What is Logic?

expressed in a language and a judgment is a

mental act in which two or more than two
The term "logic" came from the Greek ideas are combined together.
word logos, which is sometimes translated
as "sentence", "discourse", "reason", "rule", Judgments have two types:
and "ratio". Of course, these translations are
not enough to help us understand the more
1. Affirmative- Indians are laborious.
specialized meaning of "logic" as it is used
today.
2. Negative- Indians are not dull.
The study of the principles of correct
reasoning. A proposition usually indicates the temporal,
spatial or logical relationship of its object to
Is a tool to develop reasonable conclusions
the rest of the sentence as in the following
based on a given set of data. Logic is free of examples:
emotion and deals very specifically with
information in its purest form. The book is on the table.

Proposition The book is beneath the table.

Definition:
A proposition is that part of the meaning of The book is leaning against the table.
a clause or sentence that is constant,
despite changes in such things as The book is beside the table.
the voice or illocutionary force of the clause.
She held the book over the table.
A proposition may be related to other units of
its kind through interpropositional relations, She read the book during class.
such as temporal relations and logical
relations.
Components of Proposition:
Discussion:
The meaning of the term proposition is Every proposition has three components
extended by some analysts to include the called as term. Any word or word phrase,
meaning content of units within the clause. which is used in a proposition as a subject or
predicate, is called as term.:
Example: The tall, stately building fell is said
to express propositions corresponding to the
1. Subject- About whom something
following:
asserts or denies.
2. Predicate-What assert or deny.
 "The building is tall." 3. Copula– Conjunct both subject and
 "The building is stately." predicate terms. Copula will be
 "The building fell." negative or affirmative.

Proposition: For example:

Propositions are the material of our Sonia is a good orator.

reasoning. A proposition links nouns,
pronouns and phrases to other words in a
S C P
sentence. The word or phrase that the
proposition introduces is called the object of
the proposition.A proposition is a judgment  Conjuctive Proposition 
One which denies that two contrary An enthymeme (pronounced EN-thuh-
predicates together can be true of the same meem) is a kind of syllogism, or logical
subject at the same time. The truth of a deduction, in which one of the premises is
conjuctive hypothetical proposition depends unstated.
solely upon a true exclusive opposition
existing between their component parts. Example 1
Parts of conjuctive are called conjucts  Drunk driving hurts innocent people.
Examples: You cannot stand and sit at the  Hurting innocent people is wrong.
same time.  Therefore, drunk driving is wrong.
You cannot be in Quiapo and in Makati at the Ordinarily, we wouldn’t actually come out and
same time. state #2. We’d assume that the audience
already believes it. Most moral arguments
Hypothetical Proposition similarly leave out an important moral
A hypothetical proposition is one whose premise, assuming that the audience will
predicate does not assert of the subject in an already be on board with it. Thus, such an
absolute manner. argument would leave out premise #2, and
would become an enthymeme composed
ALTERNATIVE (from Latin alter— one of only of premise #1 and the conclusion:
two)—in the colloquial sense: a situation that
demands a choice between two possibilities; 1. Drunk driving hurts innocent people.
in logic: a proposition composed of two or 2. Therefore, drunk driving is wrong.
more members joined by the alternative Example 2
functor, where this functor joins these Enthymeme is also a common feature of
propositions either in view of their logical political rhetoric. For example, watch out for
value (the extensional alternative) or in view cases where someone is attacking a
of their content (the intensional alternative politician using a “dirty word” like anarchist,
which serves to express lack of knowledge of socialist, imperialist, or Nazi. This is almost
hesitation when a decision must be made for always hyperbole, but it’s also enthymeme.
one of several possibilities). Here’s a typical example:
 Governor Johnson wants to reduce
a proposition or situation offering a choice government regulation and oversight
between two or more things only one of  Therefore, Governor Johnson is an
which may be chosen anarchist
The hidden premise, of course, is that
Inference anyone who reduces government regulation
is an anarchist (or, to put it another way, that
Logic. the process of deriving the strict such reduction is tantamount to anarchy).
logical consequences of assumed premises. This hidden premise is obviously false – at
the process of arriving at some conclusion the very least, it’s a gross oversimplification
that, though it is not logically derivable from – and so the argument is unpersuasive.
the assumed premises, possesses some
degree of probability relative to the premises. Premise
a proposition reached by a process o
finference. a statement that is assumed to be true for the
purpose of an argument from which a
In rhetoric, an argument is a course of conclusion is drawn
reasoning aimed at demonstrating truth or
falsehood. In composition, argument is one Conclusion
of the traditional modes of discourse.
Adjective: argumentative.
a judgment or decision reached by surrounding the relevance of the evidence
reasoning. given, there are common errors surrounding
the sufficiency of the evidence, and, there
are common errors surrounding the clarity of
What are fallacies? the evidence. Therefore, we organize
Informal Fallacies into these three
Fallacies are defects that weaken categories.
arguments. By learning to look for them in
your own and others’ writing, you can Fallacies of Relevance -
strengthen your ability to evaluate the The point of giving an argument is
to persuade using reason alone. One of the
arguments you make, read, and hear. It is
most common errors that infect inductive
important to realize two things about
arguments is to use emotional appeals as
fallacies: first, fallacious arguments are very, evidence. But emotional evidence is
very common and can be quite persuasive, dangerous for two reasons: it is unstable and
at least to the casual reader or listener. You it is subjective. The truth (i.e., what the world
can find dozens of examples of fallacious is really like) is not determined by how
reasoning in newspapers, advertisements, we feel about it. Injustice may make
me feel angry, but that is not sufficient
and other sources. Second, it is sometimes
evidence for me to dismiss its existence in
hard to evaluate whether an argument is order to feel better.
fallacious. An argument might be very weak,
somewhat weak, somewhat strong, or very There are several common fallacies of
strong. An argument that has several stages relevance making various forms of emotional
or parts might have some strong sections appeal:
and some weak ones. The goal of this
 Argumentum ad Baculum (Appeal to
handout, then, is not to teach you how to the Stick) - appealing to fear
label arguments as fallacious or fallacy-free,  Argumentum ad
but to help you look critically at your own Misericordiam (Appeal to Pity) -
appealing to pity
arguments and move them away
 Argumentum ad Populum (Appeal to
the People) - appealing to popularity
Unlike formal fallacies, Informal fallacies are
difficult to spot because there are so many
In each of these cases we are using
ways to have insufficient, irrelevant,
emotions which are irrelevant to the
or ambiguous evidence which fails to
warrant the conclusion; and judging this this thesis being considered in the argument.
can take on a degree of subjectivity that
never enters into the evaluation of deductive Other fallacies of relevance occur when we
arguments. Also, because there are an introduce evidence that shifts focus away
almost infinite variety of inductive arguments, from the thesis being considered:
and because the conclusions of these
arguments only have to be probably (never  Argumentum ad
certain), there is an almost infinite variety of Hominem (Argument against the
errors that could occur. Person) - shifting focus from the
thesis to a person's character
However, we can broadly categorize  Red Herring - introducing irrelevant
informal fallacies around the type of error information to draw attention away
committed: there are common mistakes from the thesis
 Ignoratio Elenchi (Missing the Point) -
drawing the wrong conclusion from
the evidence
 Straw Man - oversimplifying an
opponent's argument to defeat it
 Accident - misapplying a general rule
to a specific case