ENCE
353:
An
Overview
of
Structural
Analysis
and
Design
Mark
Aus?n
Fall
Semester
2011
Outline
• Objec?ve
of
Structural
Engineering
• Structural
Engineering
Process
• Types
of
loads
• Types
of
structures
• Civil
Engineering
Materials
• Load
paths
in
structures
• How
can
structures
fail?
• Summary
Objec?ves
of
Structural
Engineering
Structural
engineering
is
the
…
….science
and
art
of
designing
and
making,
with
economy
and
elegance,
buildings,
bridges,
frameworks,
and
other
structures
so
that
they
can
safely
resist
the
forces
to
which
they
may
be
subjected.
Design:
process
of
determining
loca?on,
material,
and
size
of
structural
elements
to
resist
forces
ac?ng
in
a
structure
Structural
Design
Process
• Determine
types
magnitudes
of
loads
and
forces
ac?ng
on
the
structure
• Determine
structural
context
– geometric
and
geological
informa?on
– cost
/
schedule
/
height/
etc.
limita?ons
• Generate
alterna?ve
structural
systems
(e.g.,
moment
resistant
frame,
materials
selec?on),
• Analyze
one
or
more
alterna?ves
• Select
and
perform
detailed
design
• Implement
(usually
done
by
contractor)
Note: New structural systems may also require an experimental testing
phase to verify behavior and system performance.
Formal
Approach
to
Structural
Design
Formal
Approach
to
Structural
Design
Types
of
loads
• Dead
loads
• Live
loads
• Dynamic
loads
(e.g.,
trains,
equipment)
• Wind
loads
• Earthquake
loads
• Thermal
loads
• SeZlement
loads
Dead
Loads
• weight
of
the
structure
itself
– floors,
beams,
roofs,
decks,
beams/stringers,
superstructure
• loads
that
are
“always
there”
Live
Loads
• People,
furniture,
equipment
• Loads
that
may
move
or
change
mass
or
weight
• Minimum
design
loadings
are
usually
specified
in
the
building
code
Load
Example:
Live Load in Ballroom
Ballroom
Live Load = 100 lb/ft^2
Dynamic
Loads
• Moving
loads
(e.g.,
traffic)
• Impact
loads
• Gusts
of
wind
• Loads
due
to
cycling
machinery
Load
Example:
Dynamic Load
HVAC
t
Load
Example:
Water in a dam
Water,
ρ = density
h
p = ρgh
Earthquake
Loads
• Structure
loaded
when
base
is
shaken
• Response
of
structure
is
dependent
on
the
frequency
of
mo?on
• When
frequencies
match
with
natural
frequency
of
structure
-‐
resonance
Load
Example:
Earthquake Load
Earthquake Load
Earthquake Load
Base Motion
SeZlement
Forces
Ac?ng
in
Structures
• Forces
induced
by
gravity
– Dead
Loads
(permanent):
self-‐weight
of
structure
and
aZachments
– Live
Loads
(transient):
moving
loads
(e.g.
occupants,
vehicles)
• Forces
induced
by
wind
• Forces
induced
by
earthquakes
• Forces
induced
by
rain/snow
• Fluid
pressure
Forces
Ac?ng
in
Structures
Vertical: Gravity Lateral: Wind, Earthquake
Global
Stability
Sliding Overturning
Forces
in
Structural
Elements
100
lb
100
lb
Tension Compression
University of Massachusetts Amherst
Forces
in
Structural
Elements
(cont.)
100
lb
Bending
Torsion
Some
Types
of
Structures
• Arch
• Planar
Truss
• Beam/Girder
• Flat
plate
• Braced
and
Rigid
Frames
• Folded
Plate
and
Shell
Structures
• Cable
Suspended
Structure
Arch
Arch
Design objective: Structure needs to work
and be aesthetically pleasing!!
Analysis objective: What shape should the
arch be so that forces can be transferred
to the foundation through compression
mechanisms alone?
Planar
Truss
Planar
Truss
Truss
C
T
C C
T
Forces in Truss Members
Truss
• Combina?on
of
square
and
triangle
– Both
ver?cal
and
lateral
support
Beam/Girder
Frames
Braced Rigid
Frames
Con?nued
Frame
Analysis objective: We want to compute the distribution of forces –
axial, bending moment, shear forces – throughout the structure.
What are the displacements?
Will the frame structure be stable?
Flat
Plate
Folded
Plate
Shells
Circular Shell Structure Lattice Shell Structure
Cable
Suspended
Structure
Analysis objective: What are the forces in the cable structure? How will the
cable profile shape change with different distributions of live load? What
are the bending moments in the bridge deck?
Cable
Stayed
Bridge
Load
Paths
in
Structures
• Load
Path
is
the
term
used
to
describe
the
path
by
which
loads
are
transmiZed
to
the
founda?ons
• Different
structures
have
different
load
paths
• Some
structures
have
only
one
path
• Some
have
several
(redundancy
good)
Load
Path
in
Framed
Structure
Structural
Components
• Beams
Column Girder
• Girders
• Columns
• Floors
• Founda?ons
Beam
Load
Path
• Floor
• Beams
• Girders
• Columns
• Founda?on
• Soil/Bedrock
Flooring
• Composed
of
a
subfloor
and
floor
covering
– Usually
leave
space
for
ductwork,
wiring,
etc.
– Floor
covering
ranges
from
applica?on
to
applica?on
Beams
• AZached
between
the
girders
– Take
load
from
the
flooring
system
– Transfer
it
to
the
girders
– Generally
solid
squares,
I-‐beams
Girders
• AZached
column-‐
to-‐column
– Take
the
load
from
the
beams
– Transfer
it
to
the
columns
– Generally
shaped
as
an
I-‐Beam
Founda?ons
• Support
the
building
– Typically
aZached
to
columns
• Types
– Shallow
• Spread
foo?ng
–
concrete
strip/pad
below
the
frost
line
• Slab-‐on-‐grade
–
concrete
pad
on
the
surface
– Deep
• Drilled
Shafs
• Piles
Overview
of
Structural
Behavior
Depends on:
• Material properties (e.g., steel, concrete).
• Structural stiffness (e.g. axial stiffness, bending stiffness)
• Structural strength (e.g., ultimate member strength).
Design challenges:
• If the structural stiffness is too low, then the displacements will
be too large,
• In dynamics applications a high structural stiffness may attract
high inertia forces.
• If the structural strength is too low, then the structural system
may fail prematurely.
Axial
S?ffness
T
ΔL
Stiffness = T / ΔL
Example:
T = 100 lb
Lo
ΔL = 0.12 in.
Stiffness = 100 lb / 0.12 in. = 833 lb/in.
T
Bending
S?ffness
Displacement
Force
Stiffness = Force / Displacement
Example:
Force = 1,000 lb
Displacement = 0.5 in.
Stiffness = 1,000 lb / 0.5 in. = 2,000 lb/in.
Defini?on
of
Stress
T
Example (English Units):
Stress = Force/Area T = 1,000 lb (1 kip)
A = 10 in2.
Section X
Stress = 1,000/10 = 100 lb/
in2
Example (SI Units):
Section X
1 lb = 4.448 N (Newton)
1 in = 25.4 mm
T = 1,000 lb x 4.448 N/lb = 4448 N
A = 10 in2 x (25.4 mm)2 = 6450 mm2
(1 in)2
T
Stress = 4448/6450 = 0.69 N/mm2 (MPa)
T
Defini?on
T
o f
S train
Strain = ΔL / Lo
ΔL
Example:
Lo = 10 in.
ΔL = 0.12 in.
Lo Strain = 0.12 / 10 = 0.012 in./in.
Strain is dimensionless!!
(same in English or SI units)
T
Stress–Strain
Behavior
of
Elas?c
Mats.
Stress
E = Modulus of Elasticity = Stress / Strain
Strain
Types
of
Stress-‐Strain
Behavior
Stress Stress
Strain Strain
(a) Linear Elastic (b) Non-linear Elastic
Stress Stress
Plastic strain Strain Plastic strain Strain
(c) Elastic-plastic (d) Non-linear Plastic
Types
of
Structural
Elements
–
Beams
Loads
Compression
Tension
Engineering
Proper?es
of
Structural
Elements
• Strength
– Ability
to
withstand
a
given
stress
without
failure
• Depends
on
type
of
material
and
type
of
force
(tension
or
compression)
Tensile Failure Compressive Failure
Engineering
Proper?es
of
Materials
• Steel
– Maximum
stress:
40,000
–
120,000
lb/in2
– Maximum
strain:
0.2
–
0.4
– Modulus
of
elas?city:
29,000,000
lb/in2
• Concrete
– Maximum
stress:
4,000
–
12,000
lb/in2
– Maximum
strain:
0.004
– Modulus
of
elas?city:
3,600,000
–
6,200,000
lb/in2
• Wood
Values
depend
on
wood
grade.
Below
are
some
samples
– Tension
stress:
1300
lb/in2
– Compression
stress:
1500
lb/in2
– Modulus
of
elas?city:
1,600,000
lb/in2
Types
of
Structural
Elements
–
Bars
and
Cables
Bars can carry either tension
or compression Cables can only carry tension
S?ffness
of
Different
Structural
Shapes
Stiff Stiffer
Stiffest
Providing
Stability
for
Lateral
Loads
Racking Failure of Pinned Frame
Braced Frame Infilled Frame Rigid Joints
Failure
Mechanisms
Structural failure refers to loss in the load-carrying capacity of a
component or member within a structure.
Failure is initiated when the material is stressed to the strength
limit, thus causing fracture or excessive deformations.
Ultimate failure is usually associated with extreme events. The
structural engineer needs to prevent loss of life by prohibiting
total collapse of the structural system.
Failure
due
to
Dynamic
Instability
Failure to understand aeroelastic flutter can be catastrophic.
Failure of the Tacoma Narrows bridge completely changed the
way in which suspension bridges are analyzed and designed.
Failure
due
to
neglect
…
Collapsed I35 W. Mississippi Bridge, August 1, 2007.
Key problems: lack of funding; poor maintenance.
Failure due to lack of Ductility in Concrete Columns
Frame
buildings
can
have
also
be
built
with
concrete
columns
and
beams
(as
opposed
to
steel)
1971
San
Fernando
earthquake
showed
that
many
concrete
frames
were
briZle
Poten?al
for
collapse
at
drifs
of
about
0.01
(lower
than
for
steel
buildings)
There
are
thousands
of
these
buildings
in
California
and
occupants
have
not
been
no?fied
Olive
View
Hospital
M
6.7
1971
San
Fernando
Earthquake
Northridge
118
FWY
Example
of
failure
of
a
briZle
concrete
column
(pre-‐1975
code)
Example
of
“duc?le”
behavior
of
concrete
columns.
Although
the
parking
structure
performed
poorly,
the
exterior
columns
did
not
fail.
Mexico City Earthquake, 1996
Failure due to liquefaction
Sometimes you are simply in the wrong place at the wrong time ...
Christchurch, New Zealand, 2011.
Summary
• Structural
Engineering:
– Iden?fies
loads
to
be
resisted
– Iden?fies
alterna?ves
for
providing
load
paths
(arch,
truss,
frame,
...)
– Designs
structure
to
provide
safe
and
economical
load
paths
(material,
size,
connec?ons)
– To
be
economical
and
safe,
we
must
be
able
to
predict
what
forces
are
in
structure.
Acknowledgement: University of Massachusetts Amherst
.
