ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to express my gratitude and thanks to all those who gave me the possibility to
complete this report. A special thanks to our mentor Mr. Shashikant Sir for stimulating
suggestion and encouragement. He helped me to co-ordinate my project and especially in writing
this report.

I would like to appreciate the guidance given by other supervisors as well as my classmates that
have improved my presentation skill by their comment and tips.

-Aarushi Srivastava
IT-4
BBDNIIT

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TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE NO.
1.0 Introduction 3
1.1 Cellular Telephone System 4
1.2 Frequency reuse principle 5
1.3 Transmitting and Receiving 7
1.4 Mobility Management 9
1.5 Medium Access Control techniques 10
1.5.1. FDMA 10
1.5.2. TDMA 11
1.5.3. CDMA 11
1.6 Types of Networks 12
1.6.1. 1ST Generation 12
1.6.2. 2nd Generation 13
(A) Benefits 13
(B) Evolution 15
1.6.3. 3rd Generation 16
(A) Evolution 17
(B) Applications 17
1.6.4. 4th Generation 18
(A) Applications 18
1.6.5. LTE 19
(A) Voice over LTE 19
1.7 Future and Scope 20
1.8 References 21

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1.0 Introduction

In the early years of mobile radio systems, a large coverage was achieved by using a
single high-powered transmitter with the antenna mounted on tall tower. Although a large
coverage could be attained by this approach, it does not allow the reuse of the same radio
frequencies due to interference. The cellular concept was invented in solving the spectral
congestion and user capacity. Cellular telephony is a system-level concept, which
replaces a single high-power transmitter with a large number of low- power transmitters
for communication between any two devices over a large geographic area. Primary goal
of the cellular telephone network is to provide wireless communication between two
moving devices, called mobile stations or between one mobile unit and a stationary unit,
commonly referred to as land-line unit. To accommodate a large number of users over a
large geographic area, the cellular telephone system uses a large number of low-power
wireless transmitters to create cells. Variable power levels allow cells to be sized
according to subscriber density and demand within a particular region. As mobile users
travel from cell to cell, their conversations are handed-off between cells. Channels
(frequencies) used in one cell can be reused in another cell some distance away, which
allows communication by a large number stations using a limited number of radio
frequencies. To summarize, the basic concept of reuse allows a fixed number of channels
to serve an arbitrarily large number of users.

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1.1 Cellular Telephone System

As shown in figure, a cellular system comprises the following basic components:

• Mobile Stations (MS): Mobile handsets, which is used by any user to

communicate with another user.
• Cell: Each cellular service area is divided into small regions called cell (5 to 20
Km).
• Base Stations (BS): Each cell contains an antenna, which is controlled by a small
office.
• Mobile Switching Center (MSC): Each base station is controlled by a switching
office, called mobile switching center.

Figure 1: Schematic diagram of a cellular telephone system

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1.2 Frequency Reuse Principle

Cellular telephone systems rely on an intelligent allocation and reuse of frequencies.

Each base station is given a group of radio channels to be used within a cell. Base stations
in adjacent cells are assigned completely different set of frequencies. By limiting the
coverage areas, called footprints, within cell boundaries, the same set of frequencies may
be used to cover different cells separated from one another by a distance large enough to
keep interference level within tolerable limits as shown in fig 2. Cells with the same letter
use the same set of frequencies, called reusing cells. N cells which collectively use the
available frequencies (S = kN) is known as cluster. If a cluster is replicated M times
within a system, then total number duplex frequencies (capacity) is C = MkN= M.S.

Reuse factor: Fraction of total available frequencies assigned to each cell within a
cluster is 1/N. Example showing reuse factor of ¼ is shown in fig.2(a) and in fig.2(b)
shows reuse factor of 1/7.

(a) (b)

Figure 2(a): Cells showing reuse factor of ¼, ;2(b) Cells showing reuse factor of 1/7

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As the demand increases in a particular region, the number of stations can be increased
by replacing a cell with a cluster as shown in fig 3. Here cell C has been replaced with a
cluster. However, this will be possible only by decreasing the transmitting power of the
base stations to avoid interference.

Figure 3: A cell is replaced by a cluster as demand increases

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1.3 Transmitting and Receiving

Basic operations of transmitting and receiving in a cellular telephone network are

discussed in this section.
Transmitting involves the following steps:

• A caller enters a 10-digit code (phone number) and presses the send button.

• The MS scans the band to select a free channel and sends a strong signal to
send the number entered.

• The BS relays the number to the MSC.

• The MSC in turn dispatches the request to all the base stations in the cellular
system.

• The Mobile Identification Number (MIN) is then broadcast over all the
forward control channels throughout the cellular system. It is known as paging.

• The MS responds by identifying itself over the reverse control channel.

• The BS relays the acknowledgement sent by the mobile and informs the MSC
about the handshake.

• The MSC assigns an unused voice channel to the call and call is established.

Receiving involves the following steps:

• All the idle mobile stations continuously listen to the paging signal to detect
messages directed at them.

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• When a call is placed to a mobile station, a packet is sent to the callee’s home
MSC to find out where it is.

• A packet is sent to the base station in its current cell, which then sends a broadcast
on the paging channel.

• The callee MS responds on the control channel.

• In response, a voice channel is assigned and ringing starts at the MS.

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1.4 Mobility Management

A MS is assigned a home network, commonly known as location area. When an MS

migrates out of its current BS into the footprint of another, a procedure is performed to
maintain service continuity, known as Handoff management. An agent in the home
network, called home agent, keeps track of the current location of the MS. The procedure
to keep track of the user’s current location is referred to as Location management.
Handoff management and location management together are referred to as Mobility
management.

Handoff: At any instant, each mobile station is logically in a cell and under the control of
the cell’s base station. When a mobile station moves out of a cell, the base station notices
the MS’s signal fading away and requests all the adjacent BSs to report the strength they
are receiving. The BS then transfers ownership to the cell getting the strongest signal and
the MSC changes the channel carrying the call. The process is called handoff. There are
two types of handoff; Hard Handoff and Soft Handoff.
In a hard handoff , which was used in the early systems, a MS communicates with one
BS. As a MS moves from cell A to cell B, the communication between the MS and base
station of cell A is first broken before communication is started between the MS and the
base station of B. As a consequence, the transition is not smooth. For smooth transition
from one cell (say A) to another (say B), an MS continues to talk to both A and B. As the
MS moves from cell A to cell B, at some point the communication is broken with the old
base station of cell A. This is known as soft handoff.

Roaming: Two fundamental operations are associated with Location Management;

location update and paging. When a Mobile Station (MS) enters a new Location Area, it
performs a location updating procedure by making an association between the foreign
agent and the home agent. One of the BSs, in the newly visited Location Area is informed
and the home directory of the MS is updated with its current location. When the home
agent receives a message destined for the MS, it forwards the message to the MS via the
foreign agent. An authentication process is performed before forwarding the message.

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1.5 Medium Access Control Techniques

Channelization is a multiple access method in which the available bandwidth of a link is

shared in time, frequency or using code by a number of stations. Basic idea of these
approaches can be explained in simple terms using the cocktail party theory. In a cocktail
party people talk to each other using one of the following modes:

FDMA: When all the people group in widely separated areas and talk within each group.
TDMA: When all the people are in the middle of the room, but they take turn in speaking.
CDMA: When all the people are in the middle of the room, but different pairs speak in
different languages.

Basic principle of these approaches is briefly explained below:

1.5.1 FDMA: The bandwidth is divided into separate frequency bands. In case of bursty
traffic, the efficiency can be improved in FDMA by using a dynamic sharing technique to
access a particular frequency band; channels are assigned on demand as shown in fig 4.

Figure 4: FDMA medium access control technique

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1.5.2 TDMA: The bandwidth is timeshared as shown in fig 5. Channel allocation is done
dynamically.

Figure 5: TDMA medium access control technique

1.5.3 CDMA: Data from all stations are transmitted simultaneously and are separated
based on coding theory as shown in fig 6. In TDMA and FDMA the transmissions from
different stations are clearly separated in either time or frequency. In case of CDMA, the
transmission from different stations occupy the entire frequency band at the same time.
Multiple simultaneous transmissions are separated by using coding theory. Each bit is
assigned a unique m-bit code or chip sequence.

Figure 6: CDMA medium access control technique

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1.6 Types of Networks

1.6.1 First Generation System(1G)

The first generation was designed for voice communication.

The first commercially automated cellular network (the 1G generation) was launched in
Japan by Nippon Telegraph and Telephone (NTT) in 1979, initially in the metropolitan area
of Tokyo. Within five years, the NTT network had been expanded to cover the whole
population of Japan and became the first nationwide 1G network.

In 1981, the NMT system simultaneously launched in Denmark, Finland, Norway and
Sweden. NMT was the first mobile phone network to feature international roaming.

One example is Advanced Mobile Phone System (AMPS) used in North America. AMPS
is an analog cellular phone system. It uses 800 MHz ISM band and two separate analog
channels; forward and reverse analog channels. The band between 824 to 849 MHz is
used for reverse communication from MS to BS. The band between 869 to 894 MHz is
used for forward communication from BS to MS. Each band is divided in to 832 30-KHz
channels as shown in Fig 7. As each location area is shared by two service providers,
each provider can have 416 channels, out of which 21 are used for control. AMPS uses
Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA) to divide each 25-MHz band into 30-KHz
channels.

Figure 7: Frequency bands used in AMPS system

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1.6.2 Second Generation(2G)

The 1G cellular network was developed for analog voice communication. To provide
better voice quality, the second generation was developed for digitized voice
communication.

(A)Benefits:

Three primary benefits of 2G networks over their predecessors are:

 Phone conversations were digitally encrypted.
 2G systems were significantly more efficient on the spectrum enabling far
greater wireless penetration levels.
 2G introduced data services for mobile, starting with SMS text messages.
2G technologies enabled the various networks to provide the services such
as text messages, picture messages, and MMS (multimedia messages). All
text messages sent over 2G are digitally encrypted, allowing the transfer of
data in such a way that only the intended receiver can receive and read it.
Three major systems were evolved, as shown in fig 8.

Figure 8: FDMA medium access control technique used in AMPS

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D-AMPS: D-AMPS is essentially a digital version of AMPS and it is backward
compatible with AMPS. It uses the same bands and channels and uses the frequency
reuse factor of 1/7.
25 frames per second each of 1994 bits, divided in 6 slots shared by three channels. Each
slot has 324 bits-159 data, 64 control bits, 101 error-correction as shown in fig 9. Also, as
shown in the figure, it uses both TDMA and FDMA medium access control techniques.

Figure 9: D-AMPS

GSM: The Global System for Mobile (GSM) communication is a European standard
developed to replace the 1st generation technology. Uses two bands for duplex
communication. Each voice channel is digitized and compressed to a 13Kbps digital
signal. Each slot carries 156.25 bits, 8 slots are multiplexed together creating a FDM
frame, 26 frames are combined to form a multiframe, as shown in fig 10. For medium
access control, GSM combines both TDMA and FDMA. There is large amount of
overhead in TDMA, 114 bits are generated by adding extra bits for error correction.
Because of complex error correction, it allows a reuse factor as low as 1/3.

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 Figure 10: Multiframe components

IS-95 CDMA: IS-95 is based on CDMA/DSSS and FDMA medium access control
technique. The forward and backward transmissions are shown in fig 11(a) and 11(b),
respectively.

(B)Evolution

With General Packet Radio Service(GPRS), 2G offers a theoretical maximum transfer

speed of 50 Kbit/s (40 Kbit/s in practice).
GPRS, also known as 2.5G ("second and a half generation") is used to describe 2G-
systems that have implemented a packet-switched domain in addition to the circuit-
switched domain. It does necessarily provide faster service because bundling of timeslots
is used for circuit-switched data services (HSCSD) as well.

With Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution(EDGE) also known as 2.75G ,there is a
theoretical maximum transfer speed of 1 Mbit/s (500 Kbit/s in practice).
Enhanced Data rates for GSM Evolution (EDGE), is a backward-compatible digital
mobile phone technology that allows improved data transmission rates, as an extension
on top of standard GSM. EDGE was deployed on GSM networks beginning in 2003
initially by AT&T in the United States.

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1.6.3 Third Generation(3G)
3G, is the third generation of wireless mobile telecommunications technology. 3G
technology was the result of research and development work carried out by International
Telecommunication Union (ITU) in the early 1980s. It is the upgrade for 2G and 2.5G
networks, for faster internet speed. This is based on a set of standards used for mobile
devices and mobile telecommunications use services and networks that comply with the
International Mobile Telecommunications.

Goals of the third generation (3G) technologies were:

• Allow both digital data and voice communication.

• To facilitate universal personnel communication.
• Listen music, watch movie, access internet, video conference, etc.

Criteria for 3G Technologies are:

• Voice quality: Same as present PSTN network.

• Data rate: 144Kbps (car), 384 (pedestrians) and 2Mbps (stationary).
• Support for packet-switched and circuit-switched data services.
• Bandwidth of 2 MHz.
• Interface to the internet.

ITU developed a blueprint called Internet Mobile Communication for year 2000 (IMT-
2000). All five Radio Interfaces adopted by IMT-2000 evolved from the 2nd generation
technologies as shown in fig 11.

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 Figure 11: Third generation cellular technologies

(A)Evolution
Both Third Generation Partnership Project(3GPP) & Third Generation Partnership Project
2(3GPP2) are working on extensions to 3G standard. These specifications already display
characteristic features for IMT-Advanced (4G), the successor of 3G.
However, falling short of the bandwidth requirements for 4G (which is 1 Gbit/s for stationary
and 100 Mbit/s for mobile operation), these standards are classified as 3.9G or Pre-4G.

(B)Applications of 3G

The bandwidth and location information available to 3G devices gives rise to applications not
previously available to mobile phone users. Some of the applications are:

 Global Positioning System (GPS)

 Location-based services
 Mobile TV
 Telemedicine
 Video Conferencing
 Video on demand.

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1.6.4 Fourth Generation(4G)
4G is the fourth generation of Broadband cellular network technology, succeeding 3G. The first-
release Long Term Evolution (LTE) standard (a 4G candidate system) has been commercially
deployed in Oslo, Norway and Stockholm, Sweden since 2009. It has, however, been debated
whether first-release versions should be considered 4G or not.

In March 2008, the International Telecommunications Union-Radio Communications

Sector (ITU-R) specified a set of requirements for 4G standards, named the International Mobile
Telecommunications Advanced (IMT-Advanced) specification, setting peak speed requirements
for 4G service at 100 Megabits per second (Mbit/s) for high mobility communication (such
as from trains and cars) and 1 Gigabits per second (Gbit/s) for low mobility communication
(such as pedestrians and stationary users).

Since the first-release versions of Mobile WiMax and LTE support much less than 1 Gbit/s peak
bit rate, they are not fully IMT-Advanced compliant, but are often branded 4G by service
providers.

On December 6, 2010, ITU-R recognized that these two technologies, as well as other beyond-
3G technologies that do not fulfill the IMT-Advanced requirements, could nevertheless be
considered "4G", provided they represent forerunners to IMT-Advanced compliant versions and
"a substantial level of improvement in performance and capabilities with respect to the initial
third generation systems now deployed".

(A)Potential and current applications include:

 Amended mobile web access.

 IP Telephony.

 Gaming services.

 High-definition mobile TV.

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  Video Conferencing.

 3D Television.

1.6.5 Long Term Evolution(LTE)

In telecommunication, Long-Term Evolution (LTE) is a standard for high-
speed wireless communication for mobile devices and data terminals, based on
the GSM/EDGE technologies. It increases the capacity and speed using a different radio
interface together with core network improvements. The standard is developed by the 3GPP (3rd
Generation Partnership Project) and is specified in its Release 8 document series, with minor
enhancements described in Release 9. LTE is the upgrade path for carriers with both
GSM/UMTS networks and CDMA2000 networks. The different LTE frequencies and bands used
in different countries mean that only multi-band phones are able to use LTE in all countries
where it is supported.

LTE is commonly marketed as 4G LTE, but it does not meet the technical criteria of
a 4G wireless service, as specified in the 3GPP Release 8 and 9 document series for LTE
Advanced. The requirements were originally set forth by the ITU-R organization in the IMT
Advanced specification. However, due to marketing pressures and the significant advancements
that WiMax, evolved high-speed packet access and LTE bring to the original 3G technologies,
ITU later decided that LTE together with the aforementioned technologies can be called 4G
technologies. The LTE Advanced standard formally satisfies the ITU-R requirements to be
considered IMT-Advanced.

(A)Voice over LTE(VoLTE)

Voice over Long-Term Evolution (VoLTE) is a standard for high-speed wireless
communication for mobile phones and data terminals. It is based on the IP Multimedia
Subsystem (IMS) network, with specific profiles for control and media planes of voice service
on LTE.

This approach results in the voice service (control and media planes) being delivered as data
flows within the LTE data bearer. This means that there is no dependency on (or ultimately,
requirement for) the legacy circuit-switched voice network to be maintained. VoLTE has up to
three times more voice and data capacity than 3G UMTS and up to six times more than 2G
GSM. Furthermore, it frees up bandwidth because VoLTE’s packets headers are smaller than
those of unoptimized VoIP/LTE.
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1.7 Future and Scope
5th generation wireless systems, abbreviated 5G, are improved networks deploying in 2018 and
later. As of 2017, development of 5G is being led by several companies,
including Samsung, Intel, Qualcomm, Nokia, Huawei, Ericsson, ZTE and others.

China is already using 5G and is working on 6G and aims to make it applicable in next few
years.

Although 5G is planned to be commercially available worldwide by 2020, South

Korea demonstrated 5G at the 2018 Winter Olympics for the visitors.

5th generation technology is designed to provide incredible and remarkable data capabilities,
unhindered call volumes, and immeasurable data broadcast within the latest mobile operating
system. Hence, it is more intelligent technology, which will interconnect the entire world
without limits. Likewise, our world would have universal and uninterrupted access to
information, communication, and entertainment that will open a new dimension to our lives and
will change our life style meaningfully.

Moreover, governments and regulators can use this technology as an opportunity for the good
governance and can create healthier environments, which will definitely encourage continuing
investment in 5G, the next generation technology.

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1.8 References
 https://www.tutorialspoint.com/
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/

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