SILVER COMPOUNDS

1. Introduction

Silver, a white, lustrous metal, slightly less malleable and ductile than gold (see
GOLD AND GOLD COMPOUNDS), has high thermal and electrical conductivity (see SIL-
VER AND SILVER ALLOYS). Most silver compounds are made from silver nitrate [7761-
88-8], AgNO3, which is prepared from silver metal.
Some silver metal is found in Nature, frequently alloyed with other metals
such as copper, lead, or gold. Naturally occurring silver compounds, however, are
the primary sources of silver in the environment. The most abundant naturally
occurring silver compound is silver sulfide [21548-73-2] (argentite), Ag2S, found
alone and combined with iron, copper, and lead sulfides. Other naturally occur-
ring silver compounds are silver sulfonantimonite [15983-65-0] (pyrargyrite),
Ag3SbS3, silver arsenite [15122-57-3] (proustite), Ag3AsS3, silver selenide
[1302-09-6], and silver telluride [12653-91-7]. Silver chloride (chlorargyrite)
and silver iodide (iodargyrite) have also been found in substantial quantities in
the western United States.
Silver is a soft metal that preferentially forms lower oxidation states (þ1,
þ2) and binds preferentially with sulfur (1). Studies show that silver levels in
uncontaminated fine-grain sediments are typically similar to those for average
crustal abundance, 0.05 mg/g concentration of silver in fresh lake and river
waters is typically <0.2 mg/L, while those in contaminated estuary and harbor
waters may be upward of from 5.1 to 33.9 mg/g (2) produces a linear co-ordination
of connecting bonds (3). It has one of the highest electronegativities resulting in
strong covalent bonds. Its oxides are weakly held and are dissociate at about
2008C. Silver is significantly more permeable to oxygen than are other materials
and has found use as a filter for the production of pure atomic oxygen (4). Silver
binds extremely strongly to S(11
) ligands compared to all other ligands (5). Sil-
ver is rapidly adsorbed onto particles present in natural waters, and its concen-
tration after a discharge is quickly reduced to background or upstream levels
through dilution and sedimentation (qv) (6–8).
Silver belongs to Group 11 (IB) of the Periodic Table. The metal has a
4d105s1 outer electronic configuration. Silver has been shown to have three pos-
sible positive oxidation states, but only silver(I) is stable in aqueous solution. The
silver(II) ion, a powerful oxidizing agent, is a transient species in solution. The
two silver(II) compounds that have been studied are the oxide and the fluoride.
Silver(III) exists only when stabilized through complex formation.
Silver compounds, available from commercial suppliers, are expensive.
Reagent grades of silver(I) carbonate, cyanide, diethyldithiocarbamate, iodate,
nitrate, oxide, phosphate, and sulfate are available. Standardized solutions of sil-
ver nitrate are also available for analytical uses. Purified grades of silver(I) acet-
ate, bromide, cyanide, and iodide can be purchased; silver nitrate is also made as
a USP XX grade for medicinal uses (3).
All silver compounds are bactericidal. Release of a silver ion from a silver
compound results in destruction of bacteria it contacts (9). Commercial biocides
use many compounds that supply the silver ion, such as silver chloride, silver
citrate, polyvalent silver oxide, and silver zeolite. On the other hand, the action
of silver thiosulfate in cut flowers is to block the production of ethylene that

1
Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology. Copyright John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
2 SILVER COMPOUNDS

causes wilting, it has become the backbone of the cut flower industry in the Uni-
ted States.
Many silver compounds are unstable to light, and are thus are shipped and
stored in brown glass or opaque plastic bottles. Silver compounds that are oxi-
dants, eg, silver nitrate and iodate, must be so identified according to U.S.
Department of Transportation (DOT) regulations. Compounds such as silver cya-
nide, which is toxic owing to its cyanide content, must carry a poison label. How-
ever, most silver compounds are essentially nontoxic to mammals.

2. Silver(I) Compounds

The solubility and solubility product constants, Ksp, for many silver compounds
are given in Table 1 (4,5,10).
2.1. Silver Acetate. Silver acetate [563-63-3], H3CCOOAg, is prepared
from aqueous silver nitrate and acetate ion. Colorless silver acetate crystals
and solutions made from this salt are unstable to light.
2.2. Silver Azide. Silver azide, AgN3, is prepared by treating an aqu-
eous solution of silver nitrate with hydrazine (qv) or hydrazoic acid. It is
shock-sensitive and decomposes violently when heated.
2.3. Silver Acetylide. Silver acetylide [7659-31-6] (silver carbide),
Ag2C2, is prepared by bubbling acetylene through an ammoniacal solution of sil-
ver nitrate. Silver acetylide is sensitive to the point of undergoing detonation on
contact.
2.4. Silver Bromate. Silver bromate [7783-89-3], AgBrO3, a readily dis-
solved silver salt for studies of silver ion chemistry.
2.5. Silver Bromide. Silver bromide [7785-89-3], AgBr, is formed by the
addition of bromide ions to an aqueous solution of silver nitrate. The light yellow
to green-yellow precipitate is less soluble in ammonia than silver chloride, but it
easily dissolves in the presence of other complexing agents, such as thiosulfate
ions.
Silver bromide crystals, formed from stoichiometric amounts of silver
nitrate and potassium bromide, are characterized by a cubic structure having
interionic distances of 0.29 nm. If, however, an excess of either ion is present,
octahedral crystals tend to form. The yellow color of silver bromide has been
attributed to ionic deformation, an indication of its partially covalent character.
Silver bromide melts at 4348C and dissociates when heated >5008C.
Silver bromide is significantly more photosensitive than silver chloride,
resulting in the extensive use of silver bromide in photographic products. The
crystal structure of photographic silver bromide is often octahedral.
2.6. Silver Carbonate. Silver carbonate [534-16-7], Ag2CO3, is produced
by the addition of an alkaline carbonate solution to a concentrated solution of sil-
ver nitrate. The pH and temperature of the reaction must be carefully controlled
to prevent the formation of silver oxide. A suspension of Ag2CO3 is slightly basic
because of the extensive hydrolysis of the ions present. Heating solid Ag2CO3 to
2188C gives Ag2O and CO2.
2.7. Silver Chloride. Silver chloride [7783-90-6], AgCl, is a white preci-
pitate that forms when chloride ion is added to a silver nitrate solution. The
 SILVER COMPOUNDS 3

order of solubility of the three silver halides is Cl
>Br
>I
. Because of the for-
mation of complexes, silver chloride is soluble in solutions containing excess
chloride and in solutions of cyanide, thiosulfate, and ammonia. Silver chloride
is insoluble in nitric and dilute sulfuric acid. Treatment with concentrated sulfu-
ric acid gives silver sulfate.
Silver chloride crystals are face-centered cubic (fcc), having a distance of
0.28 nm between each ion in the lattice. Silver chloride, the most ionic of the
halides, melts at 4558C and boils at 15508C. Silver chloride is very ductile and
can be rolled into large sheets. Individual crystals weighing up to 22 kg have
been prepared (11).
The silver ion in silver chloride can be readily reduced by light, and is used
to a great extent in photographic print papers. Sufficient light intensity and time
leads to silver chloride decomposing completely into silver and chlorine.
2.8. Silver Chromate. Silver chromate [7784-01-2], Ag2CrO4, is pre-
pared by treating silver nitrate with a solution of chromate salt or by heating
a suspension of silver dichromate [7784-02-3].
2.9. Silver Cyanide. Silver cyanide [506-64-9], AgCN, forms as a preci-
pitate when stoichiometric quantities of silver nitrate and a soluble cyanide are
mixed. Silver(I) ion readily forms soluble complexes, ie, Ag(CN)
2 or Ag(CN)2
3,
in the presence of excess cyanide ion.
2.10. Silver Cyclohexanebutyrate. Silver cyclohexanebutyrate [62638-
04-4], Ag[COO(CH2)3C6H11] provides silver for studies of silver in non-ionic
hydrocarbons and oils.
2.11. Silver Fluoride. Silver fluoride [7783-95-1], AgF, is prepared by
treating a basic silver salt such as silver oxide or silver carbonate, with hydrogen
fluoride. Silver fluoride can exist as the anhydrous salt, a dihydrate [72214-21-2]
(<42 C), and a tetrahydrate [22424-42-6] (<18 C). The anhydrous salt is color-
less, but the dihydrate and tetrahydrate are yellow. Ultraviolet light or electro-
lysis decomposes silver fluoride to silver subfluoride [1302-01-8], Ag2F, and
fluorine.
2.12. Other Silver Halogen-Containing Salts. All silver halides are
reduced to silver by treating an aqueous suspension with more active metals,
such as magnesium, zinc, aluminum, copper, iron, or lead. Alternatively, the
dry salts are reduced by heating with turnings or powders of these metals. Photo-
lyzed silver halides are also reduced by organic reducing agents or developers,
eg, hydroquinone, p-aminophenol, and p-phenylenediamine, during photo-
graphic processing (see PHOTOGRAPHY).
Halates. Silver chlorate, AgClO3, silver bromate, AgBrO3, and silver
iodate, AgIO3, have been prepared. The halates may decompose explosively if
heated.
2.13. Silver Iodide. Silver iodide, AgI, precipitates as a yellow solid
when iodide ion is added to a solution of silver nitrate. It dissolves in the pre-
sence of excess iodide ion, forming an AgI2 complex; however, silver iodide is
only slightly soluble in ammonia and dissolves slowly in thiosulfate and cyanide
solutions.
Silver iodide exists in one of three crystal structures depending on the tem-
perature, a phenomenon frequently referred to as trimorphism. Below 1378C, sil-
ver iodide is in the cold cubic, or g-form; at 137–145.88C, it exists in the green-
4 SILVER COMPOUNDS

yellow colored hexagonal, or b-form; >145.88C, the yellow cubic or a-form of sil-
ver iodide is the stable crystal structure. Silver iodide decomposes into its ele-
ments at 5528C.
Although silver iodide is the least photosensitive of the three halides, it has
the broadest wavelength sensitivity in the visible spectrum. This feature makes
silver iodide particularly useful in the photographic industry. It resists reduction
by metals, but is reduced quantitatively by zinc and iron in the presence of sul-
furic acid.
2.14. Silver Lactate. Silver lactate [128-00-7], CH3CH(OH)CO2AG, a
human-safe compound and soluble in alcoholic or aqueous media for studies of
anti-infective personal products.
2.15. Silver Molybdenum Oxide. Silver molybdenum oxide [13765-74-
7], Ag2MoO4, for studies of silver as a stabilizer of crystal structures such as
those of molybdenum, and also studies of catalytic properties.
2.16. Silver Nitrate. Silver nitrate [7761-88-8], AgNO3, is the most
important commercial silver salt because it serves as the starting material for
all other silver compounds. It is prepared by the oxidation of silver metal with
hot nitric acid. The by-products are nitrogen oxides, NO and NO2, which are
vented to the atmosphere or scrubbed out of the fumes with an alkaline solution.
Heavy metal impurities, such as copper, lead, and iron, are precipitated by
increasing the pH of the solution to 5.5–6.5 with silver oxide and then boiling.
The solution containing silver nitrate is made slightly acid, heated, evaporated,
and then poured into pans to cool and crystallize. The crystals are washed, cen-
trifuged, and dried. They can be further purified by recrystallization from hot
water.
The Kestner-Johnson dissolver is widely used for the preparation of silver
nitrate (12). In this process, silver bars are dissolved in 45% nitric acid in a pure
oxygen atmosphere. Any nitric oxide, NO, produced is oxidized to nitrogen diox-
ide, NO2, which in turn reacts with water to form more nitric acid and nitric
oxide. The nitric acid is then passed over a bed of granulated silver in the pre-
sence of oxygen. Most of the acid reacts. The resulting solution contains silver at
840 g/L (13). This solution can be further purified using charcoal (14), alumina
(15), and ultraviolet (uv) radiation (16).
The manufacture of silver nitrate for the preparation of photographic emul-
sions requires silver of very high purity. At the Eastman Kodak Company, the
principal U.S. producer of silver nitrate, 99.95% pure silver bars are dissolved
in 67% nitric acid in three tanks connected in parallel. Excess nitric acid is
removed from the resulting solution, which contains 60–65% silver nitrate,
and the solution is filtered. This solution is evaporated until its silver nitrate con-
centration is 84%. It is then cooled to prepare the first crop of crystals. The
mother liquor is purified by the addition of silver oxide and returned to the initial
stages of the process. The crude silver nitrate is centrifuged and recrystallized
from hot, demineralized water. Equipment used in this process is made of
ANSI 310 stainless steel (17).
Silver nitrate forms colorless, rhombic crystals. It is dimorphic and changes
to the hexagonal rhombohedral form at 159.88C. It melts at 2128C to a yellowish
liquid which solidifies to a white, crystalline mass on cooling. An alchemical
name, lunar caustic, is still applied to this fused salt. In the presence of a
 SILVER COMPOUNDS 5

trace of nitric acid, silver nitrate is stable to 3508C. It decomposes at 4408C to

metallic silver, nitrogen, and nitrogen oxides. Solutions of silver nitrate are
usually acidic, having a pH of 3.6–4.6. Silver nitrate is soluble in ethanol and
acetone.
In the absence of organic matter, silver nitrate is not photosensitive. It is
easily reduced to silver metal by glucose, tartaric acid, formaldehyde, hydrazine,
and sodium borohydride.
2.17. Silver Nitrite. Silver nitrite [7783-99-5], AgNO2, is prepared from
silver nitrate and a soluble nitrite, or silver sulfate and barium nitrite.
2.18. Organic Acid Salts. Slightly soluble or insoluble silver salts are
precipitated when mono- and dicarboxylic aliphatic acids or their anions are
treated with silver nitrate solutions. Silver behenate [2489-05-6], C22H43O3Ag;
silver laurate [18268-45-6], C12H23O2Ag; and silver stearate [3507-99-1],
C18H35O2Ag, are used in commercial applications. Silver oxalate [533-51-7],
C2O4Ag2, decomposes explosively when heated.
2.19. Silver Oxide. Silver oxide [20667-12-3], Ag2O, a dark brown to
black material, is formed when an excess of hydroxide ion is added to a silver
nitrate solution. Silver oxide can also be prepared by heating finely divided silver
metal in the presence of oxygen. Anhydrous silver oxide is difficult to prepare.
Reagent-grade material may contain up to 1 wt% water. Silver oxide is soluble
in most silver-complexing agents. However, if a suspension of silver oxide in
excess hydroxide is treated with ammonium hydroxide, highly explosive fulmi-
nating silver, or Bertholet’s silver (18), may be produced.
When heated to 1008C, silver oxide decomposes into its elements. Thermo-
dynamically, silver is metallic over 2008C, oxides are unstable over that tempera-
ture, however, there is always some oxygen in the silver lattice. Silver oxide and
sulfur form silver sulfide. Silver oxide absorbs carbon dioxide from the air, form-
ing silver carbonate. (Sec. 4, Other Oxidation States).
2.20. Silver Permanganate. Silver permanganate [7783-98-4],
AgMnO4, is a violet solid formed when a potassium permanganate solution is
added to a silver nitrate solution. It decomposes upon heating, exposure to
light, or by reaction with alcohol.
2.21. Perhalates. Whereas silver perchlorate [7783-93-9], AgClO4, and
silver periodate [15606-77-6], AgIO4, are well known, silver perbromate
[54494-97-2], AgBrO4, has more recently been described (19). Silver perchlorate
is prepared from silver oxide and perchloric acid, or by treating silver
sulfate with barium perchlorate. Silver perchlorate is one of the few silver
salts that is appreciably soluble in organic solvents such as glycerol, toluene,
and chlorobenzene.
2.22. Silver Phosphates. Silver phosphate [7784-09-0], or silver ortho-
phosphate, Ag3PO4, is a bright yellow material formed by treating silver nitrate
with a soluble phosphate salt or phosphoric acid. Silver pyrophosphate [13465-
97-9], Ag4P2O7, is a white salt prepared by the addition of a soluble pyropho-
sphate to silver nitrate. Both the phosphate and the pyrophosphate are light sen-
sitive. Silver pyrophosphate turns red upon exposure to light.
2.23. Silver Selenate. Silver selenate, Ag2SeO4, is prepared from silver
carbonate and sodium selenate (see SELENIUM AND SELENIUM COMPOUNDS).
6 SILVER COMPOUNDS

2.24. Silver Sulfate. Silver sulfate [10294-26-5], Ag8S2O4, is prepared

by treating metallic silver with hot sulfuric acid. Alternatively, a solution of sil-
ver nitrate is acidified with sulfuric acid and the nitric acid is evaporated, leaving
a solution of silver sulfate. Silver sulfate is more soluble in sulfuric acid than in
water because of the formation of silver hydrogen sulfate [19287-89-9], AgHSO4.
Silver sulfate decomposes above 10858C into silver, sulfur dioxide, and oxy-
gen. This property is utilized in the separation of silver from sulfide ores by direct
oxidation. Silver sulfate is reduced to silver metal by hydrogen, carbon, carbon
monoxide, zinc, and copper.
2.25. Silver Sulfide. Silver sulfide [21548-73-2], Ag2S, forms as a finely
divided black precipitate when solutions or suspensions of most silver salts are
treated with an alkaline sulfide solution or hydrogen sulfide. Silver sulfide has a
dimorphic crystal structure. Transition from the rhombic (acanthite) to the cubic
(argentite) form occurs at 1758C. Both crystal structures are found in nature.
Silver sulfide is one of the most insoluble salts known. It is not solubilized
by nonoxidizing mineral acids, but it is soluble in concentrated nitric acid, con-
centrated sulfuric acid, and alkaline cyanide solutions.
Silver and sulfur combine even in the cold to form silver sulfide. The ten-
dency of silver to tarnish is an example of the ease with which silver and sulfur
compounds react. Polishes that contain silver complexing agents, such as chlor-
ide ion or thiourea, are used to remove silver tarnish.
Silver sulfide is exceptionally stable in air and sunlight, but decomposes
when heated to 8108C. Moss silver (filiform silver), consisting of long hair-like
growths of pure silver, is formed when silver sulfide is heated for a prolonged
period at elevated temperatures <8108C.
2.26. Silver Sulfite. Silver sulfite, Ag2SO3, is obtained as a white preci-
pitate when sulfur dioxide is bubbled through a solution of silver nitrate. Silver
sulfite is unstable to light and heat, and solutions decompose when boiled.
2.27. Silver Tetrafluoroborate. Silver tetrafluoroborate [14104-20-2],
AgBF4, is formed from silver borate and sodium borofluoride or bromine trifluor-
ide. It is soluble in organic solvents.
2.28. Silver Thiocyanate. Silver thiocyanate [1701-93-5], AgSCN, is
formed by the reaction of stoichiometric amounts of silver ion and a soluble thio-
cyanate.
2.29. Silver Thiosulfate. Silver thiosulfate [23149-52-2], Ag2S2O3, is an
insoluble precipitate formed when a soluble thiosulfate reacts with an excess of
silver nitrate. In order to minimize the formation of silver sulfide, the silver ion
can be complexed by halides before the addition of the thiosulfate solution. In the
presence of excess thiosulfate, the very soluble Ag2(S2O3)4
3 and Ag2(S2O3)6
5
complexes form. These soluble thiosulfate complexes, which are very stable,
are the basis of photographic fixers. Silver thiosulfate complexes are oxidized
to form silver sulfide, sulfate, and elemental sulfur (see THIOSULFATES).

3. Silver(I) Complexes

Silver is a class B soft metal that preferentially forms complexes with sulfur2

containing ligands. Silver can be expected to bind most strongly to S-containing
 SILVER COMPOUNDS 7

and I-containing ligands and more weakly to N-containing and O-containing

ligands (20). Linear polynuclear complexes are known. The usual species are
AgL and AgL2, but silver complexes up to AgL4 have been identified. Many of
these complexes have commercial application.
3.1. Ammonia and Amine Complexes. In the presence of excess
ammonia (qv), silver ion forms the complex ions Ag(NH3)þ2 and Ag(NH3)þ3. To
minimize the formation of fulminating silver, these complexes should not be pre-
pared from strongly basic suspensions of silver oxide. Highly explosive fulminat-
ing silver, believed to consist of either silver nitride or silver imide, may detonate
spontaneously when silver oxide is heated with ammonia or when alkaline solu-
tions of a silver–amine complex are stored. Addition of appropriate amounts of
HCl to a solution of fulminating silver renders it harmless. Stable silver com-
plexes are also formed from many aliphatic and aromatic amines, eg, ethylamine,
aniline, and pyridine.
3.2. Cyanide Complexes. Insoluble silver cyanide [506-64-9], AgCN, is
readily dissolved in an excess of alkali cyanide. The predominant silver species
present in such solutions is Ag(CN)
2, with some Ag(CN)2
3 and Ag(CN)3
4. Vir-
tually all silver salts, including the insoluble silver sulfide, dissolve in the pre-
sence of excess cyanide because the dissociation constant for the Ag(CN)
2
complex is only 4  10
19 (see CYANIDES).
3.3. Halide Complexes. Silver halides form soluble complex ions, AgX
2
and AgX2
3 , with excess chloride, bromide, and iodide. The relative stability of
these complexes is I
> Br
> Cl
. Complex formation affects solubility greatly.
The solubility of silver chloride in 1 N HCl is 100 times greater than in pure
water.
3.4. Olefin Complexes. Silver ion forms complexes with olefins and
many aromatic compounds. As a general rule, the stability of olefin complexes
decreases as alkyl groups are substituted for the hydrogen bonded to the ethy-
lene carbon atoms (21).
3.5. Sulfur Complexes. Silver compounds other than sulfide dissolve in
excess thiosulfate. Stable silver complexes are also formed with thiourea. Except
for the cyanide complexes, these sulfur complexes of silver are the most stable. In
photography, solutions of sodium or ammonium thiosulfate fixers are used to
solubilize silver halides present in processed photographic emulsions. When
insoluble silver thiosulfate is dissolved in excess thiosulfate, various silver com-
plexes form. At low thiosulfate concentrations, the principal silver species is
Ag2(S2O3)2
2; at high thiosulfate concentrations, species such as Ag2(S2O3)10
6
are present. Silver sulfide dissolves in alkaline sulfide solutions to form complex
ions such as Ag(S4)3
2 and Ag(HS)2
4. These ions are found in hot springs and
waters highly charged with H2S (22). Silver forms stable, slightly ionized salts
with aliphatic and aromatic thiols.
3.6. Organic Complexes. The sulfadiazine salt of silver has been
shown to posses significantly more bactericidal action than sulfadiazine alone,
and has become the most widely used antibacterial in the treatment of burn
wounds (23). Other organic complexes have been studied including, silver quino-
lones (24) with similar antibacterial action.
8 SILVER COMPOUNDS

4. Other Oxidation States

4.1. Silver(II) Compounds. Silver(II) is stabilized by coordination with

nitrogen heterocyclic bases, such as pyridine and dipyridyl. These cationic com-
plexes are prepared by the peroxysulfate oxidation of silver(I) solutions in the
presence of an excess of the ligand. An extensive review of the higher oxidation
states of silver has been published (25).
Silver Difluoride. Silver(II) fluoride [7783-95-1], AgF2, is a brown to black
hygroscopic material obtained by the treatment of silver chloride with fluorine
gas at 2008C (26) or by the action of fluorine gas on silver metal. It is a strong
oxidizing agent and a strong fluorinating agent. When heated >4508C, it decom-
poses into AgF and fluorine. It also decomposes in aqueous solutions unless sta-
bilized with concentrated HNO3.
Silver(II) Oxide. Silver(II) oxide [1301-96-8], [35366-11-1], AgO, is pre-
pared by persulfate oxidation of Ag2O in basic medium at 908C or by the anodic
oxidation of solutions of silver(I) salts. It is stable to 1008C, dissolves in acids,
and evolves oxygen and gives some Ag2þ in solution.
Silver(II) oxide is a strong oxidant. Reactions in alkaline medium have been
studied extensively (19). It decomposes in aqueous solution unless stabilized with
concentrated nitric acid.
4.2. Silver(III) Compounds. Only one simple compound exists with sil-
ver(III) ions. It is made by the addition of oxidizing agents such as sodium per-
oxydisulfate to silver nitrate and sodium hydroxide. The result is a black
diamagnetic oxide with a unit cell of (2Agþ 2Ag3þ 4O2
) [155645-89-9] (27,28):
4AgNO3 þ 2Na2S2O8 þ 8NaOH ¼ Ag4O4 þ 4Na2SO4 þ 4NaNO3 þ 4H2O. When
mixtures of potassium or cesium halides are heated with silver halides in a
stream of fluorine gas, yellow KAgF4 [23739-18-6] or CsAgF4 [53585-89-0],
respectively, are obtained. These compounds are diamagnetic and extremely sen-
sitive to moisture (25). When Ag2SO4 is treated with aqueous potassium persul-
fate in the presence of ethylenedibiguanidinium sulfate, the relatively stable
Ag(III)–ethylenebiguanide complex is formed.

5. Economic Aspects

The cost of silver compounds is related to the silver bullion market price. The
annual average U.S. price for silver per troy ounce (the international standard
weight for pricing precious metals in markets worldwide) was $4.832/tr oz during
1990, and $4.37/tr oz during the year 2001.
In the year 2001, the estimated consumption of silver for fabrication in Uni-
ted States, including the use of scrap, was 5300 metric tons (169 million tr oz),
and for the world 27,400 metric tons (880 million tr oz) (29). Approximately three
quarters of mined silver was as a by-product of lead/zinc, copper, and gold mines.
The world total of mined silver amounted to 18,320 metric tons (90 million tr
oz) in 2001. The normal shortfall between mine production and fabrication
demand is made up by silver obtained from recycled jewelry and coins, discarded
photographic film and spent photographic solutions, and scrapped electrical/elec-
 SILVER COMPOUNDS 9

tronics products. A comprehensive review of the world silver market is published

yearly (29).

Year High Low Average

1985 216 179 197
1986 199 157 176
1987 328 172 225
1988 257 193 210

6. Analytical Methods

6.1. Qualitative. The classic method for the qualitative determination of

silver in solution is precipitation as silver chloride with dilute nitric acid and
chloride ion. The silver chloride can be differentiated from lead or mercurous
chlorides, which also may precipitate, by the fact that lead chloride is soluble
in hot water but not in ammonium hydroxide, whereas mercurous chloride
turns black in ammonium hydroxide. Silver chloride dissolves in ammonium
hydroxide because of the formation of soluble silver–ammonia complexes. A
number of selective spot tests (30) include reactions with p-dimethylamino-ben-
zlidenerhodanine, ceric ammonium nitrate, or bromopyrogallol red [16574-43-9].
Silver is detected by X-ray fluorescence and arc-emission spectrometry. The sil-
ver electrode is capable of measuring white silver to 1 mg/L in clean freshwater,
but not natural water, or effluents from publically owned treatment tanks. The
silver electrode will work in natural seawater at these concentrations (31). Mea-
suring silver in the mg/L range using the inductively coupled plasma-mass spec-
trometer is possible, but requires special techniques in addition to ultra-clean
techniques.
6.2. Quantitative. Classically, silver concentration in solution has been
determined by titration with a standard solution of thiocyanate. Ferric ion is the
indicator. The deep red ferric thiocyanate color appears only when the silver is
completely titrated. Gravimetrically, silver is determined by precipitation with
chloride, sulfide, or 1,2,3-benzotriazole. Silver can be precipitated as the metal
by electrodeposition or chemical reducing agents. A colored silver diethyldithio-
carbamate complex, extractable by organic solvents, is used for the spectrophoto-
metric determination of silver complexes.
Highly sensitive instrumental techniques, such as X-ray fluorescence,
atomic absorption spectrometry, and inductively coupled plasma optical emission
spectrometry, have wide application for the analysis of silver in a multitude of
materials. In order to minimize the effects of various matrices in which silver
may exist, samples are treated with perchloric or nitric acid. Direct-aspiration
atomic absorption (32) and inductively coupled plasma (33) have silver detection
limits of 10 and 7 mg/L, respectively. The use of a graphic furnace in an atomic
absorption spectrograph lowers the silver detection limit to 0.2 mg/L.
10 SILVER COMPOUNDS

Instrumental methods are useful for the determination of the total silver in
a sample, but such methods do not differentiate the various species of silver that
may be present. A silver ion-selective electrode measures the activity of the silver
ions present in a solution. These activity values can be related to the concentra-
tion of the free silver ion in the solution. Commercially available silver ion-selec-
tive electrodes measure Agþ down to 10 mg/L, and special silver ion electrodes
can measure free silver ion at 1 ng/L (34) (see ELECTROANALYTICAL TECHNIQUES).

7. Health and Safety Factors

7.1. The Silver Ion. It is the silver ion (Agþ) that provides silver with its
unique recognition as the healthful metal. Its bactericidal activity is unique
because though this ion breeches walls of bacterial cells, it does not do so to mam-
malian cells. This selectivity, which remains unclear, was perceived during
ancient times leading to its universal use.
A study with a transmission electron microscope (TEM) and an x-ray micro-
analysis instrument revealed the action of silver against two classes of bacteria:
gram-negative Escherichia coli (E. coli ATCC 23282) and gram-positive Staphy-
lococcus aureus (S. aureus, ATCC 35696). The TEM photograph of untreated E.
coli is shown in Fig. 1 and treated in Fig. 2, revealed serious damage to the E. coli
cell walls and marked changes to the interior (35). Microanalysis of the interior
revealed a significant amount of silver in combination with sulfur-containing cell
components. The TEM photographs of S. aureus, showed similar though smaller
effects suggesting that action S. aureus may have a stronger defense system
against silver ions. In the lighter shade interior, a large amount of phosphorous
was detected. The authors proposed that this was a condensed form of DNA
molecules where phosphorous is a primary component.
Studies conducted at the Laboratory of Cellular & Molecular Biology,
National Institute on Aging, NIH, in determining how metal ions interact with
nucleic acid structures, revealed that Agþ replaces the H-bonds preferentially in
the GC regions of the DNA double helix resulting helix having a much larger dia-
meter. Subjected to hydrolysis, the larger diameter Ag-treated helix was vir-
tually unhydrolyzed after 30 hours reaction time indicating that the silver ion
stabilizes the polynucleotide structure in such a way that cleavage becomes far
more difficult (36). A second effect is the consolidation of the DNA molecules into
highly compacted 3-dimensional structures, reducing viability (37).
The first state regulation requiring the clinical use of a silver compound,
was the administration a 1% to 2% silver nitrate [7761-88-8] solution to the
eyes of newborns. It was the consequence of observations by the German obste-
trician, C.S.F. Crede, who observed a relationship of children committed to insti-
tutions of the blind and their exposure to maternal venereal disease (38). The
introduction in 1884 of Crede’s prophylaxis became a state regulation in every
civilized country in the world.
As silver nitrate is far too aggressive an agent for general clinical use.
Argyrol a silver salt of the protein vitellin, was introduced in 1902 as a mild gen-
eral antiseptic for topical infections by A. C. Barnes, a Philadelphia chemist. It
satisfied a ready market until eclipsed by the biocides.
 SILVER COMPOUNDS 11

An investigator for the Office of Scientific Research and Development dur-

ing WWII, C. L. Fox, M.D., observed that those with severe war wounds and
burns commonly succumbed to bacterial infection. His investigations into the
sulfonamide drugs as a topical antibacterial therapy led him to evaluate silver
sulfadiazine [22199-08-2] (39). This drug delivered all the antibacterial advan-
tages of the silver ion, but none of the disadvantages of silver nitrate, such as
its ready reaction with chlorides on the surface of a wound essentially removing
the silver ion from the action against the bacteria. Unlike silver nitrate, silver
sulfadiazine [22199-08-2] is active against both gram positive and gram negative
organisms, fungi, and protozoa, including mouse malaria. It is also topically
effective against viruses such as herpes, and sexually transmitted diseases
such as genital herpes, gonorrhea, trichomonas, and treponema pallidia (40).
R. O. Becker, M.D., Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Health Science
Center, State University of New York, Syracuse, NY, recognized that the antibio-
tic effectiveness of the silver ion could be limited to incidental contact with bac-
teria in the surrounding media. To force silver ions to flood a wound he developed
a small electric circuit (0.9 V) to drive silver ions through a wound (41). Over
two decades of in vivo and in vivo studies with animals and humans showed that
electrically driven silver accelerated tissue growth by five to six times faster than
non-silver-treated tissue. Electric current alone is unsatisfactory, but the addi-
tion of silver as the positive anode to provide electrically driven silver ions to
flood the wound, consistently significant accelleration of reconstruction results.
Becker’s observed an unexpected rate of wound regeneration with the elec-
trically-driven silver ions, ‘‘...the evident enhancement of healing is the direct
result of the cellular changes...’’ (42). Clearly the silver ion was either promoting
a reversion of committed mammalian cells to a more primitive mode (stem cells)
more readily assimilated in restoration or the Agþ was stimulating the reproduc-
tion of already-present stem cells within the human system. Studies have indi-
cated that primitive or stem cells are indeed present in muscle (43), in bone
marrow (44), and in fibrous tissue (45).
Becker states, ‘‘The failure to other non-toxic metal ions to produce a simi-
lar alteration using the same electrical parameters strongly indicates that the
electrically generated silver ion is the agent responsible for the observed cellular
changes.’’ He also observed that following electrically-driven silver ion treat-
ment, ‘‘The subsequent resumption of normal morphology and activity indicates
the lack of any lasting toxic effects from the silver ions’’ (44).
According to the Public Health Service Drinking Water Standards (Public
Health Service, U.S. DHEW, 1962), the need to set a standard for silver (Ag)
arose from its intentional addition to waters for disinfection. ‘‘It is reasonable
to assume that vegetables belonging to the family Brassicaceae, such as cab-
bages, turnip, cauliflower, and onion, would combine with residual silver in
the cooking water. The content of several liters of water could thus be ingested.’’
A tentative drinking water standard for silver was set based upon a lifetime max-
imum of 1 gram of silver to produce argeria, as determined by the onset of
argeria from the injection of 8 grams Ag-arsphenamine. Assuming that all the
silver ingested is deposited in the skin, a limit of 50 mg/L could be ingested
approximately 27 years without exceeding a silver deposition of 1 g.
12 SILVER COMPOUNDS

In 1989, silver was dropped from EPA’s 1962 Drinking Water Priority
List (46), because ‘‘there is either little or no potential for exposure via drinking
water, or no adverse health effect associated with [its] presence in
drinking water. In 1991, EPA announced, ‘‘Three contaminants on the 1988
Drinking Water Priority List (DWPL)—ammonia, silver, and sodium—have
been determined to be of low priority for regulation and therefore have been
dropped from the 1991 list [and placed on the secondary contaminant list]. For
each of these three substances, there is either little or no potential for exposure
via drinking water, or no adverse health effect associated with their presence in
drinking water’’ (47).
Further in 1991, Part 143 (40 CFR 143) on National Secondary Drinking
Water Regulations, the table in Section 143.3 on Secondary maximum contami-
nant levels was revised to read as follows: ‘‘Contaminant: Silver, Level: 0.1 mg/L
(48). This increase from the previous limit of 0.05 mg/L permitted an effective
concentration of the silver ion for the sanitation of drinking water and swimming
pool water. It also recognized that higher concentrations of the silver ion would
be deleterious to aquatic organisms.
The quest for healthful, odor-free swimming pools began in the 1930s. The
discovery that silver and copper ions generated by a mild electric current would
adequately sanitize private swimming pools led to serious interest in silver sani-
tation. Following years of satisfactory sanitation of pools and hot tubs, a protocol
for the certification of silver/copper ionization systems was developed by the
National Sanitation Foundation/International, Ann Arbor, MI. For such systems,
the CDC has suggested a chlorine residual of 0.2 ppm instead of the usual 3 ppm
recommended when only chlorine is used. The exception is the approval of poly-
valent silver oxide (2 Agþ1 þ 2 Agþ3 þ 4 O
2) [155645-89-9] for swimming pool
sanitation without the need for chlorine (EPA No. 3432-64) (49,50).
Natural Defenses. All vertebrates, invertebrates, and microorganisms
possess defenses against accumulation of the heavy metals. Metals not seques-
tered for the healthy function of the organism are removed by proteins known
as metallothioneins. These transport, store, and detoxify essential and non-
essential trace metals (51). Metallothioneins encapsulating heavy metals are
excreted mostly by the liver in the feces. Supersaturation of this protective sys-
tem may result in the excess metals binding with available thiols, binding the
silver ions as silver sulfide (52–54).
Removal of silver deposits in the skin has proved not feasible. Argyria is a
condition requiring long, acute exposure to silver fumes or sprays. Modern indus-
trial practice, requiring face masks, gloves, and reactions under hoods avoids
such exposure. There is no evidence that silver causes cancer (55).
Aquatic Organisms. Fish intake oxygen through gills which supply phy-
siological input and output as diverse as those associated with the lungs and kid-
neys of mammals. In freshwater fish, sufficient concentrations of silver and/or
copper inhibit the uptake of sodium through the gills. This disturbance of inter-
nal balance may lead to a decrease in the levels of sodium, chlorides, and other
ions which in turn triggers the potential of cardiovascular collapse and death
(56).
In 1989, the medical profession determined that the deposition of silver in
internal organs and skin (argyria and argyrosis) did not impair the functions of
 SILVER COMPOUNDS 13

the affected organs. Thus argyria and argyrosis are considered to be cosmetic
effects, not adverse health effects. In response, the U.S. Environmental Protec-
tion Agency (EPA) removed silver from the list of maximum contaminant levels
(MCL) regulated in drinking water in 1991 (57) and increased the recommended
limit of silver in drinking water to 100 mg/L to protect against argeria (a colora-
tion of the skin resulting from excessive ingestion of silver).
Silver compounds having anions that are inherently toxic, eg, silver
arsenate and silver cyanide, can cause adverse health effects. The reported rat
oral LD values for silver nitrate, silver arsenate [13510-44-6], and silver cyanide
are 500–800 (58), 200–400 (58), and 123 mg/kg (59), respectively.
Effects from chronic exposure to soluble silver and silver compounds seem
to be limited to deposition without evidence of health impairment (58,61,62).
Argyria and argyrosis have resulted from therapeutic and occupational expo-
sures to silver and its compounds. These disorders are characterized by either
localized or general deposition of a silver–protein complex in parts of the body,
and impart a blue-gray discoloration to the areas affected. In generalized
argyria, characteristic discoloration may appear on the face, ears, forearms,
and under the fingernails (62). Although the exact quantities of silver required
for the development of argyria are not known, estimates based on therapeutic
exposure suggest that the gradual accumulation of 1–5 g leads to generalized
argyria (63). Localized argyria can occur as a result of the prolonged handling
of metallic silver, which causes silver particles to be embedded in the skin and
subcutaneous tissues via sweat-gland pores, or following the application of silver
compounds to abraded skin areas (64). In argyrosis, silver is deposited primarily
in the cornea and conjunctiva. This does not, however, appear to cause visual
impairment (58,61).
Occupational argyria is unknown because of effective industrial hygiene
practices. In 1980, the American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygie-
nists (ACGIH) adopted a TLV for airborne silver metal particles of 100 mg/m3,
and proposed a TLV of 10 mg/m3, as silver, for airborne soluble silver compounds
(65). These values were selected to protect against argyria and argyrosis from
industrial exposures to silver and silver compounds. Argyria caused by the exces-
sive therapeutic use of silver compounds is extremely rare because of the very
small amount of silver required for effective treatment.
In 1980, the EPA published ambient water quality criteria for silver. An
upper limit of 50 mg/L in natural waters was set to provide adequate protection
against adverse health effects (66). In 1991, EPA revised the 1988 Drinking
Water Priority List to delete ammonia, silver, and sodium from that list because,
‘‘. . . there is either little or no potential for exposure via drinking water, or no
adverse health effect associated with their presence in drinking water’’ (47). In
1991 the EPA also increased the secondary maximum, contaminant levels for sil-
ver from 50 mg/L (50 ppb) to 100 mg/L (100 ppb) (48). In 1992, EPA deleted the
human health criteria for silver from the ambient water quality criteria to be
consistent with the drinking water standards (67).
14 SILVER COMPOUNDS

8. Environmental Impact

The impact that a silver compound has in water is a function of the free or
weakly complexed silver ion concentration generated by that compound, not
the total silver concentration (6–8,34,68,69). In a standardized, acute aquatic
bioassay, fathead minnows were exposed to various concentrations of silver com-
pounds for a 96-h period and the concentration of total silver lethal to half of the
exposed population (96-h LC50) determined. For silver nitrate, the value obtained
was 16 mg/L. For silver sulfide and silver thiosulfate complexes, the values were
>240 and >280 mg=L, respectively, the highest concentrations tested (34).
The chronic aquatic effects which relate silver speciation to adverse envir-
onmental effects were studied on rainbow trout eggs and fry. The maximum
acceptable toxicant concentration (MATC) for silver nitrate, as total silver, was
reported to be 90–170 ng/L (70). Using fathead minnow eggs and fry, the MATC,
as total silver, for silver thiosulfate complexes was reported as 21–44 mg/L, and
for silver sulfide as 11 mg/L, the maximum concentration tested (34).
Free ionic silver readily forms soluble complexes or insoluble materials with
dissolved and suspended material present in natural waters, such as sediments
and sulfide ions (71). The hardness of water is sometimes used as an indicator of
its complex-forming capacity. Although earlier studies suggested hardness of
water reduces the toxicity of silver, many researchers have shown that not to
be the case. Chloride, natural organic matter, and sulfide clusters have been
shown to be the major ligands that reduce silver toxicity in natural fresh waters,
and salinity in marine waters. Although the U.S. EPA still recommends use of
the 1980 Ambient Water Quality Criteria for silver, they are aware that hard-
ness has little effect in protecting aquatic organisms. The U.S. EPA is currently
revising the Cu and Ag water quality control documents, using the major ligands
to establish site-specific criteria (the Bureau of Land Management approach)
(72).
In the manufacture of photographic materials, silver is originally present as
a halide. When light-exposed photographic films and papers are processed, the
silver halide that has not been affected by light is normally removed by solubili-
zation as a thiosulfate complex using a thiosulfate-containing fixing bath. Before
disposing of exhausted fixing baths, most of the silver is recovered, frequently by
metallic exchange or by electrolytic reduction. The resulting concentrations of
silver thiosulfate complex in the final effluents are 0.1–20 mg/L, as total silver
(34). Silver being a precious metal is recovered from photoprocessing effluents to
levels at or below 1 mg/L (see: the Silver Council webside, and the Code of Man-
agement Practice for photoprocessors procedures).
In secondary wastewater treatment plants receiving silver thiosulfate com-
plexes, microorganisms convert this complex predominately to silver sulfide and
some metallic silver (see WASTES, INDUSTRIAL). These silver species are substan-
tially removed from the treatment plant effluent at the settling step (73,74).
Any silver entering municipal secondary treatment plants tends to bind quickly
to sulfide ions present in the system and precipitate into the treatment plant
sludge (75). Thus, silver discharged to secondary wastewater treatment plants
or into natural waters is not present as the free silver ion but rather as a com-
 SILVER COMPOUNDS 15

plexed or insoluble species and is quickly bound to sulfide ions from almost any
source (76). This means that negligible Ag exists as the ‘‘free ion,’’ but is mostly
bound to these sulfides in oxic as well as anoxic environments. Toxicologically,
the silver bound to these sulfide ions or clusters is the strong suppression of
the Ag effect on most sensitive organisms (77).

9. Uses

9.1. Analysis. The ability of silver ion to form sparingly soluble precipi-
tates with many anions has been applied to their quantitative determination.
Bromide, chloride, iodide, thiocyanate, and borate are determined by the titra-
tion of solutions containing these anions using standardized silver nitrate solu-
tions in the presence of a suitable indicator. These titrations use fluorescein,
tartrazine, rhodamine 6-G, and phenosafranine as indicators (78). Attention
must be paid to the photo degradation of silver in the solution.
Silver diethyldithiocarbamate [1470-61-7] is a reagent commonly used for
the spectrophotometric measurement of arsenic in aqueous samples (79) and
for the analysis of antimony (80). Silver iodate is used in the determination of
chloride in biological samples such as blood (81).
Combination silver–silver salt electrodes have been used in electrochemis-
try. The potential of the common Ag/AgCl (saturated)–KCl (saturated) reference
electrode is þ0.199 V. Silver phosphate is suitable for the preparation of a refer-
ence electrode for the measurement of aqueous phosphate solutions (82). The sil-
ver–silver sulfate–sodium sulfate reference electrode has also been described
(83). The Ag2S electrode is the most robust and stable of all the specific ion elec-
trodes, if used properly. Being a low impedance electrode, it needs a high ionic
medium and high flow (double junction) electrode. If the solution is well buffered,
free ion concentration (activities) can be measured to 10
19 or less. Typical cali-
bration in silver nitrate gives dl of 10
5.8 M (or 10 mg/L as stated). Like any
other trace substance, ambient concentration-contaminant effects appear if the
system is not well buffered for Agþ. References on silver specific electrodes are
as well as books on specific ion electrodes. The key problem is fouling of the sur-
face, and as mentioned, high flow of ions in the electrode measuring system.
9.2. Batteries. Primary, ie, nonrechargeable, batteries containing silver
compounds have gained in popularity through use in miniaturized electronic
devices. The silver oxide–zinc cell has a cathode of Ag2O or AgO. These cells
are characterized by a high energy output per unit weight and a fairly constant
voltage, 1.5 V, during discharge. Originally used almost exclusively for military
applications, satellites, and space probes, silver oxide–zinc batteries are used as
of this writing (2002) as power sources for wrist watches, pocket calculators,
and hearing aids. Silver batteries have excellent shelf stability. Ninety percent
of the original capacity is retained after one year of storage at 218C (see BAT-
TERIES, PRIMARY CELLS). Silver chromate is one of several oxidizing agents that
can be used in lithium primary batteries (84). Calcium–silver technology was
introduced for automobile battery grids in the mid-1990s. Silver provides addi-
tional strength to the lead grid giving it a 20% increase in service life despite
increased operating temperatures and meets the increased power demand due
16 SILVER COMPOUNDS

to extensive electrical systems. The starting power is about the same, but power
can be drawn from the battery more efficiently, especially at winter tempera-
tures, providing better starting performance and better service life. The addition
of silver markedly reduces the corrosion of the grid, the most important limiting
factor in the life of the battery. Its use is becoming almost universal.
Silver sulfide, when pure, conducts electricity like a metal of high specific
resistance, yet it has a zero temperature coefficient. This metallic conduction is
believed to result from a few silver ions existing in the divalent state, and thus
providing free electrons to transport current. The use of silver sulfide as a solid
electrolyte in batteries has been described (85).
9.3. Catalysts. Silver does not hold oxygen very strongly. The oxygen
molecule is efficiently dissociated on the surface of silver into atomic oxygen
atoms that are weakly adsorbed on the surface of the silver. When a molecule
such as ethylene, methanol, hydrocarbons, or bacteria, impacts the atomic oxy-
gen-rich silver surface, it reacts readily with the weakly held atomic oxygen
atoms. The reactant molecule does not react with the silver because the silver
is almost inert, it rather reacts with the weakly held oxygen on the surface
and consequently oxidation takes place—silver is a true catalyst (86).
Silver has been used for oxidation and dehydrogenation of single- and two-
carbon organic compounds for >100 years. Marked improvement in the purity of
product (selectivity) has been achieved when in combination with other elements
such as chlorine or alloyed with elements such as gold or palladium. The actual
catalytic process over silver has been elucidated in detail (86). A two-stage Ag–
Cu catalyst system increased the production of formaldehyde from 90 to 94% any
without decrease in formaldehyde selectivity (86).
Silver has, however, been unsatisfactory for oxidation of long-chain hydro-
carbons because the bonds in multiple carbons are weaker and easily broken on
meeting the atomic oxygen on the silver surface into carbon dioxide and water.
This action has been offset by the addition of alkali metal salts such as CsCl to
the silver to lower the desorption energy of an olefin epoxide, dramatically
increasing the activity, selectivity, and catalyst lifetime of silver for the longer
hydrocarbon chains. The catalytic preparation of epoxybutene and its derivatives
represent the beginning of new families of chemicals now available for fine che-
mical production. More than 100 chemicals have been prepared with such addi-
tions so far (87).
A combined sorption–catalytic process converts the methanol and mercap-
tans in Kraft mill waste gas condensates into formaldehyde (86). Similarly, the
solubility of silver tetrafluoroborate in organic solvents has enhanced its use in
the synthesis of 3-pyrrolines by the cyclization of allenic amines (88).
Silver carbonate, alone or on Celite, has been used as a catalyst for the oxi-
dation of methyl esters of D-fructose (89), ethylene (90), propylene (91), trioses
(92), and a-diols (93). The mechanism of the catalysis of alcohol oxidation by sil-
ver carbonate on Celite has been studied (94).
Silver sulfate has been described as a catalyst for the reduction of aromatic
hydrocarbons to cyclohexane derivatives (95). It is also a catalyst for oxidation
reactions, and as such has long been recommended for the oxidation of organic
materials during the determination of the COD of wastewater samples (96,97)
(see WASTES, INDUSTRIAL; WATER, INDUSTRIAL WATER TREATMENT).
 SILVER COMPOUNDS 17

9.4. Cloud Seeding. In 1947, it was demonstrated that silver iodide

could initiate ice crystal formation because, in the b-crystalline form, it is iso-
morphic with ice crystals. As a result, cloud seeding with silver iodide has
been used in weather modifications attempts such as increases and decreases
in precipitation (rain or snow) and the dissipation of fog. Optimum conditions
for cloud seeding are present when precipitation is possible but the nuclei for
the crystallization of water are lacking.
Silver iodide crystals, or smoke, for cloud seeding are produced predomi-
nantly by ground-based steady-state generators. Short-term (5–10-min) flares
are also used. In one study, ground-based generators produced an average of
255-g silver iodide crystals per hour. Each generator is designed to cover a
259-km (100-mi) target area. Cloud seeding is reviewed in Reference 98. Studies
of high alpine mountain lakes determined that there were no adverse environ-
mental effects from cloud seeding operations (99).
9.5. Electroplating. Most silver-plating baths employ alkaline solutions
of silver cyanide. The silver cyanide complexes that are obtained in a very low
concentration of free silver ion in solution produce a much firmer deposit of silver
during electroplating than solutions that contain higher concentrations. An
excess of cyanide beyond that needed to form the AgðCNÞ
2 complex is employed
to control the Agþ concentration. The silver is added to the solution either
directly as silver cyanide or by oxidation of a silver-rod electrode. Plating
baths frequently contain 40–140 g/L of silver cyanide (100) (see ELECTROPLATING).
9.6. Mirrors. The use of silver for the production of mirrors results in a
highly reflective coating (visible light-97% reflection; infrared-99%). The mirror
is produced by the reaction of two separate solutions on the glass surface to be
coated. One contains silver ammonia complex, the other an organic reducing
agent, eg, formaldehyde, sodium potassium tartrate, sugar, or hydrazine. After
rinsing, the silver coating can be protected by copper plating or silicone coating
(101). The precipitation of silver on glass using sodium hydroxide is well known.
A far safer method of silvering glass uses an amine reducer such as glucosaminic
acid added to a silver nitrate and ammonium hydroxide solution to cause the
deposition of silver onto the glass, improving both quality and adhesion (102).
9.7. Photography. The largest single use of silver and its compounds is
in the photographic industry (103,104). Silver nitrate and a halide salt of an
alkali metal or an ammonium halide give a light-sensitive silver halide. The sil-
ver halide can account for up to 30–40% of the total emulsion weight. Gelatin is
the other primary constituent (see EMULSIONS; PHOTOGRAPHY). Many different sil-
ver halide emulsions are manufactured; the ratios of the halides and preparation
details are adjusted according to the specific properties and applications desired.
For photographic papers and the emulsions of low sensitivity, silver chloride,
chlorobromide, or bromide is employed. Emulsions of high sensitivity are primar-
ily bromide plus up to 10 mol % of silver iodide. Pure silver iodide emulsions are
not commercially important and silver fluoride has no comparable photographic
use.
Heat-processed photographic systems have been described that utilize sil-
ver behenate, silver laurate, and silver stearate. These silver salts are coated
on paper in the presence of organic reducing agents (101,106).
18 SILVER COMPOUNDS

Newer methods of image recording seek to avoid the high cost of silver.
However, continued research has not led to systems that are able to offer the
same combination of high sensitivity, high image density, exceptional resolution,
permanence, and tricolor recording. In color photography (qv), dyes comprise the
finished image, and the emulsion silver is removed during processing. Silver ions
present in the photographic fixing solution as a silver thiosulfate complex can be
recovered by metallic replacement, electroplating, or chemical precipitation.
9.8. Other Uses. Photochromic glass contains silver chloride (107) and
silver molybdate [13765-74-7] (108) (see CHROMOGENIC MATERIALS). An apparatus
coated with silver nitrate has been described for the detection of rain or snow
(109). Treatment with silver–thiosulfate complex has been reported as dramati-
cally increasing the postharvest life of cut carnations (110). Silver sulfate has
been used in the electrolytic coloring of aluminum (111). Silver sulfate also
imparts a yellowish-red color to glass bulbs (112).

BIBLIOGRAPHY

‘‘Silver Compounds’’ in ECT 1st ed., Vol. 12, pp. 438–443, by F. A. Meier, The American
Platinum Works; in ECT 2nd ed., Vol. 18, pp. 295–309, by T. N. Tischer, Eastman Kodak
Co.; in ECT 3rd ed., Vol. 21, pp. 16–32, by H. B. Lockhart, Jr., Eastman Kodak Co.; in
ECT 4th ed., Vol. 22, pp. 179–195, by C. Robert Cappel, Eastman Kodak Company.

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 SILVER COMPOUNDS 19

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Dept. of the Navy).
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52 (4) (2000).

SAMUEL F. ETRIS
The Silver Institute
C. ROBERT CAPPEL
Eastman Kodak Company
24 SILVER COMPOUNDS

Fig. 1. Internal structure of the untreated E. coli cells.

 SILVER COMPOUNDS 25

Fig. 2. Internal structure of treated E. coli cells.

26 SILVER COMPOUNDS

Table 1. Solubility and Solubility Products of Silver(I) Compounds

Silver(I) compound CAS Registry Number Aqueous solubilitya , g/L H2O Kspa
acetate [563-63-3] 1.1  10
azide [13863-88-2] 2.9  10
9b
b
bromate [7783-89-3] 1.6
bromide [7785-23-1] 1.3  10
4 3.3  10
13
carbonate [534-16-7] 3.3  10
2 8.2  10
12
chlorate [7783-92-8] 9.0  10b
chloride [7783-90-6] 1.9  10
3 1.8  10
10
chromate [7784-01-2] 3.6  10
2 1.9  10
12b
cyanide [506-64-9] 2.3  10
5 1.6  10
14
fluoride [7775-41-9] 1.8  103
iodate [7783-97-3] 4.4  10
1b 3.1  10
8b
iodide [7783-96-2] 2.6  10
6 8.5  10
17
nitrate [7761-88-8] 2.16  102c
nitrite [7783-99-5] 4.2
oxide [20667-12-3] 2.2  10
2
selenate [7784-07-8] 1.2b 4  10
9b
sulfate [10294-26-5] 8.3 1.2  10
5
sulfide [21548-73-2] 1.4  10
4b 1.0  10
50b ,d
3.8  10
52e
5.9  10
52f
sulfite [13465-98-0] 2  10
14b
thiocyanate [1701-93-5] 1.3  10
4b 1.0  10
12b
a
At 258C unless otherwise indicated.
b
At 208C.
c
Value is per 100 g H2O.
d
Ref. 7.
e
Ref. 8.
f
Ref. 3.