MATLAB NOTES

MATLAB (matrix laboratory) is a fourth-generation high-level programming language and interactive

environment for numerical computation, visualization and programming. MATLAB is developed by
MathWorks. It allows matrix manipulations; plotting of functions and data; implementation of algorithms;
creation of user interfaces; interfacing with programs written in other languages, including C, C++, Java,
and FORTRAN; analyze data; develop algorithms; and create models and applications. It has numerous
built-in commands and math functions that help you in mathematical calculations, generating plots, and
performing numerical methods.

MATLAB's Power of Computational Mathematics

MATLAB is used in every facet of computational mathematics. Following are some commonly used
mathematical calculations where it is used most commonly −

 Dealing with Matrices and Arrays

 2-D and 3-D Plotting and graphics
 Linear Algebra
 Algebraic Equations
 Non-linear Functions
 Statistics
 Data Analysis
 Calculus and Differential Equations
 Numerical Calculations
 Integration
 Transforms
 Curve Fitting
 Various other special functions

Features of MATLAB
Following are the basic features of MATLAB −
 It is a high-level language for numerical computation, visualization and application development.
 It also provides an interactive environment for iterative exploration, design and problem solving.
 It provides vast library of mathematical functions for linear algebra, statistics, Fourier analysis,
filtering, optimization, numerical integration and solving ordinary differential equations.
 It provides built-in graphics for visualizing data and tools for creating custom plots.
 MATLAB's programming interface gives development tools for improving code quality
maintainability and maximizing performance.
 It provides tools for building applications with custom graphical interfaces.

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 It provides functions for integrating MATLAB based algorithms with external applications and
languages such as C, Java, .NET and Microsoft Excel.

Uses of MATLAB
MATLAB is widely used as a computational tool in science and engineering encompassing the fields of
physics, chemistry, math and all engineering streams. It is used in a range of applications including −

 Signal Processing and Communications

 Image and Video Processing
 Control Systems
 Test and Measurement
 Computational Finance
 Computational Biology

MATLAB is an interactive program for numerical computation and data visualization. You can enter a
command by typing it at the MATLAB prompt '>>' on the Command Window. In this section, we will
provide lists of commonly used general MATLAB commands.

Commands for Managing a Session

MATLAB provides various commands for managing a session. The following table provides all such
commands −
Command Purpose
clc Clears command window.
clear Removes variables from memory.
exist Checks for existence of file or variable.
global Declares variables to be global.
help Searches for a help topic.
lookfor Searches help entries for a keyword.
quit Stops MATLAB.
who Lists current variables.
whos Lists current variables (long display).

Commands for Working with the System

MATLAB provides various useful commands for working with the system, like saving the current work in
the workspace as a file and loading the file later. It also provides various commands for other system-
related activities like, displaying date, listing files in the directory, displaying current directory, etc.
The following table displays some commonly used system-related commands −

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Command Purpose
cd Changes current directory.
date Displays current date.
delete Deletes a file.
diary Switches on/off diary file recording.
dir Lists all files in current directory.
load Loads workspace variables from a file.
path Displays search path.
pwd Displays current directory.
save Saves workspace variables in a file.
type Displays contents of a file.
what Lists all MATLAB files in the current directory.
wklread Reads .wk1 spreadsheet file.

Input and Output Commands

MATLAB provides the following input and output related commands −
Command Purpose
disp Displays contents of an array or string.
fscanf Read formatted data from a file.
format Controls screen-display format.
fprintf Performs formatted writes to screen or file.
input Displays prompts and waits for input.
; Suppresses screen printing.
The fscanf and fprintf commands behave like C scanf and printf functions. They support the following
format codes −
Format Purpose
Code
%s Format as a string.
%d Format as an integer.
%f Format as a floating point value.

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%e Format as a floating point value in scientific notation.
%g Format in the most compact form: %f or %e.
\n Insert a new line in the output string.
\t Insert a tab in the output string.
The format function has the following forms used for numeric display −
Format Function Display up to
format short Four decimal digits (default).
format long 16 decimal digits.
format short e Five digits plus exponent.
format long e 16 digits plus exponents.
format bank Two decimal digits.
format + Positive, negative, or zero.
format rat Rational approximation.
format compact Suppresses some line feeds.
format loose Resets to less compact display mode.

Vector, Matrix and Array Commands

The following table shows various commands used for working with arrays, matrices and vectors −
Command Purpose
cat Concatenates arrays.
find Finds indices of nonzero elements.
length Computes number of elements.
linspace Creates regularly spaced vector.
logspace Creates logarithmically spaced vector.
max Returns largest element.
min Returns smallest element.
prod Product of each column.
reshape Changes size.
size Computes array size.
sort Sorts each column.
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sum Sums each column.
eye Creates an identity matrix.
ones Creates an array of ones.
zeros Creates an array of zeros.
cross Computes matrix cross products.
dot Computes matrix dot products.
det Computes determinant of an array.
inv Computes inverse of a matrix.
pinv Computes pseudoinverse of a matrix.
rank Computes rank of a matrix.
rref Computes reduced row echelon form.
cell Creates cell array.
celldisp Displays cell array.
cellplot Displays graphical representation of cell array.
num2cell Converts numeric array to cell array.
deal Matches input and output lists.
iscell Identifies cell array.

Plotting Commands
MATLAB provides numerous commands for plotting graphs. The following table shows some of the
commonly used commands for plotting −
Command Purpose
axis Sets axis limits.
fplot Intelligent plotting of functions.
grid Displays gridlines.
plot Generates xy plot.
print Prints plot or saves plot to a file.
title Puts text at top of plot.
xlabel Adds text label to x-axis.
ylabel Adds text label to y-axis.
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axes Creates axes objects.
close Closes the current plot.
close all Closes all plots.
figure Opens a new figure window.
gtext Enables label placement by mouse.
hold Freezes current plot.
legend Legend placement by mouse.
refresh Redraws current figure window.
set Specifies properties of objects such as axes.
subplot Creates plots in subwindows.
text Places string in figure.
bar Creates bar chart.
loglog Creates log-log plot.
polar Creates polar plot.
semilogx Creates semilog plot. (logarithmic abscissa).
semilogy Creates semilog plot. (logarithmic ordinate).
stairs Creates stairs plot.
stem Creates stem plot.

Data Types Available in MATLAB

MATLAB provides 15 fundamental data types. Every data type stores data that is in the form of a matrix or
array. The size of this matrix or array is a minimum of 0-by-0 and this can grow up to a matrix or array of
any size. The following table shows the most commonly used data types in MATLAB −

Data Type Description

int8 8-bit signed integer
uint8 8-bit unsigned integer
int16 16-bit signed integer
uint16 16-bit unsigned integer
int32 32-bit signed integer

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uint32 32-bit unsigned integer
int64 64-bit signed integer
uint64 64-bit unsigned integer
single single precision numerical data
double double precision numerical data
logical logical values of 1 or 0, represent true and false respectively
char character data (strings are stored as vector of characters)
cell array array of indexed cells, each capable of storing an array of a different dimension
and data type
structure C-like structures, each structure having named fields capable of storing an array
of a different dimension and data type
function handle pointer to a function
user classes objects constructed from a user-defined class
java classes objects constructed from a Java class

MATLAB - Operators
An operator is a symbol that tells the compiler to perform specific mathematical or logical manipulations.
MATLAB is designed to operate primarily on whole matrices and arrays. Therefore, operators in MATLAB
work both on scalar and non-scalar data. MATLAB allows the following types of elementary operations −
 Arithmetic Operators
 Relational Operators
 Logical Operators
 Bitwise Operations
 Set Operations
Arithmetic Operators
MATLAB allows two different types of arithmetic operations −
 Matrix arithmetic operations
 Array arithmetic operations
Matrix arithmetic operations are same as defined in linear algebra. Array operations are executed element
by element, both on one-dimensional and multidimensional array. The matrix operators and array operators
are differentiated by the period (.) symbol. However, as the addition and subtraction operation is same for
matrices and arrays, the operator is same for both cases. The following table gives brief description of the
operators −
Operator Description
+ Addition or unary plus. A+B adds the values stored in variables A and B. A and B must have
the same size, unless one is a scalar. A scalar can be added to a matrix of any size.
- Subtraction or unary minus. A-B subtracts the value of B from A. A and B must have the same
size, unless one is a scalar. A scalar can be subtracted from a matrix of any size.

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* Matrix multiplication. C = A*B is the linear algebraic product of the matrices A and B. More
precisely,

For non-scalar A and B, the number of columns of A must be equal to the number of rows of
B. A scalar can multiply a matrix of any size.
.* Array multiplication. A.*B is the element-by-element product of the arrays A and B. A and B
must have the same size, unless one of them is a scalar.
/ Slash or matrix right division. B/A is roughly the same as B*inv(A). More precisely, B/A =
(A'\B')'.
./ Array right division. A./B is the matrix with elements A(i,j)/B(i,j). A and B must have the
same size, unless one of them is a scalar.
\ Backslash or matrix left division. If A is a square matrix, A\B is roughly the same as
inv(A)*B, except it is computed in a different way. If A is an n-by-n matrix and B is a column
vector with n components, or a matrix with several such columns, then X = A\B is the solution
to the equation AX = B. A warning message is displayed if A is badly scaled or nearly singular.
.\ Array left division. A.\B is the matrix with elements B(i,j)/A(i,j). A and B must have the same
size, unless one of them is a scalar.
^ Matrix power. X^p is X to the power p, if p is a scalar. If p is an integer, the power is
computed by repeated squaring. If the integer is negative, X is inverted first. For other values
of p, the calculation involves eigenvalues and eigenvectors, such that if [V,D] = eig(X), then
X^p = V*D.^p/V.
.^ Array power. A.^B is the matrix with elements A(i,j) to the B(i,j) power. A and B must have
the same size, unless one of them is a scalar.
' Matrix transpose. A' is the linear algebraic transpose of A. For complex matrices, this is the
complex conjugate transpose.
.' Array transpose. A.' is the array transpose of A. For complex matrices, this does not involve
conjugation.
Relational Operators
Relational operators can also work on both scalar and non-scalar data. Relational operators for arrays
perform element-by-element comparisons between two arrays and return a logical array of the same size,
with elements set to logical 1 (true) where the relation is true and elements set to logical 0 (false) where it
is not. The following table shows the relational operators available in MATLAB:
Operator Description
< Less than
<= Less than or equal to
> Greater than

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>= Greater than or equal to
== Equal to
~= Not equal to
Logical Operators
MATLAB offers two types of logical operators and functions:
 Element-wise − These operators operate on corresponding elements of logical arrays.
 Short-circuit − These operators operate on scalar and, logical expressions.
Element-wise logical operators operate element-by-element on logical arrays. The symbols &, |, and ~ are
the logical array operators AND, OR, and NOT.
Short-circuit logical operators allow short-circuiting on logical operations. The symbols && and || are the
logical short-circuit operators AND and OR.
Bitwise Operations
Bitwise operators work on bits and perform bit-by-bit operation. The truth tables for &, |, and ^ are as
follows −
p q p&q p|q p^q
0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 1 1
1 1 1 1 0
1 0 0 1 1
Assume if A = 60; and B = 13; Now in binary format they will be as follows:
A = 0011 1100
B = 0000 1101
-----------------
A&B = 0000 1100
A|B = 0011 1101
A^B = 0011 0001
~A = 1100 0011
MATLAB provides various functions for bit-wise operations like 'bitwise and', 'bitwise or' and 'bitwise not'
operations, shift operation, etc.
The following table shows the commonly used bitwise operations:
Function Purpose
bitand(a, b) Bit-wise AND of integers a and b
bitcmp(a) Bit-wise complement of a
bitget(a,pos) Get bit at specified position pos, in the integer array a
bitor(a, b) Bit-wise OR of integers a and b
bitset(a, pos) Set bit at specific location pos of a
bitshift(a, k) Returns a shifted to the left by k bits, equivalent to multiplying by 2k. Negative values of
k correspond to shifting bits right or dividing by 2|k| and rounding to the nearest integer

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 towards negative infinite. Any overflow bits are truncated.
bitxor(a, b) Bit-wise XOR of integers a and b
swapbytes Swap byte ordering
Set Operations
MATLAB provides various functions for set operations, like union, intersection and testing for set
membership, etc.
The following table shows some commonly used set operations −
Function Description
intersect(A,B) Set intersection of two arrays; returns the values common to both A and B. The
values returned are in sorted order.
intersect(A,B,'rows') Treats each row of A and each row of B as single entities and returns the rows
common to both A and B. The rows of the returned matrix are in sorted order.
ismember(A,B) Returns an array the same size as A, containing 1 (true) where the elements of A
are found in B. Elsewhere, it returns 0 (false).
ismember(A,B,'rows') Treats each row of A and each row of B as single entities and returns a vector
containing 1 (true) where the rows of matrix A are also rows of B. Elsewhere, it
returns 0 (false).
issorted(A) Returns logical 1 (true) if the elements of A are in sorted order and logical 0
(false) otherwise. Input A can be a vector or an N-by-1 or 1-by-N cell array of
strings. A is considered to be sorted if A and the output of sort(A) are equal.
issorted(A, 'rows') Returns logical 1 (true) if the rows of two-dimensional matrix A is in sorted order,
and logical 0 (false) otherwise. Matrix A is considered to be sorted if A and the
output of sortrows(A) are equal.
setdiff(A,B) Sets difference of two arrays; returns the values in A that are not in B. The values
in the returned array are in sorted order.
setdiff(A,B,'rows') Treats each row of A and each row of B as single entities and returns the rows
from A that are not in B. The rows of the returned matrix are in sorted order.
The 'rows' option does not support cell arrays.
setxor Sets exclusive OR of two arrays
union Sets union of two arrays
unique Unique values in array

MATLAB - Decision Making

Decision making structures require that the programmer should specify one or more conditions to be
evaluated or tested by the program, along with a statement or statements to be executed if the condition is
determined to be true, and optionally, other statements to be executed if the condition is determined to be
false. Following is the general form of a typical decision making structure found in most of the
programming languages −
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MATLAB provides following types of decision making statements. Click the following links to check their detail −
Statement Description

if ... end statement An if ... end statement consists of a boolean expression followed by one
or more statements.

if...else...end statement An if statement can be followed by an optional else statement, which

executes when the boolean expression is false.

If... elseif...elseif...else...end An if statement can be followed by one (or more) optional elseif... and
statements an else statement, which is very useful to test various conditions.

nested if statements You can use one if or elseif statement inside

another if or elseif statement(s).

switch statement A switch statement allows a variable to be tested for equality against a list
of values.

nested switch statements You can use one switch statement inside another switch statement(s).

MATLAB - Loop Types

There may be a situation when you need to execute a block of code several number of times. In general,
statements are executed sequentially. The first statement in a function is executed first, followed by the
second, and so on. Programming languages provide various control structures that allow for more
complicated execution paths. A loop statement allows us to execute a statement or group of statements
multiple times and following is the general form of a loop statement in most of the programming languages
−

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MATLAB provides following types of loops to handle looping requirements. Click the following links to
check their detail −
Loop Type Description

while loop Repeats a statement or group of statements while a given condition is true. It
tests the condition before executing the loop body.

for loop Executes a sequence of statements multiple times and abbreviates the code that
manages the loop variable.

nested loops You can use one or more loops inside any another loop.

Loop Control Statements

Loop control statements change execution from its normal sequence. When execution leaves a scope, all
automatic objects that were created in that scope are destroyed.
MATLAB supports the following control statements.
Control Statement Description

break statement Terminates the loop statement and transfers execution to the statement
immediately following the loop.

continue statement Causes the loop to skip the remainder of its body and immediately retest its
condition prior to reiterating.

MATLAB - Matrix
A matrix is a two-dimensional array of numbers. In MATLAB, you create a matrix by entering elements in
each row as comma or space delimited numbers and using semicolons to mark the end of each row.
For example, let us create a 4-by-5 matrix a −

a = [ 1 2 3 4 5; 2 3 4 5 6; 3 4 5 6 7; 4 5 6 7 8]

MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result −

a=

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 1 2 3 4 5
2 3 4 5 6
3 4 5 6 7
4 5 6 7 8

Referencing the Elements of a Matrix

To reference an element in the mth row and nth column, of a matrix mx, we write −

mx(m, n);

For example, to refer to the element in the 2 nd row and 5th column, of the matrix a, as created in the last
section, we type −

a = [ 1 2 3 4 5; 2 3 4 5 6; 3 4 5 6 7; 4 5 6 7 8];
a(2,5)

MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result −

ans = 6
To reference all the elements in the mth column we type A(:,m).
Let us create a column vector v, from the elements of the 4th row of the matrix a:

a = [ 1 2 3 4 5; 2 3 4 5 6; 3 4 5 6 7; 4 5 6 7 8];
v = a(:,4)

MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result −

v=
4
5
6
7
You can also select the elements in the mth through nth columns, for this we write −

a(:,m:n)

Let us create a smaller matrix taking the elements from the second and third columns −

a = [ 1 2 3 4 5; 2 3 4 5 6; 3 4 5 6 7; 4 5 6 7 8];
a(:, 2:3)

MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result −

ans =
2 3
3 4
4 5

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 5 6
In the same way, you can create a sub-matrix taking a sub-part of a matrix.

a = [ 1 2 3 4 5; 2 3 4 5 6; 3 4 5 6 7; 4 5 6 7 8];
a(:, 2:3)

MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result −

ans =
2 3
3 4
4 5
5 6
In the same way, you can create a sub-matrix taking a sub-part of a matrix.
For example, let us create a sub-matrix sa taking the inner subpart of a:

3 4 5
4 5 6

To do this, write −

a = [ 1 2 3 4 5; 2 3 4 5 6; 3 4 5 6 7; 4 5 6 7 8];
sa = a(2:3,2:4)

MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result −

sa =
3 4 5
4 5 6

Deleting a Row or a Column in a Matrix

You can delete an entire row or column of a matrix by assigning an empty set of square braces [] to that
row or column. Basically, [] denotes an empty array.
For example, let us delete the fourth row of a −

a = [ 1 2 3 4 5; 2 3 4 5 6; 3 4 5 6 7; 4 5 6 7 8];
a( 4 , : ) = []

MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result −

a=
1 2 3 4 5
2 3 4 5 6
3 4 5 6 7
Next, let us delete the fifth column of a −

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a = [ 1 2 3 4 5; 2 3 4 5 6; 3 4 5 6 7; 4 5 6 7 8];
a(: , 5)=[]

MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result −

a=
1 2 3 4
2 3 4 5
3 4 5 6
4 5 6 7
Example
In this example, let us create a 3-by-3 matrix m, then we will copy the second and third rows of this matrix
twice to create a 4-by-3 matrix.
Create a script file with the following code −

a = [ 1 2 3 ; 4 5 6; 7 8 9];
new_mat = a([2,3,2,3],:)

When you run the file, it displays the following result −

new_mat =
4 5 6
7 8 9
4 5 6
7 8 9

Matrix Operations
In this section, let us discuss the following basic and commonly used matrix operations −
 Addition and Subtraction of Matrices
 Division of Matrices
 Scalar Operations of Matrices
 Transpose of a Matrix
 Concatenating Matrices
 Matrix Multiplication
 Determinant of a Matrix
 Inverse of a Matrix

MATLAB - Arrays
All variables of all data types in MATLAB are multidimensional arrays. A vector is a one-dimensional
array and a matrix is a two-dimensional array. We have already discussed vectors and matrices. In this

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chapter, we will discuss multidimensional arrays. However, before that, let us discuss some special types of
arrays.
Special Arrays in MATLAB
In this section, we will discuss some functions that create some special arrays. For all these functions, a
single argument creates a square array, double arguments create rectangular array. The zeros() function
creates an array of all zeros −
For example −

zeros(5)

MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result −

ans =
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
The ones() function creates an array of all ones −
For example −

ones(4,3)

MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result −

ans =
1 1 1
1 1 1
1 1 1
1 1 1
The eye() function creates an identity matrix.
For example −

eye(4)

MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result −

ans =
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
The rand() function creates an array of uniformly distributed random numbers on (0,1) −
For example −

rand(3, 5)

MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result −
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ans =
0.8147 0.9134 0.2785 0.9649 0.9572
0.9058 0.6324 0.5469 0.1576 0.4854
0.1270 0.0975 0.9575 0.9706 0.8003

A Magic Square
A magic square is a square that produces the same sum, when its elements are added row-wise, column-
wise or diagonally. The magic() function creates a magic square array. It takes a singular argument that
gives the size of the square. The argument must be a scalar greater than or equal to 3.

magic(4)

MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result −

ans =
16 2 3 13
5 11 10 8
9 7 6 12
4 14 15 1

Multidimensional Arrays
An array having more than two dimensions is called a multidimensional array in MATLAB.
Multidimensional arrays in MATLAB are an extension of the normal two-dimensional matrix. Generally to
generate a multidimensional array, we first create a two-dimensional array and extend it. For example, let's
create a two-dimensional array a.

a = [7 9 5; 6 1 9; 4 3 2]

MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result −

a=
7 9 5
6 1 9
4 3 2
The array a is a 3-by-3 array; we can add a third dimension to a, by providing the values like −

a(:, :, 2)= [ 1 2 3; 4 5 6; 7 8 9]

MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result −

a=
ans(:,:,1) =
0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0
ans(:,:,2) =
1 2 3
4 5 6

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 7 8 9
We can also create multidimensional arrays using the ones(), zeros() or the rand() functions. For example,

b = rand(4,3,2)

MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result −

b(:,:,1) =
0.0344 0.7952 0.6463
0.4387 0.1869 0.7094
0.3816 0.4898 0.7547
0.7655 0.4456 0.2760

b(:,:,2) =
0.6797 0.4984 0.2238
0.6551 0.9597 0.7513
0.1626 0.3404 0.2551
0.1190 0.5853 0.5060
We can also use the cat() function to build multidimensional arrays. It concatenates a list of arrays along a
specified dimension −
Syntax for the cat() function is −

B = cat(dim, A1, A2...)

Where,
 B is the new array created
 A1, A2, ... are the arrays to be concatenated
 dim is the dimension along which to concatenate the arrays
Example
Create a script file and type the following code into it −

a = [9 8 7; 6 5 4; 3 2 1];
b = [1 2 3; 4 5 6; 7 8 9];
c = cat(3, a, b, [ 2 3 1; 4 7 8; 3 9 0])
When you run the file, it displays −
c(:,:,1) =
9 8 7
6 5 4
3 2 1
c(:,:,2) =
1 2 3
4 5 6
7 8 9
c(:,:,3) =
2 3 1
4 7 8
3 9 0

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Array Functions
MATLAB provides the following functions to sort, rotate, permute, reshape, or shift array contents.

Function Purpose

length Length of vector or largest array dimension

ndims Number of array dimensions

numel Number of array elements

size Array dimensions

iscolumn Determines whether input is column vector

isempty Determines whether array is empty

ismatrix Determines whether input is matrix

isrow Determines whether input is row vector

isscalar Determines whether input is scalar

isvector Determines whether input is vector

blkdiag Constructs block diagonal matrix from input arguments

circshift Shifts array circularly

ctranspose Complex conjugate transpose

diag Diagonal matrices and diagonals of matrix

flipdim Flips array along specified dimension

fliplr Flips matrix from left to right

flipud Flips matrix up to down

ipermute Inverses permute dimensions of N-D array

permute Rearranges dimensions of N-D array

repmat Replicates and tile array

reshape Reshapes array

rot90 Rotates matrix 90 degrees

shiftdim Shifts dimensions

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issorted Determines whether set elements are in sorted order

sort Sorts array elements in ascending or descending order

sortrows Sorts rows in ascending order

squeeze Removes singleton dimensions

transpose Transpose

vectorize Vectorizes expression

Examples: The following examples illustrate some of the functions mentioned above.
Length, Dimension and Number of elements:
Create a script file and type the following code into it −

x = [7.1, 3.4, 7.2, 28/4, 3.6, 17, 9.4, 8.9];

length(x) % length of x vector
y = rand(3, 4, 5, 2);
ndims(y) % no of dimensions in array y
s = ['Zara', 'Nuha', 'Shamim', 'Riz', 'Shadab'];
numel(s) % no of elements in s
When you run the file, it displays the following result −
ans = 8
ans = 4
ans = 23

Circular Shifting of the Array Elements −

Create a script file and type the following code into it −

a = [1 2 3; 4 5 6; 7 8 9] % the original array a

b = circshift(a,1) % circular shift first dimension values down by 1.
c = circshift(a,[1 -1]) % circular shift first dimension values % down by 1
% and second dimension values to the left % by 1.
When you run the file, it displays the following result −
a=
1 2 3
4 5 6
7 8 9
b=
7 8 9
1 2 3
4 5 6

c=
8 9 7
2 3 1
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 5 6 4

Sorting Arrays
Create a script file and type the following code into it −

v = [ 23 45 12 9 5 0 19 17] % horizontal vector

sort(v) % sorting v
m = [2 6 4; 5 3 9; 2 0 1] % two dimensional array
sort(m, 1) % sorting m along the row
sort(m, 2) % sorting m along the column
When you run the file, it displays the following result −
v=
23 45 12 9 5 0 19 17
ans =
0 5 9 12 17 19 23 45
m=
2 6 4
5 3 9
2 0 1
ans =
2 0 1
2 3 4
5 6 9
ans =
2 4 6
3 5 9
0 1 2

Cell Array
Cell arrays are arrays of indexed cells where each cell can store an array of a different dimensions and data
types.
The cell function is used for creating a cell array. Syntax for the cell function is −

C = cell(dim)
C = cell(dim1,...,dimN)
D = cell(obj)
Where,
 C is the cell array;
 dim is a scalar integer or vector of integers that specifies the dimensions of cell array C;
 dim1, ... , dimN are scalar integers that specify the dimensions of C;
 obj is One of the following:
o Java array or object
o .NET array of type System.String or System.Object
Example
Create a script file and type the following code into it −

21
c = cell(2, 5);
c = {'Red', 'Blue', 'Green', 'Yellow', 'White'; 1 2 3 4 5}

When you run the file, it displays the following result −

c=
{
[1,1] = Red
[2,1] = 1
[1,2] = Blue
[2,2] = 2
[1,3] = Green
[2,3] = 3
[1,4] = Yellow
[2,4] = 4
[1,5] = White
[2,5] = 5
}

Accessing Data in Cell Arrays

There are two ways to refer to the elements of a cell array −

 Enclosing the indices in first bracket (), to refer to sets of cells

 Enclosing the indices in braces {}, to refer to the data within individual cells

When you enclose the indices in first bracket, it refers to the set of cells.
Cell array indices in smooth parentheses refer to sets of cells.
For example:

c = {'Red', 'Blue', 'Green', 'Yellow', 'White'; 1 2 3 4 5};

c(1:2,1:2)

MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result −

ans =
{
[1,1] = Red
[2,1] = 1
[1,2] = Blue
[2,2] = 2
}
You can also access the contents of cells by indexing with curly braces.
For example −

c = {'Red', 'Blue', 'Green', 'Yellow', 'White'; 1 2 3 4 5};

22
c{1, 2:4}

MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result −

ans = Blue
ans = Green
ans = Yellow

MATLAB - Colon Notation

The colon(:) is one of the most useful operator in MATLAB. It is used to create vectors, subscript arrays,
and specify for iterations.
If you want to create a row vector, containing integers from 1 to 10, you write −

1:10

MATLAB executes the statement and returns a row vector containing the integers from 1 to 10 −

ans =
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
If you want to specify an increment value other than one, for example −

100: -5: 50

MATLAB executes the statement and returns the following result −

ans =
100 95 90 85 80 75 70 65 60 55 50
Let us take another example −

0:pi/8:pi

MATLAB executes the statement and returns the following result −

ans =
Columns 1 through 7
0 0.3927 0.7854 1.1781 1.5708 1.9635 2.3562
Columns 8 through 9
2.7489 3.1416
You can use the colon operator to create a vector of indices to select rows, columns or elements of arrays.
The following table describes its use for this purpose (let us have a matrix A) −

Format Purpose

A(:,j) is the jth column of A.

A(i,:) is the ith row of A.

A(:,:) is the equivalent two-dimensional array. For matrices this is the same as A.
23
A(j:k) is A(j), A(j+1),...,A(k).

A(:,j:k) is A(:,j), A(:,j+1),...,A(:,k).

A(:,:,k) is the kth page of three-dimensional array A.

A(i,j,k,:) is a vector in four-dimensional array A. The vector includes A(i,j,k,1), A(i,j,k,2), A(i,j,k,3),
and so on.

A(:) is all the elements of A, regarded as a single column. On the left side of an assignment
statement, A(:) fills A, preserving its shape from before. In this case, the right side must
contain the same number of elements as A.
Example
Create a script file and type the following code in it −

A = [1 2 3 4; 4 5 6 7; 7 8 9 10]

A(:,2) % second column of A

A(:,2:3) % second and third column of A

A(2:3,2:3) % second and third rows and second and third columns

When you run the file, it displays the following result −

A=
1 2 3 4
4 5 6 7
7 8 9 10
ans =
2
5
8
ans =
2 3
5 6
8 9
ans =
5 6
8 9

MATLAB - Functions
A function is a group of statements that together perform a task. In MATLAB, functions are defined in
separate files. The name of the file and of the function should be the same. Functions operate on variables
within their own workspace, which is also called the local workspace, separate from the workspace you
access at the MATLAB command prompt which is called the base workspace. Functions can accept more
than one input arguments and may return more than one output arguments. Syntax of a function statement
is −

24
function [out1,out2, ..., outN] = myfun(in1,in2,in3, ..., inN)

Example
The following function named mymax should be written in a file named mymax.m. It takes five numbers as
argument and returns the maximum of the numbers.

Create a function file, named mymax.m and type the following code in it −

function max = mymax(n1, n2, n3, n4, n5)

%This function calculates the maximum of the
% five numbers given as input
max = n1;
if(n2 > max)
max = n2;
end
if(n3 > max)
max = n3;
end
if(n4 > max)
max = n4;
end
if(n5 > max)
max = n5;
end
The first line of a function starts with the keyword function. It gives the name of the function and order of
arguments. In our example, the mymax function has five input arguments and one output argument.
The comment lines that come right after the function statement provide the help text. These lines are
printed when you type −

help mymax

MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result −

This function calculates the maximum of the

five numbers given as input
You can call the function as −

mymax(34, 78, 89, 23, 11)

MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result −

ans = 89

Anonymous Functions
An anonymous function is like an inline function in traditional programming languages, defined within a
single MATLAB statement. It consists of a single MATLAB expression and any number of input and

25
 output arguments. You can define an anonymous function right at the MATLAB command line or within a
function or script. This way you can create simple functions without having to create a file for them.
The syntax for creating an anonymous function from an expression is
f = @(arglist)expression
Example : In this example, we will write an anonymous function named power, which will take
two numbers as input and return first number raised to the power of the second number.
Create a script file and type the following code in it −

power = @(x, n) x.^n;

result1 = power(7, 3)
result2 = power(49, 0.5)
result3 = power(10, -10)
result4 = power (4.5, 1.5)
When you run the file, it displays −
result1 = 343
result2 = 7
result3 = 1.0000e-10
result4 = 9.5459

Primary and Sub-Functions

Any function other than an anonymous function must be defined within a file. Each function file contains a
required primary function that appears first and any number of optional sub-functions that comes after the
primary function and used by it.
Primary functions can be called from outside of the file that defines them, either from command line or
from other functions, but sub-functions cannot be called from command line or other functions, outside the
function file.
Sub-functions are visible only to the primary function and other sub-functions within the function file that
defines them.
Example : Let us write a function named quadratic that would calculate the roots of a quadratic
equation. The function would take three inputs, the quadratic co-efficient, the linear co-efficient
and the constant term. It would return the roots.
The function file quadratic.m will contain the primary function quadratic and the sub-function disc, which
calculates the discriminant.
Create a function file quadratic.m and type the following code in it −
function [x1,x2] = quadratic(a,b,c)
%this function returns the roots of
% a quadratic equation.
% It takes 3 input arguments
% which are the co-efficients of x2, x and the
%constant term
% It returns the roots
d = disc(a,b,c);

26
x1 = (-b + d) / (2*a);
x2 = (-b - d) / (2*a);
end % end of quadratic

function dis = disc(a,b,c)

%function calculates the discriminant
dis = sqrt(b^2 - 4*a*c);
end % end of sub-function

You can call the above function from command prompt as −

quadratic(2,4,-4)

MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result −

ans = 0.7321

Nested Functions
You can define functions within the body of another function. These are called nested functions. A nested
function contains any or all of the components of any other function.
Nested functions are defined within the scope of another function and they share access to the containing
function's workspace.
A nested function follows the following syntax −
function x = A(p1, p2)
...
B(p2)
function y = B(p3)
...
end
...
end

Example
Let us rewrite the function quadratic, from previous example, however, this time the disc function will be a
nested function.

Create a function file quadratic2.m and type the following code in it −

function [x1,x2] = quadratic2(a,b,c)

function disc % nested function

27
d = sqrt(b^2 - 4*a*c);
end % end of function disc
disc;
x1 = (-b + d) / (2*a);
x2 = (-b - d) / (2*a);
end % end of function quadratic2

You can call the above function from command prompt as −

quadratic2(2,4,-4)

MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result −

ans = 0.73205

Private Functions
A private function is a primary function that is visible only to a limited group of other functions. If you do
not want to expose the implementation of a function(s), you can create them as private functions.
Private functions reside in subfolders with the special name private.
They are visible only to functions in the parent folder.
Example
Let us rewrite the quadratic function. This time, however, the disc function calculating the discriminant,
will be a private function.
Create a subfolder named private in working directory. Store the following function file disc.m in it −
function dis = disc(a,b,c)
%function calculates the discriminant
dis = sqrt(b^2 - 4*a*c);
end % end of sub-function

Create a function quadratic3.m in your working directory and type the following code in it −

function [x1,x2] = quadratic3(a,b,c)

%this function returns the roots of
% a quadratic equation.
% It takes 3 input arguments
% which are the co-efficient of x2, x and the
%constant term
% It returns the roots
d = disc(a,b,c);
x1 = (-b + d) / (2*a);
28
x2 = (-b - d) / (2*a);
end % end of quadratic3

You can call the above function from command prompt as −

quadratic3(2,4,-4)

MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result −

ans = 0.73205

Global Variables
Global variables can be shared by more than one function. For this, you need to declare the variable as
global in all the functions.
If you want to access that variable from the base workspace, then declare the variable at the command line.
The global declaration must occur before the variable is actually used in a function. It is a good practice to
use capital letters for the names of global variables to distinguish them from other variables.
Example
Let us create a function file named average.m and type the following code in it −
function avg = average(nums)
global TOTAL
avg = sum(nums)/TOTAL;
end

Create a script file and type the following code in it −

global TOTAL;
TOTAL = 10;
n = [34, 45, 25, 45, 33, 19, 40, 34, 38, 42];
av = average(n)
When you run the file, it will display the following result −
av = 35.500
MATLAB - Plotting
To plot the graph of a function, you need to take the following steps −
 Define x, by specifying the range of values for the variable x, for which the function is to be plotted
 Define the function, y = f(x)
 Call the plot command, as plot(x, y)
Following example would demonstrate the concept. Let us plot the simple function y = x for the range of
values for x from 0 to 100, with an increment of 5.
Create a script file and type the following code −
x = [0:5:100];
y = x;
plot(x, y)
When you run the file, MATLAB displays the following plot −

29
Let us take one more example to plot the function y = x2. In this example, we will draw two graphs with the
same function, but in second time, we will reduce the value of increment. Please note that as we decrease
the increment, the graph becomes smoother.
Create a script file and type the following code −

x = [1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10];
x = [-100:20:100];
y = x.^2;
plot(x, y)
When you run the file, MATLAB displays the following plot −

Change the code file a little, reduce the increment to 5 −

x = [-100:5:100];
y = x.^2;
30
plot(x, y)
MATLAB draws a smoother graph −

Adding Title, Labels, Grid Lines and Scaling on the Graph

MATLAB allows you to add title, labels along the x-axis and y-axis, grid lines and also to adjust the axes to
spruce up the graph.
 The xlabel and ylabel commands generate labels along x-axis and y-axis.
 The title command allows you to put a title on the graph.
 The grid on command allows you to put the grid lines on the graph.
 The axis equal command allows generating the plot with the same scale factors and the spaces on
both axes.
 The axis square command generates a square plot.
Example
Create a script file and type the following code −
x = [0:0.01:10];
y = sin(x);
plot(x, y), xlabel('x'), ylabel('Sin(x)'), title('Sin(x) Graph'),
grid on, axis equal

MATLAB generates the following graph −

31
Drawing Multiple Functions on the Same Graph
You can draw multiple graphs on the same plot. The following example demonstrates the concept −
Example: Create a script file and type the following code −
x = [0 : 0.01: 10];
y = sin(x);
g = cos(x);
plot(x, y, x, g, '.-'), legend('Sin(x)', 'Cos(x)')

MATLAB generates the following graph −

32
Setting Colors on Graph
MATLAB provides eight basic color options for drawing graphs. The following table shows the colors and
their codes −

Code Color

w White

k Black

b Blue

r Red

c Cyan

g Green

m Magenta

y Yellow
Example
Let us draw the graph of two polynomials
 f(x) = 3x4 + 2x3+ 7x2 + 2x + 9 and
 g(x) = 5x3 + 9x + 2
Create a script file and type the following code −

x = [-10 : 0.01: 10];

y = 3*x.^4 + 2 * x.^3 + 7 * x.^2 + 2 * x + 9;
g = 5 * x.^3 + 9 * x + 2;
plot(x, y, 'r', x, g, 'g')

When you run the file, MATLAB generates the following graph −

33
Setting Axis Scales
The axis command allows you to set the axis scales. You can provide minimum and maximum values for x
and y axes using the axis command in the following way:

axis ( [xmin xmax ymin ymax] )

The following example shows this −

Example
Create a script file and type the following code −

x = [0 : 0.01: 10];
y = exp(-x).* sin(2*x + 3);
plot(x, y), axis([0 10 -1 1])

When you run the file, MATLAB generates the following graph −

34
Generating Sub-Plots
When you create an array of plots in the same figure, each of these plots is called a subplot.
The subplot command is used for creating subplots.
Syntax for the command is −

subplot(m, n, p)

where, m and n are the number of rows and columns of the plot array and pspecifies where to put a
particular plot.
Each plot created with the subplot command can have its own characteristics. Following example
demonstrates the concept −
Example
Let us generate two plots −
y = e−1.5xsin(10x)
y = e−2xsin(10x)
Create a script file and type the following code −

x = [0:0.01:5];
y = exp(-1.5*x).*sin(10*x);
subplot(1,2,1)
plot(x,y), xlabel('x'),ylabel('exp(–1.5x)*sin(10x)'),axis([0 5 -1 1])
y = exp(-2*x).*sin(10*x);
subplot(1,2,2)
plot(x,y),xlabel('x'),ylabel('exp(–2x)*sin(10x)'),axis([0 5 -1 1])
35
When you run the file, MATLAB generates the following graph −

MATLAB - Graphics
his chapter will continue exploring the plotting and graphics capabilities of MATLAB. We will discuss −

 Drawing bar charts

 Drawing contours
 Three dimensional plots

Drawing Bar Charts

The bar command draws a two dimensional bar chart. Let us take up an example to demonstrate the idea.
Example
Let us have an imaginary classroom with 10 students. We know the percent of marks obtained by these
students are 75, 58, 90, 87, 50, 85, 92, 75, 60 and 95. We will draw the bar chart for this data.
Create a script file and type the following code −

x = [1:10];

y = [75, 58, 90, 87, 50, 85, 92, 75, 60, 95];

bar(x,y), xlabel('Student'),ylabel('Score'),

title('First Sem:')

print -deps graph.eps

When you run the file, MATLAB displays the following bar chart −

36
Drawing Contours
A contour line of a function of two variables is a curve along which the function has a constant value.
Contour lines are used for creating contour maps by joining points of equal elevation above a given level,
such as mean sea level.
MATLAB provides a contour function for drawing contour maps.
Example
Let us generate a contour map that shows the contour lines for a given function g = f(x, y). This function
has two variables. So, we will have to generate two independent variables, i.e., two data sets x and y. This
is done by calling the meshgrid command.
The meshgrid command is used for generating a matrix of elements that give the range over x and y along
with the specification of increment in each case.
Let us plot our function g = f(x, y), where −5 ≤ x ≤ 5, −3 ≤ y ≤ 3. Let us take an increment of 0.1 for both
the values. The variables are set as −

[x,y] = meshgrid(–5:0.1:5, –3:0.1:3);

Lastly, we need to assign the function. Let our function be: x2 + y2

Create a script file and type the following code −

[x,y] = meshgrid(-5:0.1:5,-3:0.1:3); %independent variables

g = x.^2 + y.^2; % our function

contour(x,y,g) % call the contour function

print -deps graph.eps

When you run the file, MATLAB displays the following contour map −

37
Let us modify the code a little to spruce up the map

[x,y] = meshgrid(-5:0.1:5,-3:0.1:3); %independent variables

g = x.^2 + y.^2; % our function

[C, h] = contour(x,y,g); % call the contour function

set(h,'ShowText','on','TextStep',get(h,'LevelStep')*2)

print -deps graph.eps

When you run the file, MATLAB displays the following contour map −

Three Dimensional Plots

Three-dimensional plots basically display a surface defined by a function in two variables, g = f (x,y).

38
As before, to define g, we first create a set of (x,y) points over the domain of the function using
the meshgrid command. Next, we assign the function itself. Finally, we use the surf command to create a
surface plot.
The following example demonstrates the concept −
Example
Let us create a 3D surface map for the function g = xe-(x2 + y2)
Create a script file and type the following code −

[x,y] = meshgrid(-2:.2:2);

g = x .* exp(-x.^2 - y.^2);

surf(x, y, g)

print -deps graph.eps

When you run the file, MATLAB displays the following 3-D map −

You can also use the mesh command to generate a three-dimensional surface. However, the surf command
displays both the connecting lines and the faces of the surface in color, whereas, the mesh command
creates a wireframe surface with colored lines connecting the defining points.

MATLAB - Algebra
So far, we have seen that all the examples work in MATLAB as well as its GNU, alternatively called
Octave. But for solving basic algebraic equations, both MATLAB and Octave are little different, so we will
try to cover MATLAB and Octave in separate sections.

We will also discuss factorizing and simplification of algebraic expressions.

39
Solving Basic Algebraic Equations in MATLAB
The solve function is used for solving algebraic equations. In its simplest form, the solve function takes the
equation enclosed in quotes as an argument.

For example, let us solve for x in the equation x-5 = 0

solve('x-5=0')

MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result −

ans = 5
You can also call the solve function as −

y = solve('x-5 = 0')

MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result −

y= 5
You may even not include the right hand side of the equation −

solve('x-5')

MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result −

ans = 5
If the equation involves multiple symbols, then MATLAB by default assumes that you are solving for x,
however, the solve function has another form −

solve(equation, variable)

where, you can also mention the variable.

For example, let us solve the equation v – u – 3t2 = 0, for v. In this case, we should write −

solve('v-u-3*t^2=0', 'v')

MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result −

ans =
3*t^2 + u
Solving Basic Algebraic Equations in Octave
The roots function is used for solving algebraic equations in Octave and you can write above examples as
follows: For example, let us solve for x in the equation x-5 = 0

roots([1, -5])

40
Octave will execute the above statement and return the following result −

ans = 5
You can also call the solve function as −

y = roots([1, -5])

Octave will execute the above statement and return the following result −

y=5

Solving Quadratic Equations in MATLAB

The solve function can also solve higher order equations. It is often used to solve quadratic equations. The
function returns the roots of the equation in an array.

The following example solves the quadratic equation x 2 -7x +12 = 0. Create a script file and type the
following code −

eq = 'x^2 -7*x + 12 = 0';

s = solve(eq);
disp('The first root is: '), disp(s(1));
disp('The second root is: '), disp(s(2));

When you run the file, it displays the following result −

The first root is: 3

The second root is: 4
Solving Quadratic Equations in Octave
The following example solves the quadratic equation x2 -7x +12 = 0 in Octave. Create a script file and type
the following code −

s = roots([1, -7, 12]);

disp('The first root is: '), disp(s(1));
disp('The second root is: '), disp(s(2));

When you run the file, it displays the following result −

The first root is: 4

The second root is: 3

Solving Higher Order Equations in MATLAB

The solve function can also solve higher order equations. For example, let us solve a cubic equation as (x-
3)2(x-7) = 0

41
solve('(x-3)^2*(x-7)=0')

MATLAB will execute the above statement and return the following result −

ans =
3
3
7
In case of higher order equations, roots are long containing many terms. You can get the numerical value of
such roots by converting them to double. The following example solves the fourth order equation x4 − 7x3 +
3x2 − 5x + 9 = 0.

Create a script file and type the following code −

eq = 'x^4 - 7*x^3 + 3*x^2 - 5*x + 9 = 0';

s = solve(eq);
disp('The first root is: '), disp(s(1));
disp('The second root is: '), disp(s(2));
disp('The third root is: '), disp(s(3));
disp('The fourth root is: '), disp(s(4));
% converting the roots to double type
disp('Numeric value of first root'), disp(double(s(1)));
disp('Numeric value of second root'), disp(double(s(2)));
disp('Numeric value of third root'), disp(double(s(3)));
disp('Numeric value of fourth root'), disp(double(s(4)));

When you run the file, it returns the following result −

The first root is:

6.630396332390718431485053218985
The second root is:
1.0597804633025896291682772499885
The third root is:
- 0.34508839784665403032666523448675 - 1.0778362954630176596831109269793*i
The fourth root is:
- 0.34508839784665403032666523448675 + 1.0778362954630176596831109269793*i
Numeric value of first root
6.6304
Numeric value of second root
1.0598
Numeric value of third root
-0.3451 - 1.0778i
Numeric value of fourth root

42
 -0.3451 + 1.0778i
Please note that the last two roots are complex numbers.

Solving Higher Order Equations in Octave

The following example solves the fourth order equation x4 − 7x3 + 3x2 − 5x + 9 = 0.

Create a script file and type the following code −

v = [1, -7, 3, -5, 9];

s = roots(v);
% converting the roots to double type
disp('Numeric value of first root'), disp(double(s(1)));
disp('Numeric value of second root'), disp(double(s(2)));
disp('Numeric value of third root'), disp(double(s(3)));
disp('Numeric value of fourth root'), disp(double(s(4)));

When you run the file, it returns the following result −

Numeric value of first root

6.6304
Numeric value of second root
-0.34509 + 1.07784i
Numeric value of third root
-0.34509 - 1.07784i
Numeric value of fourth root
1.0598
Solving System of Equations in MATLAB
The solve function can also be used to generate solutions of systems of equations involving more than one
variables. Let us take up a simple example to demonstrate this use.

Let us solve the equations −

5x + 9y = 5
3x – 6y = 4
Create a script file and type the following code −
s = solve('5*x + 9*y = 5','3*x - 6*y = 4');
s.x
s.y

When you run the file, it displays the following result −

ans =
22/19
ans =
-5/57
43
In same way, you can solve larger linear systems. Consider the following set of equations −

x + 3y -2z = 5
3x + 5y + 6z = 7
2x + 4y + 3z = 8

Solving System of Equations in Octave

We have a little different approach to solve a system of 'n' linear equations in 'n' unknowns. Let us take up a
simple example to demonstrate this use.

Let us solve the equations −

5x + 9y = 5
3x – 6y = 4
Such a system of linear equations can be written as the single matrix equation Ax = b, where A is the
coefficient matrix, b is the column vector containing the right-hand side of the linear equations and x is the
column vector representing the solution as shown in the below program −
Create a script file and type the following code −

A = [5, 9; 3, -6];
b = [5;4];
A\ b
When you run the file, it displays the following result −
ans =
1.157895
-0.087719
In same way, you can solve larger linear systems as given below −

x + 3y -2z = 5
3x + 5y + 6z = 7
2x + 4y + 3z = 8

Expanding and Collecting Equations in MATLAB

The expand and the collect function expands and collects an equation respectively. The following example
demonstrates the concepts − When you work with many symbolic functions, you should declare that your
variables are symbolic. Create a script file and type the following code −

syms x %symbolic variable x

syms y %symbolic variable x
% expanding equations
expand((x-5)*(x+9))
expand((x+2)*(x-3)*(x-5)*(x+7))
expand(sin(2*x))
expand(cos(x+y))

% collecting equations
collect(x^3 *(x-7))

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collect(x^4*(x-3)*(x-5))
When you run the file, it displays the following result −
ans =
x^2 + 4*x - 45
ans =
x^4 + x^3 - 43*x^2 + 23*x + 210
ans =
2*cos(x)*sin(x)
ans =
cos(x)*cos(y) - sin(x)*sin(y)
ans =
x^4 - 7*x^3
ans =
x^6 - 8*x^5 + 15*x^4

Expanding and Collecting Equations in Octave

You need to have symbolic package, which provides expand and the collectfunction to expand and collect
an equation, respectively. The following example demonstrates the concepts −

When you work with many symbolic functions, you should declare that your variables are symbolic but
Octave has different approach to define symbolic variables. Notice the use of Sin and Cos, which are also
defined in symbolic package.

Create a script file and type the following code −

% first of all load the package, make sure its installed.

pkg load symbolic

% make symbols module available

symbols

% define symbolic variables

x = sym ('x');
y = sym ('y');
z = sym ('z');

% expanding equations
expand((x-5)*(x+9))
expand((x+2)*(x-3)*(x-5)*(x+7))
expand(Sin(2*x))
expand(Cos(x+y))

% collecting equations
collect(x^3 *(x-7), z)
collect(x^4*(x-3)*(x-5), z)
When you run the file, it displays the following result −
ans = -45.0+x^2+(4.0)*x

45
ans = 210.0+x^4-(43.0)*x^2+x^3+(23.0)*x
ans = sin((2.0)*x)
ans = cos(y+x)
ans = x^(3.0)*(-7.0+x)
ans = (-3.0+x)*x^(4.0)*(-5.0+x)

Factorization and Simplification of Algebraic Expressions

The factor function factorizes an expression and the simplify function simplifies an expression. The
following example demonstrates the concept – Example Create a script file and type the following code −

syms x
syms y
factor(x^3 - y^3)
factor([x^2-y^2,x^3+y^3])
simplify((x^4-16)/(x^2-4))
When you run the file, it displays the following result −
ans = (x - y)*(x^2 + x*y + y^2)
ans = [ (x - y)*(x + y), (x + y)*(x^2 - x*y + y^2)]
ans = x^2 + 4

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