Republic of the Philippines

Department of Science and Technology

Philippine Science High School
Eastern Visayas Campus
Pawing, Palo, Leyte

Guide Questions (DLC) in SocSci 1

Submitted to:
Sir Oscar Peralta

Submitted by:
Lorraine Allyxa C. Nogar
7-Emerald
November 15, 2017
I.
A. Background: European Voyages of Exploration
1. Factors that led to the European Voyages of Exploration
The European Age of Exploration began in the early fifteenth century and was fueled by
competition between various evolving empires and the quest for economic, intellectual,
and religious growth.
Because European were cut off from travel to the "Far East" by the conquering of large
portions of North Africa, the Mediterranean, France, and Spain in the eighth century,
explorers set off by sea to find new trade routes that would allow them to trade with
Asia in the pursuit of luxury goods.
This time period also saw the growth of Humanism and curiosity about the rest of the
world, as European understanding of geography (and the discovery of the Americas)
began to evolve and reveal the true scale of the planet. Explorers who encountered
new animals and plant life on their journeys were able to provide detailed descriptions
of them, leading to later natural and scientific discoveries and inventions.
Meanwhile, the Catholic Church encouraged the role of conversion and the spread of
Christian beliefs, which led many missionaries to accompany explorers on their travels
to various "savage" lands in order to "save" the natives.
So, we might ultimately say that early European exploration began out of a desire for
economic conquest and continued as a means of making intellectual discoveries and
spreading religious ideals.

2. Colonialism (Nature and Tools)

Spanish colonial motives were not, however, strictly commercial. The Spanish at first
viewed the Philippines as a stepping-stone to the riches of the East Indies (Spice
Islands), but, even after the Portuguese and Dutch had foreclosed that possibility, the
Spanish still maintained their presence in the archipelago.
The Portuguese navigator and explorer Ferdinand Magellan headed the first Spanish
foray to the Philippines when he made landfall on Cebu in March 1521; a short time
later he met an untimely death on the nearby island of Mactan. After King Philip II (for
whom the islands are named) had dispatched three further expeditions that ended in
disaster, he sent out Miguel López de Legazpi, who established the first permanent
Spanish settlement, in Cebu, in 1565. The Spanish city of Manila was founded in 1571,
and by the end of the 16th century most of the coastal and lowland areas from Luzon
to northern Mindanao were under Spanish control. Friars marched with soldiers and
soon accomplished the nominal conversion to Roman Catholicism of all the local people
under Spanish administration. But the Muslims of Mindanao and Sulu, whom the
Spanish called Moros, were never completely subdued by Spain.

B. Philippines Under Spain: Economic, Political, Social and Cultural

Transformations
Ferdinand Magellan was the first European recorded to have landed in the Philippines.
He arrived in March 1521 during his circumnavigation of the globe. He claimed land for
the king of Spain but was killed by a local chief.
Following several more Spanish expeditions, the first permanent settlement was
established in Cebu in 1565. After defeating a local Muslim ruler, the Spanish set up
their capital at Manila in 1571, and they named their new colony after King Philip II of
Spain. In doing so, the Spanish sought to acquire a share in the lucrative spice trade,
develop better contacts with China and Japan, and gain converts to Christianity. Only
the third objective was eventually realized.
As with other Spanish colonies, church and state became inseparably linked in carrying
out Spanish objectives. Several Roman Catholic religious orders were assigned the
responsibility of Christianizing the local population. The civil administration built upon
the traditional village organization and used traditional local leaders to rule indirectly for
Spain. Through these efforts, a new cultural community was developed, but Muslims
(known as Moros by the Spanish) and upland tribal peoples remained detached and
alienated.
Trade in the Philippines centered around the “Manila galleons,” which sailed from
Acapulco on the west coast of Mexico (New Spain) with shipments of silver bullion and
minted coin that were exchanged for return cargoes of Chinese goods, mainly silk
textiles and porcelain. There was no direct trade with Spain and little exploitation of
indigenous natural resources. Most investment was in the galleon trade. But, as this
trade thrived, another unwelcome element was introduced — sojourning Chinese
entrepreneurs and service providers.
During the Seven Years’ War (1756–63), British East India Company forces captured
Manila. Although the Philippines was returned to Spain at the end of the war, the British
occupation marked the beginning of the end of the old order. Rebellions broke out in
the north, and while the Spanish were busy fighting the British, Moros raided from the
south. The Chinese community, resentful of Spanish discrimination, supported the
British with laborers and armed men.
The restoration of Spanish rule brought reforms aimed at promoting the economic
development of the islands and making them independent of subsidies from New Spain.
The galleon trade ceased in 1815, and from that date onward the Royal Company of
the Philippines, which had been chartered in 1785, promoted direct and tariff-free trade
between the islands and Spain. Cash crops were cultivated for trade with Europe and
Latin America, but profits diminished after Spain’s Latin American colonies became
independent in the 1810s and 1820s.
In 1834 the Royal Company of the Philippines was abolished, and free trade was
formally recognized. With its excellent harbour, Manila became an open port for Asian,
European, and North American traders. In 1873 additional ports were opened to foreign
commerce, and by the late nineteenth century three crops—tobacco, abaca, and
sugar—dominated Philippine exports.
During the Spanish colonization in the Philippines , the government was composed of
two branches, the executive and the judicial.
There was no legislative branch on that time since the laws of the islands were coming
from Spain . The only laws created in the Philippines are those who were ordered by
the Governor General.
The government on that time was lead by the Governor General. He was considered as
the representative of Spain and the King himself. He is the highest officer in the island
and responsible for implementing laws from the mother country.
He also has the power to appoint or relieve officer in the government or priest in the
parish, except with those personally appointed by the king of Spain .
The provinces in the island were called as “Encomienda” and were governed by the
“Encomienderos”, later they were replaced by the “Alcalde Mayor
“Alcalde Mayor” had both the executive and judicial power. He had also given the right
to collect taxes. The “Alcalde Mayor” was also allowed to establish a business because
of its limited salary. In 1886, their executive power was abolished but their judicial
powers remain.
Small towns were governed by the “gobernadorcillo”. Under his authority were one
police chief and the lower government employees from which he had jurisdiction.
“Gobernadorcillo” were elected by the married people but later a “gobernadorcillo” was
chosen by those outgoing in the position as his replacement.

The city was governed by two mayors, 12 councilors and a police chief, a secretary and
other employees. The city is called as “Ayuntamiento”.
The “Encomienda” system was implemented. It is a system from which the king has the
right to transfer the authority of a particular land to any Spanish individual or
institution. Those individual who possess the right of “encomienda” was called as
“Encomiendero”.
An “Encomiendero” has authority to collect taxes from the people in his jurisdiction. He
also has the duty to care and look for the benefits of those citizens.
Unfortunately, the “encomienda” system was misused by some “encomienderos”. A lot
of them use the “encomienda” for their own interest. They tend to abuse their power,
collecting taxes more than the real tax value.
The “encomiendero’s” abuse their powers which sometimes made people revolts
against them.
The “encomienda” system created hindrances for the economic development of the
masses. This making the elite richer and making the economic situation of the majority
under developed.
Although the “encomienda” system is designed for governance, its implementation
gives negative effects to the people from which the “encomienderos” abuse their power
against the people, to whom they are bound to govern.
“PHILIPPINES UNDER IMPERIAL SPAIN”
System of Government
"This fascinating political cartoon comes from El Debate, Spanish language news daily
during the Spanish colonial period in the Philippines"
· Centralized form of government.
· Divided into two units:
Central government:
· The King entrusted the colony to the governor-general, who had the highest position
in the government.
· The Royal Audiencia was the Supreme Court of the Philippines.
· The Residencia and the Visitador were the special courts that investigated on the
conduct of the governor-general and other high-ranking Spanish officials.
Local Government (provinces, cities, towns and barrios)
· The provinces were divided into two:
1. Alcaldia which recognized Spain's possession over the land
2. Corregimiento where the people had not succumbed to its ruling power.
· Ayuntamiento or the city government was the center of the society, religion, culture
and business.
· The pueblo was governed by the gobernadorcillo, the highest position for Filipino
politicians.
· The Cabeza de Barangay governed the barrios.
Frailocracia
During the Spanish regime, there was union of church and state:
· The governor-general had power over the church.
· The friars, on the other hand, played a very important role in the government.
· The Archbishop was only the most powerful in the church. However, it seemed that
the church exercised more power than the government and because of this; the
government in the Philippines was called "Frailocracia," a government controlled by the
friars.

Religion
Christianity's Introduction:
· Spanish colonizers succeeded in introducing Christianity to the islands.
· Christianity represents over 85% of religious beliefs. They were highly successful in
the region of modern day Luzon and Visayas but were unsuccessful in Mindanao, south
region, where Moslems staved off the Spanish efforts.
· It was a forced the induction of Christianity -- leading to thousands of deaths and
tortures of the residents of the islands.

'Christianization' Strategies Employed by the Spanish:

"Early Spanish Chapel, Luzon"
There are a number of reasons why Spanish missionaries were successful in this
attempt:

1. Mass baptism - the initial practice of baptizing large numbers of Filipinos at one time
enabled the initial conversion to Christianity.. It is said that many Filipinos associated
baptism with their own indigenous 'healing rituals', which also rely on the symbolism of
holy water--very typical of Southeast Asian societies.

2. Reduccion policies - in areas where Filipinos lived scattered across the landscape in
small hamlets, the Spanish military employed a resettlement policy that they had used
successful. This policy was called reduccion, and essentially meant a forced relocation
of small, scattered settlements into one larger town.

· The policy was designed for the convenience of administration of the Spanish colony's
population, a way for a small number of armed Spanish constabulary to control more
easily the movements and actions of a large number of Filipinos.

· It was also designed to enable Spain to collect taxes from their Christianized converts.
Throughout Spanish rule, Christianized Filipinos were forced to pay larger taxes than
indios, or native, unchristian zed peoples.

· The policy also made it easier for a single Spanish Catholic friar to 'train' Filipinos in
the basic principles of Christianity.
The policy was successful in some areas but impossible to enforce. Spanish archives are
full of exasperated colonial officials complaining about how such settlements were 'all
but abandoned' in many cases after only a few weeks.

3. Attitude of the Spanish clergy in the early phase - Spanish friars was forced to learn
the native language of the peoples they sought to convert. Without schools that trained
people in Spanish, the Spanish friars had no choice but to say Christian mass and
otherwise communicate in the vernacular languages of the Philippines.

In the late Spanish period, in contrast, Spanish priests enraged many Filipinos for failing
to:

a) Allow otherwise 'trained' Filipino priests to ascend into the higher echelons of the
Catholic Church hierarchy in the Philippines;

b) Return much of the land they had claimed as 'friar estates' to the Philippine landless
farmers;
c) Recognizing nascent and emerging Filipino demands for more autonomy and a
greater say in how the colony was to be managed.

4. Adaptation of Christianity to the local context - Filipinos were mostly animistic in their
religious beliefs and practices prior to Spanish intervention.

· In most areas they revered the departed spirits of their ancestors through ritual
offerings, and also believed in a variety of nature spirits. Such beliefs were central to
healing practices, harvest rites, and to maintaining a cosmological balance between this
world and the afterlife. Spirits were invisible, but also responsible for both good and bad
events. Spirits could be blamed for poor harvests, illness, and bad luck generally. Yet
Filipinos believed that proper ritual feasting of the spirits would appease them, and
result in good harvests, healthy recovery of the ill, and the fertility of women.

The legacy of Spanish conquest and colonial rule in the Philippines, as is true of all
colonial attempts to 'master' or manage indigenous populations, is mixed.
On the one hand, Spanish clergy were very destructive of local religious practices. They
systematically destroyed indigenous holy places and 'idols', or statues and
representations of indigenous spirits, gods or goddesses.
They also tried to stamp out all examples of native scripts and literature for fear that
Filipinos were using exotic symbols to foment rebellion.
The Spanish also imposed new 'moralities' on Filipinos by discouraging slave holding,
polygamy, gambling, and alcohol consumption that were a natural part of the
indigenous social and religious practices.
Hispanic rule left a legacy of syncretism, rather than totally destructive, elements.
Spanish clergy introduced some very European features of Catholic practice that
blended well with indigenous ritual practices.
Spanish Catholic priests relied on vivid, theatrical presentations of stories of the Bible in
order to help Filipinos understand the central messages of Christianity.
This colonial legacy lives on whenever Filipino Catholics re-enact through religious
dramas the passion of Christ, or Christ's martyrdom, during Holy Week.
"The beginning of a Pasyon play,Manila"
"Christ and two disciples in the Garden of Gethsemane"
"The Devil tempts Christ"
"Christ is led away by Roman soldiers"
"The Crucifixion of Christ and Two Thieves"
· Other Filipino ceremonies also mark the Christian calendar, such as during the rituals
surrounding death.
· Death is always an occasion that marks a society's traditions, and in the Philippines
funerals are usually accompanied by somber village processions and music, essential
parts of Roman Catholic ritual practice.

· Filipino indigenous religious beliefs traditionally celebrated rice planting and harvesting
times, the death anniversaries of departed ancestors, and these have been blended in
meaning and timing with Catholic rites such as All Saints Day and Fiesta de Mayo.

· In this kind of religious syncretism, blending the rites and meaning of two totally
separate societies, the outcome is often a surprise rather than a foregone conclusion.
Economy
Manila-Acapulco Galleon Trade
· The Manila-Acapulco Galleon Trade was the main source of income for the colony
during its early years. Service was inaugurated in 1565 and continued into the early
19th century.
· The Galleon trade brought silver from New Spain and silk from China by way of
Manila. This way, the Philippines earned its income through buy and sell - that is, they
bought silk from China for resale to New Spain and then bought American silver for
resale to China.
· The trade was very prosperous. But It neglected the development of the colony's local
industries which affected the Indios since agriculture was their main source of income.
In addition, the building and operation of galleons put too much burden on the
colonists' annual polo y servicio, resulted in cultural and commercial exchanges between
Asia and the Americas that led to the introduction of new crops and animals to the
Philippines notably tobacco that gave the colony its first real income which benefit
extended to the common Indio.
· The trade lasted for over two hundred years, and ceased in 1821 with the secession of
American colonies from Spain.
Royal Society of Friends of the Country
· Jose de Basco y Vargas, formally established the Real Sociedad Economica de Amigos
del Pais composed of leading men in business, industry and profession.
· The society was tasked to explore and exploit the island's natural bounties.
The society led to the creation of Plan General Economico of Basco which implemented
the monopolies on the areca nut, tobacco, spirited liquors and explosives.
It offered local and foreign scholarships and training grants in agriculture and
established an academy of design.
It was also credited to the carabao ban of 1782, the formation of the silversmiths and
gold beaters guild and the construction of the first papermill in the Philippines in 1825.
It was introduced on 1780, vanished temporarily on 1787-1819, 1820-1822 and 1875-
1822 and ceased to exist in the middle of the 1890s.
Royal Company of the Philippines
· March 10, 1785, Charles III created the Royal Philippine Company with a 25 year
charter.
· It was granted exclusive monopoly of bringing to Manila, Philippines; Chinese and
Indian goods and shipping them directly to Spain via the Cape of Good Hope.
· It was stiffly objected by the Dutch and English who saw it as a direct attack on their
trade of Asian goods.
· It was also vehemently opposed by the traders of the Galleon trade who saw it as
competition. This gradually resulted into the death of both institutions: The Royal
Philippine Company in 1814 and the Galleon trade in 1815.
Taxation
· To support the colony, several forms of taxes and monopolies were imposed.
The buwis (tribute), which could be paid in cash or kind (tobacco, chickens, produce,
gold, blankets, cotton, rice, etc., depending on the region of the country), was initially
was fixed at 8 reales (one real being 12.5 centavos) and later increased to 15 reales,
apportioned as follows: ten reales buwis, one real diezmos prediales (tithes), one real
to the town community chest, one real sanctorum tax, and three reales for church
support
Also collected were the bandalâ (from the Tagalog word mandalâ, a round stack of rice
stalks to be threshed), an annual enforced sale and requisitioning of goods such as rice.
Custom duties and income tax were also collected. By 1884, the tribute was replaced by
the Cedula personal, wherein colonists were required to pay for personal identification.
Everyone over the age of 18 was obliged to pay.
Forced Labor (Polo y servicio)
The system of forced labor otherwise known as polo y servicio evolved within the
framework of the encomienda system, introduced into the South American colonies by
the Conquistadores and Catholic priests who accompanied them.
· Polo y servicio is the forced labor for 40 days of men ranging from 16 to 60 years of
age who were obligated to give personal services to community projects. One could be
exempted from polo by paying the falla (corruption of the Spanish Falta, meaning
"absence"), a daily fine of one and a half real.
· In 1884, labor was reduced to 15 days. The polo system was patterned after the
Mexican repartimento, selection for forced labor
Cultural Transformation
· Baybayin (syllabic writing)

Mid-18th century
Earliest Books Published at the Parian of Manila (1593):
Doctrina Christiana, en lengua española, y tagala
Fr. Juan Cobo’s Wu-chu T’ien-chu cheng-chiao chen-ch’uan shih-lu (A Discussion of the
Real Traditional Propagation of the True Religion)
Doctrina Christiana en letra y lengua china
Ordinationes generals-- earliest known de visu work by means of movable types (Juan
de Vera, 1604)
Mid-16th century

”Filibustero”- an uneducated Filipino who knew Spanish

17th century

Earliest known Filipino writers:

Unknown Tagalog poet (1605)- May bagyo ma’t may rilim
Fernando Bagongbanta- Salamat nang ualang hanga
Tomas Tinpin (1610)- Auit
Pedro Suarez Ossorio (1627)- Salamat nang ualang hoyang
18th century: Ranked the Most Famous Ones
Gaspar Aquino de Belen
Felipe de Jesus
Jose dela Cruz (Huseng Sisiw)
Theocentric Literature
Awit (dodecasyllabic quatrain)
Corrido (octosyllabic quatrain)
Metrical romances ( written by Ananias Zorilla, Jose dela Cruz, Francisco Baltazar)
Anti-Muslim melodrama “Moro-Wars”- moro-moro or komedy
European- “comedias de capa y espada”
Spanish- “obra caballerescas
Lenten season- pasyon
Zarzuela- latest dramatic form (1870)

Visual Arts
Imagenes
Santoses
Jewelry
Folk Arts (whittled bamboo arch decorations):
Kaluskos
Palaspas
Moriones
Rosaries
Combs
Parols
Pastillas wrappers
Colorful art Presentation in foods:
Pan de San Nicolas
Atsara
Sapin-sapin
Painting
Faustino Quiotang (1820)- Sedes Sapientiae and San Jose with child Jesus
Damian Domingo, an insular, director of the Academia de Dibujo (1827-1833)
Juan Arceo
Juan Transfiguracion Nepomuceno and families
Severino Flavier Pablo
Hilarion Soriano
Jose Honorato Lozano – “Pepe Vigia” or “Bahia” and “Letras y Figuras”
Lorenzo Guerrero- “Academia de Dibujo y Pintura”
Simon Flores
Regino Garcia y Baza
Juan Luna - Spolarium
Felix Resurreccion Hidalgo
19th century
Esteban Villanueva- 14 tableaux of the Ambaristo or basi revolt of 1807
Laguna- Jose Dans who executed Final Judgment and Heaven, Earth , Hell
Tayabas- Vicente Villaseñor of Lucban
Cavite- Roman Faustino’s Ensueño (1892)
Printmaking, Engraving and Typography
Nicolas dela Cruz Bagay
Cipriano Romualdo Bagay
Francisco Suarez
Laureano Atlas
Felipe Sevilla
Candido Lopez
Juan delos Santos –sculpted the baroque altar of the San Agustin church
Paete woodcarvers
Mariano Madriñan
Aurelio Buhay
Isabelo Tampingco
Sotero Garcia
Romualdo T. de Jesus
Ciriaco Gaudinez
Felix Pardo de Tavera
Ciriaco Arevalo
School of Music in Lumbang (Laguna) taught:
Fandango
Seguidilla
Jota
Composers:
Marcelo Adonay
Simplicio Solis
Julian Felipe
Julio Nakpil
Dolores Paterno

Social Transformation

Adoption of Hispanic Names

Decreed by Gov. Narciso Claveria in 1849
Based on compiled names of saints, indigenous and Chinese patronymics, flora and
fauna, geographical names, and the arts
Filipinos were obligated to adopt surnames like Rizal, Del Pilar or Luna althugh some
ndigenous surnames like Mabini, Malantic, Dandan and Paganiban, were retained
Catagalogo alfabetico de apellidos contained some derogatory names like “Utut”, “Ung-
goy”, and even “Casillas”
Houses
bahay na bato with a wide azotea (batalan in original), retaining the banguerahan and
providing an aljibe or a well for water – supply
Foreign Cuisines
Spanish indigenized dishes like adobo, menudo, sarciado, puchero or mechado and the
Chinise – derived noodle preparations Filipinized into pancit malabon and pancit luglog
Change in Dressing
kanggan and bahag to barong tagalog or camisa chino
putong to hats
Shoes and slippers as part of men’s fashion
Baro and saya for women developed into mestiza dress
Jewelry and ornaments, gold and tortoise peineta, earrings of different sizes and shapes
Spanish Loan Words
dasal from rezar
Dalandan from naraja
Sinigwelas from ciruela
Conversely, the Filipino also contributed to enrich the Spanish language
Camarin from camalig
Carinderia from karihan
Molave from mulawin
Compadrazgo (ritual co – parenthood) came with baptism and marriages
Magellan served as Humabon’s padrino, and Legazpi stood as Rajah Tupa’s godfather
Intermarriages which resulted in mixed blood or mestizos (1883)
La Funeraria, the first Philippine funeral parlor was established by Carlos March in
Manila which advertised European – made coffins, embalming, “French – style packing,”
tombstones, and guaranteed “permanent service”
Conversion of the Filipinos
Fiestas honoring the saints
Fiestas during Holy Week, on Corpus Christi, and the feast day of the patron saint
Pomp and pageantry of the religious processions
Exotic Hispanic dances and music
Religious dramas of the sinakulo and the komedya or moro – moro
Cofadias and sodalities of the Filipino laymen and laywomen honoring the Virgin Mary

Technologies
· Quiles
· Arana
· Victoria
· Calesa
· Carretela
· Bicycles
· Telephones
· Telegraphs
· Kingke

Infrastructures

· Ferrocarril de Manila-Dagupan

· Compañia de los Tranvias de Filipinas

· Puente Colgante

· Cable linking

· Public lighting system (using coconut oil)

· La Electricista de Manila

Social Structures

· Principalia - nobility class was the social and educated class in the towns of colonial
Philippines composed of the Gobernadorcillo (Town Mayor), or the Cabeza de Barangay
(Chief of the Barangay) who governed the districts and the awardees of the medal of
Civil Merit.
Exempted from forced labor during the colonial period
Were allowed to vote, be elected to public office and be addressed by the title: Don or
Doña
Given certain roles in the Church, such as assisting the priest in pastoral and religious
activities

"Costume of a family belonging to Principalía during the 19th century. Picture taken
from the exhibit in Villa Escudero Museum in San Pablo Laguna, Philippines."

· Ilustrados- (Spanish for "erudite," "learned," or "enlightened ones"). constituted the

Filipino educated class during the Spanish colonial period in the late 19th century
They were the middle class who were educated in Spanish and exposed to Spanish
liberal and European nationalist ideals.
"A late 19th century photograph of the Ilustrados in Madrid, Spain (ca. 1890)"
Composed of native-born intellectuals and cut across ethnolinguistic and racial lines
1. Indios, person of pure Austronesian (Malay/Malayo-Polynesian) ancestry (natives)

2. Insulares, Spaniards born in Spain who took important positions in the Spanish
government in the Philippines.

3. Mestizos, Filipinos of mixed indigenous Filipino (Austronesian people/Malay/Malayo-

Polynesian), or European or Chinese ancestry.

4. Peninsulares, Spaniards who are born in Spain

System of Writing
· Latin alphabet
Educational System

"Spanish priest headed the formal education; the focus of the education is “Christian
Doctrines.” Students were not allowed to speak their own language, only the Spanish
language"

· Formal educational system.

· The Religious congregations paved the way in establishing schools from the primary
level to the tertiary level of education.

· The schools focused on the Christian Doctrines.

· There was a separate school for boys and girls.

· The wealthy Filipinos or the Ilustrados were accommodated in the schools.

· Colonial education brought more non-beneficial effects to the Filipinos.

Educational Decree 1863

1. The first educational system for students in the country was established by virtue of
the Education Decree of 1863.

2. The decree required the government to provide school institutions for boys and girls
in every town.

3. Spanish schools started accepting Filipino students. It was during this time when the
intellectual Filipinos emerged.

4. The Normal School was also established which gave men the opportunity to study a
three-year teacher education for the primary level.

5. The friars controlled the educational system during the Spanish times. They owned
different schools, ranging from the primary level to the tertiary levels of education.
6. The missionaries took charge in teaching, controlling and maintaining the rules and
regulations imposed to the students. These missionaries emphasized the teachings of
the Catholic religion starting from the primary level to the tertiary level of education.
The students in the primary level were taught the Christian Doctrines, the reading of
Spanish books and a little of the natives' language. Science and Mathematics were not
very much taught to the students even in the universities. Aside from the Christian
Doctrines taught, Latin was also taught to the students instead of Spanish.

7. The schools before were exclusive for the Spaniards. The Filipinos were only able to
enter the schoo1 in the late 19th century. The schools also limited their
accommodations to the sons of wealthy Filipino families in 1863.Although the schools
were already open for Filipinos, the friars still believed that the Filipinos would not be
able to match their skills and that the only way for the Filipinos to learn fast was to
impose upon them strict discipline which means applying corporal punishment.

Schools Built By the Spaniards

· The schools for boys and girls were separated.

Schools for Boys

· The first established schools were exclusive for the boys.

· The Augustinians built the first school in the Philippines situated in Cebu in 1565.

· College was equivalent to a university during the Spanish regime. The student
graduated with the degree in Bachelor of Arts (Bachiller en Artes).

· The first college school for the boys was the "Colegio de San Ignacio" which was
established by the Jesuits in Manila in 1589.

· They also established the "Colegio de San Idelfonso" in Cebu in 1595.

· In 1601, "Colegio de San Jose" was established.

· In 1589, the "Escuela Pia" was entrusted by the government to the Jesuits. Later, this
was called Ateneo de Municipal which is now the famous Ateneo de Manila University.
· The Dominicans also made a name as they established one of the best universities in
the Philippines, the University of Santo Tomas, which was opened in 1611.

· In 1630, the Dominicans established another university, the "San Juan de Letran" for
the orphaned boys.

Schools for Girls:

· "Colegio de Santa Potenciana" was the first school and college for girls. This was
opened in 1589.

· Following the birth of the first school for women, Colegio de Santa Isabel opened in
1632.

· The religious congregations also established schools for the girls called "beaterio". The
so-called "beaterio" was meant for orphaned girls who could not afford to educate
themselves. The subjects taught were housekeeping, cooking, sewing and embroidery-
making, and others intended for good housekeeping.

Effects of Colonial Education in the Philippines

· The effect of education to the Filipinos was only compelled to the friars' influences
from their lessons based on the Christian Doctrines or teachings. Indeed, the friars
were effective in evangelizing the Catholic religion to the Filipinos.

· One major failure of the educational system of the religious congregations was the
withholding of the Filipinos to learn other bodies of knowledge. Besides limiting
education to the teaching of Spanish, Latin, and the Filipino languages, the teaching of
Religion was also given emphasis. Thus, the teaching of Mathematics and Science were
neglected.

· In entirety, education during the Spanish regime was privileged only to Spanish
students. The supposed Philippine education was only a means to remain in the
Philippines as colonizers. For this reason, the Filipinos became followers to the
Spaniards in their own country. Even auspicious Filipinos became cronies, to the extent
that even their life styles were patterned from the Spaniards.

· Several educated Filipinos referred to as ilustrados began movements directed

towards change in the system of government in the Philippines. Despite their wealth
and education, the ilustrados were still considered by the Spaniards to be inferior. One
of the goals of the ilustrado was to be in the same level with the proud Spaniards. The
growing number of ilustrados in the Philippines maybe considered one of the major
effects of education by the Spaniards in the Philippines.

C. The Spanish Colonial Experience of the Muslim and the Indigenous People
The Philippine Muslims was once a dominant group in the country. They have 500 years
political history, so far the longest political experience compared to other groups in the
whole Philippines. Their culture is a blend of Islam and adat. Adat is the sum of both
pre-Islamic culture and the philosophical interpretation of the Muslims on the teachings
of Islam. It is itself the lasting contribution of the Philippine Muslims to the country’s
national body politic. However, to know the Muslim history, one should understand the
role of Islam in bringing about historical development. It is this Islam that actually
produced heroic resistance against western colonialism. The Philippine Muslims today
became known as cultural communities owing to their culture surviving foreign
hegemonism to this day.
The history of the Philippine Muslims is part of the backbone of the historical
development of the whole country. Filipino historians like Dr. Renato Constantino
asserted that no Philippine history can be complete without a study of Muslim
development (1990:29).
The Philippines has two lines of historical development. The first line, which is the
older, came to develop in Mindanao and Sulu. And this refers to the Muslim line of
historical development . Had not this line of historical development been disturbed by
western colonialism, Islam might have charted the entire destiny of the Philippine
nationhood. External factors swept into the country and brought the second line. The
Hispanized Filipinos were central to the development of this second line. This is the
product of the great historical experiences of the Filipino people under western rule.
Roots
Mindanao and Sulu are the original homeland of the Philippine Muslims. These
areas are now the third political subdivision of the Philippines. They are located at the
southern part of the country, and lie around hundred miles north of equator. The areas
occupy a strategic position at the center of shipping line between the Far East and the
Malayan world. They are situated north of Sulawise and to the west is the state of
Sabah. Mindanao and Sulu has a total land area of 102,000 square kilometers. It is a
fertile region and known to be rich in agricultural plantation, marine and mineral
resources. As reported, more than half of the country’s rain forest are found in
Mindanao. While its agricultural crops include rice, corn, root crops, vegetables, cassava
and fruits. Marine products like seaweed production, fish as well as gas and oil are
dominant in the Sulu sea. Fifty nine percent of tuna and sardines are largely taken from
the Sulu sea. Mainland Mindanao has substantial mineral deposits. Zamboanga del Sur
has gold, silver, lead, zinc deposit; Davao oriental has chromite reserves; marble
deposits for Davao del Norte and oil deposit in South Cotabato. These huge resources
of the southern islands have made Mindanao the land of promise.
However, the main concentration of the Philippine Muslim population is confined
largely to the western side of Mindanao down to the Sulu Archipelago. In mainland
Mindanao, the Muslims are dominant only in Lanao and Maguindanao provinces. While
the rest of the Muslim populations are scattered in nearby provinces such as
Zamboanga peninsula, North Cotabato, Sultan Qudarat, South Cotabato, Davao
Oriental, Davao del Sur and Sarangani island. In the Sulu Archipelago, the Muslims are
all dominant in three island provinces of Basilan, Sulu and Tawi-Tawi.
The Muslim Etnic Groups
Ethnic is an Italian term for nation. An ethnic community may be defined as tribal
group which has its own language, hold in common a set of tradition different from
others whom they are in contact. It has its own territory from which its ethnic identity is
derived, and thus becomes a uniting factor for group cohesion. The Muslim ethnic
groups in Mindanao and Sulu are linked by both ideological and geographical factors.
The Muslims in the south are also culturally linked to Muslim countries in Southeast
Asia such as Indonesia, Malaysia, Brunei and the Patani of southern Thailand. They are
composed of eleven ethnic groups. Each group has its own language but only a few
controls a political unit like a province or municipalities. Some groups speak one
language with three variations like the Maranao, Iranun and Maguindanaon. The Sama
people have one language with many variation such as the dialect of the Jama Mapun,
and the Bangingi.
1. The Maranao. Literally, Maranao means people of the lake. Their homeland is
called Lanao which means lake. Their oldest settlement started around here, and up to
this day, highly populated communities still dot the lake. Their language is similar to
Maguindanaon and Iranun. One shall be confused as to which of them owns the mother
tongue since the Maranao and Iranun can understand 60% of the Maguindanaon
language. At any rate , these groups live in proximity. Continuous contact allows them
to develop or share a common practice including language.
The Maranao are concentrated in Lanao area. They occupy the most strategic
place in Mindanao owing to their access to Iligan bay in the north and Illana bay in the
south. During the colonial period, they fought against the Spaniards, usually under the
flag of the Maguindanao sultanate. Like other Muslim ethnic groups, the Maranao are
brave and have offered sacrifice in defense of their homeland and Islam. Throughout
the colonial period, Lanao was united as one province of the Maguindanao sultanate.
Seeing the importance of Lanao, the American colonial government in Manila
encouraged landless Filipinos to migrate to Mindanao. Most settlers targeted Lanao as
their final destination. After about 50 years, the Filipino settlers became established in
the area north of Lanao. This eventually led to the division of Lanao into Del Norte and
Del Sur beginning 1960s.
Lanao is a land rich in literature. Darangan is an example of this. The existence of
darangan attests to the level of civilization that the Maranao have achieved at one
point.
Potential resources like lake and agricultural land are more than enough to support
to make the goal of darangan into reality. The lake in the heart of Lanao Del Sur is the
biggest lake in the Philippines. It is so far the current source of energy supply – at least
supplying around 80% power grid of the whole Mindanao.
The Mindanao State University is located at Lanao’s capital, Marawi City. Most
leaders in Mindanao are in fact products of the MSU. Sixty percent of its best
professors are Christians Filipinos.
Maranao society is a closed society. The entire municipalities of Lanao Del Sur,
particularly at the vicinity of the lake are off limits to outsiders. The lifestyle of the
people are in their traditional attire, the malong and the abaya. This is the only place in
the Philippines whose lifestyle is not affected with the western trend. The Maranao
contact to the outside comes through Iligan City and Malabang. Iligan City is 40
minutes ride from Marawi City. Malabang a coastal town of Lanao Del Sur requires more
than one hour to reach. Under a long range plan of Christian movement in Mindanao,
the Christians would penetrate the heart of Lanao from three areas – from Iligan in the
north, Malabang in the south and Wao from the east. They in fact controlled these
areas for long time already.
2. The Maguindanao. Originally, Maguindanaon is the name of the family or
dynasty which came to rule almost the whole island of Mindanao, particularly the
former Cotabato. It later refers to the Muslim people who live in the Pulangi valley
which sprawls the Southwestern part of Mindanao. It is for this reason, the
Maguindanaon are called people of the plain. They accepted Islam at the last quarter of
15th century. Total Islamization of the whole Pulangi area succeeded only with the
arrival of Sharif Kabungsuan a prince from Johore who came to Mindanao after the fall
of Malacca and nearby areas to Dutch colonialists in 1511.
The greatest contribution of the Maguindanao to civilization in Southeast Asia were
the sultanates of Maguindanao and Buayan. These sultanates rose almost
simultaneously after the arrival of Sharif kabungsuan who founded the first sultanate in
Mindanao. During its heyday, the sultanate of Maguindanao did bring the whole
mainland of Mindanao under its control. It became the instrument of the Muslims in
Mindanao in thwarting the western colonialism.
The Cotabato had been the seat of the Maguindanao sultanate. This is the
ancestral land of the Maguindanao including the hill ethnic group such as the Tiruray,
Tasaday and Subanun. Because of its wide valley, Cotabato area has ever since the rice
ganary of the country. The colonialists had ever since been attracted to the fertile land
of Cotabato. Many times, the Spaniards made Cotabato as capital of Mindanao during
their military occupation. This colonial plan, however succeeded only during the
American period. It was able to organize the first Filipino settlement in 1912.
The Maguindanao are the hardest hit of the Filipino settlement. Their political
power diminished after long period of fighting and resisting colonialism and
Christianization, particularly at the beginning of the 20th century. The Maguindanao
fought alone without foreign support during this period. However, by 1970s, three-
fourth of their homeland were lost to Filipino settlers, mostly Ilongo and Cebuano. The
Manila government created in the area the five provinces of Maguindanao, Cotabato,
South Cotabato, Sultan Qudarat and Sarangani.
3. The Iranun. These people have inhabited the area bordering between Lanao del
Sur and Maguindanao province. They claimed to be the origin of these two ethnic
groups. The language of the Maranao and Maguindanao is strongly rooted in the Iranun
tongue. The Iranun may perhaps be the mother language and the rest are just a mere
dialects. For several centuries, the Iranun formed part of the Maguindanao sultanate.
Their culture received much influence from the Maguindanao rather than the Maranao.
There was a case in the past the seat of the Maguindanao sultanate was situated at
Lamitan and Malabang that were the strongholds of the Iranun society. They fought the
western invaders under the flag of the Maguindanao sultanate. The Iranun were
excellent in maritime activity. They used to ply the route connecting the Sulu sea, Moro
gulf to Celebes sea, and raided the Spanish held territories along the way.
 The Iranun have also attained a degree of social organization comparable to the
Maguindanao or the Tausug. This is evidenced by the datu system of leadership where
a single leadership is recognized. An Iranun datu, like a sultan, wielded central power
over his people. On account of their small population, the Iranuns have been
overpowered by their neighbor and prevented them from having their own sultanate.
Yet ethnic consciousness has been strong as the Iranun continued to preserve their
own ways of life and even to chart their own political destiny. Like other Muslim groups,
the Iranuns are also advanced in the field of education. They actively participate in local
development; their professionals have managed to occupy key positions in the
government, run their own business entities and Islamic institutions like masjid and
madrasa.
4. The Tausug. Prof. Muhammad Nasser Matli argued that the term Tausug is a
slang word and originated from two words: tau (people) and ma-isug (brave).
Therefore, Tausug means brave people.
Before the coming of Islam, the Tausug had already established a central
government. When Islam came, Tausug leaders accepted Islam. They did not resist. As
soon as they became Muslims they made themselves models by infusing Islamic values
and politics to the government. The result was the spread of justice in the land. Seeing
the beauty of Muslim leadership, the entire natives finally accepted Islam. The peaceful
triumph of Islam in Sulu in the middle of the 13th century led to the Islamization of local
politics. This was the process that brought about the establishment of the Sulu
sultanate in 1450. Many Tausug leaders were sent outside Sulu to further strengthen
the Sulu sultanate influence. This was the origin of the growth of Tausug communities
in Tawi-Tawi, Palawan, Basilan, Zamboanga, and Sabah. Up to this period, these places
are still the favorite destination of Tausug migrants who have been displaced by the
wars and conflicts between the Muslims and the Philippine government.
5. The Yakan. The term Yakan is a mispronunciation of the word yakal by the
Spaniards. While the term Basilan has originated from two words basi (iron) and balani
(magnate). In the ancient time Basilan was thickly covered by the yakal trees. Foreign
people often mistook the name of the yakal trees as the native identity. During colonial
period the Spaniards branded the inhabitants of Basilan as Yakan, and became carried
up to the present.
Like other Muslim provinces, Basilan has been the target of Christian penetration
since the Spanish era. Her rich resources like timber and fertile agricultural land as well
as her geographical proximity to Zamboanga City has made her vulnerable to present
capitalist exploitation and Christian domination. There have been already a number of
municipalities where the Filipino settlers have the upper hand. Isabela, Maluso, Lamitan
and other communities have an overwhelming Christian population. And their
population growth and community expansion are kept on continuing. Vast tract of lands
which are strategic are mostly owned by the Filipino settlers. There are many areas
where the Yakans become minoritized, and further displaced from their own lands. In
the areas where they are already minoritized the Yakans are exposed to
marginalization. In politics, there are many instances in the past, top leadership fell into
the hands of the outside people.
The culture of the Yakans is similar to the Tausugs. Its inner foundation lies on the
spirit of martabat. For the outer side, religious institution like masjid and madrasa,
artifacts and the vast number of Yakan professionals, ulema, politicians and fighters
reinforced further the strength of the Yakan culture. These two foundations are firmly
planted in the heart of the Yakans. This is their real strength. The challenge of the
Yakans today is to steer their young generation to assert their rights and develop
confidence in their both material and non-material culture.
6. The Sama. The Sama identity derived from the term sama-sama which means
togetherness or collective effort. The Sama people are highly dispersed and scattered in
the Sulu Archipelago. They are geographically diversified owing to their exposure to
maritime activities and fishing. There are five sub-clusters that make up the Sama
people. Helping each other is recognized as norm of the Sama people. Included in the
Sama group are the Badjao known as the sea-gypsies of Sulu Archipelago and Celebes
sea. The Badjao people call themselves Sama Laut. In Malaysia, they are called Orang
Laut. All these descriptions point to them as being boat people. They always move from
one island to another, living in their small boat for weeks or even months without
mooring or coming to town to buy their needs. The Badjao do not establish a
permanent community like the Arab and the Cossacks in central Asia. They have not
able to develop a political institution that can advance their collective interest of their
society. Their social organization do not approach even the level of a clan, in a sense,
because they have no recognized community leader. Their social structure is leveled.
Rich people or elitism is completely absent in Badjao society. All of them belong to the
poor strata. Family structure is the only factor that makes the Badjao society possible.
Roles and duties are allocated to every member from the parents down to their
children, from the adult to the young ones. The father acts as leader; the mother is
responsible for cooking; children collect fire woods in the coastal areas, and helps
gather sea food and fetch water. As observed, the whole Badjao family constitutes also
the economic unit, which means, all of them have to work together (sama-sama) for
their survival.
Poverty and backwardness are the two basic factors that keeps every Badjao
family from sending their children to school. Children are needed at home or must
accompany their parents in search of their daily sustenance. This is the reason the
Badjao society suffers a high illiteracy rate. Less than one percent can read the Qur’an
or Roman alphabet. Their present condition has deteriorated. They are highly exposed
to the oppression of Tausug warlords. They are often exploited in some economic
activities. Minimal reward or compensation are given for their labor, and low price for
their commodities, like lobsters and fish.
The Sama people who inhabited Tawi-Tawi are called by their place of residence.
Thus, there is the Sama Balimbing, Sama Simunul or Sama Sibutu. These groups claim
to be the origin of all Sama sub-groups scattered throughout the Sulu Archipelago.
They inhabited most major islands of Tawi-Tawi. While in the mainland the Sama
concentration is confined to Balimbing and Sapa-Sapa. These people have a high level
of literacy rate compared to other Sama sub-group. Almost every Sama barangay in the
mainland has a public school. Higher institutional learning is also available such as the
MSU-Tawi-Tawi and the Tawi-Tawi Regional Agricultural College (TRAC). Most top
government positions are held by Sama. Like the Tausugs, the Sama are exposed to
almost all fields of discipline and it is common to find them in national agencies
occupying key positions.
The Sama Bangingi are also considered major group within the Sama ethnic group.
Their dialect is just a variation of the Sama language. Geographical distance being
separated from other Sama groups by seas has caused the variation of their dialect
from their mother tongue. But, generally all Sama people understand each other. The
Bangingi have a well-developed social organization comparable to the Tausugs. Back to
the sultanate period each Bangingi community had its own panglima and maharajah as
the highest and influential people in their society. The tip of Zamboanga peninsula, Pilas
and Tungkil island were once dominated and ruled by the Bangingi leaders. They had
four strong Kuta at Zamboanga before the Spaniards occupied it. The latter took several
weeks before they were able to dislodge the Bangingi from their strongholds. The
Bangingi were good sailors. They were the first group in this country to reach Bengal
bay and explore the Indian ocean. They discovered the connection of Sulu sea , the
straits of Malacca and the Indian ocean. Most of the sultanate expeditions to Visayas
and Luzon were commanded by the Bangingi warriors.
The Bangingi unlike the Badjao are highly exposed to the Filipino society and its
institution. Majority of them has studied in the Filipino school, and managed to occupy
key positions in the government. Unfortunately, they failed to build their own
institutions like school, political parties and businesses that are capable of effecting
social changes in the society. There are only individual initiatives. The Bangingi remain
far from collective social progress.
Jama Mapun are another Sama sub-group. They call their dialect as pullun mapun
which is part of the Sama language. The term mapun stands for west. They call
themselves as Jama Mapun because they are situated at the distant west of Sulu. They
are concentrated largely at the Turtle island, Cagayan de Tawi-Tawi an island
municipality located at the border adjacent to Sabah. They are also found in southern
Palawan. Like the Bangingi, the Jama Mapun adopted permanent settlement, hence
they have a clear-cut social organization where the panglima is recognized as top
community leader. During the Sulu sultanate period, Jama Mapun used to be of a
military strategic importance to the sultanate. It used to be the sultanate’s launching
base to secure the unquestioning loyalty of the panglima of Sabah and Palawan.
The whole Cagayan de Tawi-Tawi is recognized as local government unit, a
municipality under the province of Tawi-Tawi. With this the Jama Mapun have been
subjected to central control from Manila since the days of the Philippine Commonwealth
government in 1936. Government school and agencies were put up there and placed
under the control of the local people. The island is seen as strategic place for the AFP
forward force, because it is situated in the middle of the Sulu sea and South China sea,
and adjacent to Sabah. The government built airports, which the military can use for
advance troop movements in the Sulu sea.
7. The Sangil. The Sangil came from Sangihe an archipelago sprawling the
Celebes sea just south of the Mindanao sea. Their migration to Sarangani province and
to the coastal areas of Davao del Sur and South Cotabato was ahead of the coming of
Islam to Southeast Asia. They embraced Islam later as a result of their continuous
contact with their motherland, which became Islamized, as well as with the emerging
Muslim communities in Maguindanao and Sulu in the 14th century.
The Sangil speak a language similar to Bahasa, and in the Philippines, to Tausug.
They also evolved their own social organization associated with central leadership,
which enabled them to wage battle against the Dutch and Spanish colonialism. There
were many instances the Sangil allied themselves to the Maguindanao sultanate. They
used to contribute war paraws, fighters and arms in major expeditions to Spanish held-
territories. The Sangil have also high political and Islamic consciousness. They are
active in their struggle for self-determination as part of their strategy to have their
culture and social institutions preserved and developed further. They succeeded at last.
In 1992, the Sarangani province was born intended to contain the clamor of the Sangil.
8. The Kaagan. The Kaagan inhabited mostly Davao areas. They became Muslims
as a result of contact with the Maguindanao sultanate, and later strengthened with the
arrival of some Tausug groups who helped to organize the Kaagan society. No
wonder the Kaagan language has many bahasa sug root words. With the departure of
the Tausug and Maguindanao influences at the height of the Filipinization process. Most
of them have been marginalized and were helpless to improve their society because
their social organization did not improve as those in Lanao and Sulu.
9. The Kolibugan. The term kolibugan is a Sama word which means “half-breed”.
Originally, they are part of the Subanun ethnic group, an indigenous people inhabiting
the interior of the Zamboanga peninsula. Their neighbors, particularly the Sama
Bangingi and the Tausugs called these Islamized Subanun as Kolibugan because their
culture has been altered by their Muslim neighbors and for years there has
been intermarriage with other groups that produced new generations, hence they are
called Kolibugan. These people still speak the Subanun language and retain the
Subanun type of social organization, which is limited to clan orientation with less
political inclination. Today, the term Kolibugan is applied to all Subanun who moved to
coastal areas and intermarried with the Muslims, and finally embraced Islam.
10. The Palawan. The early Muslim inhabitants in mainland Palawan were
the Panimusan. These people became Muslims as a result of close contact with the Sulu
Sultanate. Many Tausug during the sultanate period came to Palawan in order to
introduce Islam to the local people. The Muslim concentration is mostly in the southern
part of Palawan such as Batarasa, Rizal, Quezon, Brooke’s Point and Espanola. In these
municipalities the Muslims are likely dominant and hold political power. Isolated Muslim
communities are also found in Narra, Roxas, Taytay and Aborlan.
Since the collapse of the Sulu sultanate, contact between the Palawani and the
Tausugs was almost lost. They have been isolated to each other as there is no direct
trade or cultural link between the two people.
11. The Molbog. The Molbog are mainly confined in the Balabac islands located at
the southern tip of Palawan. They received Islamic influence and later embraced Islam
from Brunei Muslim missionaries. The propagation of Islam was active during the
15th century when Muslim principalities rose from the eastern side of the Malay
peninsula and Borneo. At this period, the Brunei sultanate was expanding its influence
to the Philippines and Palawan is not far from Brunei. The Sulu sultanate also helped to
strengthen Islam among the Molbog.
Historical Gap
Historical gap is a period between two or more events keeping the new generation
detached from the old ones. The new generation can no longer determine the culture of
the past, and eventually may chart its own course different from their predecessors.
This is the case with the two periods of the Bangsamoro history: the sultanate era, the
US colonial period up to the present. The US era in the Philippines brought historical
gap distancing the sultanate era from the present. The culture of the people underwent
transformation in 50 years time under US rule. 50 years thereafter, the people
developed a new culture which is no longer the same orientation as what was then. The
conventional approach to this problem of historical gap is the reliance of the historians
on the study of artifacts, the root of civilization, and the life of the leaders in order to
move their mind centuries back.
By nature, jihad requires collective action or sufficient participation from the
Muslims preferably to be led by the government under a righteous imam. This is the
meaning of jihad to be known as fardhu kifaya. There must be a group of Muslims if not
the entire masses who shall carry out the jihad fi sabilillah. Failure to carry jihad will
make the whole community or state in a state of sin. But if there is a section of Muslim
population that rises up for jihad, the entire Muslims become free from sin. Jihad
becomes fardhu ‘ayn or individual obligation when the enemy sets a camp for about
300 kilometers from the population center of the Muslims. This is the opinion of Imam
Shafie. Clearly, jihad is the main factor that kept the Bangsamoro society in the face of
western onslaught. Jihad as fardhu ‘ayn sustains the continuity of the jihad up to the
present.
Islam in the Philippines
The rise of Islamic political institutions in Southeast Asia in the early 15th century is
viewed as the culmination of Islamization after about 200 years when the
Arabs introduced Islam direct to the masses. This political development was a turning
point in the history of the people because it revealed two important things: the
formation of the Muslim nationalism and the birth of the first Muslim society in this
country. Islam for this matter changed the political course of Mindanao and Sulu from
the feudalistic as well as from colonialistic. The survival of Islam as ideological force in
the south is an indication that their political course remained in the Islamic orbit.
Sulu was the first Muslim community in the south to establish a centralized
government, the Sultanate of Sulu in 1450. The introduction of this sultanate implies
that the indigenous institution became Islamized. This sultanate was a superstructure
imposed without destroying the old foundation. This was one of the reasons that
made the Sulu Sultanate strong. Hashim Abubakar was the founder and the first sultan
of the Sulu sultanate. His father was an Arab from Hadramaut; his mother was a
princess from Johore. According to the Tausug salsila, Abubakar belongs to a sharif
lineage, which is one of the descendants of Nabi Muhammad (S,.A.W.). The term sharif
is a title of nobility. When Abubakar rose to power, he assumed five titles affixed to his
name, thus his official name runs as follows: paduka, mawlana, mahasiri, sharif sultan
Hashim Abubakar.
The Sulu sultanate is multi-ethnic. At the height of its power in the early part of
the 18th century, its territory encompassed the whole Zamboanga peninsula, Basilan,
Sulu, Tawi-Tawi, Palawan and Sabah. On the same period, the sultanate began to
intensify its foreign relations with neighboring Muslim principalities in Brunei, Makassar,
Manila, Cebu (before Spanish era), Maguindanao, Buayan and Batavia including China.
This foreign relations of the Sulu sultanate involved trade, mutual friendship and
military alliance. The sultanate had in fact dispatched ambassadors to different places
and also received ambassadors from other countries.
Dr. Majul describes the history of the Sulu sultanate as had been one of war. Since
1578 up to the 1927, the Sulu sultanate was at the forefront of the struggle for
freedom and national liberation. It was able to survive two major colonial waves: the
Spanish and the US colonialism. Despite its political decline in the beginning of the
19thcentury, the Sulu sultanate maintained her status as independent sultanate from
1450 to 1936.
 The spread of Islam to Mindanao between 1450 and 1500 was part of the political
goal of the Sulu sultanate. A Maranao oral report revealed that the first Tausug
preachers reached the Lanao lake before the arrival of foreign Muslim missionaries,
possibly the Malay preachers. This report is sufficient to establish the fact the Muslim
settlements had gradually thrived in the Illana bay up to the lake area and the Pulangi
valley. People from these areas were already used to come to Jolo for trade as well as
for Islamic learning. It is for this account that Sulu became known in history as the
center of Islamic learning in this country.
The full Islamization of the west coast of Mindanao was accelerated with the
arrival of Muhammad Sharif Kabungsuwan. Like Abubakar, the first sultan of Sulu,
Sharif Kabungsuwan is also an Arab and a descendant of Nabi Muhammad (S.A.W.). His
Malay sounding name attests his forefathers had settled long time in Johore.
Kabungsuwan and his followers arrived Malabang in 1515. He was accompanied by
large group of Sama people who according to Dr. Kurais, a Sama scholar Kabungsuwan
had passed by Tawi-Tawi and picked up some Sama people to accompany him in his
journey to Mindanao. This means that the coming of Kabungsuwan to Mindanao was
not accidental. It was the Sama people who guided him to Mindanao. During this
period, inter-island contact was already in place. Both the Sama and the Iranun had
already explored the many sea routes in the Sulu archipelago.
It was not long after his arrival that Sharif kabungsuwan established the Sultanate
of Maguindanao, possibly in 1516. The rise of this sultanate is almost similar to that of
Sulu, should be viewed as the culmination of Islamization in Mindanao. It was actually a
political necessity. Clearly, the sultanate was adopted as an instrument to consolidate
the emerging Muslim communities.
The first seat of the political power of Maguindanao was Slangan and
Maguindanao. Originally, these areas were the bastions of Iranun political activities.
When the sultanate passed into the Maguindanao family and dynasty, the seat of power
was moved to Pulangi valley. The term Maguindanao actually referred to a family. It
was the royal family with which Sharif Kabungsuwan was linked through affinity. Since
Maguindanao family became a symbol of Muslim power in Mindanao, their name
became the official designation of Muslims throughout the Pulangi valley.
In the upper Pulangi valley the ruling datus were the Buayan family. Because of
their influence, the whole areas were called Buayan. The political institution of the
Buayans became Islamized as a result of the marriage of the Buayan prince to the
daughter of Sultan Sharif Muhammad Kabungsuwan. After the death of Kabungsuwan,
the Buayan family founded the Sultanate of Buayan as independent entity from the
Maguindanao sultanate. The existence of two sultanates in mainland Mindanao
strengthened Islam but often the source of friction between the Buayan group and the
Maguindanao. In lull times, these sultanates fought each other for political supremacy
over Mindanao. They also fought together against their common enemy in the face of
foreign aggression.
One of the best Maguindanao rulers was Rajah Buisan who was the leading
commander during the third stage of the Moro wars. He was remembered for his
famous speech at Dulag, Leyte where he delivered his message inspiring the datus of
Leyte to rise against the Spaniards. In his battle against the Spaniards, he aligned
himself with Rajah Sirungan the ruler of the Buayan sultanate. Both leaders had for
several times joined forces in their expedition to the north. The Buayan leaders
managed to gain supremacy in the Pulangi valley only after the death of Rajah Buisan.
The latter was succeeded by his son Sultan Qudarat. During his ascension to power,
Qudarat was too young. It was for this reason the Maguindanao sultanate became
overwhelmed. It took more than ten years for Sultan Qudarat to build his political
power over the whole of Mindanao. He is remembered for his political prowess in
uniting the two sultanates and the rest of the people in Mindanao under his strong
leadership. Sultan Qudarat is also remembered for his famous speech challenging the
Maranao datus to oppose the Spanish encroachment in Lanao lake.
The political hold of the Maguindanao sultanate over Mindanao however did not
last long. Dynastic quarrels often broke out among the Muslim leaders. In the later part
of the 18th century, the Maguindanao sultanate loosened its hold upon the Buayan
(Majul, 1997:31). Its steady decline continued up to the arrival of the American
colonialists in 1900. This decline created a vacuum of leadership and finally led to the
rise of small principalities in Mindanao, while others proclaimed their own sultanates as
in the case of the 18 royal houses in Lanao area. The rise of Lanao royal houses in the
face of the decline of the Maguindanao sultanate signaled the disintegration and break-
up of asabiyah (tribal solidarity) among the Muslims in mainland Mindanao.
The current continued political assertion of the Maranao people should beviewed
from the political development on the part of their society, which began to evolve as a
political institution towards the later part of the 18th century. This development did not
move further.The struggle of Amai Pakpak, a great Maranao fighter, was short-lived.
While building his own political clout, he suffered defeat in the hands of the Spanish
invading forces in March 10, 1895. His dream of a strong political organization was not
realized and was further arrested with the introduction of US imperialism in 1900.
Although the Lanao royal houses still exist, they are no longer viewed as political force
of the society.
Muslims’ Contribution to National Struggle
The Muslim resistance in the Philippines is viewed as an extension of the crusade,
only the fight was no longer between the Europeans and the Arabs but between the
Spaniards and the Moros. Dr. Cesar Adib Majul described this resistance as the Moro
wars. In his analysis Majul divided the Moro wars into six stages. The first phase of this
war began with the arrival of Legaspi who led the invasion of Muslim settlement in
Manila under Rajah Sulayman in 1571. It ended with the invasion of Brunei in order to
destroy its sphere of influence in the northern part of the Philippines, and also to isolate
the Sulu sultanate in the south. Before the hostilities began, the Spanish general
Francisco de Sande sent a letter first to the Brunei sultan. The important part of the
letter was that the Brunei sultanate has to stop the sending of Muslim missionaries to
any place in the Philippines. This letter could be a concrete evidence revealing the
bottom line of the Spanish colonialism – Christianization and imperial conquest of the
whole Southeast Asia.
With the Spanish victory in Luzon and also in the Brunei expedition, the Spaniards
moved to the second phase of their colonial ambition – the need to make vassals of the
chiefs of Sulu and Maguindanao. In June 1578, the Spaniards explored the Sulu
Archipelago and even threatened to attack Sulu. They did not however stay for long,
and withdrew after a compromise negotiation was reached with the Sulu leaders. From
here, the Spaniards proceeded to Maguindanao but failed to establish contact with the
Muslim leaders. The following year the Spaniards under Capt. Gabriel de Rivera
conducted another military mission to the Cotabato area. Their main intentions were to
make the Muslims pay tribute; induce them not to allow foreign missionaries; inform
the Maguindanao about the Spanish victory in Brunei, gather information about the
Muslims and their strength and to know the relationship between the Maguindanao and
the Ternatans and other people in Indonesia.
Since this second expedition, the Spaniards had been focusing their goal on the
conquest of Mindanao and Sulu. After eleven years, in 1591 the Spaniards went through
with their military expedition to Maguindanao the seat of Muslim power in Mindanao.
They assumed that once Mindanao is toppled it would be easier to extend their
influence to Sulu and Brunei. The Spaniards, however, found a fierce armed Muslim
resistance. It took them five years to finally establish military garrison at Tampakan in
1596. But this too was short-lived. The Maguindanao applied more armed pressure by
carrying out a series of offensives against the Spanish fort at Tampakan. Seeing the
Muslims had the political power to oppose, the Spaniards abandoned Tampakan in 1597
and repositioned themselves at La Caldera in Zamboanga peninsula.
In the third stage of the Moro war, the Muslims changed their military strategy
from defensive to offensive. They now brought the war to the enemy’s territory. In
1599, Datu Salikula and Datu Sirungan the chiefs of Maguindanao and Buayan
respectively launched a joint force attacking a major Spanish base in central Visayas.
They were able to mobilize 3,000 warriors with 50 paraws. In 1602, another offensive
was carried out by the Muslims and this was so far the biggest offensive ever
organized. The Muslims gathered 145 paraws – 50 vessels manned by the Ternatans,
Sangil and Tagolanda; 60 by the Maguindanao and 35 by the Yakans of Basilan. These
forces were commanded by Datu Buisan, the successor of Datu Salikula, and Datu
Sirungan. Because the Spaniards were too weak to attack Maguindanao, they instead
attacked the Sulu sultanate. They thought that Sulu was easy to defeat. They laid siege
to Jolo for three months but the sultanate forces were able to repulse them.
When the news reached the Maguindanao on October 29, 1603, Rajah Buisan
together with his allies from Sangil and Ternate led another invasion of Central Visayas.
They invaded Dulag, Leyte a place where Rajah Buisan delivered his historic speech
calling the Leyte Datus to fight the Spaniards. Aware of the political implication of
Buisan’s speech as well as the continuous surge of Muslim raids in Visayas, the
Spaniards opted for good relationship. They sent a special envoy for peace
negotiations. This peaceful overture of the Spaniards led to the signing of peace treaty
on September 8, 1605. This treaty, however, did not hold for long because of the
Spanish invasion of Ternate in April 1608. The Maguindanao chief construed this action
as violation of the treaty. He ordered, therefore, the resumption of military raid of
Spanish garrison in Central Visayas. This in turn forced the Spaniards to sign another
peace treaty in March 1609. This treaty put the war to rest for at least 25 years.
The war resumed between the Spaniards and the Muslims in 1627 but by this time
the war was now with the Sulu sultanate. This was triggered by a maltreatment
suffered by Sulu envoy, Datu Ache. On his way home from Manila, his ships were
intercepted by the Spaniards, and all of them were brought back to Manila and
humiliated. This incident angered the sultanate leadership. Rajah Bungsu the sultan of
Sulu led 2,000 warriors, and attacked the Spanish base and ship yard in Camarines Sur
and Central Visayas.
In 1628, the Spaniards retaliated against this Sulu attack. They organized an
expedition composed of 200 Spanish officers and 1,600 native allies. They were able to
defeat the Sulu forces, but withdrew immediately for fear of a counter-attack. Despite
this setback, the Sulu sultanate still managed to send another expedition in 1629. By
this time the Sulu forces were now commanded by Datu Ache. They attacked the
Spanish settlements in Camarines, Samar, Leyte and Bohol. The Spaniards, likewise,
invaded Sulu again in March 17, 1630. They almost doubled their forces from 1,600 to
2,500. But at the time they landed in Sulu, the sultanate forces were slready highly
prepared for battle. In the ensuing war, the Spanish commander Lorenzo de Olaso was
wounded, which prompted his forces to withdraw. The following year 1631, the Sulu
warriors launched another invasion aimed at Leyte, the seat of Spanish power in
Visayas.
In Maguindanao, Sultan Qudarat continued to consolidate his power throughout
Mindanao in preparation for new invasions. The Buayan and the Sangil leaders were
brought under his control. He also established contact with the Sulu sultante. In order
to concretize this contact, Sultan Qudarat made a marriage alliance by marrying the
daughter of Rajah Bungsu, the sultan of Sulu in 1632. This paved the political alliance
between the two sultanates of Mindanao and Sulu. These two sultanates mustered a
coordinated military attack and joint invasion of Central Visayas. Their first joint
invasion was in 1634 when they mobilized 1,500 warriors who landed at Dapitan, Leyte
and Bohol.
The challenge now before the Spanish colonial regime in Manila was how to stop
the Muslim invasion of its held-territories. After drawing lessons on the military behavior
of the Muslims, the Spaniards changed their approach by establishing a forward force at
the enemy’s territory so that the war’s trend could be reversed. This was the focus of
the fourth stage of the Moro wars. The Spaniards captured Zamboanga and established
a military base on April 6, 1635. This lasted for 29 years until the Sulu warriors drove
them out of their stronghold. This was so far one of the greatest achievements of Rajah
Bungsu, the sultan of Sulu at this period.
This Spanish base at Zamboanga became the lunching pad for attacking Muslim
settlements as well as the sultanate’s capital of Jolo and Lamitan in the Maguindanao
area. Lamitan the seat of the Maguindanao sultanate was captured by the Spaniards on
March 13, 1637. Qudarat’s forces of about 2,000 suffered defeat and was forced to
move to the interior. Seventy-two Muslims were decapitated and the Spaniards put their
heads on spikes for display (Majul, 1996:135). The Spaniards did this to instill fear. But
two years later, in 1639, Sultan Qudarat re-established his forces and held his court at
Pulangi. In Sulu, the Spanish attack continued until Jolo, the sultanate capital fell after a
three-month battle in January 1, 1638. This was the period when the Spaniards
occupied Jolo and the sultanate court was moved to Dungun, Tawi-Tawi. The sultanate
reorganized its forces and even secured the support of the Dutch in Batavia, Indonesia.
On March 25, 1644, Rajah Bungsu dispatched his son, Pangiran Salikala for this
purpose. Having prepared the logistics, the sultanate ordered a final offensive against
the Spaniards with the Dutch navy which bombarded the Spanish garrison at Jolo. After
about a year of military confrontation, the Spaniards opted to stop the war and signed a
peace treaty and evacuated all their forces from Zamboanga to Manila because of
an impending Chinese attack of Manila.
The 5th stage of the Moro war commenced in 1718 when the Spaniards reoccupied
Zamboanga. A huge military base known as Fort Pillar was built, and thus provoked the
Sultanate of Sulu. Immediate reprisal was made but this failed to dislodge the
Spaniards. The Sulu sultanate under Sultan Badar-uddin asked the support of
Maguindanao sultanate and the Dutch at Batavia. Sultan Badar-uddin sent his Datu
Bandahara and the Nakhuda to Batavia in order to appeal for military assistance as well
as to strengthen the relationship which was established in 1644. Finally, the Sulu
sultanate and the Maguindanao sultanate agreed to field 104 paraws with combined
force of 3,000 warriors who made a new offensive on Zamboanga at the end of
December 1720. This offensive however did not succeed. But, the Sulu sultanate was
still firm in its struggle to push out the Spaniards from Zamboanga. Both powers
adopted a mixed policy of diplomacy and military. This showed that neither of them can
be easily extinguished. It was through exchanges of envoys, despite the existence of
war, that a peace treaty was signed in December 11, 1726 between the Sulu sultanate
and the Spanish colonial government in Manila.
Duringt this period, the Sulu sultanate expanded its foreign relations to China.
Sultan Badar-uddin sent ambassador to China in 1717; and again in 1733. The objective
of China policy is to inform the Chinese leaders about the long war between Sulu and
Manila. The sultanate wanted to enlist the military support of the Chinese government.
It probably secured some help. The peace treaty deteriorated when Sultan Badar-uddin
attempted to capture Zamboanga in December 6, 1734 while some Sulu warriors
attacked Taytay in northern Palawan. In response, the Spaniards invaded Jolo in 1735
and drove out the sultanate court for second time, which then transferred to Dungun,
Tawi-Tawi. The war came to stop when the two powers signed another peace treaty in
February 1, 1737.
While the power of the Sulu sultanate and Maguindanao approached a steady
decline, the military power of the Spaniards grew faster when the steam boat was
introduced to the Spanish naval force. The Muslim fleets were no longer a match with
the Spanish modern fleets. The Spaniards had already foreseen a major invasion when
the right time comes.They assured themselves that the final conquest of Mindanao and
Sulu is just a matter of time.
The 6th stage of the Moro war is the Spaniards’ dream of Mindanao conquest. It
commenced with the 1851 Spanish invasion of Sulu and ended towards the end of the
Spanish rule in the Philippines. As a matter of strategy the Sulu sultanate under Sultan
Pulalun upon realizing the invulnerability of the Spanish forces, negotiated a peace
treaty with the enemy. The treaty was signed in April 30, 1851. But just like other
treaties in the past, this treaty failed to hold peace for long. The Spaniards
had already calculated that the sultanates of Mindanao and Sulu were weak to resist
the Spanish conquest. In Manila, the Catholic hierarchy intensified its propaganda to
win the support of the people about the possible war in the south. Roman Martinez
Vigil a Spanish priest wrote the theory of a just war. He exhorted the war against Jolo
as a just war, a holy war in the name of Christianity. Rich people and Chinese capitalists
in Manila responded enthusiastically to this call. They were able to raise P 20 million for
the Spaniards.
Anchored on a just war principle, the Spaniards organized 9,000 troops led by
Governor-General Jose Malcampo. These troops were sent to Sulu accompanied with
hundreds of priests and sisters. They secured 11 transports, 11 gunboats, and 10
steamboats. They landed at Jolo in February 21, 1876. Aware of the Spaniards grand
design, the Sulu Sultan Jamalul Azam assembled his military leaders for discussion on
how to contain if not frustrate the Spanish invasion. The sultan proclaimed the jihad
and ordered the use of the concept of parrang sabil as last recourse. The wise plan of
the sultan was proven correct and effective. The sultanate managed to negotiate
another treaty in July 22, 1878, thus saved his people from further destruction.
 At the Mindanao front, the Spaniards were already successful in destroying the
power of the Maguindanao sultanate. The Maranao, Iranun and other ethnic groups
began to wield their respective powers independently. These people launched their own
wars separately. They parted from each other to the extent that the Maranao put up
their own sultanate since the Maguindanao sultanate could no longer exercise a central
rule over Mindanao. For centuries these Maranao people were overshadowed by the
Maguindanao. They fought wars against Spain under the flag of Maguindanao sultanate
or sometime under Sulu sultanate as in the case of the Iranun. One of the best wars led
by the Maranao was the heroic stand of Datu Amai Pakpak in defense of Marawi in
1891 and 1895. Generally, all Muslim ethnic groups in Mindanao and Sulu supported the
war against colonialism. They were the people behind the survival of the two sultanates
of Sulu and Maguindanao in the face of foreign aggression.
The Moro war actually did not end with the destruction of the Spanish colonialism
in the Philippines. The Spaniards left but the American colonial forces came in and
continued the same colonial goals under the pretext of civilizing the natives. Since the
orientation of the Moro war is the same as that of the Spanish time, the Moro-American
war should be viewed as the 7th stage of the Moro war. In Sulu despite the declining
power of the Sulu sultanate, the Tausug warriors who opposed the continued presence
of another white colonialists, waged a series of battles against the Americans. Panglima
Imam Hassan who held the post of district commander from Luuk, Sulu under the Sulu
sultanate was the first Tausug leader to defy the sultan’s order to work with the
Americans for common good. He could not be convinced with the overall mission of the
US colonialism in the country. As an Imam, Panglima Hassan looked at the presence of
the US forces a threat to Islam and the Muslim society. He instead proceeded with his
military plan leading his 3,000 warriors who fought the American forces in Jolo in early
November 1903. Armed only with kris and some rifles, these Tausug warriors attacked
the enemy’s garrison which was equipped with modern weapons. After a week of
siege, the enemy were finally able to break their lines and forced the panglima’s
followers to withdraw.
Despite his defeat, Hassan’s military action won wider sympathy from the masses.
He toured the island of Sulu promoting his cause inspiring the local leaders to resist the
US colonialism. Within a short period Hassan’s propaganda bore a positive effect upon
the Muslim masses. The Americans were portrayed as the enemy of Islam; that they
came to the Muslim land in order to continue the unfinished goal of the Spanish
colonialism. More so, the Muslims became apprehensive when the US forces hoisted
their flag in major centers and further required the Muslims to fly the US flag in their
ships. At the same time, they introduced a new land system in order to facilitate the
collection of land taxes from the Muslims. These policies invited antagonism from the
people.
In January 1906, three prominent Tausug leaders took a bold opposition to the
American policies and their occupation of the Muslim land. These were Imam Sahirun,
Ma’as Abdullatif, and Panglima Sawadjaan. These leaders assembled their 1,000
followers and put up their camp at Bud Dahu about six kilometers from Jolo, the capital
of Sulu. From here a small group was organized and sent to raid military outposts and
villages that tended to support the enemy. The Americans became apprehensive that
the growing opposition of the Tausug might go out of hand. At first, they sent civilian
negotiators to convince the defiant leaders to surrender to the US colonial government.
The negotiators attempted several time to convey the message of the Americans
officials but the defying leaders stood firmly with their stand of non-recognition of the
US colonial government. The Americans therefore decided to take Bud Dahu by force.
On March 6, 1906, Gen. Leonard Wood the governor of the Moro province, ordered
the assault of Bud Dahu. His forces were composed of 790 men and divided into three
groups; each group was charged to attack from only three narrow passages leading to
the camp of the Muslims. Using high powered guns, the US army stormed the Muslim
strongholds with mortar throughout the afternoon and gradually took a closer move in
the evening. The Muslims armed only with kris used an indigenous approach of warfare
by using logs rolled off from the top intended to hit the advancing US troops who tried
to approach the narrow passage from the slopes of the mountain. From the Muslim
accounts, a great number of US forces were killed as the logs fell down one after the
other from the mountain tops. The US army, however, succeeded in getting to the
mountain top. In the early morning of March 7, 1906, the US army fired upon the
Muslim camps at close range. The Muslims rushed in and fought decisively in the open
field. Only six survived who managed to retreat and report the news of what transpired
in the so called battle of Bud Dahu.
The cause of the Bud Dahu heroes did not end, however with their martyrdom.
Just months from the Bud Dahu battle, Ma’as Jikiri led a small group in attacking the
American military outposts. He fought for about three years until his martyrdom during
the fight against the US army in 1909. Ma’as Jikiri’s heroic stand inspired his
countrymen up to the present. He was the only Tausug leader who in the course of war
never retreated or ran away before the enemy even when outnumbered or
overwhelmed. Even the American army commended his valor. Ma’as Jikiri is the only
foreign enemy of the Americans whose statue now stands at the Washington museum.
The spirit of the war never subsided. It continued to unleash nationalistic fervor
until another major battle erupted – the battle of Bud Bagsak in 1913. Bud Bagsak is a
medium sized mountain and located about 50 kilometers east of Jolo. This battle was
led by Panglima Amil the leader of the 500 forces that holed up at Bud Bagsak. The war
began in June 9 and ended in June 14, 1913. All Muslim warriors met their martyrdom
in the five day battle against the well-equipped US army. Their defeat marked the end
of organized Muslim resistance during the first 10 years of the US colonialism in the
Philippines. The so called episode of “kris versus krag” came virtually to an end. There
were a few more minor battles, but never again did the Moros place a formidable force
in the field against the Americans. The Muslims fought a grand fight at Bud Bagsak
against superior weapons (Hurley,1985:30). This decline paved the way for the signing
of the Kiram-Carpenter Agreement in August 20, 1915 where the sovereignty of the
Sulu sultanate was taken over by the US colonial government. The collapse of the Sulu
sultanate, in turn, led to the integration of Mindanao and Sulu into the colonial politics.
Since then, the opposition of the Muslims in Mindanao and Sulu shifted from armed
confrontation to peaceful movement in the form of protest and demonstration. It took
about 14 years for the Tausug fighters led by Laksamana Usab to carry out armed
fighting when they fought the US army at the Bud Langkuwasan adjacent to Bud
Bagsak in 1927. Usab was appointed laksamana (runner) by the Sulu sultan. He parted
ways with the sultan because he did not want the US policy in the Muslim land. He took
the leadership for fighting the US colonialism. He called a summit meeting of Tausug
leaders at Likup, Indanan, Sulu in early 1927. In the meeting, all leaders agreed to
contribute fighters who come from different parts of Sulu and its islands. Usab’s
struggle culminated with the battle of Bud Langkuwasan where most of his forces
including himself embraced martyrdom.
Muslim Legacy
Just like other Muslim nations in Southeast Asia, national identity of the Philippine
Muslims was shaped by Islam and further developed in the course of their heroic
struggle against western colonialism. Right after the first encounter with foreign
aggressors in 1570 at Manila, the Philippine Muslims won a distinct honor as “Moro”, an
identity put forward by the aggressors after the Moors of Spain. They were called Moros
only on account of their Islamic ideology and their culture being similar to the Moors
who conquered Spain for 785 years. To the Spaniards, the term Moro would also mean
Muslim. Since then, the Muslims in this country have been identified in Southeast Asia
and across the Muslim world as the Bangsamoro people. This identity is officially
recognized by the Organization of Islamic Countries. This is the reference by which the
historians and government legislators recognized the official designation of the Muslims
in the country and is now enshrined in the Muslim Organic Act of 1989.
The history of the Bangsamoro people is no doubt ranked as the first line of
historical development of the Philippines. The Muslims’ sultanate institution, the
religious legacy of Islam and the Muslim adat have nurtured the doctrine of
Bangsamoro nationalism. The cohesiveness of the 11 Muslim groups under the spirit of
Islamic brotherhood is a living reality of Bangsamoro nationalism. This should form part
of the Philippines’ political foundation. It is within this context by which the struggle of
the Bangsamoro people finds a just treatment in Philippine history.

II. The Birth of Filipino Nationalism

A. Early Filipino Revolts
16th century
Dagami Revolt (1565–1567)
The Dagami Revolt' was a revolt led by the Dagami family on the island of Leyte in
1567.[1]
Lakandula and Sulayman Revolt (1574)
The Lakandula and Sulayman Revolt, also known as the Tagalog Revolt, was an
uprising in 1574 by Lakandula and Rajah Sulayman in Tondo, Manila. The revolt
occurred in the same year as the Chinese pirate Limahong attacked the palisaded yet
poorly defended enclosure of Intramuros. This revolt was caused by losing Soliman and
Lakandula's kingdom when they were defeated by Miguel Lopez de Legazpi to accept
the Spanish sovereignty on the promise that they would be well-treated by the
Spaniards and would still retain some of their royal and political powers. When Guido de
Lavezaris replaced Legaspi as Governor General of the Philippines, he revoked their
exemptions from paying tribute and confiscated their lands. Father Martin convinced
Lakandula and Soliman to abort the revolt and promised to grant their privileges.
Nevertheless, Soliman continued his revolt which was brutally crushed in 1574.
Pampanga Revolt (1585)
The Pampanga Revolt was an uprising in 1585 by some native Kapampanganleaders
who resented the Spanish landowners, or encomenderos who had deprived them of
their historical land inheritances as tribal chiefs or Datus. The revolt included a plot to
storm Intramuros, but the conspiracy was foiled before it could begin after a Filipino
woman married to a Spanish soldier reported the plot to the Spanish authorities.
Spanish and Filipino colonial troops were sent by Governor-General Santiago de Vera,
and the leaders of the revolt were arrested and summarily executed by Christian Cruz-
Herrera.
Conspiracy of the Maharlikas (1587–1588)
The Conspiracy of the Maharlikas, or the Tondo Conspiracy, of 1587–1588, was a plot
by the kin-related noblemen, or datus, of Manila and some towns
of Bulacan and Pampanga. It was led by Agustin de Legazpi, nephew of Lakandula,
and his first cousin, Martin Pangan. The datus swore to revolt. The uprising failed
when they were denounced to the Spanish authorities by Antonio Surabao (Susabau) of
Calamianes, in Palawan.[2]
Revolts Against the Tribute (1589)
The Cagayan and Dingras Revolts Against the Tribute occurred on Luzon in the
present-day provinces of Cagayan and Ilocos Norte in 1589. Ilocanos, Ibanags and
other Filipinos revolted against alleged abuses by the tax collectors, including the
collection of high taxes. It began when six tax collectors who had arrived
from Viganwere killed by the natives. Governor-General Santiago de Vera sent Spanish
and Filipino colonial troops to pacify the rebels. The rebels were eventually pardoned
and the Philippine tax system reformed.[3] [4]
Magalat Revolt (1596)
The Magalat Revolt was an uprising in 1596, led by Magalat, a rebel from Cagayan. He
had been arrested in Manila for inciting rebellion against the Spanish. He was later
released after some urging by some Dominican priests, and returned to Cagayan.
Together with his brother, he urged the entire country to revolt. He was said to have
committed atrocities against his fellow natives for refusing to rise up against the
Spaniards. He soon controlled the countryside, and the Spanish eventually found
themselves besieged. The Spanish Governor-General Francisco de Tello de Guzmán sent
Pedro de Chaves from Manila with Spanish and Filipino colonial troops. They fought
successfully against the rebels, and captured and executed several leaders under
Magalat. Magalat himself was assassinated within his fortified headquarters by his own
men.[5]
17th century
Igorot Revolt (1601)
By order of the Governor-General Francisco de Tello de Guzmán an expedition was sent
to the Cordillera region for religious conversion purposes with the aid of Padre Esteban
Marin. Marin, the curate of Ilocos at that time, tried initially to convince the Igorots to
convert peacefully to Catholicism. Marin allegedly even tried to create his own
dictionary in the Igorot language to advance this cause. The Igorots, however, killed
Marin and the Governor-General sent Captain Aranda with Spanish and Lumad foot
soldiers. The revolt was short-lived as Aranda made use of extreme measures and
executed them quickly to dispel the revolt in the Cordillera region.[6]
The Chinese Revolt of 1603
In 1603, at least 30,000 Chinese merchants were slaughtered and in Luzon Chinese
officials and civilians were killed without authority by what The Ming Shi-lu (明實錄,
Míng shílù) describes as the barbarian Spanish chieftain of Luzon during that time. The
surviving Chinese fled to Wawa, or what is now known as Guagua, this atrocity is
known in Chinese history as the Luzon Tragedy (吕宋惨案, Lǚ sòng cǎn àn). The
Chinese inhabitants of Manila set fire to Legarda and Binondo and for a time threatened
to capture the Moro stronghold in Intramuros.
Tamblot Revolt (1621–1622)
The Tamblot Revolt or the Tamblot Uprising, was a religious uprising in the island
of Bohol, led by Tamblot in 1621. The Jesuits first came to Bohol in 1596 and eventually
governed the island and converted the Boholanos to the Catholic faith. Tamblot, a
babaylan or native priest, urged his fellow Boholanos to return to the old belief of their
forefathers.[7] The revolt began on the day when the Jesuits were in Cebu, celebrating
the feast day of St. Francis Xavier. It was finally crushed on New Year's Day, in 1622.
Tamblot was executed and his head was severed on a pike to serve as a warning to the
populace.
Bankaw (Bancao) Revolt (1621–1622)
The Bankaw Revolt was a religious uprising against Spanish colonial rule led by
Bancao, the datu of Carigara, in the present-day Carigara in Leyte. Bankaw had warmly
received Miguel López de Legazpi as his guest, when he first arrived in the Philippines in
1565. Although baptized as a Catholic in his youth, he abandoned this faith in later
years. With a babaylan, or religious leader named Pagali, he built a temple for a diwata
or local goddess, and pressed six towns to rise up in revolt. Similar to the Tamblot
Uprising, Pagali used magic to attract followers, and claimed that they could turn the
Spaniards into clay by hurling bits of earth at them.
Governor-General Alonso Fajardo de Entenza sent the alcalde mayor of Cebu, Juan de
Alcarazo, with Spanish and foot soldier colonial troops, to suppress the rebellion.
Bankaw's severed head was impaled on a bamboo stake and displayed to the public as
a stern warning. One of his sons was also beheaded, and one of the babaylans was
burned at the stake. Three other followers were executed by firing squad which the
Spanish already possessed at that time. Other historical sources/accounts reports The
Bankaw Revolt as the first recorded uprising against foreign colonization. The (1621–
1622) dates may be inaccurate. Carigara was known only a decade after Magellan
landed in Limasawa in 1521. The uprising may well have taken place towards the end
of the 16th century.
Itneg Revolt (1625–1627)
The Itneg Revolt, or the Mandaya Revolt, was a religious uprising led by Miguel
Lanab and Alababan. The two were previously baptized as Catholics against their will
and were from the Itneg or Mandaya tribe of Capinatan, in northwestern Cagayan, in
the Philippines. The region is now part of the landlocked province of Apayao. Miguel
Lanab and Alababan killed, beheaded and mutilated two Dominicanmissionaries, Father
Alonzo Garcia and Brother Onofre Palao, who were sent by the Spanish colonial
government to convert the Itneg people to Christianity. After cutting Father Garcia's
body into pieces, they fed his flesh to a herd of pigs. Afterwards, they compelled their
fellow Itnegs to loot, desecrate Catholic images, set fire to the local churches, and
escape with them to the mountains.
In 1626, Governor-General Fernándo de Silva sent Spanish and foot soldier colonial
troops to suppress the rebellion. They destroyed farms and other sources of food to
starve the Itnegs, and forced them to surrender in 1627.
Ladia Revolt (1643)
Pedro Ladia was a Moro Bornean and a self-claimed descendant of Lakandula who came
to Malolos in 1643. At that time, his land was confiscated by the Spanish and he
thought that it was about time that they stage an uprising and put himself as King of
the Tagalogs. This was despite the fact that a parish priest tried to convince him not to
pursue his plans. Upon his capture, he was brought to Manila where he was executed.
Sumuroy Revolt (1649–50)
In the town of Palapag today in Northern Samar, Agustin Sumuroy, a Waray, and some
of his followers rose in arms on June 1, 1649 over the polo y servicio or forced labor
system being undertaken in Samar. This is known as the Sumuroy Revolt, named
after Agustin Sumuroy.
The government in Manila directed that all natives subject to the polo are not to be sent
to places distant from their hometowns to do their forced labor. However, under orders
of the various town alcaldes, or mayors, The Waray were being sent to the shipyards
of Cavite to do their polo y servicio, which sparked the revolt. The local parish priest of
Palapag was murdered and the revolt eventually spread to Mindanao, Bicol and the rest
of the Visayas, especially in places such
as Cebu, Masbate, Camiguin, Zamboanga, Albay, Camarines and parts of northern
Mindanao, such as Surigao. A rebel government was successfully established in the
mountains of Samar.
The defeat, capture and execution of Sumuroy in June 1650 delivered a big setback to
the revolt. His trusted co conspirator David Dula sustained the quest for freedom with
greater vigor but in one of a fierce battles several years later, he was wounded,
captured and later executed in Palapag, Northern Samar by the Spaniards together with
his seven key lieutenants.
Maniago/Pampanga Revolt (1660–1661)
The Maniago Revolt was an uprising in Pampanga during the 1660s named after its
leader, Francisco Maniago. During that time, Pampanga drew most of the attention
from the Spanish religious orders because of its relative wealth. They also bore the
burden of more tribute, forced labor, and rice exploitation. They were made to work for
eight months under unfair conditions and were not paid for their labor and for the rice
purchased from them. Their patience was put to the limit and they signified their
intention to revolt by setting their campsite on fire. The fight soon began and because
the Spaniards were busy fighting against the Dutch, they were badly depleted by the
Kapampangans. The Maniago revolt was the start of a much bigger and even bloodier
revolt in Pangasinan. This battle was led by a man named Andres Malong who had
heeded the call of Maniago to revolt against the Spaniards.
Malong Revolt (1660–1661)
Andres Malong was the maestro de campo of Binalatongan, now San Carlos City,
Pangasinan in the 1660s. He assisted many Spaniards in governing different towns in
Pangasinan, and as such, had learned and was trained to use force and cruelty. He
hoped of being the King of the province, however, set this plan aside when a war, led
by Francisco Maniago, broke out in Pampanga. Malong started his campaign in a small
barangay called Malunguey, but failed. Having the same condition as in Pampanga, he
led the people in Pangasinan to take up arms against the Spaniards. It spread like wild
fire in Pangasinan. Because of his success, he proclaimed himself King of Pangasinan.
Almazan Revolt (January 1661)
A part of the chain to the Malong Revolt was the Ilocos Revolt led by Don Pedro
Almazan, illustrious and wealthy leader from San Nicolas, Laoag, Ilocos Norte. The
letters sent by Don Andres Malong ("King of Pangasinan") narrating the defeat of the
Spaniards in his area and urging other provinces to rise in arms failed to obtain any
support among the natives. During the revolt, Don Pedro Almazan proclaimed himself
"King of Ilocos", but was later captured and executed. He also had a son which the
Ilocanos proclaimed their prince
Chinese Revolt of 1662
Fearing an invasion of Chinese led by the famous pirate Koxinga, the garrisons around
Manila were reinforced. An increasing anti-Chinese sentiment grew within much of the
population. In the end, the invasion did not materialize, but many locals massacred
hundreds of Chinese in the Manila.
Panay Revolt (1663)
The Panay Revolt was a religious uprising in 1663 that involved Tapar, a native of
the island of Panay, who wanted to establish a religious cult in the town of Oton. He
attracted some followers with his stories about his frequent conversations with a
demon. Tapar and his men were killed in a bloody skirmish against Spanish and colonial
foot soldier troops and their corpses were impaled on stakes.
Zambal Revolt (1681–1683)
A group of chieftains from Zambales had refused to accept the authority of the Crown
over their realm and staged a revolt. The Spanish were very swift to respond and sent a
colonial force of 6,000 foot soldiers to suppress the uprising. After 2 years of conflict,
the Spanish had pacified the entire area of Zambales and all of the chieftains who
participated in the revolt were executed.
18th century
Agrarian Revolt of 1745
The Agrarian Revolt was a revolt undertaken between the years 1745 and 1746 in much
of the present-day CALABARZON (specifically in Batangas, Laguna and Cavite) and in
Bulacan, with its first sparks in the towns of Lian and Nasugbu in Batangas. Indigenous
landowners rose in arms over the land-grabbing of Spanish friars or Catholic religious
orders, with native landowners demanding that Spanish priests return their lands on the
basis of ancestral domain.
The refusal of the Spanish priests resulted in much rioting, resulting in massive looting
of convents and arson of churches and ranches. The case was eventually investigated
by Spanish officials and was even heard in the court of Ferdinand VI in which he
ordered the priests to return the lands they seized. The priests were successfully able to
appeal the return of lands back to the natives, which resulted in no land being returned
to native landowners.
Dagohoy Rebellion (1744–1829)
In 1744 in what is now the province of Bohol, what is known today as the Dagohoy
Revolt was undertaken by Francisco Dagohoy and his followers. This revolt is unique
since it is the only revolt completely related to matters of religious customs, although
unlike the Tamblot Uprising before it, which was not a complete religious rebellion.
After a duel in which Dagohoy's brother died, the local parish priest refused to give his
brother a proper Catholic burial, since dueling is a mortal sin. The refusal of the priest
eventually led to the longest revolt ever held in Philippine history: 85 years. It also led
to the establishment of a free Boholano government. Twenty governors-general, from
Juan Arrechederra to Mariano Ricafort Palacin y Abarca, failed to stop the revolt.
Ricafort himself sent a force of 2,200 foot soldiers to Bohol, which was defeated by
Dagohoy's followers. Another attack, also sent by Ricafort in 1828 and 1829, failed as
well. Dagohoy died two years before the revolt ended, though, which led to the end of
the revolt in 1829. Some 19,000 survivors were granted pardon and were eventually
allowed to live in new Boholano villages: namely, the present-day towns of Balilihan,
Batuan, Bilar (Vilar), Catigbian and Sevilla (Cabulao).
Silang Revolt (1762–1763)
Arguably one of the most famous revolts in Philippine history is the Silang Revoltfrom
1762 to 1763, led by the couple Diego Silang and Gabriela Silang. Unlike the other
revolts, this revolt took place during the British invasion of Manila. On December 14,
1762, Diego Silang declared the independence of Ilocandia, naming the state "Free
Ilocos" and proclaimed Vigan the capital of this newly independent state. The British
heard about this revolt in Manila and even asked the help of Silang in fighting the
Spanish.
However, Silang was killed on May 28, 1763 by Miguel Vicos, a friend of Silang. The
Spanish authorities paid for his murder, leading to his death in the arms of his wife,
Gabriela. She continued her husband's struggle, earning the title "Joan of Arc of the
Ilocos" because of her many victories in battle. The battles of the Silang revolt are a
prime example of the use of divide et impera, since Spanish troops largely used
Kapampangan soldiers to fight the Ilocanos.
Eventually, the revolt ended with the defeat of the Ilocanos. Gabriela Silang was
executed by Spanish authorities in Vigan on September 10, 1763.
Palaris Revolt (1762–1764)
During the British Invasion of the Philippines during the Seven Years' War, the Spanish
colonial government, including Villacorta, had relocated to Bacolor in the province
of Pampanga, which was then adjacent to Pangasinan. It was at this time that the
principalia of Binalatongan protested the abuses committed by the provincial governor.
The town leaders demanded that the governor be removed and that the colonial
government stop collecting taxes since the islands were already under the British at
that time. But Governor-General Simon de Anda dismissed the demands and the revolt
broke out in November 1762. The name of de la Cruz, who began to be known
as Palaris , emerged as one of the leaders of the revolt, along with his brother Colet,
Andrés López, and Juan de Vera Oncantin.
By December, all Spanish officials, except the Dominican friars who were in charge of
the Catholic mission, had left Pangasinan. The Spanish colonial government had to deal
with the British invaders and the simultaneous Silang Revolt, led by Diego Silang, in the
neighboring province of Ilocos in the north. (The present-day province of La Union was
still part of Pangasinan and Ilocos). At the battle of Agno, he faced on March 1, 1763
the Spanish forces under the command of Alfonso de Arayat, who led a composite troop
of Spanish soldiers and Indios loyal to Spain. Arayat withdrew after losing much of his
Indio loyalists.Pangasinenses took over all official functions and controlled the province
up to the Agno River, the natural boundary between Pangasinan and neighboring
Pampanga in the south. (The present-day province of Tarlac was still part of
Pampanga.)At the height of the uprising, Palaris commanded 10,000 men. He was also
in communication with Silang, with whom he was coordinating a bigger offensive
against the Spanish.
However, the Seven Years' War ended on February 10, 1763 with the signing of the
Treaty of Paris (1763) in Paris, France. Also, Silang was assassinated on May 28, 1763
by an Indio under the employ of the friars. The Spanish were then able to focus on the
uprising and mustered forces to surround Palaris.The Spanish friars, who were allowed
to stay in the province, also started a campaign to persuade Pangasinan residents of
the futility of the Palaris Revolt.
By March 1764, most of the province had already fallen, leaving Palaris no escape route
except through Lingayen Gulf and the South China Sea in the west. He chose to stay
in Pangasinan and hid among his supporters.But his presence terrified his protectors
and his own sister Simeona, who was apparently threatened by the Spanish clergy,
betrayed him to Agustín Matias, the gobernadorcillo (mayor) of the razed
Binalatongan.Palaris was arrested on January 16, 1765 and brought to the provincial
capital of Lingayen for trial. While in detention, he confessed being the principal leader
of the revolt. He was convicted and hanged on February 26, 1765
19th century
Basi Revolt (1807)
The Basi Revolt, also known as the Ambaristo Revolt, was a revolt undertaken from
September 16 to 28, 1807. It was led by Pedro Mateo and Salarogo Ambaristo (though
some sources refer to a single person named Pedro Ambaristo), with its events
occurring in the present-day town of Piddig in Ilocos Norte. This revolt is unique as it
revolves around the Ilocanos' love for basi, or sugarcane wine. In 1786, the Spanish
colonial government expropriated the manufacture and sale of basi, effectively banning
private manufacture of the wine, which was done before expropriation. Ilocanos were
forced to buy from government stores. However, wine-loving Ilocanos in Piddig rose in
revolt on September 16, 1807, with the revolt spreading to nearby towns and with
fighting lasting for weeks. Spanish led troops eventually quelled the revolt on
September 28, 1807, albeit with much force and loss of life on the losing side. A series
of 14 paintings on the Basi Revolt by Esteban Pichay Villanueva currently hangs at the
Ilocos Sur National Museum in Vigan City. The event is immortalized and
commemorated in the Basi Revolt Monumentlocated along the highway of Piddig.
Novales Revolt (1823)
Andrés Novales later grew discontented with the way Spanish authorities treated
the Criollo people. His discontent climaxed when peninsulares were shipped to the
Philippines to replace Criollo officers. He found sympathy of many Criollos, including
Luis Rodriguez Varela, the Conde Indio. As punishment to the rising sense of
discontentment, many military officers and public officials were exiled. One of them was
Novales, who was exiled to Mindanao to fight the Moro. However, Novales was not
stopped to secretly return to Manila. On the night of June 1, 1823, Novales along with a
certain sub-lieutenant Ruiz and other subordinates in the King's Regiment, went out to
start a revolt. Along with 800 Indigenous natives in which his sergeants recruited, they
seized the royal palace (palacio del gobernador), the Manila Cathedral, the city's cabildo
(city hall) and other important government buildings in Intramuros. Failing to find
governor general Juan Antonio Martínez, they killed the lieutenant governor and former
governor general, Mariano Fernandez de Folgueras. Folgueras was the one that
suggested Spain to replace Creole officers with peninsulars. The soldiers shouted, "Long
live the Emperor Novales!" (Viva el Emperador Novales).
Palmero Conspiracy (1828)
The Palmero Conspiracy in 1828 was a failed plot to overthrow the Spanish colonial
government in the Philippines. The Spanish government suppressed further information
on this conspiracy. In 1823, an order was from Spain declared that military officers
commissioned in the Peninsula (Spain) should have precedence of all those appointed in
the Colonies. This was the reaction of Madrid to the series of wars against Spanish rule
that was known as the Spanish American wars of independence; Many Criollo military
officers were outranked by their Peninsular counterparts.
In 1828, matters became worse when public officials, mainly provincial governors, were
also being replaced by Peninsulares. In the same year, two Palmero brothers, members
of a prominent clan in the Philippines, along with other people from both the military
and the civil service, planned to seize the government. Such was the prominence of the
Palmeros, one of whose most famous descendants was Marcelo Azcárraga Palmero,
that when the Spanish government discovered the plan, they thought it would be wise
not to report it to the public. The plot itself would embarrass the government since the
conspirators were Spaniards themselves and it would seem that Spaniards themselves
would want to overthrow the power of Spain in the country. The main conspirators
were exiled.
Pule Revolt (1840–1841)
One of the most famous religious revolts is the Pule Revolt, more formally known as
the Religious Revolt of Hermano Pule. Undertaken between June 1840 and
November 1841, this revolt was led by Apolinario de la Cruz, otherwise known as
"Hermano Pule". De la Cruz started his own religious order, the Confraternity of Saint
Joseph (Spanish: Confradia de San José) in Lucban, located in the present-day province
of Quezon (then called Tayabas), in June 1840. However, there were two types of
priests in the Philippines then: secular priests, or parish priests, which were
usually Indio, and religious priests, or convent priests, which were usually Spanish. Due
to the concentration of Spanish religious power and authority in the already-established
religious orders (the Augustinians, Jesuits and Franciscans to name a few) and the
concept that Filipino priests should only stay in the church and not the convent and vice
versa (although this was not always followed), the Spanish government banned the
new order, especially due to its deviation from original Catholic rituals and teachings,
such as prayers and rituals suited for Filipinos. However, thousands of people in
Tayabas, Batangas, Laguna and even Manila already joined.
Because of this, the Spanish government sent in troops to forcibly break up the order,
forcing De la Cruz and his followers to rise in armed revolt in self-defense. Many bloody
battles were fought with the order's last stand in Mount San Cristobal, near Mount
Banahaw, in October 1841. The Spaniards eventually won, and Apolinario de la Cruz
was executed on November 4, 1841 in the then-provincial capital, Tayabas.
Cavite Mutiny (1872)
The Cavite Mutiny of 1872 was an uprising of military personnel of Fort San Felipe, the
Spanish arsenal in Cavite, Philippines on January 20, 1872. Around 200 soldiers and
laborers rose up in the belief that it would elevate to a national uprising. The mutiny
was unsuccessful, and government soldiers executed many of the participants and
began to crack down on a burgeoning nationalist movement.

B. The Propaganda Movement and the Katipunan

1.Aims
Under the leadership of Bonifacio, the Katipunan laid down three fundamental
objectives or aims: political, moral and civic. The political objectives consisted in
working for the separation of the Philippines from Spain. The moral objective revolved
about around the teaching of good manners, hygiene, good morals, and attacking
obscurantism, religious fanaticism, and weakness of character. The civic aim revolved
around the principle of self-help and the defense of the poor and the oppressed. All
members were urged to come to the aid of the sick comrades and their families, and in
case of death the society itself was to pay for the funeral expenses. For the purpose of
economy however, the society saw to it that the funeral was of the simplest kind,
avoiding unnecessary expenses so common under the rule of the friars.

2. Major Proponents of the two Movements

The political goal was to completely separate the Philippines from Spain after declaring
the country’s independence.
▪ The moral goal was to teach the Filipinos good manners, cleanliness, hygiene, fine
morals, and how to guard themselves against religious fanaticism..
▪ The civic goal was to encourage Filipinos to help themselves and to defend the poor
oppressed.

The “Kataastaasang Sanggunian” (supreme council) was the highest governing body of
the Katipunan. It was headed by a supremo, or president. Each province had a
“Sangguaniang Bayan” (Provincial Council) and each town had a “Sangguniang
Balangay” (Popular Council).

3. Strategies Employed by the two Movements

On the night of July 7, 1892, members of the defunct Liga, Ladislao Diwa, Teodoro Plata, Valentin Diaz,
and Deodato Arellano, joined Bonifacio to found the Katipunan in a house on Calle Azcarraga (now Claro
M. Recto Avenue). Bonifacio was hailed as the Supremo (supreme leader). With the nation's total
liberation as its ultimate purpose, the secret society's immediate goal was to institute a government to
be installed upon the overthrow of the Spanish administration. They raised funds to purchase weapons
and sought the help of a Japanese ship docked in Manila as middleman, but failed in the attempt.
Eventually, the men got hold of a small number of smuggled and stolen firearms; however, the majority
of the militants were only armed with bolos or itak, locally-made machete-like knives.

To spread their revolutionary ideas, they published the newspaper Kalayaan (Freedom). It was edited by
Emilio Jacinto and printed (along with other Katipunan documents) on a printing press purchased with
proceeds from the lottery winnings of Francisco del Castillo and Candido Iban, who would later found
the Katipunan in Panay. To mislead the Spanish authorities, it carried a false masthead declaring
Marcelo del Pilar the editor and Yokohama the site of the printing press. The newspaper was published
only once, before the katipuneros, having been alerted of the organization's discovery by the Spaniards,
destroyed their printing press. They then moved their operations to the offices of Diario de Manila
where one other edition of the paper was printed in secrecy.

It did not take long before Katipunan membership swelled in numbers, its aims and ideals spreading to
other provinces. By March 1896, councils were being organized in the towns of San Juan del Monte, San
Felipe Neri, Pasig, Pateros, Marikina, Caloocan, Malabon and surrounding areas. It later dispersed to the
provinces of Bulacan, Batangas, Cavite, Nueva Ecija, Laguna and Pampanga. It also included women
among its ranks, with the first female inductee in 1893. From a measly 300, the Katipunan grew to an
army of more than 30,000 which made Bonifacio confident that liberation of the Katagalugan (as he
called the Philippines) was imminent.

Cry of Pugadlawin

The Supremo's battle standard.

Two katipuneros, Teodoro Patiño and Apolonio dela Cruz, were engaged in a bitter personal dispute.
The former, Patiño, deciding to seek revenge, exposed the secrets of the Katipunan to his sister who was
a nun, who in turn revealed it to a Spanish priest, Father Mariano Gil. The priest was led to the printing
press of Diario de Manila and found a lithographic stone used to print the secret society's receipts. A
locker was seized containing a dagger and secret documents.
Several arrests ensued which included some of the wealthiest ilustrados. Despite their denial, many of
them were executed. It was speculated that Bonifacio intended for the events leading to their arrest to
happen in order to coerce the wealthy into joining the Katipunan.

The news immediately reached the top leadership of the organization. Panic-stricken, they immediately
called a meeting of the remaining members, first in Kangkong and then in the house of katipunero Juan
Ramos in Pugadlawin in Balintawak. The first meeting yielded nothing. On the second meeting,
Bonifacio, fed up with the seemingly-endless squabbling, tore up his cedula (residence certificate) and
cried Mabuhay ang Katagalugan! (Long live Katagalugan!). It was a cry to arms and was echoed by the
majority of the men in attendance. The Revolution had begun.

The first armed encounter between the Spanish colonists and a small group of the Katipunan took place
in Pasong Tamo in Caloocan and signaled a small victory for the revolutionaries. The first battle of note
occurred in San Juan del Monte in Manila. The katipuneros were winning initially, but were
subsequently defeated by reinforcements summoned by Governor-General Ramon Blanco. Bonifacio
then ordered his men to retreat to Mandaluyong.

4. Results of the Two Movements

Rumors about a secret revolutionary society had long been in circulation, although no solid evidence
could be found to support them. The big break as far as the Spanish authorities was concerned, came on
August 19, 1896 when a KKK member, Teodoro Patiño told his sister Honoria about the existence of the
Katipunan. Patiño was a worker in the printing press of Diario de Manila. Honoria was then living with
nuns in a Mandaluyong orphanage.

The information upset Honoria so much that she told the orphanage’s Mother Superior, Sor Teresa de
Jesus, what her brother had revealed. Sor Teresa suggested they seek the advice of Father Mariano Gil,
the parish priest of Tondo.

After hearing Patiño’s revelations, Father Mariano Gil-accompanied by several Guardias Civiles
immediately searched the premises of Diario de Manila and found evidence of the Katipunan’s
existence. The governor general was quickly informed. The printing press was padlocked and hundreds
of suspected KKK members were arrested. -Continue to Cry of Pugad Lawin & Andres Bonifacio's
Execution.

C. Establishment of the First Philippine Republic

During the Spanish-American War, Filipino rebels led by Emilio Aguinaldo proclaim the
independence of the Philippines after 300 years of Spanish rule. By mid-August,
Filipino rebels and U.S. troops had ousted the Spanish, but Aguinaldo’s hopes for
independence were dashed when the United States formally annexed the Philippines as
part of its peace treaty with Spain.

The Philippines, a large island archipelago situated off Southeast Asia, was colonized
by the Spanish in the latter part of the 16th century. Opposition to Spanish rule began
among Filipino priests, who resented Spanish domination of the Roman Catholic
churches in the islands. In the late 19th century, Filipino intellectuals and the middle
class began calling for independence. In 1892, the Katipunan, a secret revolutionary
society, was formed in Manila, the Philippine capital on the island of Luzon.
Membership grew dramatically, and in August 1896 the Spanish uncovered the
Katipunan’s plans for rebellion, forcing premature action from the rebels. Revolts broke
out across Luzon, and in March 1897, 28-year-old Emilio Aguinaldo became leader of
the rebellion.

By late 1897, the revolutionaries had been driven into the hills southeast of Manila,
and Aguinaldo negotiated an agreement with the Spanish. In exchange for financial
compensation and a promise of reform in the Philippines, Aguinaldo and his generals
would accept exile in Hong Kong. The rebel leaders departed, and the Philippine
Revolution temporarily was at an end.

In April 1898, the Spanish-American War broke out over Spain’s brutal suppression of a
rebellion in Cuba. The first in a series of decisive U.S. victories occurred on May 1,
1898, when the U.S. Asiatic Squadron under Commodore George Dewey annihilated
the Spanish Pacific fleet at the Battle of Manila Bay in the Philippines. From his exile,
Aguinaldo made arrangements with U.S. authorities to return to the Philippines and
assist the United States in the war against Spain. He landed on May 19, rallied his
revolutionaries, and began liberating towns south of Manila. On June 12, he proclaimed
Philippine independence and established a provincial government, of which he
subsequently became head.

His rebels, meanwhile, had encircled the Spanish in Manila and, with the support of
Dewey’s squadron in Manila Bay, would surely have conquered the Spanish. Dewey,
however, was waiting for U.S. ground troops, which began landing in July and took
over the Filipino positions surrounding Manila. On August 8, the Spanish commander
informed the United States that he would surrender the city under two conditions: The
United States was to make the advance into the capital look like a battle, and under no
conditions were the Filipino rebels to be allowed into the city. On August 13, the mock
Battle of Manila was staged, and the Americans kept their promise to keep the Filipinos
out after the city passed into their hands.

While the Americans occupied Manila and planned peace negotiations with Spain,
Aguinaldo convened a revolutionary assembly, the Malolos, in September. They drew
up a democratic constitution, the first ever in Asia, and a government was formed with
Aguinaldo as president in January 1899. On February 4, what became known as the
Philippine Insurrection began when Filipino rebels and U.S. troops skirmished inside
American lines in Manila. Two days later, the U.S. Senate voted by one vote to ratify
the Treaty of Paris with Spain. The Philippines were now a U.S. territory, acquired in
exchange for $20 million in compensation to the Spanish.
In response, Aguinaldo formally launched a new revolt–this time against the United
States. The rebels, consistently defeated in the open field, turned to guerrilla warfare,
and the U.S. Congress authorized the deployment of 60,000 troops to subdue them. By
the end of 1899, there were 65,000 U.S. troops in the Philippines, but the war dragged
on. Many anti-imperialists in the United States, such as Democratic presidential
candidate William Jennings Bryan, opposed U.S. annexation of the Philippines, but in
November 1900 Republican incumbent William McKinley was reelected, and the war
continued.

On March 23, 1901, in a daring operation, U.S. General Frederick Funston and a group
of officers, pretending to be prisoners, surprised Aguinaldo in his stronghold in the
Luzon village of Palanan and captured the rebel leader. Aguinaldo took an oath of
allegiance to the United States and called for an end to the rebellion, but many of his
followers fought on. During the next year, U.S. forces gradually pacified the
Philippines. In an infamous episode, U.S. forces on the island of Samar retaliated
against the massacre of a U.S. garrison by killing all men on the island above the age
of 10. Many women and young children were also butchered. General Jacob Smith,
who directed the atrocities, was court-martialed and forced to retire for turning Samar,
in his words, into a “howling wilderness.”

In 1902, an American civil government took over administration of the Philippines, and
the three-year Philippine insurrection was declared to be at an end. Scattered
resistance, however, persisted for several years.

More than 4,000 Americans perished suppressing the Philippines–more than 10 times
the number killed in the Spanish-American War. More than 20,000 Filipino insurgents
were killed, and an unknown number of civilians perished.

In 1935, the Commonwealth of the Philippines was established with U.S. approval, and
Manuel Quezon was elected the country’s first president. On July 4, 1946, full
independence was granted to the Republic of the Philippines by the United States.