other than your own.

If you are using Trusted ORACLE, the * does not select the ROWLABEL

column. To select this column, you must explicitly specify it in

the select list.

expr

selects an expression, usually based on columns values, from one of

the tables, views, or snapshots in the FROM clause. A column name

in this list can only contain be qualified with schema if the table,

view, or snapshot containing the column is qualified with schema in

the FROM clause.

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c_alias

provides a different name for the column expression and causes the

alias to be used in the column heading. A column alias does not

affect the actual name of the column. Column aliases cannot be

referenced elsewhere in a query.

schema

is the schema containing the selected table, view, or snapshot. If

you omit schema, ORACLE assumes the table, view, or snapshot is in

your own schema.

table

view

snapshot

is the name of a table, view, or snapshot from which data is

selected.

dblink

is complete or partial name for a database link to a remote database

where the table, view, or snapshot is located. Note that this

database need not be an ORACLE7 database.

If you omit dblink, ORACLE assumes that the table, view, or snapshot

is on the local database.

t_alias

provides a different name for the table, view, or snapshot for the

purpose of evaluating the query and is most often used in a

correlated query. Other references to the table, view, or snapshot

throughout the query must refer to the alias.

WHERE
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restricts the rows selected to those for which the condition is

TRUE. If you omit this clause, ORACLE returns all rows from the

tables, views, or snapshots in the FROM clause.

START WITH

CONNECT BY

returns rows in a hierarchical order.

GROUP BY

groups the selected rows based on the value of expr for each row and

returns a single row of summary information for each group.

HAVING

restricts the groups of rows returned to those groups for which the

specified condition is TRUE. If you omit this clause, ORACLE

returns summary rows for all groups.

UNION

UNION ALL

INTERSECT

MINUS

combines the rows returned by two SELECT statement using a set

operation.

ORDER BY

orders rows returned by the statement.

expr

orders rows based on their value for expr. The

expression is based on columns in the select list or

columns in the tables, views, or snapshots in the

FROM clause.

position

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orders rows based on their value for the expression

in this position of the select list.

ASC

DESC

specifies either ascending or descending order. ASC

is the default.

FOR UPDATE

locks the selected rows.

NOWAIT

returns control to you if the SELECT statement attempts to lock a

row that is locked by another user. If you omit this clause, ORACLE

waits until the row is available and then returns the results of the

SELECT statement.

PREREQUISITES:

For you to select data from a table or snapshot, the table or

snapshot must be in your own schema or you must have SELECT

privilege on the table or snapshot.

For you to select rows from the base tables of a view, the owner of

the schema containing the view must have SELECT privilege on the

base tables. Also, if the view is in a schema other than your own,

you must have SELECT privilege on the view.

The SELECT ANY TABLE system privilege also allows you to select data

from any table or any snapshot or any view's base table.

If you are using Trusted ORACLE in DBMS MAC mode, your DBMS label

must dominate the creation label of each queried table, view, or

snapshot or you must have READUP system privileges.

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SEE:

DELETE, UPDATE

CREATE TABLE command

PURPOSE:

To create a table, the basic structure to hold user data, specifying

this information:

* column definitions

* integrity constraints

* the table's tablespace

* storage characteristics

* an optional cluster

* data from an arbitrary query

SYNTAX:

CREATE TABLE [schema.]table

( { column datatype [DEFAULT expr] [column_constraint] ...

| table_constraint}

[, { column datatype [DEFAULT expr] [column_constraint] ...

| table_constraint} ]...)

[ [PCTFREE integer] [PCTUSED integer]

[INITRANS integer] [MAXTRANS integer]

[TABLESPACE tablespace]

[STORAGE storage_clause]

| [CLUSTER cluster (column [, column]...)] ]

[ ENABLE enable_clause

| DISABLE disable_clause ] ...

[AS subquery]

where:
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schema

is the schema to contain the table. If you omit schema, ORACLE

creates the table in your own schema.

table

is the name of the table to be created.

column

specifies the name of a column of the table. The number of columns

in a table can range from 1 to 254.

datatype

is the datatype of a column.

DEFAULT

specifies a value to be assigned to the column if a subsequent

INSERT statement omits a value for the column. The datatype of the

expression must match the datatype of the column. A DEFAULT

expression cannot contain references to other columns, the

pseudocolumns CURRVAL, NEXTVAL, LEVEL, and ROWNUM, or date constants

that are not fully specified.

column_constraint

defines an integrity constraint as part of the column definition.

table_constraint

defines an integrity constraint as part of the table definition.

PCTFREE

specifies the percentage of space in each of the table's data blocks

reserved for future updates to the table's rows. The value of

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PCTFREE must be a positive integer from 1 to 99. A value of 0

allows the entire block to be filled by inserts of new rows. The

default value is 10. This value reserves 10% of each block for

updates to existing rows and allows inserts of new rows to fill a

maximum of 90% of each block.

PCTFREE has the same function in the commands that create and alter

clusters, indexes, snapshots, and snapshot logs. The combination of

PCTFREE and PCTUSED determines whether inserted rows will go into

existing data blocks or into new blocks.

PCTUSED

specifies the minimum percentage of used space that ORACLE maintains

for each data block of the table. A block becomes a candidate for

row insertion when its used space falls below PCTUSED. PCTUSED is

specified as a positive integer from 1 to 99 and defaults to 40.

PCTUSED has the same function in the commands that create and alter

clusters, snapshots, and snapshot logs.

The sum of PCTFREE and PCTUSED must be less than 100. You can use

PCTFREE and PCTUSED together use space within a table more

efficiently.

INITRANS

specifies the initial number of transaction entries allocated within

each data block allocated to the table. This value can range from 1

to 255 and defaults to 1. In general, you should not change the

INITRANS value from its default.

Each transaction that updates a block requires a transaction entry

in the block. The size of a transaction entry depends on your

operating system.
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This parameter ensures that a minimum number of concurrent

transactions can update the block and helps avoid the overhead of

dynamically allocating a transaction entry.

The INITRANS parameter serves the same purpose in clusters, indexes,

snapshots, and snapshot logs as in tables. The minimum and default

INITRANS value for a cluster or index is 2, rather than 1.

MAXTRANS

specifies the maximum number of concurrent transactions that can

update a data block allocated to the table. This limit does not

apply to queries. This value can range from 1 to 255 and the

default is a function of the data block size. You should not change

the MAXTRANS value from its default.

If the number concurrent transactions updating a block exceeds the

INITRANS value, ORACLE dynamically allocates transaction entries in

the block until either the MAXTRANS value is exceeded or the block

has no more free space.

The MAXTRANS parameter serves the same purpose in clusters,

snapshots, and snapshot logs as in tables.

TABLESPACE

specifies the tablespace in which ORACLE creates the table. If you

omit this option, then ORACLE creates the table in the default

tablespace of the owner of the schema containing the table.

STORAGE

specifies the storage characteristics for the table. This clause

has performance ramifications for large tables. Storage should be

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allocated to minimize dynamic allocation of additional space.

CLUSTER

specifies that the table is to be part of the cluster. The columns

listed in this clause are the table columns that correspond to the

cluster's columns. Generally, the cluster columns of a table are

the column or columns that comprise its primary key or a portion of

its primary key.

Specify one column from the table for each column in the cluster

key. The columns are matched by position, not by name. Since a

clustered table uses the cluster's space allocation, do not use the

PCTFREE, PCTUSED, INITRANS, or MAXTRANS parameters, the TABLESPACE

option, or the STORAGE clause in conjunction with the CLUSTER

option.

ENABLE

enables an integrity constraint.

DISABLE

disables an integrity constraint.

Constraints specified in the ENABLE and DISABLE clauses of a CREATE

TABLE statement must be defined in the statement. You can also

enable and disable constraints with the ENABLE and DISABLE keywords

of the CONSTRAINT clause. If you define a constraint but do not

explicitly enable or disable it, ORACLE enables it by default.

You cannot use the ENABLE and DISABLE clauses in a CREATE TABLE

statement to enable and disable triggers.

AS subquery

inserts the rows returned by the subquery into the table upon its
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creation.

If you include this clause, the column definitions can only specify

column names, default values, and integrity constraints, not

datatypes. ORACLE derives column datatypes and lengths from the

subquery. ORACLE also automatically defines NOT NULL constraints on

columns in the new table if they existed on the corresponding

columns of the selected table and the subquery does not modify the

column value with a SQL function or operator. A CREATE TABLE

statement cannot contain both the AS clause and a referential

integrity constraint definition.

The number of columns must equal the number of expressions in the

subquery. If all expressions in the subquery are columns, you can

omit the columns from the table definition entirely. In this case,

the names of the columns of table are the same as the columns in the

subquery.

PREREQUISITES:

To create a table in your own schema, you must have CREATE TABLE

system privilege. To create a table in another user's schema, you

must have CREATE ANY TABLE system privilege. Also, the owner of the

schema to contain the table must have either space quota on the

tablespace to contain the table or UNLIMITED TABLESPACE system

privilege.

SEE:

ALTER TABLE, CONSTRAINT, CREATE CLUSTER, CREATE INDEX, CREATE

TABLESPACE, DISABLE, DROP TABLE, ENABLE, STORAGE

CONSTRAINT clause

PURPOSE:
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To define an integrity constraint. An integrity constraint is a

rule that restricts the values for one or more columns in a table.

SYNTAX:

Column constraint:

[CONSTRAINT constraint]

{ [NOT] NULL

| {UNIQUE | PRIMARY KEY}

| REFERENCES [schema.]table [(column)]

[ON DELETE CASCADE]

| CHECK (condition) }

{ [ USING INDEX [PCTFREE integer]

[INITRANS integer] [MAXTRANS integer]

[TABLESPACE tablespace]

[STORAGE storage_clause] ]

[ EXCEPTIONS INTO [schema.]table

| DISABLE }

Table constraint:

[CONSTRAINT constraint]

{ {UNIQUE | PRIMARY KEY} (column [,column] ...)

| FOREIGN KEY (column [,column] ...)

REFERENCES [schema.]table [(column [,column] ...)]

[ON DELETE CASCADE]

| CHECK (condition) }

{ [ USING INDEX [PCTFREE integer]

[INITRANS integer] [MAXTRANS integer]

[TABLESPACE tablespace]

[STORAGE storage_clause] ]

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[ EXCEPTIONS INTO [schema.]table[@dblink]

| DISABLE }

where:

CONSTRAINT

identifies the integrity constraint by the name constraint. ORACLE

stores this name in the data dictionary along with the definition of

the integrity constraint. If you omit this identifier, ORACLE

generates a name with this form:

SYS_Cn

where

is an integer that makes the name unique

within the database.

For the names and definitions of integrity constraints, query the

data dictionary.

NULL

specifies that a column can contain null values.

NOT NULL

specifies that a column cannot contain null values.

If you do not specify NULL or NOT NULL in a column definition, NULL

is the default.

UNIQUE

designates a column or combination of columns as a unique key.

PRIMARY KEY

designates a column or combination of columns as the table's primary

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key.

FOREIGN KEY

designates a column or combination of columns as the foreign key in

a referential integrity constraint.

REFERENCES

identifies the primary or unique key that is referenced by a foreign

key in a referential integrity constraint.

ON DELETE CASCADE

specifies that ORACLE maintains referential integrity by

automatically removing dependent foreign key values if you remove a

referenced primary or unique key value.

CHECK

specifies a condition that each row in the table must satisfy.

USING INDEX

specifies parameters for the index ORACLE uses to enforce a UNIQUE

or PRIMARY KEY constraint. The name of the index is the same as the

name of the constraint. You can choose the values of the INITRANS,

MAXTRANS, TABLESPACE, STORAGE, and PCTFREE parameters for the index.

For information on these parameters, see the CREATE TABLE command.

Only use this clause when enabling UNIQUE and PRIMARY KEY

constraints.

EXCEPTIONS INTO

identifies a table into which ORACLE places information about rows

that violate an enabled integrity constraint. This table must exist

before you use this option. If you omit schema, ORACLE assumes the

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exception table is in your own schema. The exception table must be

on your local database.

DISABLE

disables the integrity constraint. If an integrity constraint is

disabled, ORACLE does not enforce it.

If you do not specify this option, ORACLE automatically enables the

integrity constraint.

You can also enable and disable integrity constraints with the

ENABLE and DISABLE clauses of the CREATE TABLE and ALTER TABLE

commands.

PREREQUISITES:

CONSTRAINT clauses can appear in either CREATE TABLE or ALTER TABLE

commands. To define an integrity constraint, you must have the

privileges necessary to issue one of these commands. See the CREATE

TABLE and ALTER TABLE commands.

Defining a constraint may also require additional privileges or

preconditions that depend on the type of constraint.

SEE:

ALTER TABLE, CREATE TABLE, DISABLE, ENABLE

Example: To define the table staff, as user scott, you could enter:

CREATE TABLE staff (

empno NUMBER NOT NULL PRIMARY KEY,

ename CHAR(20) NOT NULL CHECK (ename = UPPER),

job CHAR(10),

mgr NUMBER REFERENCES scott.staff(empno),

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hiredate DATE CHECK (hiredate >= SYSDATE - 7),

sal NUMBER(10,2) CHECK (sal > 800),

comm NUMBER(9,2) DEFAULT NULL,

deptno NOT NULL REFERENCES scott.dept(deptno)

PCTFREE 5 PCTUSED 75

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