TOPIC 1 - LISTENING SKILLS

The Importance of Listening

• Listening is the most common communicative activity in daily life: "we can expect to
listen twice as much as we speak, four times more than we read, and five times more
than we write." (Morley, 1991, p. 82)
• It occupies about 45 per cent of the time adults spend in communication. This is
significantly more than speaking, which accounts for 30 per cent, and reading and
writing, which make up 16 per cent and nine per cent respectively.

Definition: Selective Listening

• Selective listening is a listening technique that filters and summarizes to achieve
comprehension.
• Selective listening is like a student with a highlighter.
When students study for a test they commonly use a highlighter to focus on key
ideas in a textbook. They might skim over text that doesn't seem critical but focus on
text that gets to the point.
Listening For Main Ideas
• Listening for main ideas means trying to find out what the text is all about.
• In other words, trying to identify the general subject or the gist of the text.
• One way to identify the main idea is to take note of all the keywords and then
summarise them into one sentence.
Listening For Supporting Details
• Supporting details are pieces of information that are provided to lend support or
credibility to your main points or ideas.
• Supporting details can be in the form of:
Listening For Sequence Of Ideas And Events.
• Sequencing refers to the identification of the components of a story, such as the
beginning, middle, and end, and also to the ability to retell the events within a given
text in the order in which they occurred.
• Adults frequently need to listen to a description of a process or instructions in the
order or sequence of steps in a process in order to carry them out.
 TOPIC 2 - LISTENING SKILLS
Distinguishing Between FACT and OPINION
FACTS
• Facts are statements that can be checked or proved
• We can check facts by conducting some sort of experiment, observation, or by
verifying (checking) the fact with a source document
• Facts often contain numbers, dates, or ages
• Facts might include specific information about a person, place or thing
OPINIONS
• An opinion is a statement that cannot be proved or checked
• It tells what someone thinks, feels, or believes
• Clue words for opinion statements are:
– think, feel, believe, seem
– always, never, all, none, most, least, best, greatest, worst
HINTS FOR DECIDING IF A STATEMENT IS FACT OR OPINION
• To recognize a FACT:
– Read each answer choice and ask yourself:
– “Can this statement be proven?”
HINTS FOR DECIDING IF A STATEMENT IS A FACT OR OPINION
• To recognize an OPINION:
 Read each answer choice and ask yourself “Does this statement tell what
someone thinks, feels, or believes?”
 Look in the answer choice for clue words that signal an opinion
LISTENING FOR MAKING INFERENCES
WHAT DOES “MAKING AN INFERENCE” MEAN?
• It means the same thing as to draw a conclusion, or
• A way of figuring out information that is NOT directly stated in a reading passage
• making an intelligent guess or arriving at a logical interpretation based on available
information.
STRATEGIES FOR MAKING INFERENCES
• Strategy 1 - analyse information
• Strategy 2 - use background knowledge and common sense
• Strategy 3 - interpret meaning
 LISTENING FOR PREDICTING OUTCOMES
WHAT DOES PREDICTING MEANS
• to say what you think will happen.
• guessing what the speaker is about to say next before he says it.
(In a conversation, talk, lecture, briefing, etc., it is very useful if the listener can anticipate
what is going to be said next because he is likely to understand what is being said better.)
MAKING PREDICTIONS INVOLVES:
• using your own experience and knowledge, and logical association
• listening to the tone of voice
• listening out for transition markers
• making inferences
TRANSITION MARKERS
Examples:
• If the speaker says, “Thousands of people died in the 2004 tsunami disaster because
….”,
(you can predict that the speaker is going to give the reason why so many people died.)
• If the speaker says, “Nani desperately wanted to be selected for the national karate
team. Nani trained for hours every day but she….”,
(you can predict that the speaker is going to tell you that Nani failed.)

TOPIC 3 - LISTENING SKILLS

TYPES OF LISTENING
• Listening types can be defined by the goal of the listening. The three main types
most common in interpersonal relationships are:
 Informational Listening (Listening to Learn)
 Critical Listening (Listening to Evaluate and Analyse)√
 Therapeutic or Empathetic Listening (Listening to Understand Feeling and Emotion)
 WHAT IS CRITICAL LISTENING?
• Critical listening is a rational process of evaluating arguments put forward by others
• Does not mean that the information you are listening to is somehow faulty or flawed.
• To evaluate and judge, forming opinion about what is being said. Judgment includes
assessing strengths and weaknesses, agreement and approval.
• Ask yourself questions such as, ‘what is the speaker trying to say?’ or ‘what is the
main argument being presented?’, ‘how does what I’m hearing differ from my beliefs,
knowledge or opinion?’.
WHAT DOES CRITICAL LISTENING INVOLVED?
• Listening includes the development of critical thinking, leading eventually to the
listener being able to evaluate not only the difference between literal and implied
meaning but also a speaker’s attitude or bias.
CRITICAL LISTENING
• to evaluate or scrutinise what is being said and involves problem solving or decision
making
• to have well-developed skills of reflection, analysis and evaluation.
• to engage with oral texts at the literal level (e.g: basic listening skills, including
comprehension skills)
• to relate to some of the ways in which spoken language (such as a powerful speech
or a coaxing invitation) is used to achieve a particular purpose with a specific
audience in mind.
• Evaluate the speaker’s message of its accuracy, meaningfulness, and utility
• Critical listening and critical thinking really go hand in hand - you cannot listen
critically if you do not think critically.
• Critical listening skills are important because we are constantly bombarded with
commercials, telemarketing calls, and other persuasive messages.
• TIPS TO CRITICAL LISTENING
1. Is the speaker using emotion rather than logic?
– So that you are not easily persuaded by the speaker’s personal feelings.
2. Is the speaker being biased and only presenting one side of the issue?
– To make sure the speaker is being unbiased
3. Is the speaker stating facts or is he merely stating his opinion?
 TOPIC 4 - SPEAKING SKILLS
WHAT IS SPEECH PRODUCTION?
• Speech production is the process by which thoughts are translated into speech.
• This includes the selection of words, the organization of relevant grammatical forms,
and then the articulation of the resulting sounds by the motor system using the vocal
apparatus.
WHAT ARE MINIMAL PAIRS?
• Minimal pairs are pairs of words that only have one sound different, usually meaning
sounds that may confuse English learners.
Example:
– /f/ and /v/ in fan and van,
– /e/ and /ɪ/ in desk and disk
(watch the video - We are sinking)
• Minimal pairs are a useful way to highlight a sound in a meaningful context and also
to show how important correct pronunciation of the sound is.
• ARE MINIMAL PAIRS IMPORTANT?
• Yes!
• Why? Partly because some people are not able to hear the difference between two
words which may – to them – sound exactly the same but which may have
completely different meanings.
• Look at these two sentences:
– Yesterday I saw a ship?
– Yesterday I saw a sheep?
• A student may think he has understood the sentence, but in fact he could easily
WORD STRESS & SENTENCE STRESS
WORD STRESS
• Word stress is not used in all languages. Some languages, Japanese or French for
example, pronounce each syllable with eq-ual em-pha-sis.
• Non-native speakers who speak English to native speakers without using word
stress, encounter two problems:
 They find it difficult to understand native speakers, especially those speaking
fast.
 The native speakers may find it difficult to understand them.
 UNDERSTANDING SYLLABLES
• In English, we do not say each syllable with the same force or strength. In one word,
we accentuate ONE syllable. We say one syllable very loudly (big, strong,
important) and all the other syllables very quietly.
WORD STRESS
• Do they sound the same when spoken?
• Because we accentuate (stress) ONE syllable in each word. And it is not always the
same syllable. So the "shape" of each word is different.
• This happens in ALL words with 2 or more syllables: TEAcher, JaPAN, CHIna,
aBOVE, converSAtion, INteresting, imPORtant, deMAND, etCETera,
• The syllables that are not stressed are weak or small or quiet. Fluent speakers of
English listen for the STRESSED syllables, not the weak syllables.
STRESSED SYLLABLE
• A stressed syllable combines five features:
 It is l-o-n-g-e-r - com p-u-ter
 It is LOUDER - comPUTer
 It has a change in pitch from the syllables coming before and afterwards. The
pitch of a stressed syllable is usually higher.
 It is said more clearly -The vowel sound is purer. Compare the first and last
vowel sounds with the stressed sound.
 It uses larger facial movements - Look in the mirror when you say the word.
Look at your jaw and lips in particular.
WHY WORD STRESS IS IMPORTANT
• Stressing the wrong syllable in a word can make the word very difficult to hear and
understand
• Stressing a word differently can change the meaning or type of the word:
• Example :
 PREsent - it is a noun (gift) or an adjective (opposite of absent).
 preSENT - a verb (to offer).
WHERE DO I PUT WORD STRESS?
• All dictionaries give the phonetic spelling of a word. This is where they show which
syllable is stressed, usually with an apostrophe (') just before or just after the
stressed syllable. (The notes in the dictionary will explain the system used.)
• Eg :
• ‘pre-sent
• pre-’sent
 WORD STRESS RULES
• There are two very simple rules about word stress:
 One word has only one stress. (One word cannot have two stresses. If you
hear two stresses, you hear two words. Two stresses cannot be one word.)
 We can only stress vowels, not consonants.
 E.g: Apple, bUrglar, umbrElla
WORD STRESS RULES
A. Stress on first syllable
B. Stress on last syllable
• More examples: the words export, import, contract and object can all be nouns (A)
or verbs (B) depending on whether the stress is on the first or second syllable.
• WORD STRESS RULES
C. Stress on second from end syllable
• WORD STRESS RULES
E. Compound words (words with two parts)
SENTENCE STRESS
• Sentence stress is the music of spoken English.
• Sentence stress is accent on certain words within a sentence.
• Stress is linked to meaning, so the English speaker needs to stress the words that
carry the most meaning.
• We stress words by saying them slightly louder and more slowly or with a
different pitch than the other words in the sentence.
• Imagine that you receive this telegram message:
• This sentence is not complete. It is not a "grammatically correct" sentence. But you
probably understand it. These 4 words communicate very well. Somebody wants you
to sell their car for them because they have gone to France. We can add a few
words:
SENTENCE STRESS RULES
• content words are stressed
• Content words are the important words that carry the meaning or sense.
• If you remove the content words from a sentence, the sentence has no sense or
meaning.
• Structure words - unstressed
• Structure words are not very important words. They are small, simple words that
make the sentence correct grammatically
 INTONATION
WHAT IS INTONATION?
• Intonation is a term used to refer to the distinctive use of different patterns of pitch
that carry meaningful information.
Question: What is the difference in the way the following sentence sound?
A. “ She’s a doctor”
B. “ She’s a doctor”
Answer: The ‘melodies’ of the two sentences are different:
• The melody of sentence A drops at the end, making it a statement.
• The melody of sentence B rises at the end, making it a question.
• In languages like English, we call these sentence melodies intonations.
INTONATION
• How we say something is as important as
• what we say.
• Can change / affect the meaning of a sentence.
• Can cause misunderstandings.
• Is as important as your choice of words.
• Say hello…
 To your lecturer.
 To your best friend.
 To an attractive girl/boy.
 To a six month old baby.
• How does your intonation change?
FUNCTIONS OF INTONATION
Fall (Falling Intonation)
• indicating `definiteness' and `completeness'.
Types of sentences:
• Ordinary statements
• WH questions
• Imperative sentences (strong commands)
• Exclamatory sentences
FALLING INTONATION
Try saying the different types of questions below with a fall in intonation.
 • Declarative statements : I am going home
• wh- questions : Who will help?
: Where are you going?
• Exclamations : How beautiful! What a nice day!
• Imperatives : Get out!
: Turn the lights on!
• Question tags when you expect an answer “Yes” :
The car is ready, isn’t it?
FUNCTIONS OF INTONATION
Rise (Rising Intonation)
• indicating uncertainty, incompleteness or politeness.
• statements expressing doubt
• polite requests
Types of sentences:
• Yes-no questions and in information-seeking questions.
• Statements intended as questions
• Statements intended to be soothing or encouraging
• Repetition questions
RISING INTONATION
• Yes/no questions : Are you feeling better?
• Tag questions when we expect a negative answer or tags intended as a genuine
Yes/No answer:
 You like chocolate, don't you?
 You have left the door open, haven't you?
 He usually arrives at NOON, DOESn't he?
• Statements to encourage the listener:
 Come on! You can make it.
 Come On! It won't take a minute.
• Yes-no questions in statement form
 He is gone?
• Incomplete sentences (speaker intends to continue)
 If you wait here,….
 Well if you are going to play,….
Fall - Rise Intonation
• Signal dependency, continuity, and non-finality.
• limited agreement, response with reservations
• Requesting
Examples:
• Uncertainty, doubt:

 You may be right

 Its possible
• Requesting :

 Can I buy it?

 Will you lend it to me.

Rise-Fall Intonation
• strong feelings of approval / impressed
• disapproval or surprise.
Examples:
• Surprise, being impressed:

 You were first

  All of them
Level Intonation
• boredom
• Not interested.

TOPIC 5 - SPEAKING SKILLS

SPEECH ACTS
• There are many things we can do with words: We can make statements, requests,
ask questions, give orders, make promises, give thanks, offer apologies, and so on.
• An utterance is considered as an action, particularly with regard to its intention,
purpose, or effect
• That is, the speaker is nearly always doing something by saying something.
 INFORMING
Informing = inform (verb)
Definition:
 a speech act that conveys information
 to officially tell someone something, or to give them information about something
 to tell someone about particular facts
When giving information, use all five senses whenever possible. In addition:
• Speak clearly.
• Use language that everyone understands.
• Vary your tone and pace.
• Move from the general to the specific.
• Use visuals— charts, maps. and diagrams.
• Check for the listener’s understanding.
• Encourage two-way flow—ask questions and get them asking questions of you.
• Declarative sentences are possibly the most common sentence type in the English
language.
• The purpose of a declarative sentence is to give information. It always ends with a
full stop.
• Example of sentences:
 I have an appointment at 2:00 today.
 Tomorrow I leave for France.
 I told him dinner will be served promptly at six.
 It’s a nice day for a walk along the beach.
 We’re going to the movies later this evening.
PERSUADING
Persuading = persuade (verb)
• Definition:
 induce (someone) to do something through reasoning or argument.
 cause (someone) to believe something, especially after a sustained
effort; convince.
• The ultimate goal of persuading is to convince someone to believe what you are
saying.
• Most people find themselves having to persuade someone at some point.
 • You may try to persuade an employee to perform better, or perhaps you want to
persuade your boss to take on your brilliant idea.
• Usually in a persuasive sentence you:
1. State your opinion
2. Give one or two reasons why you think that, and state them as facts even
though they're opinions
3. Or you just state an opinion as a fact, like "Our state needs a better road
system.
Language Features:
 Use mainly the present tense.
 Use logical and cause and effect connectives.
 Use emotive language.
 Use technical language.
 Use rhetorical questions.
 Dare the reader to disagree.
 Try to make opinions sound like facts.
 Use powerful verbs and strong adjectives.
• PERSUADING
Persuasive Words to Use When Addressing Your Audience
There are a few key, individual words you can make use of to keep your audience engaged.
• “You” – This is a powerful word, because it makes the audience accountable for what
you are saying. By addressing them in that way, you have made them personally
involved.
• Accurate, Certain, Confident, Definitely, Absolutely, Surely, One-Hundred Percent,
Yes, Clearly, Lead, Strongly: – All of these words convey positivity and confidence to
back up what you are saying.
• Atrocious, Confusing, Cruel, Harmful, Inferior Dreadful, Outrageous, Shocking,
Shameful, Offensive, Horrible, Unstable, Severe, No: – These negative words can
be used to great effect when pulling apart the opposition.
• Avoid saying things like “I think that…”, or “I guess…”.
• Good Examples:
a) “Personally, I have found [this concept] to be true.”
b) “I can tell you from experience that [this product] is of excellent quality.”
• The phrases above give your the impression that you are personally experienced
with the issue at hand.
 • What you are doing here is telling them “I know you want to research this for yourself,
but you are not going to find a better source than me. I am experienced in this
matter, and you should trust my judgement.”
• Better Examples:
a) “This is not a matter of opinion. I am saying this because it is a fact.”
b) “This plan will not work because it has not worked in the past.”
• Sometimes, people mistrust your personal opinions, and in those cases, it is better to
state your position without referring to yourself.
• The above examples cite only facts and data, and leave emotion out of it. If you are
dealing with someone who seems to bristle when you use terms like “I know that…”
try one of these examples.
COMPLIMENTING
Complimenting = compliment (verb)
Definition - politely congratulate or praise (someone) for something.
• Everyone loves a nice compliment, but giving one is easier said than done.
• You have to get the tone just right, or else someone might take your compliment the
wrong way.
• Deliver your compliment in a sincere tone of voice. Your genuine warmth will not go
unnoticed, and you just might make someone’s day
5 reasons to make giving compliments part of your everyday life.
• You can absolutely make someone’s day.
• It will increase your positive outlook. When you start to actively LOOK for nice
things to say about people you will notice more nice, positive, things around you and
in your life.
• “Give to get…”. This shouldn’t be your motivation, or you come across as insincere,
but what you spread around you – especially when it’s emotionally based – returns to
you with interest.
• You will become more attractive / improve your relationship. People are
attracted to, and want to spend more time with, someone that makes them feel good
about themselves.
• You will ENJOY it / makes you happier. When you give a genuine compliment,
without any expectation, it makes you feel good.
10 Steps to Giving the Perfect Compliment:
1. Be Sincere - Don’t give a compliment if you don’t really mean it.
2. Be Specific
Say something that shows you’re actually noticing the person, or don’t say anything at all.
Rather than you look ‘nice‘ try a sincere that’s a lovely scarf; or, instead of you’re a good
cook try that was a great lasagne.
3. Acknowledge the Affect/Effect
Go beyond the action/change/result and talk about how it makes you feel or the effect
produced: it meant a lot to me that you took the time to…; that necklace really highlights the
colour of your eyes…
4. Follow-up with a Question
“The colour of that scarf is perfect for you. Where did you find it?“
5. Avoid Comparison or Value Judgments
When you use statements like That was more than… That was better than… That was the
best… it suggests that if it hadn’t been more, better or best then it wouldn’t have been good
enough.
6. Give a Compliment like a Gift – Expecting Nothing in return
Give away compliments for free, without expectation – not even a ‘thank you’. Your
compliment seem all the more sincere, and you will also look like a stronger person for it.
7. Consider the setting
Compliments should be appropriate. Tell a bride that she’s beautiful, but congratulate her on
losing 100 pounds some other time.
8. Acknowledge your relationship
Comment on your boss’ new hair colour only if you two are long-time friends. A compliment
is an opinion, one that may not be welcome.
9. Acknowledge their character
When complimenting an accomplishment, don’t just focus on what the person did. Point to a
person’s character traits, such as perseverance, kindness, thoughtfulness, creativity or
courage. For example, “It took a lot of courage for you to speak up like that”.
10. Be Concise
A good compliment should not take long to say. If you add too much explanation to it, you
dilute your message.
Bad: “I really like your dress. The colour is perfect for your complexion. I saw a dress like
that once and I wish I had bought it. Total mistake on my part. Tomorrow I should go back
and get it…”
Good: “I really like your dress. The colour is perfect for your complexion.”
 TOPIC 6 - SPEAKING SKILLS
INTRODUCTION
• Group discussions occur in many different formats – from very informal ones
between friends to highly structured and challenging discussions.
• Types of discussion:
 Make decisions
 Create something
 Solve a problem
 Give and / or share their opinions on a given topic
TURN TAKING
• Conversation requires people to take turns.
• Different languages use different conventions to indicate when one person has
finished and another can begin.
• For example, person A may lower their voice and slow down to indicate that it is
person B's turn; they may begin to repeat themselves; or they may pause for person
B to begin.
• It is normal and polite for only one person to speak at a time and for people to pause
to allow each other to speak.
• According to Thornbury (2005), the fundamental rule of turn-taking is that speakers
should take turns to hold the floor.
• This means that no two speakers should speak at the same time.
• There are also two other rules to be observed,
 Long silences are to be avoided, and
 We should listen when others speak.
The skills we can employ in turn-taking include:
a. Recognising the appropriate moment to get a turn;
a. Signalling the fact that you want to speak;
b. Holding the floor while you have your turn;
c. Recognising when other speakers are signalling to speak;
a. Yielding the turn; and
b. Signalling the fact that you are listening.
 INTERRUPTING
• There are many reasons why a person may interrupt others while speaking.
• Sometimes, in a meeting or discussion, we do not agree with what is said. Some
interrupt and voice out their disagreement. Some wait for their turn to speak and then
voice out their disagreement.
Phrases to Politely Interrupt
• "I'm sorry to interrupt, but...."
• "Before we move on to the next point, may I add...?"
• "Sorry, I didn't catch that, is it possible to repeat the last point.."
• "Excuse me (name), may I add to that...?"
• "Do you mind if I jump in here?"
• "Pardon me..."
• "I don't mean to intrude..."
• "While that is an important point, it's also important to add...“
• Sorry, but may I say something?
• Can/May I add something?
Impolite Phrases for Interruptions
Do NOT use these phrases:
• Wait a minute!!
• What was that?
• Hold on/Hold up while I say...
• Be quiet...
• It's my turn to talk...
• What are you talking about?
• But, I already said....
• You're not listening to me... I said....
• What did you say?
PARALINGUISTIC FEATURES
• People express meaning not just in what they say but in the way they say it.
• Paralinguistics are the aspects of spoken communication that do not involve words
• It is concerned with how words are spoken, i.e. the volume, the intonation, the speed
etc..
• These may add emphasis or shades of meaning to what people say.
Some common paralinguistic vocal cues:
• Rate/Speed
Rapid rates of speech (and quickly coming up with a response) have been correlated with
composure and self-assurance.
• Rhythm
No matter what your native language is, if you match the rate and rhythm of speech of the
slowest speaking person, it will be easier to communicate and connect on a paralinguistic
level.
PARALINGUISTIC FEATURES
• Volume
 Research indicates that confidence, assertiveness, and boldness are reflected in
louder speech.
• Pitch
 Lower pitches indicate greater credibility, maturity and authority.
 The pitches you choose to speak on should be in your most powerful vocal range.
• Inflection/Vocal variety
 Inflection refers to variations in pitch.
 A monotone speaker will definitely be perceived as less charismatic or even flat out
boring.
• Intensity/Tone
 The intense delivery can be a direct indicator of the speaker's passion and
commitment or lack of it.
 The tone also reveals emotions behind the words being spoken
• In intercultural communication paralinguistic differences can be responsible for ,
mostly subconscious or stereotyped, confusion.
• For example the notion that Americans are talking "too loud" is often interpreted in
Europe as aggressive behaviour or can be seen as a sign of uncultivated or tactless
behaviour.
• The speed of talking equally is different in various cultural settings.
• For example Finnish is spoken relatively slowly in comparison to other European
languages. This form of speaking has often resulted in the Finish as being regarded
somewhat 'slow' and lax.
PARTICIPATING IN GROUP DISCUSSION
These some skills that can be used in a group discussion
1. Asking and Responding to Questions
2. Expressing Opinions, Agreeing and Disagreeing
 3. Negotiating
4. Arguing and Conceding
5. Explanation and Justification

1. Asking and Responding to Questions

• In a discussion you may need to ask and respond to questions, after the group leader
has introduced the topic or subject of discussion.
• These are some purpose of questions:
 Asking for information
 Asking for agreement
 Asking for clarification
2. Expressing Opinions, Agreeing and Disagreeing
• Opinions are formed based on one’s knowledge and feelings. To make your opinions
sound logical and credible, cite reasons and facts.
• Opinions can be prejudiced and you may have to listen critically to be able to spot
this.
• Some suitable expressions for asking and giving opinions, agreeing and disagreeing
are given below.
Negotiating
• There are times when members at a meeting or discussion take opposing sides on a
particular issue. In this case, the art of negotiation is helpful.
• Negotiation is aimed at resolving conflict among people. There are two ways of
negotiation:
 To seek a compromise; and
 To make others agree with you.
• These are some phrases that can be used to negotiate:
 Can we do this another way ?
 What about… ? / How about… ?
 All right then.
 Okay, then.
 Are you sure ?
• But whatever the situation, an important part of any negotiation is the presentation of
alternatives.
• E.g- How about buying this blouse in another store?
Arguing and Conceding
• Useful Phrases for Arguing and Conceding
Explanation and Justification
• In a discussion, we are sometimes asked for our opinions.
• Since opinions are formed based on our knowledge and feelings, it is better to give
reasons and facts to support them if we want our opinions to sound logical.
• According to Solorzano and Schmidt (1998), there are some ways to support your
opinions as shown in the table:
• Some phrases to introduce support are:
 For example ...
 For instance ...
 Let me give you an example.
 I say this because ...
 The reason for my opinion is ...

TOPIC 7 - Style and Register

STYLE AND REGISTER IN SPEAKING
What is a speaking style?
• A set of properties by which you can link speech to a certain communicative
situation.
• This situation is multi-dimensional:
• - Content (news, poem, dialogue, etc.)
• - Speaker (habits, personality, etc.)
• - Situation (distance, noise, room size, etc.)
• - Listener (relation to speaker, number, etc.)
• A speaking style can be developed based on your natural abilities
• Speakers can adopt different style of speaking depending on the circumstances
• Speakers can speak very formally or informally
• The level of formality can be chosen to a variety of factors:
– Kind of occasion
– Social, age and other differences that exist between participants
– The particular task that is involves
– Emotional environment of one or more of the participants
• All these levels help define the appropriateness of how we say things.
• There are four main language styles:
REGISTER
• Register is an important concept for composing and responding to a spoken text.
• It is a variety of a language used for a particular purpose or in a particular social
setting
• Basically, it is about formal and informal language used in speaking
FORMAL REGISTER
• To achieve a formal register, a composer needs to use formal language.
• This means that the composer will use correct grammar and avoid any colloquial
language, slang or jargon.
• The best way to determine whether a text that you compose should have a formal
register is to consider the audience and the purpose.
• The types of texts where you will find a formal register will be in formal speeches
such as from your director during a formal event or from the prime minister.
INFORMAL REGISTER
• To achieve an informal register, a composer needs to use informal language.
• This means that the composer does not need to use absolutely correct grammar and
can use colloquial language and slang.
• Examples where you could use or see texts with an informal register might include
talking to friends.
• You should consider the purpose and audience of the speech text and think, 'What
register would be most effective to reach my audience?'
SPOKEN DISCOURSE
What is a discourse?
• the act or process of communicating; fact of being communicated.
• the imparting or interchange of thoughts, opinions, or information by speech,
writing, or signs.
FORMAL VS INFORMAL LANGUAGE
• Formal language is…
– Proper, academic, official, legal
– grammatically correct (apply correct language grammar & rules)
• Formal language, even when spoken, is often associated with the conventions
expected of written standard English.
 • Although you generally don’t worry as much about formality in speaking, it is
extremely important in writing because of the knowledge you are recording through
the written word.
– Remember… when you are speaking, writing or analyzing language in a
formal situation…
• Formal language does not use contractions
• Avoids personal pronouns such as: you, I, us, me, and we
• Includes more polysyllabic words—BIGGER words
• Complex, complete sentences
• Avoidance of colloquial or slang vocabulary
• Impersonality
• A consistent preference for “learned” words
• Informal language is
– every day, casual, relaxed, no strict rules (don't care much about applying
grammar rules )
• Simple grammatical structure
• Personal evaluation
• Colloquial or slang vocabulary
• Formal Vs Informal
• Informal: May use clichés or slang
• Formal: Avoid clichés or slang
Clichés: easier said than done, work like a dog, face the music
Slang: chill out, sketchy, cool
• Informal:
• The teacher said that it was better late than never.
• Formal:
• The teacher said that he would accept late assignments because he wouldn’t want
students to miss a learning opportunity.
• Formal Vs Informal
• Informal: May use imprecise (vague) or informal words
• Formal: Avoid imprecise (vague) or informal words
Imprecise: thing, stuff
Precise: reasons, causes, aspects, concerns
Formal:
• The author explained some of the reasons for the start of the Balkan War.
• Formal / Informal
a) Eviction notice has been issued to the occupants of this property due to mounting
arrears of unpaid rent.
b) Your rent has been in the red for too long, get out of the house!
(Which is more formal?)

TOPIC 8 - SPEAKING SKILLS

WHAT IS PUBLIC SPEAKING
• Public speaking is the process of communicating information to an audience.
• It is usually done before a large audience, like in school, the workplace and even in
our personal lives.
• In public speaking, the information is purposeful and meant to inform, influence or
entertain a group of listeners.
5 ELEMENTS OF PUBLIC SPEAKING
• Basically it is about - to who is saying what to whom using what medium with what
effect.
• In other words:
 Who is the source of the message.
 What is the message itself.
 Whom is the audience, while the
 Medium is the actual delivery method and ending in the Effect.
 Think of the effect as the speaker's intent for the speech.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PREPARED & IMPROMPTU SPEECH
• The key difference is the amount of time given to the speaker to rehearse and
prepare.
• An impromptu speech is a speech that involves a five to eight minute speech where
the speaker is given no preparation time at all or a short preparation time of one to
seven minutes.
• A prepared speech is one where the speaker is given the topic well in advance and is
given time to research it and rehearse the speech.
 HOW TO GIVE A GREAT IMPROMPTU SPEECH
Prepare your response around a simple template, or framework.
• P.R.E.P. (Point. Reason. Example. Point) – Start off by clearly stating your point.
Share the primary reason (or reasons, if you have more time). Then, share an
example (preferably in story form) where your main point or reason is supported.
Finally, conclude by summarizing your central point again. The template works well in
many situations, and is easily adapted.
• Issue, Pros vs. Cons, Conclusions – Start off by framing the issue. Talk about the
benefits, and then talk about the drawbacks. Conclude with your recommendation.
• 5W – In this pattern, you cover your topic by addressing the Who, What, When,
Where, and Why elements. For example, if you’ve been asked to speak briefly about
a fundraising initiative, you could talk about,
– who started it, and
– who is involved now;
– what the goals are;
– when it started, and the schedule for the future;
– where does it take place; and
– why are you involved.
This template works nicely, largely because the “why?” comes last, because this is often the
most critical information.
10 TIPS FOR GIVING A GREAT SPEECH
1. Prepare your speech. Keep it simple with a clear beginning, middle and end.
2. Use anecdotes. Stories stick in people’s mind.
3. Be relevant to your audience. Make sure you talk about something that they are
interested in.
4. Start with an interesting opening.
5. Practice your speech. Practice makes perfect.
6. Use body language that makes you feel comfortable.
7. Stand up straight.
8. Articulate your words.
9. Make eye contact with your audience.
10. Most important – enjoy the experience!
 A SIMPLE STRUCTURE FOR PREPARED SPEECH
• Introduction: Tell them what you are going to tell them.
• Body: Tell them two or three clear ideas.
• Conclusion: Tell them what you have told them.
SIMPLE PARAGRAPH STRUCTURE
• Thesis statement INTRODUCTION
– State your topic
– Define your topic
• Topic sentence BODY
– Supporting details
 Express , explain and elaborate your idea on the topic
 State your feelings/Emotions on the idea
 provide examples
• Provide a Conclusion to your topic
COMMON SPEECH ORGANISATION PATTERNS
A. CHRONOLOGICAL ORDER
• Best for topics that are time-related. Divide your points into sequences or steps when
you narrate, describe or explain a process, an incident or a series of events leading
up to a current situation.
• Example :
Topic : How to organize a concert to raise funds
Main points :
1. Form a working committee.
2. Decide on the details of the programme. e.g.Venue, date and time.
3. Select items and artistes who will attract a large crowd.
4. Estimate the amount of money that can be collected from the concert.
• B. SPATIAL ORDER
• Best for topics that deal with descriptions of places, buildings and locations. Direct
your descriptions from north to south, front to back or top to bottom, etc.
• Example :
Topic : A description of the Kuala Lumpur Tower
Main points :
1. Explain the location of the tower
 2. Describe the head of the tower
3. Describe the shaft of the tower
4. Describe the base of the tower
• C. TOPICAL ORDER
• Best for topics that need to be seen from a particular point of view or from a
combination of angles.
• Example
Topic : The benefits of having a close relationship
with your family
Main points :
1. Provides love and emotional security.
2. Prevents the rise of social and emotional
problems.
1. Provides moral support during times of need.
• D. COMPARISON-CONTRAST ORDER
• Best for topics that need to be shown the similarities and differences.
• Example
Topic : A comparison between institutions of higher learning in the public and
private sectors in Malaysia
Main points :
I. Similarities (comparison)
a) undergraduate and post-graduate degree programmes
b) Opportunities for students to become independent
II. Differences (Contrast)
a) Cost of education
b) Facilities
• E. CAUSE-EFFECT ORDER
Example
• Topic : The harmful effects of watching too much television at night on children
Main points :
1. Physical Effects – obesity, sleep disorders, lethargy
2. Psychological / Emotional Effects – anxiety, depression, fear
3. Social Effects – anti-social violence, crime
 • F. PROBLEM-SOLUTION ORDER
• Best for persuasive speeches. One problem  Many solutions  Best choice.
Example
Topic : How to improve the standard of English among rural school children
Main points :
1. Send experienced, trained and motivated English teachers to rural schools
2. Increase funding for language facilities in rural schools
3. Motivate parents and community leaders to support the government’s effort to upgrade
English in rural schools

TOPIC 9 - READING SKILLS

• SKIMMING
Skimming = quick reading
looking for general ideas; surface or superficial reading with a purpose
Why Skim ?
 To build background knowledge / the gist / the overall sense of a piece of text
 To help decide whether it is useful and should be read further
 To quickly get the general news of the day
 To quickly discover which articles you would like to read in detail
 To get information quickly

HOW TO SKIM
1. Read the title, subtitles and subheadings to find out what the text is about
2. Read the introduction; get a general idea what the selection will be about
3. Read the 1st and last sentences of each paragraph
4. Look at the illustrations to give you further information about the topic
5. Don’t read every word or every sentence. Let your eyes skim over the text ,
taking in key words.
6. Read the conclusion
7. Check your understanding of the material.
 SCANNING
Scanning for specific information
Scan = “skip” read for a specific purpose
To quickly locate a key word, single fact, or a specific bit of information from a piece of text

Flip through the pages of text to see how the information is organized
Turn to the section where the specified details are likely to be found
Keep a visual image of the key word in mind
Run your eyes over the material for that key word “visual image”
Examples of Scanning:
 A google search list on the internet, A bus / airplane schedule, A conference guide,
A graph, A menu
MAIN IDEA
• The main idea is the central thought of the text or a paragraph
• Main idea - The main idea of a passage tells what point or points the author will
make about the topic.
• The main idea is often found in the first sentence of a paragraph; however, you may
find it in other locations; that is, in the last sentence or in the middle sentence.
• The main idea of a paragraph is usually written in the topic sentence.
• The main idea must make the rest of the paragraph meaningful. It is the one idea that
ties all of the other details together.
• One useful way to understand the main idea of a paragraph is to start by identifying
the paragraph’s topic. A paragraph’s topic is the subject under discussion.
• A skillful reader can determine the main idea of a text or passage by answering
these important questions:
1. What is the topic of this passage?
2. What is/are the main point or points made
about this topic?
3. What do the supporting details prove?
• SUPPORTING DETAILS
• Other sentences in the paragraph are known as supporting details.
• These will expand or develop the idea.
• It can be explanations, facts, descriptions,definitions, examples and reasons which
support the main idea.
• Questions for locating supporting details: Who, what, when, where, why, how
 TOPIC 10 - Reading Comprehension
 RELATING CAUSE AND EFFECT
• Cause and effect is one of the most common organisational patterns found in a
reading text.
• The cause presents an action or event that causes an effect or change to happen
• The effect is the result of a particular change
• Signal words to show cause: because, is due to, is caused by, leads to, bring about
• Effect : as a result of, therefore, this resulted in, consequently, so, as a
consequence, yet
 COMPARING AND CONTRASTING
• Another common organizational pattern is the comparison and contrast.
• It presents similarities and/or differences between ideas in the text.
• Comparison shows how two or more things are alike.
• Contrast shows how things are different
• Some signal words or phrases include
• Comparison: similar, similarly, comparable, exactly like, also, just like and likewise.
• Contrast: but, however, yet, nevertheless, otherwise, on the other hand, on the
contrary, although and conversely.

DIFFERENTIATING FACTS FROM OPINIONS

 What is a fact?
 A factual statement that can be proven correct or incorrect according to the
evidence in the passage.
 What is an opinion?
 It is a statement which may be true or false, reliable or unreliable.
 Each opinion represents one person’s interpretation of the facts.
 In reading to differentiate fact from opinion, you should
 Read between the lines to determine what a writer is trying to convey.
 Evaluate, judge and think about the ideas and information in the text.
 Topic 11 - Reading Comprehension
 Making Inferences
• Inferencing is a reading skill in which you read between the lines and use your own
knowledge and experiences to come to an understanding of what is hinted at or
suggested in the text.
• In making inferences, you should not go beyond the information actually found in the
text.
• Ask specific questions about the general statement.
• This may help you to clarify the key ideas and reflect on the words used in the key
ideas in order to come to an inference.
• Although inferences are made based on information in text, they themselves are not
facts.
Predicting Outcomes
• Prediction, an important reading skill, helps you to understand the text better by
helping you to:
 anticipate how the writer’s ideas will develop
 anticipate conclusions
• You can make predictions by:
 Asking questions and predicting the answers to these questions
 Relating your own background knowledge and experience to what you are
reading.
 Making logical connections from the information, facts and details in the text
 Topic 12 - READING COMPREHENSION
 Hyponymy
 Synonyms
 Antonyms
 Homophones

 Hyponymy
 Synonyms
 When two words have roughly the same meaning, they are called synonyms. Few
synonyms are completely interchangeable, i.e. they cannot always be used in the
same contexts.
 However, it is useful to think of alternative ways of saying things because this
introduces more variety into your language.
 Antonyms
 Words that mean approximately the opposite (i.e. antonyms) as in the following:
 Homophones
 A homophone is a word that is pronounced the same as another word but differs in
meaning,
 and may differ in spelling.
 The words may be spelled the same, such as rose (flower) and rose (past tense of
"rise"),
 or spelled differently, such as carat, caret, and carrot, or to, two, and too
 Topic 13 - WRITING SKILLS
KEY IN WRITTEN COMMUNICATION
– Correct grammar, punctuation, and spelling
– Appropriate word choice/vocabulary
– Use a professional tone for academic writing
– Know your audience
– Organise your information clearly
– Use the right format
MECHANICS OF WRITING
 Writing has its “mechanical“ components which include:
 Handwriting
 Spelling
 Punctuation
 Texts
 Paragraphs
 Well formed sentences
 These are the “NUTS AND BOLTS” of the writing skill in learning to write in English.
SPELLING
• English spelling is complex but not random
• English spelling rules do often have exceptions
• Be aware of different spellings to distinguish between homophones like “threw” and
“through”
PUNCTUATION
• Using punctuation correctly is an important skill.
• Failure to use them correctly may form a negative impression and makes the text
difficult to understand.
• E.g:
1. A woman, without her, man is nothing.
2. A woman, without her man, is nothing.
 WHAT IS COHESION & COHERENCE?
• Cohesion refers to connectivity in a text.
• Coherence refers to how easy it is to understand the writing.
Cohesion
• A text can be cohesive through the use of the following devices:
• Repetition. In sentence B (the second of any two sentences), repeat a word from
sentence A.
• Synonymy. If direct repetition is too obvious, use a synonym of the word you wish to
repeat. This strategy is call 'elegant variation.'
• Antonymy. Using the 'opposite' word, an antonym, can also create sentence
cohesion, since in language antonyms actually share more elements of meaning than
you might imagine.
• A text can be cohesive through the use of the following devices:
• Order. Common ways to order sentences
– Chronological
– Cause and Effect
– Clarification (first sentence is broad, general statement, and the following
sentences explain it with details)
– Compare/Contrast
• Transitions / linking words. Use a conjunction or conjunctive adverb to link sentences
with particular logical relationships.
Cohesion with NO Coherence
• "My favourite colour is blue. Blue sports cars go very fast. Driving in this way is
dangerous and can cause many car crashes. I had a car accident once and broke
my leg. I was very sad because I had to miss a holiday in Europe because of the
injury.“
• There is plenty of cohesion here. The sentences connect clearly together but if you
read the paragraph, it really makes no sense
• Start talking about blue and finish talking about a holiday in Europe. There is no
coherence in this sentence.
• "My favourite colour is blue. I'm calm and relaxed. In the summer I lie on the grass
and look up.“
• This lack of cohesion means a lack of sufficient connectors to join the ideas
together.
• The sentences don't fit together.
 Cohesion & Coherence
• "My favourite colour is blue. I like it because it is calming and it relaxes me. I often
go outside in the summer and lie on the grass and look into the clear sky when I am
stressed. For this reason, I'd have to say my favourite colour is blue.“
• This sentence is both coherent and cohesive
Cohesive Devices in Action
Read the following paragraph:
The ancient Egyptians were masters of preserving dead people's bodies by making
mummies of them. Mummies several thousand years old have been discovered nearly
intact. The skin, hair, teeth, fingernails and toenails, and facial features of the mummies
were evident. It is possible to diagnose the disease they suffered in life, such as smallpox,
arthritis, and nutritional deficiencies. The process was remarkably effective. Sometimes
apparent were the fatal afflictions of the dead people: a middle-aged king died from a blow
on the head, and polio killed a child king. Mummification consisted of removing the internal
organs, applying natural preservatives inside and out, and then wrapping the body in layers
of bandages.
• Though weak, this paragraph is not a total washout.
• It starts with a topic sentence, and the sentences that follow are clearly related to the
topic sentence. In the language of writing, the paragraph is unified (i.e., it contains no
irrelevant details, it still maintains the same topic).
• However, the paragraph is not cohesive.
• The sentences are disconnected from each other, making it difficult for the reader to
follow the writer's train of thought.
• Now, read the same paragraph that has been revised for cohesion:
The ancient Egyptians were masters of preserving dead people’s bodies by making
mummies of them. In short, mummification consisted of removing the internal organs,
applying natural preservatives inside and out, and then wrapping the body in layers of
bandages. And the process was remarkably effective. Indeed, mummies several thousand
years old have been discovered nearly intact. Their skin, hair, teeth, fingernails and toenails,
and facial features are still evident. Their diseases in life, such as smallpox, arthritis, and
nutritional deficiencies, are still diagnosable. Even their fatal afflictions are still apparent: a
middle-aged king died from a blow on the head; a child king died from polio.
• Cohesive Devices in Action
• Italics indicates pronouns and repeated/restated key words, bold indicates
transitional tag-words, and underlining indicates parallel structures.
• The paragraph is now much more coherent. The organization of the information and
the links between sentences help readers move easily from one sentence to the next.
• Notice how this writer uses a variety of coherence devices, sometimes in
combination, to achieve overall paragraph coherence.
 Topic 14 - Writing for Effective Communication
WHAT IS EFFECTIVE WRITING COMMUNICATION
• to get your point across and relay information clearly.
• Write using a “conversational style.”
– having a conversational style means using the polite, clear, and efficient
language you would typically use in a professional setting.
CHOICE OF WORDS FOR EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION
• choosing the right words can sometimes be a challenge.
• Words that are arrogant can turn people off.
• Words that are negative can make people angry or despondent.
• Words that have double meaning or lack clarity can create confusion and mislead.
• Words that bore can put people to sleep and defeat your purpose.
WRITING CONVENTIONS
– Incorporate spelling, punctuation, capitalization, grammar, and paragraphing.
– The writer should use conventions to enhance the readability of the paper.
– Spelling should be correct.
– Punctuation should be smooth and guide the reader through the paper.
– Paragraphing should reinforce organization.

STYLE
• Style in writing generally refers to the choices in vocabulary and the accuracy of their
use in the written text.
• A writer’s style is a reflection of his or her personality, unique voice, and way of
approaching the audience and readers.
• All texts that are composed have a style.
REGISTER
• Register is an important concept for composing and responding to a text.
• It is a concept that refers to particular types of language that are used for particular
purposes.
• In referring to register in writing, the choices are usually 'familiar', 'informal',
'formal' and 'ceremonial'.
• However, the two registers that are commonly crossed in academic writing are
generally between formal and informal.
 REGISTER
• The choice of register for a particular text or part of text will vary depending on:
– the genre and
– who will be reading the text.
• Therefore, knowing the targeted audience before starting the writing process, will
have an impact on the stylistic choices.
• WRITING MESSAGES, WRITING SPEECHES, WRITING MESSAGES
• Use standard expressions
– Consider your audience and register (formal or informal)
• Use simple grammar
– Keep your sentences short and use a simple sentence structure
• Use good punctuation and layout
– Make sure your messages are easy to read and that the person can
understand the information quickly.
• WRITING MESSAGES
• the register used in short texts tends not to be very formal – this doesn’t mean they
are informal but simply that there is usually some kind of relationship between the
writer and reader already, so a degree of informality is normal.
• SAMPLE 1
Hi John,
Thanks for your email.
No news yet on product launch in France, but we expect to hear some time next week.
Sales and marketing meeting scheduled for Thursday next week, at 10 am. All European
sales reps to attend.
See you then.
Joe
• WRITING SPEECHES
• In writing a speech, you have two objectives:
– Making a good impression and
– leaving your audience with two or three takeaways.
– The rest is just entertainment.
– How can you make those crucial points?
– Consider these strategies:
• 1) Be Memorable:
• Many times, an audience may only remember a single line.
• For example, John F. Kennedy is best known for this declaration in his 1961
inaugural address: “And so, my fellow Americans, ask not what your country can do
for you; ask what can you do for your country.”
• Technically, the line itself uses contrast to grab attention.
• More important, it encapsulated the main point of Kennedy’s speech: We must
sublimate ourselves and serve to achieve the greater good.
• 2) Have a Structure
• Audience expect two things from a speaker:
– A path and
– a destination - They want to know where you’re going and why.
• So set the expectation near your opening on what you’ll be covering.
• As you write and revise, focus on structuring and simplifying.
• Remove anything that’s extraneous, contradictory, or confusing.
• Remember: If it doesn’t help you get your core message across, drop it.
• Outline of a speech
• 1. Introduction
• (a) Attention-getting device (Capture listeners’ attention)
• (b) Motivate the audience to listen to you (Give a good reason why they should listen
to you speak. Say something which has their interests at heart).
• (c) Thesis statement (What are you speaking about? Provide your stand on the
topic).
• (d) Preview of speech (Give a very brief outline of what you will be talking about).
• Outline of a speech
• 2. Body
• (a) First main point:
• (i) Supporting statement.
• (ii) Supporting statement.
• (iii) Transition statement (Sentence linking
the main points).
• (b) repeat for the second and third point.
• 3. Conclusion
• (a) Summary of main points.
• (b) Closing statement.
 • Don’t Waste the Opening
• Use something interesting that is relevant to the topic you are speaking on
• Share a shocking fact or statistic.
• Tell a humorous anecdote related to your big idea.
• Open with a question – and have your audience raise their hands.
• Get your listeners engaged early.
• And keep the preliminaries short.
• Humanize Yourself
• Share a story about yourself (just to overcome your nervousness), which relates to
your points.
• Throw in references to your family, to reflect you’re trustworthy.
• And write like you’re having a casual conversation with a friend.
• You’re not preaching or selling, you’re just being you.
• Repeat Yourself
• In writing a speech, repetition is the key to leaving an impression.
• Emphasize key words, phrases, and themes.
• Always tie back and reinforce earlier points.
• Repeat critical points.
• 7) Use Transitions
• Use transitional phrases to signal intent.
• Similarly, a phrase like “So here’s the lesson” also captures an audience’s interest.
• It alerts them that something important is about to be shared.
• Even if they weren’t paying attention before, they can tune in now and catch up.
• Sample of a good speech
• By Martin Luther King
• Martin Luther King Jr.
• Repetition makes a great speech
I have a dream that one day this nation will rise up and live out the true meaning of its creed:
"We hold these truths to be self-evident: that all men are created equal." I have a dream that
one day on the red hills of Georgia the sons of former slaves and the sons of former will be
able to sit down together at a table of brotherhood. I have a dream that one day even the
state of Mississippi, a desert state, sweltering with the heat of injustice and oppression, will
be transformed into an oasis of freedom and justice. I have a dream that my four children will
one day live in a nation where they will not be judged by the colour of their skin but by the
content of their character. I have a dream today.
• What makes it great?
• The repetition of a very powerful phrase: “I have a dream”
• Use repetition in your speeches
• Create a powerful phrase
• Repeat it again and again
• It makes a speech POWERFUL

Topic 15 - Writing for Effective Communication

WHAT IS A REPORT?
• Essentially, a report is a short, sharp, concise document which is written for a
particular purpose and audience.
• It generally sets outs and analyses a situation or problem, often making
recommendations for future action.
• It is a factual paper, and needs to be clear and well-structured.
• A report gives facts clearly without unnecessary information or opinion.
• there are several types of reports, which are:
 Society/School Report
 Report to the Principal
 Police Report
 News Report
 Book Report
•
PURPOSE
“What is it about, and what is it for?”
• It is beneficial to establish the purpose of your report before you start writing, so that
you can think clearly on the subject, and produce a report styled to fit the needs of
your purpose.
• Recognize what your report is for, (informing, instructing, guiding) and focus your
writing on explaining the details
AUDIENCE
“Who are you writing for?”
• The second question you should ask yourself is, “who is going to read this report and
why?”
• Knowing your audience will help you determine:
– how long your report should be,
 – how it should be presented, and
– what level of terminology you should use to best attract and maintain the
interest of your reader.

The sentences in a Report

• Understanding how to structure a sentence is essential to conveying meaning clearly.
Here are some tips to follow:
• Keep it short and to the point.
– Many people have trouble with run-on sentences, creating ambiguity by
attaching many ideas together with large combinations of commas,
semicolons and dashes. Complete one thought and close out your sentence
with end punctuation.
• Words for words sake
– Avoid extraneous (unnecessary) words, and parentheses that do not add to
your point.
• Don’t leave it hanging.
– Sentence fragments can be just as confusing as run-on sentences. Make
sure that you have completed your sentence and that it makes sense, before
closing it out.
– REPORT STRUCTURE
• A REPORT HAS:
– A title
 Identifies the subject of the report
– Classification
 Provides information about the focus of the report
– Description
 What is it?
 Why is it important?
 Etc(any relevant information)
– Conclusion
 A summary or comment