ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS

Soil Compaction
ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS
Compaction
In many situations soil itself used as a construction material.

- Such as: When soil is used as a

Highway embankments
foundation material, it is
Railway embankments
Earth dams desirable that the in-place
Highway/Airfield pavements material possess certain
Backfilled trenches
properties.
Landfills

The purpose of compaction is to produce a soil

having physical properties appropriate for a
particular project.
ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS
Compaction

 Compaction is defined as the process of

increasing the unit weight of soil by forcing the soil
solids into a dense state and reducing the air voids
(No significant change in volume of water in the
soil)
 This is achieved by applying static or dynamic
load to the soil.
 Compaction is measured quantitatively in terms of
the dry unit weight d of the soil.
ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS
Compaction generally leads to the following
desirable effects on soils:
ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS
Purpose of Compaction

1. Maximum shear strength occurs approximately

at minimum void ratio.
2. Large air voids may lead to compaction under
working loads, causing settlement of the
structure during service.
3. Larger voids if left may get filled with water
which reduces the shear strength .
4. Increase in water content is also accompanied
by swelling and loss of shear strength in some
clays.
ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS
Advantages of Compaction
1. Settlements can be reduced or prevented.
2. Soil strength increases and stability can be
improved.
3. Load carrying capacity of pavement subgrades
can be improved.
4. Undesirable volume changes (by frost action,
swelling, shrinkage) may be controlled.
ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS
Compaction
When loose soils are applied to a construction
site, compressive mechanical energy is applied to
the soil using special equipment to densify the soil
(or reduce the void ratio).
Densification  Reduction in Volume of Air Voids
It is almost an instantaneous phenomena and soil
is always partially saturated.
Typically applies to soils that are applied or re-
applied to a construction site.
Compaction is a old technique adopted in
Ancient China/India (e.g. Great Wall of China/Tajmahal)
ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS
Compaction of cohesionless soils
When speaking of cohesionless soils, gravelly
soils, there are many possibilities:

Loose, Angular soil Dense, Angular soil

Honeycombed
Loose Dense
soil, Very Loose
ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS
Compaction of cohesionless soils
Soils in loose or honeycombed state are avoided,
or compacted before being built upon, since they
are prone to densification when subjected to
vibratory or shock loading (as from earthquakes or
vibrating machinery)
ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS
Compaction of cohesionless soils

The relative looseness of a soil in its natural, in-situ

state is determined by measuring/computing its
relative density, Dr
The smaller Dr is for a given soil deposit, the more
prone that soil deposit will be to densification and
settlement.
For uniformly (poorly graded) spherical grained soils,
the theoretical range of void ratios is 0.35 < e <0.90.
ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS
Compaction of cohesionless soils
For non-uniform, well-graded soils, the possible
range of void ratios is much smaller.
Well-graded, sub-angular sand: 0.35 < e < 0.75
Well-graded, silty sand: 0.25 < e < 0.65
The range of void ratios for well-graded soils is less
than that for uniformly graded soils.
That is why it is generally preferred to use well-
graded soils in geotechnical applications as opposed
to uniform soils.
ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS
Compaction of cohesionless soils
Cohesion-less soils are compacted by vibration.
Static load produces very little compaction of loose
sand.
Medium and fine sands do not get compacted
easily when moist because of the shear strength
developed by capillary forces.
Dry or submerged sands can be compacted by
Vibration.
ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS
Compaction of Clayey soils
Clays cannot be compacted by vibration.
 Shaking or vibration does not change the volume.
A very small amount of static pressure produces a
large volume decrease of the platelet particles (like
mica flakes).
In compacting the clay, position of the particles
must be changed by forcing the contact points along
adjacent surfaces to positions nearly more parallel
with reduced voids.
ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS
Compaction of Clayey soils
Thickness of adsorbed water + Free water

= f(water content) 

Platelet particles

Loose structure of clay Dense structure of clay

before compaction after compaction
ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS
Compaction of Clayey soils

When the clay has a higher water content less than

saturation, a thick layer of free water surrounds the
particles (low viscosity). Under this condition only a
small amount of pressure is required to force the
particles to new positions.
But a high degree of compaction cannot be
produced with this high water content because the
thick layer of free water prevents the particles from
being forced close together.
ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS
Proctor’s Theory - After R.R. Proctor (1930)
Proctor showed that:
1. There exists a definite relationship between the
soil moisture content and the degree of dry
density to which a soil may be compacted.
2. That for a specific amount of compaction
energy applied on the soil there is one
moisture content termed Optimum Moisture
Content (OMC) at which a particular soil
attains maximum dry density.
ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS
Proctor’s Theory
Proctor proposed tests to determine relationship
between w, γd or e of a compacted soil in a
standard manner and to determine the OMC
(optimum moisture content) for the soil.

Compaction = f [ γd , compactive effort, and soil

type (gradation, presence of clay minerals, etc.) ]

Compactive effort is a measure of mechanical

energy applied to a soil mass.
ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS
Measuring compaction of soils in the
laboratory

1. Standard Proctor compaction test

2. Modified Proctor compaction test

ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS
Standard Proctor Test

Scope
This method covers the determination of the
relationship between the moisture content and
density of soils compacted in a mould of a given
size with a 2.5 kg rammer dropped from a height of
305 mm.
ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS
Compactive Energy E applied to soil per
unit volume
N = No. of blows per layer

NnWh n = No. of layers

E W = Hammer weight
V h = Height of drop
V = Volume of mould

25  3  2.5 0.305 kg m kJ
Compactive Effort   57187.5  594
103 106 m3 m3
ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS
Standard Proctor Test – Procedure

Dry unit weight Calculation

Volume of Proctor mould =V

Bulk unit weight of soil,γb = W/V
Dry unit weight of soil, γd = γb / (1+w)
ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS
Typical moisture content-dry unit weight
relationship

d, max
OMC
ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS
Principle of compaction and moisture-
density relations

Compaction of soils is achieved by reducing the

volume of voids. It is assumed that the compaction
process does not decrease the volume of solids or
soil grains.
ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS
Principles of compaction and moisture-
density relations
The degree of compaction of a soil is measured by the
dry unit weight of the skeleton. The dry unit weight
correlates with the degree of packing of the soil grains.

Recall that: Gs w

d 
1 e
The more compacted a soil is:
-The smaller its void ratio will be and thus
-The higher its dry unit weight d will be
ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS
Principle of compaction and moisture-
density relations

Water plays a critical role in the soil compaction

process:
-It lubricates the soil grains so that they slide more
easily over each other and can thus achieve a
more densely packed arrangement.

-While a little bit of water facilitates compaction.

Too much water inhibits compaction.
 ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS
Principle of compaction and moisture-density relations
At low values of water content
most soils tend to be stiff and are
difficult to compact.
 As the water content is
increased the soil becomes
more workable, facilitating
compaction and resulting in
higher dry densities.
 At high water contents,
however, the dry density
decreases with increasing water
content, an increasing
proportion of the soil volume
being occupied by water.
ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS
Compaction In practice this dry unit
weight is never achieved
but it represents theoretical
upper bound.
AIR
AIR

WATER WATER WATER

SOLIDS SOLIDS SOLIDS

Un-compacted soil Compacted soil Theoretically maximum

degree of compaction
ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS
Principles of compaction and
moisture-density relations Saturation lines:

G
  s

 w 
d w

1  Gs
 r
S

Air-Void lines:
 G (1 n ) 
d   s a
 w
 1 wG s 
n a  n  1 S r   n a c

ac = Va/VV na = Va/V
ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS
Saturation Line or Zero Voids Line

1. Saturation line is a hypothetical line.

2. Points on the line denote density for
completely saturated condition at respective
water contents.
3. It is the maximum possible dry density for any
soil.
4. Practically it is not possible
to achieve this density.
1
5. Dry density for saturation line  d   W
is given by  1  w
 sG 
ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS
AASHTO or Modified Proctor Test

1. Standard Proctor test is not sufficient for airways

and highways.
2. US Army Corps of Engineers developed Modified
Proctor Test which used greater levels of
compaction and produced higher dry densities.
3. Modified Proctor Test was later adopted by
AASHTO & ASTM.
ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS
Modified Proctor Test Specifications
No. of blows : 25 per layer
No. of layers : 5 layers
Wt. of hammer : 4.5 kg

Falling height : 0.45m

4.5 0.45 5 25 kg m
CompactiveEffort   253125
103 10-6 m3
 ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS
Dry Density-Moisture Content Curve

1
d  
w
 1  w
 Gs 
ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS
Importance of Proctor Test
1. It gives the density that must be achieved in the
field.
2. Provides the moisture range that allows for
minimum compactive effort to achieve density.
3. Provides data on the behaviour of the material in
relation to various moisture contents.
4. It is not possible to determine whether a density
test passes or fails without it.
ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS
Factors influencing Compaction
Factors Influencing Compaction

Moisture Content Soil Type Effect of Compactive

Effort

Nature of Effort Amount of Effort

Load Duration Area of Contact

ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS
Soil Type
1. Soil type, grain size, shape of the soil grains,
amount and type of clay minerals present and
the Gs of soil solids, have a great influence on
the γd and OMC.
2. In poorly graded sands γd initially decreases as
the moisture content increases, and then
increases to a maximum value with further
increase in moisture.
3. At lower moisture contents, the capillary
tension inhibits the tendency of the soil
particles to move around and be compacted.
ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS
Compaction curve – effect of soil type
gravel-sand-clay

Compactibility
or ease with which
soils can be
compacted will
depend on the soil
type
ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS
Soil Type

At a given moisture content a clay with low

plasticity will be stronger than a heavy or high
plastic clay, as it will be easier to compact.

The reason is attributed to:

For a given compactive effort the air voids can be
removed more easily for a low plasticity clay and
because it will have a lower moisture content
anyway, a higher dry unit weight can be obtained.
ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS

Dry density-water
content curves for a
range of soil types 
ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS
Effect of Compactive Effort

Amount of compactive effort

1. Maximum dry unit weight increases with
increase in compactive effort.
2. Increase in compactive effort decreases
optimum moisture content to some extent.
 ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS
Effect of
Compactive Effort
Applying more energy Increasing
to a soil will reduce the compaction
air voids content further energy
and increase the dry
unit weight.

More compaction
energy can be
beneficial especially
for soils dry of OMC
ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS
Effect of Compactive Effort
If a soil is already moist, weaker and above OMC
then applying more energy is wasteful since air
can quickly be removed.

Applying large amounts of energy to a very moist soil

may be damaging since no more air can be expelled
but high pore water pressures can build up which
could cause:
-Slope Instability during construction
- Consolidation settlements as they dissipate after
construction.
ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS
Effect of Compactive Effort

Nature of Effort - Load Duration and Contact Area

1. Longer time duration leads to reduced shear

stiffness response and greater compaction.

2. Greater contact area leads to greater depth of

influence
ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS
Effect of Compactive Effort

Degree of compaction generally increases with

increasing compactive effort.

However, beyond a certain point, increased

compactive effort produces only very small increase
in dry unit weight. i.e. It takes a great deal of
additional compactive effort E to see significant
increase in dry unit weight.
ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS
Effect of Compactive Effort
ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS
Moisture Density Relationships of
Cohesionless Soils Bulking phenomena
Surface tension induces
apparent cohesive
strength, resisting
compaction initially
decreasing in dry density.
Thin water film
grain
ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS
Effect of compaction on soil structure
Direction of
Flocculated increasing
dispersion

E
Highly
B Dispersed
D
A
Highly
C
Flocculated
Dispersed
High strength, more k, less Low strength, low k, more
shrinkage, more swelling shrinkage, less swelling
ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS
Effect of compaction on soil structure
1. At low water contents, attractive forces
between clay particles predominate, creating
a more or less random orientation of plate like
particles. (results in low density)
2. The addition of water increases repulsion
between particles leading them to assume
more parallel orientation near OMC.
3. If compacted wet of optimum parallel
orientation is further increased leading to what
is described as dispersed structure.
ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS
Compaction equipment

In the field, fill soils are typically imported to a site

and applied to the existing grade level in layers
which are called lifts.

When a lift of soil is placed, it will be very loose.

Special compaction equipment is then used to
compact this lift of the soil.

 Rollers, Rammers and Vibrators

ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS
Types of Rollers

 Smooth-wheeled rollers

 Vibratory rollers
 Pneumatic-tire rollers

 Sheepfoot rollers

 Impact compactors
ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS
Rammers

 Dropping weight (including piling equipment)

 Internal combustion type

 Pneumatic type
ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS
Smooth Wheeled Rollers
100 % coverage area under wheel with ground
contact pressures up to 380 kPa.

1. Conventional three wheel type - 18 tons

Tandem rollers - 1 to 14 tons
Three axle tandem rollers - 12 to 18 tons
Weight increased by ballasting the rolls with
water or by a heavy sliding weight.
2. Performance is affected by the load per unit width
under the compaction rolls, and the width and
diameter of the rolls.
ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS
Smooth Wheeled Rollers

3. Load per unit width and diameter control the

pressure in the surface layer of soil; dimension
of the rolls affect rate with which this pressure
decreases with depth.

4. Suitable for gravels, sands, hardcore, crushed

rock and any material where crushing action is
needed.
ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS
Pneumatic-tyred Roller
80 % coverage area (i.e. 80 % of area is covered by tires)
With tire pressures up to 700 kPa
 Suitable for fine grained soils (closely graded
sands). Best performance on cohesive soils
obtained when moisture content is 2-4% below
PL.
 Depth of compaction:
Light rollers (200kN) – 150 mm
Med. rollers (500kN) – 300 mm
Heavy rollers (1800kN) – 450 mm
ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS
Sheepfoot Rollers
Sheepfoot rollers are most
suitable for fine soils, both
plastic and non-plastic,
especially at water contents dry
of optimum.

Compaction is by tamping
and kneading

Area of protrusions range from 30 to 80 cm2. 8 – 12 %

coverage, very high contact pressures are possible,
ranging from 1400 to 7000 kPa
ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS

Vibrators

 Out of balance type

 Pulsating hydraulic type

ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS
Out of balance type vibrator
ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS
Vibrators
1. Vibrators consist of a vibrating unit of either
the out-of-balance weight type or a
pulsating hydraulic type mounted on a plate
or roller.
2. Vibrators give maximum dry density much in
excess of the corresponding compaction
test value at OMC.
3. Frequencies range 1500-2500 cycles/min.
(Frequency range within natural frequency
of most soils)
ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS
Impact Compaction

1. It is the transfer of compactive energy into the

soil by means of the lifting and falling motion of a
non-circular rotating mass.
2. It is thus a process capable of transferring impact
loads similar to those found in dynamic
compaction on a continuous basis.
ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS
Features of Impact Compaction

Higher Energy
1. The energy rating of the different impact
compaction equipments range from 10kJ to
25kJ.
2. Higher energy helps to achieve higher
maximum dry density that allows to work over
a wider range of moisture contents.
ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS
Higher Energy
ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS
Features of Impact Compaction

Increased Depth of Influence

1. Contact stress of impact compactor is 300kPa
to 1200kPa (exceeding conventional roller),
dependent on the soil stiffness.
2. Impact roller’s profile radius is not referenced to
the centre of the drum greatly exceeding
conventional rollers, resulting in a greater
contact area.
3. Net result is superior depth of influence,
enabling compaction in layer thicknesses
exceeding 1m.
ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS
Depth of Influence
ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS
Features of Impact Compaction

Increased Load Duration

The impact compactor’s load duration has been
measured to be approximately 10-15 times
longer than that of conventional rollers. This
allows for a softer soil response and hence
enhanced compressibility is attainable.
ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS
Increased Load Duration
ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS
Features of Impact Compaction

High Operating Speeds

Impact Compactors operate at speeds up to 5
times faster and 10 times greater volume per
day than conventional compaction equipment .
ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS
Compaction equipment
Equipment type Soil type
Smooth wheeled rollers Sands and Gravels
Pneumatic rubber tired rollers Silts and clays
Sheepsfoot rollers Silts and clays
Vibratory rollers Sands and Gravels
Vibratory tampers Sands and Gravels

To increase the compaction energy applied to the soil in the field:

a) Increase the mass/weight of the compaction equipment;
b) Decrease the thickness of lift thickness; and
c) Increase number of machinery passes.
ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS
Field compaction
In general, granular soils can be compacted in thicker layers
than silt and clay.

Granular soils are usually compacted using kneading, tamping,

or vibratory compaction techniques. Cohesive soils usually need
kneading, tamping, or impact.

Soils such as GW, GP, GM, GC, SW, SP, and SM have good
compaction characteristics. Other soils, such as SC, CL, and ML,
are characterized as good to poor.

At any rate, the quality of field compaction needs to be assured

by measuring the in situ dry unit weight of the compacted soil at
random locations.
ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS
Field compaction and specifications

Two categories of earthwork specifications:

1. End product specifications

2. Method specifications

With End product

specifications, a certain
relative compaction or percent compaction, is
specified.
ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS
Field compaction and specifications

Relative compaction is defined as the ratio of field

dry unit weight (d)f to the laboratory maximum
dry unit weight (d)max., according to some
specified standard test, for example, the standard
Proctor or the modified Proctor test;

d
RC 
f
Expressed in percentage
d max.
ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS
Field compaction and specifications
Difference between Relative compaction and
Relative density…

Relative density applied to granular soils only. If

some fines are present, it is difficult to decide…

ASTM D 2049 suggests that the relative density is

applicable if the soil contains less than 12 % fines
(passing the No. 200 sieve); otherwise the
compaction test should be used.
ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS
Densification of granular soils

 Engineering properties of cohesionless soils

are primarily a function of ‘Relative Density,
Dr’.
Dr = [(emax – ef) / (emax – emin)] x 100
 ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS
Field compaction and specifications

d = 0 d min d d max
Dry unit weight
Void ratio
e= emax e emin

0 100
Relative Density Dr [%]

0 80 100
Relative compaction Rc [%]

A relationship between RD and RC…

ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS
Field compaction and specifications

 In the field the questions that have to be

answered are:
a) To what dry unit weight must the soil be compacted?
and
b) How can this be achieved efficiently?

For many construction applications involving

roadway subgrades and trench backfills, etc., there
are typical standards specifying the minimum relative
compaction that must be achieved.
ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS
Relative Compaction
Type of project Required RC ,%

Fills to support buildings or roadways 90

Top 150 mm of subgrade below 95

roadways
Aggregate base material below 95
roadways
Earth dams 100
 ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS
Dry unit weight vs water content indicating the
most efficient conditions for field compaction

The range a – c
indicated the range
at which the soil
should be
compacted to
achieve Rc at any
energy level  a c
ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS
Field compaction and specifications
To achieve 95 % relative compaction, the placement
water content of compacted fill must be greater than
water content a and less than c.
These points are found where the 95 % Rc line
intersects compaction curve.
If the placement water content is outside of the
range a to c, then it will be difficult, if not impossible, to
achieve the required percentage of relative
compaction…
This is why it may be necessary at times to wet or dry
the soil prior to rolling…
ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS
Field compaction and specifications
Having established the range of placement water
content, it is required now to ask: “What is the best
placement water content to use?”
Most efficient water content would be OMC (field),
where the contractor provides the minimum
compactive effort to attain the required 95 % relative
compaction.
The most efficient placement water contents exist
between the OMC (lab) and OMC (field).
Range of placement water contents should also
be specified along with Rc…
ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS
Field compaction and specifications
In method specifications, the second category, the
type and weight of roller, the number of passes of that
roller, as well as the lift thicknesses are specified.

This specification requires prior knowledge of the borrow soils so

as to be able to predict in advance how many passes of, for
example, a certain type of roller will produce adequate
compaction performance.

Requires test fills before carrying-out actual

compaction
 Method specifications is only justified for very large
compaction projects such as earth dams.
ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS
Field Density Tests

Typical specifications call for a new field test for

every 1000 to 3000 m3 or so, when the borrow
material changes significantly.
ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS
Field Density Tests
Destructive method involve excavation an removal
of some of the fill material, where as non-destructive
tests determine the density and water content of fill
indirectly.
 Destructive Method
1. Sand-replacement method/core cutter method
2. Rubber-balloon method

 Non-destructive method
1. Nuclear density method
ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS
Field Density Tests

Comments

 Destructive methods are time consuming.

 Nuclear density method has a high purchase cost.
 Safety precautions during nuclear density test
have to be followed.
ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS
Sand replacement method

1. Sand with known density is filled in the sand

cone jar.
2. Weight of sand-cone apparatus with sand is
recorded, W1.
3. Weight of sand to fill the cone is determined, W2.
ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS
Sand replacement method

4. Small hole in the compacted soil is excavated

and weighed, W3.
5. Apparatus is inverted over the hole and valve is
opened.
6. Weight of apparatus with remaining sand is
determined, W4.
 ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS
Density Calculations

Weight of sand to fill hole, Ws = W1 – (W2 + W4)

Volume of hole, V = Ws / γd, sand
Weight of dry soil, Wd = W3 / (1+w)
Dry unit weight, γd = Wd / V
ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS
Nuclear Density Method
Uses a low-level radioactive source that is inserted, via a probe,
into the center of a newly compacted soil layer.

The source emits rays through the compacted soil that are
captured by a sensor at the bottom surface of the nuclear
density device. The intensity of the captured radioactivity is
inversely proportional to soil density.

The apparatus is calibrated using the sand cone/replacement

method for various soils, and it usually provides reliable
estimates of moisture content and dry unit weight.

The method provides fast results, allowing the user to perform a

large number of tests in a short time.
ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS
Nuclear Moisture Density Methods

1. Principle elements
 Nuclear source emitting gamma rays.
 Detector to pick the gamma rays passing
through the soil.
 Counter to determine the rate of gamma
rays reaching the detector.
2. Common nuclear sources
 Radium-Beryllium combination
 Cesium-Americium-Beryllium combination
ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS
Density Determination Principle

1. Gamma rays penetrate in to soil, some are

absorbed and some reach the detector.
2. Amount of radiation reaching detector is inversely
proportional to soil.
3. Nuclear count rate received at the detector
compared with the calibration curves provided
by manufacturer.
ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS
Moisture Determination Principle

1. Moisture content is obtained from ‘thermal

neutron count’.
2. Alpha particles are emitted by the source.
Americium or Radium source bombard a
beryllium target emitting fast neutrons..
3. Fast neutrons lose velocity if they strike hydrogen
atoms in water molecules.
4. Resulting low velocity neutrons are called ‘thermal
neutrons’.
ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS
Result

 Moisture results are provided as weight of water

per unit volume of soil tested
 Dry weight is obtained from subtracting moisture
determination from the wet density determination
 Significant error occurs if soil contains iron, boron,
or cadmium.
ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS
1st Method – Direct Transmission Method

 Provides more accurate results

 Radiation source placed in to the test material
by using a punched or drilled hole.
 Depths between 50 mm and 300 mm can be
tested.
 Information surrounding the source is obtained.
ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS
Direct Transmission Method
ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS
2nd Method – Back Scatter Method
 Radioactive source and detector located on the
surface of soil.
 Gamma rays directed in to the soil and some
reflect back to detector.
 Accuracy suffers if gap exists between bottom of
device and soil surface.
 Information about soil nearest to surface is
obtained.
ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS
Back Scatter Method
ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS
Air Gap Method

Less common method and is used when the

composition of the near surface materials adversely
affects the density measurement.
ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS
If the lift thicknesses are too large, then the
following will occur:

 Soil at the top of the lift will be well-compacted

 Soil at the bottom of the lift will not be compacted.
ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS
Lift Thickness
ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS
Field Dry Density vs
Number of passes
ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS
For most compaction equipment, lift thicknesses
should typically be on the order of 150 mm
ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS
Approximate method for determining lift height
required

dmax

d
 dmax.

d should be small enough

so that loose layer is not
trapped near the interface
between lifts After D’appolonia (1969)
ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS
Illustration Compaction 1.1
Given data:
water content vs Dry unit weight
Gs = 2.70; Standard Proctor compaction
w [%] 8.5 12.2 13.75 15.5 18.2 20.2
d [kN/m3] 16.26 16.94 17.23 17.39 16.83 16.14

a) Plot 80 % and 100 % Saturation lines, b) If it is proposed to

secure a relative compaction of 95 % in the field, what is the
range of water content that can be allowed, and c) Would the
20 % air voids curve be the same as the 80% saturation curve?
ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS
Illustration Compaction 1.1
Gs w
d 
wGs
20 1
Sr
19
Dry unit weight [kN/m3]

Compaction curve
80 % Saturation line d, max
18
100 % Saturation line
= 17.45 kN/m3
17 OMC
=15.17 %
16

15
0 5 10 15 20 25
Water content [%]
ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS
Illustration Compaction 1.1

 d , field
Rc  x100 G 
 s w
 d ,max d wGs
1
 d, field = 0.95 x 17.45 = 16.58 kN/m3 Sr
Range of water content that can be allowed in the field is
10 to 17 % Gs w (1 na )
d  For w = 8.5 %; na = 0.2
d =17.22 kN/m3
Using 1 wG s
Which is different from
20.56 kN/m3 for Sr = 80%
and w = 8.5 %
 Hence the 20 % air voids curve is not the same as the 80 %
saturation line.
ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS
In-place densification of granular soils
Several new techniques – such as

 Terra-Probe method

 Vibroflotation

 Building sand compaction piles

 Blasting
 Dynamic compaction
-have been successfully used for compaction in
in-situ soils (especially granular soils).
ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS
Terra-Probe method Vibrodriver

Works best for shallow

water table
Activated vibrodriver
causes the probe to
vibrate in the vertical
direction.
To achieve soil
compaction, the probe is
vibrated to the planned
depth of penetration. S = 1.5 m
ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS
In-place densification of granular soils
Vibroflotation

 When conventional rolling type compaction

equipment works the surface of an area, the
improvement in density is limited to the surficial
zone of the deposit; typically, depths below a meter
or two, experience a little or no increase in density.

Vibroflotation equipment operates from ground

surface, but it can densify the full depth of granular
deposits which are as deep as about 12 m.
ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS
Vibroflotation

Range of particle size distribution suitable for

densification by Vibroflotation.
ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS
Vibroflotation

It involves the use of a device called a VIBROFLOT,

which is a cylindrical piece of equipment about 2 m
long, 400 mm in diameter, and weighing about 17.8
kN.
The eccentric weight inside the cylinder develops a
centrifugal force of about 89 kN at 1800 rpm.
The device has water jets at the top and bottom;
these have a flow rate of 0.23 to 0.3 m3/min at a
pressure of 415 to 550 kN/m2.
ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS
Vibroflotation

The vibroflot sinks into the ground at the rate of 1 to

2 m/min. When the desired depth is reached, the top
jet is turned off. The device is then withdrawn at the
rate of 0.3 m/min and sand is added from the top.

In a regular working day, a compaction of 2550 to

5100 m3 is not uncommon.
ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS
Vibroflotation

Compacted
Granular soils soil
ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS
Vibroflotation

2. Water is introduced more rapidly

than it can drain away. This creates a
momentary quick condition ahead
1. At start, lower of the equipment, which permits the
jet is opened fully. vibrating machine to settle of its own
weight to the desired depth.
ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS
Vibroflotation

3. The water from the lower jet is

transferred to the top jets and the
pressure and volume are reduced
just enough to carry the sand to the
bottom of the hole. 
ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS
Vibroflotation
4. Actual compaction takes place
during intervals between 0.3 m lifts which
are made in returning the vibroflot to the
surface.
The vibrator is first allowed to operate
at the bottom of the crater until the
desired density around the lower part of
the machine is attained.
By raising the vibrator step by step and
simultaneously backfilling, the entire
depth is compacted. 
ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS
In-place densification of granular soils
Blasting or by Explosives

The range of soil grain sizes suitable for

compacting by blasting method is the same as for
Vibroflotation.
In this method, the compaction is achieved by
successive detonations of small explosive charges
in saturated soils.
Relative densities of 70 to 80 % upto a depth of
20 to 25 m can be achieved.
ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS
Blasting or by Explosives
Explosive charges (60 % dynamite, 30% special gelatin
dynamite, and ammonite are most commonly used) are
placed at about 2/3 times the thickness of the stratum to be
densified.
The spacings of the charges vary from 3 to 8 m.
Three to five successive detonations of several spaced
charges are usually required to achieve the desired
compaction.
The shock waves due to blasting cause liquefaction of the
saturated sand, followed by densification.
Practically no compaction is achieved in the top 1 m and
so this zone usually needs recompaction by rollers.
ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS
Blasting or by Explosives
The relation for the weight of charge and the sphere
of influence for compaction can be given by:

W  CR 3

Where W = Weight of charge

R = Sphere of influence

C = Constant (0.0025 for 60 % dynamite)

If blasting is used in dry or partially saturated soils,
preflooding is desirable.
ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS
Compaction by Pounding, Dynamic
compaction or High energy impact
Used for improving surface and near surface
zones of soil and fill material whose existing
condition is considered marginal or inadequate
foundation support…

The method consists of dropping a heavy weight

from a relatively great height; Weights ranging: 2
tons to 15 tons, and drops have ranged from 10 to
30 m.
Pounding– Repeated heavy blows
ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS
Dynamic compaction
Usually, a closely spaced grid pattern is selected
for the pounding locations, and the multiple
poundings are required at each drop location
(typically 5 to 10 drops).

Can densify loose cohesionless soils, fracture and

densify buried building rubble such as that which
exists at old building sites, consolidate fine grained
soils, and compact buried garbage fills.
ADVANCED SOIL MECHANICS
The pounding creates a depression at each drop
location and also produces an areal settlement.