@MIS MARITIME INDUSTRIAL SERVICES CO. LTD. INC, ASNT TRAINING PROGRAM RADIOGRAPHY LEVEL I LYA mek moe LESSON 1 APPLICATIONS OF RADIOGRAPHY BECAUSE OF THE PENETRATION AND ABSORPTION CAPABILITIES OF X AND GAMMA RADIATION, RADIOGRAPHY IS USED TO TEST A VARIETY OF PRODUCTS SUCH AS WELDS, CASTINGS, FORGINGS, AND FABRICATIONS. RADIOGRAPHIC TESTING IS ONE OF THE PRIMARY NONDESTRUCTIVE TEST METHODS It USE TODAY, RADIOGIAPHIC TESTING USUALLY REQUIRES EXPOSING-FILM TO X OR GAMMA RAYS THAT HAVE PENETRATED A SPECIMEN, PROCESSING THE EXPOSEO FILM, AND INTERPRETING THE RESULTANT RADIOGAAPH, \ ADVANTAGES OF RADIOGRAPHY (nT) 1. CAN BE USED WITH MOST MATERIALS. 2, PROVIDES A PERMANENT VISUAL IMAGE 3, REVEALS THE INTEANAL NATURE OF MATERIAL, 4, DISCLOSES FABRICATION EnnOns, 5. REVEALS STRUCTURAL DISCONTINUITIES, LIMITATIONS OF RT 1, IMPRACTICABLE TO USE ON SPECIMENS OF COMPLEX GEOMETRY. 2. THE SPECIMEN MUST LEND ITSELF TO TWO-SIDE ACCESSIBILITY. 3, LAMINAR TYPE DISCONTINUITIES ARE OFTEN UNDETECTED BY AT. 4. SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS IMPOSED BY X AND GAMMA RAYS MUST BE CONSIDERED, 5. ITIS A RELATIVELY EXPENSIVE MEANS OF NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING.co statins = ATMS SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS BECAUSE RADIATION CANNOT BE DETECTED BY ANY OF OUR FIVE SENSES, STRICT COMPLIANCE WiTH SAFETY REGULATIONS 16 REQUIRED. AADIATION CAN CAUSE DAMAGE TO, OR DESTRUCTION OF, THE CELLS OF LIVING Tissue ITs ESSENTIAL THAT RADIOGRAPHIC TEST PERSONNEL BE CONTINUALLY AWARE OF THE RADIATION HAZARD ANO COGNIZANT OF SAFETY REGULATIONS. AADIATION MONITORING EQUIPMENT 16 COVERED IN CHAPTERS 10 1,812. TRAINING AND CERTIFICATION IT Is IMPORTANT THAT THE TECHNICIAN AND SUPERVISOR BE QUALIFIED It THE RADIOGRAPHIC METHOD BEFORE THE TECHNIQUE IS USED AND TEST RESULTS EVALUATED. THE AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING RECONMENDS THE USE OF THE DOCUMENT "RECOMMENDED PRACTICE NO. SNT-TC-1A". THIS DOCUMENT PROVIDES THE EMPLOYER WITH THE NECESSARY GUIDELINES TO PROPERLY QUALIFY AND CERTIFY THE NOT TECHNICIAN IN ALL METHODS. TO COMPLY WITH THIS DOCUMENT THE EMPLOYER MUST ESTABLISH A “WRITTEN PRACTICE” WHICH DESCRIBES IN DETAIL HOW THE TECHNICIAN WILL BE TRAINED, EXAMINED AND CERTIFIED. . 7 cr THE STUDENT IS ADVISED TO STUDY THE CURRENT EDITION-OF SNT-TC-1A T° DETERMINE THE RECOMMENDED NUMBER OF HOURS OF CLASSROOM INSTRUCTION AND MONTHS OF EXPERIENCE NECESSARY IOBE CERTIFIED AS A RADIOGRAPHIC TESTING TECHNICIAN, MAT Lecture Guide sPONSIBILITY OF THE EMPLOYER, CERTIFICATION OF NDT PERSONNE! 1S THE Rt AND IS USUALLY AT THREE LEVELS. LEVEL | — 1S QUALIFIED TO PERFORM SPECIFIC CALIBRATIONS, SPECIFIC TESTS, AND SPECIFIC EVALUATIONS, LEVEL lI — IS QUALIFIED TO SET UP AND CALIBRATE EQUIPMENT AND TO INTERPRET AND EVALUATE RESULTS WITH RESPECT TO CODES, STANDARDS A110 SPECIFICATIONS, MUST BE ABLE TO PREPARE \WRITTEN INSTRUCTIONS AND REPORT TEST RESULTS, . LEVEL IIT MUST BE CAPABLE AND RESPONSIBLE FOR ESTABLISHING TECHNIQUES, INTERPRETING CODES, AND DESIGNATING THE TEST METHOD AND TECHNIQUE TO BE USED, MUST HAVE A PRACTICAL BACKGROUND IN THE TECHNOLOGY AND BE FAMILIAR WITH OTHEN COMMONLY USED METHODS OF NDT. THE SNT-TC-1A DOCUMENT RECOMMENDS THAT LEVEL | AND Hl NOT TECHNICIANS GE EXAMINED IN THE FOLLOWING AREAS: A, GENERAL EXAMINATION B. SPEFIFIC EXAMINATION . PRACTICAL EXAMINATION THE SNT-TC-14 DOCUMENT RECOMMENDS THAT NOT LEVEL Ill PERSONNEL BE EXAMINED IN THE FOLLOWING AREAS A. BASIC EXAMINATION BL METHOD EXAMINATION . SPECIFIC EXAMINATIONAT Lecluve Guide = essen 1 ihe: han ASNT PROVIDES A SERVICE TO THE INDUSTAY BY PROVIDING LEVEL Il EXAMINATIONS IN’ THE BASIC AND METHOD AREAS. BECAUSE OF THE INDIVIDUAL REQUIREMENTS OF THE MANY INDUSTRIES USING NDT, THE SPECIFIC EXAMINATION |S STILL THE RESPONSIBILITY OF THE EMPLOYER, THE FOLLOWING FLOW CHART INDICATES THE PATHS THAT CAN BE TAKEN TO BE CERTIFIED ACCORDING TO THE SNT-TC-1A DOCUMENT. \ ie E2 2 ew ee ee ee og Kir ; aun oa tou Lesson 1 ou The selection of ane test method over ancther is usualy Ne decison of the Level | leehaiian perorsing tbe test {ASNT provides a sence for examining Lave and personne inthe Genel and Specie seas Wate to the NOT leteician i aways given fo the employer ihe SMITE document 7 complied wih Matin mi ems AS area Nase ere, ween nowadse of ater common used methade of NOT even tnelgh ceiacatnns naees conivinife acograshe area ‘A Level echnicin carting eciograsis fest i etme o accep ovided iat wise insiucians or praceouies are genta him oy ata Sti aecorgance win ST Te18) ove i {a Etro oh he guidelines ol SHTTC:1A, a thee tves of technicians must tke a ‘etsomel preweed iat cocumeniaion son ie showing ihe ache eneeeeeee taint every employer that uses he SNT-TC-1A document lsh a “Wien {am nioyer does net have a Level in i cppany, ne en elaine services ofan ‘ agwanage ot racigtaphy iat reveals neal lscotnules wih acess to ony ‘nn se one a eg inept, 01h x and Gamma rays have tne abit fo penetateessthgs ad weldmenis {ewov in radiography. he lechocian must have al ve ot ish physical senses tested ‘by 8 Goctr To nap protec! agaist excestve alton sincereLESSON 2 a. PENETRATION AND ABSORPTION X AND GAMMA RAYS POSSESS THE CAPABILITY OF PENETRATING MATERIALS. IN PASSING THROUGH MATTER, THE AMOUNT OF ABSORPTION AT ANY POINT IS. DEPENDENT UPON THE THICKNESS AND DENSITY AT THAT POINT. WHEN THIS VARIATION IS DETECTED AND RECORDED (USUALLY ON FILM), A MEANS OF IMAGING THE INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF THE MATERIAL IS AVAILABLE. THE LATENT IMAGE PRODUCED IN THE FILM BECOMES A SHADOW PICTURE OF THE SPECIMEN WHEN THE FILM IS PROCES! \ | _____n i eee EEE | aN oases areas —==—2. met Leaton2 WHAT IS RADIATION? X AND GAMMA RAYS ARE A FAMILY OF WAVES THAT ARE CALLED ELECTRO- MAGNETIC WAVES. situ \ ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM THE SPECTRUM IS ARRANGED IN ORDER BY FREQUENCY OF THE WAVE. THE WAVES WITH THE LOWEST FREQUENCY ARE LISTED AT THE LEFT END OF THE CHART WHILE THE WAVES WITH THE HIGHEST FREQUENCY ARE AT THE RIGHT. SINCE VISIBLE LIGHT AND X AND GAMMA RAYS ARE MENBERS OF THE ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM, THEY HAVE MANY THINGS IN COMMON. 1. TRAVEL AT THE VELOCITY OF LIGHT (126,000 ues ren secano} 2, TRAVEL IN STRAIGHT LINES 3. NOT AFFECTED BY MAGNETIC FIELDS, 4, WILL EXPOSE PHOTOGRAPHIC FILM,AT Lecture Guide aston 2 WAVELENGTH IS DESCRIBEDIAS THE DISTANCE BETWEEN THE PEAKS OF THE WAVE, THESE WAVES CAN VARY TREMENDOUSLY IN LENGTH. SOME RADIO WAVES. ARE SEVERAL MILES LONG WHILE X AND GAMMA RAYS ARE MEASURED IN ‘ANGSTROM UNITS." AN ANGSTROM UNIT IS EQUAL TO 0.00000001 (10° exuowne) CENTI METER, ONE CENTIMETER IS EQUAL TO 0.394 INCH. WWII PDI OI a. FREQUENCY IS DESCRIBED AS THE NUMBER OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES THAT PASS A GIVEN POINT IN ONE SECOND. REMEMBER THAT ALL ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES TRAVEL AT THE SAME veLociry. FREQUENCY IS MEASURED IN “CYCLES PER SECOND," ACYCLE BEING ONE COMPLETE WAVE, TROUGH TO TROUGH OR PEAK TO PEAK. Iv THE EXAMPLE BELOW. ASSUME THAT THE-TIME IS ONE SECOND. WHAT IS ‘THE FREQUENCY OF EACH RAY IN CYCLES PER SECOND? sors. sors. 2crs,ee ee eee ee essen 2 THE FREQUENCY AND WAVELENGTH 0: ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES ARE INVERSELY PROPORTIONAL. THIS MEANS THAT WHEN ONE INCREASES THE OTHER DECREASES BY A PROPORTIONATE AMOUNT. DOUBLE ONE AND THE OTHER 1S REDUCED BY ONE HALF. ALL X AND GAMMA RAYS ARF ONSIUERED TO HAVE THE SAME AMPLITUDE OR, HEIGHT OR THE SAME ENERUY PEAK WITHIN EACH WAVE, HOWEVER, WHILE IT IS TRUE THAT EACH WAVE OF THE TWO WAVES SHOWN ABOVE HAS AN EQUAL ENERGY, THEY DO HAVE DIFFERENT FREQUENCIES AND WAVELENGTHS, IN THE EXAMPLE BELOW, THE HIGH-FREQUENCY RAY HAS 4 TIMES AS MANY WAVES AS THE LOW-FREQUENCY RAY, THEREFORE 4 TIMES MORE ENERGY PEAKS.Ar Lecture Use THE MOST IMPORTANT DIFFERENCE TO THE RADIOGRAPHER BETWEEN Li RAYS AND X AND GAMMA RAYS IS THEIR PENETRATING ABILITY. VISIBLE LIGHT IS STOPPED BY OPAQUE SUBSTANCES. HOWEVER, BECAUSE X‘RAYS HAVE SUCH A HIGH FREQUENCY AND SH WAVELENGTH, THEY ARE ABLE TO PENETRATE OPAQUE OBJECTS EXPOSE PHOTOGRAPHIC FILM, THE DEPTH OF PENETRATION OF THE RAY DEPENDS UPON THE KIND MATERIAL IN THE OBJECT AND THE ENERGY OF THE RAY. REMEMBER FROM THE SPECTRUM THAT XRAY ENERGY IS DEPENDENT ON 1 FREQUENCY ANO WAVELENGTH, . THE HIGHER ENERGY IS OBTAINED FROM X AND GAMMA RAYS WITh HI FREQUENCY AND SHORT WAVELENGTH, IIS IMPORTANT TO NOTE THAT X AND GAMMA RAYS OF THE SAME FREQUEN. AND WAVELENGTH HAVE IDENTICAL PROPERTIES,ALSO IMPORTANT IN USING X AND GAMMA RAYS IS THE CHARACTERISTIC OF TRAVELING IN A STRAIGHT LINE, THE RADIATION PRODUCES THE IMAGE OF A SPECIMEN - JUST AS A SHADOW X AND GAMMA RAYS CAN EXPOSE PHOTOGRAPHIC FILM EECAUSE OF THEIR ABILITY TO IONIZE MATERIALS. WHEN THE RADIATION PENETRATES THE FILM, THE FILM IS EXPCSED BECAUSE THE RAYS [ONIZE THE TINY SILVER BROMIDE GRAINS IN THE FILM EMULSION. THE IONIZATION OF THE FILM'S EMULSION FORMS A “LATENT IMAGE” WHICH IS DEVELOFED DURING LATER PROCESSING OF THE FILM. THIS 2ROCESS WILL BE DISCUSSED I LESSOW 2, :ee lei Name ker Lesson 2 a uz ‘he Yaa inage esto aninage on he acoyeoh at canatbe seen wiht the Vise tight has longer wavalangn han x and a ys The “lecuomagnetic sactum’ descroes he lamily of eetemsgnatc waves tla The higher he “smpituda” of an eleremaghetic wave, he ight the energy. ign requeney ang short wavelengin rays ae bes ble te pant Xays nave a higher equoncy han visble ght ang mettre have a higher sey Becsusoan Xray tava ina staigh ne th he abit fe penetrate cbects and fon Sitar image on anoogtap in ‘The em “asorpion eles tothe aby ot male a permit xray io panera with en Kay fm is developed, th portion that was excoses 1 adatlon ins dock, ‘The wavelanah of» ypicelXiay is usualy conicered fo 9 several mila long. ‘avelenpin is utval descrived ne the eslance between ho angst units ‘Angsom units ae used 1a measve he wavelang of X and gamma sys 's considered lo be one comolee wave ster Kom peak lo peak oF ough ‘he ‘reauancy* olan x or gamma ry ie measured in cycles per secon 18 possible pointsLesson 3 RADIOGRAPHIC SENSITIVITY GEFORE A RADIOGRAPH CAN BE OF ANY USE AS A NONDESTAUCTIVE TESTING TOOL, WE MUST HAYE SOME IDEA HOW ACCURATE THE TOOL IS, THIS MEASURE OF ACCURACY IS CALLED THE “SENSITIVITY” OF THE RADIOGRAPH SENSITIVITY IN A RADIOGRAPH IS A FUNCTION OF THE “CONTRAST” AND THE “DEFINITION” OF THE RADI GRAPH. CONTRAST |S THE COMPARISON BETWEEN FILM DENSITIES FOR DIFFERENT AREAS OF THE RADIOGRAPH AS SHOWN BELOW. FILM “A” SHOWS HIGHER CONTRAST THAN FILM “8! DEFINITION IS THE LINE OF DEMARCATION BETWEEN AREAS OF DIFFERENT DENSITIES, IF THE IMAGE IS CLEAR AND SHARP THE RADIOGRAPH IS SAID TO HAVE G00D DEFINITION aS SHOWN BELOW. FILM “B” SHOWS BETTER DEFINITION THAN FILM "A: aINHERENT UNSHARPNESS IS CAUSED BY FREE ELECTRONS THAT ARE i GENERATED BY THE RADIOGRAPHIC RAY AS IT PASSES THROUGH THE FILM, THIS SCATTERING OF FREE ELECTRONS (SHOWN BELOM) THROUGH THE i FILM CAUSES JHE FILM TO BE EXPOSED WHEREVER THE ELECTRONS TRAVEL, fo 1 rarwor aay SCATTERED RADIATION AOVERSELY AFFECTS SOTH THE CONTRAST AND THE DEFINITION OF THE RADIOGRAPH SCATTERED RADIATION IS USUALLY DESCRIBED WITH REFERENCE TO ITS oniaiN. 1}. INTERNAL SCATTER ORIGINATES WITHIN THE SPECIMEN ON THE LEFT IS A RADIOGRAPH THAT WOULD 8E OBTAINED IF THERE WAS NO INTERNAL a SCATTER, ON THE RIGHT IS SHOWN A LOSS OF DEFINITION CAUSED BY THE a INTERNAL SCATTER,FA Lectun Guin Lesson 3 2 SIDE SCATTER ORIGINATES FROM WALLS, OR ANY OTHER OBJECTS NEARBY THAT ARE IN THE PATH OF THE PRIMARY RAY. 3. BACK SCATTER ORIGINATES FROM ANY MATERIAL. WALL, FLOOR, TABLE TOP, OR CASSETTE THAT IS LOCATED IN BACK OF THE FILM, seem BACK SCATTER IS OFTEN IDENTIFIED BY PLACING A LEAD LETTER “=” ON THE BACK SIDE OF THE CASSETTE, IF THE LETTER INAGE APPEARS (ON THE FILM, THIS WOULD INOIGATE SCATTER RADIATION,[RT Lecture Guide tes 3 GEOMETRIC UNSHARPNESS OCCURS IF THE BASIC PRINCPLES OF SHADOW FORMATION ARE NOT FOLLOWED. ONE CAUSE OF GEOMETRIC UNSHARPNESS RELATES TO THE SIZE OF THE RADIOGRAPHIC SOURCE. WHEN THE SOURCE IS NOT A POINT BUT A SMALL AREA, THE IMAGE GAST IS NOT PERFECTLY SHARP. THE FUZZY EDGES OF THE IMAGE ARE CALLED THE “PENUMBRA’ c PENUMBRA CANNOT BE COMPLETELY ELIMINATED GECAUSE A POINT SOURCE CANNOT BE OBTAINED IN RADIOGRAPHIC EQUIPHIENT,1 oe eo me esson PENUMBRA CAN BE REDUCED WHEN THE SOURCE-TO-SPECIMEN DISTANCE IS INCREASED, een. ANOTHER VERY IMPORTANT TECHNIQUE TO REDUCE PENUMBRA IS TO KEEP THE FILM AS CLOSE TO THE SPECIMEN AS POSSIALE.reac os MIENEVER PENUMBRA CAN SE REDUCED IT WiLL ALSO IMPROVE ~“eff DEFINITION OF THE RADIOGRAPHIC mage OPTIMUM GEOMETRICAL SHARPNESS IS OBTAINED Whew 1 1. THe HADIATION SOURCE Is Sunt 2. THE DISTANCE FROM THE SOURCE To speciwen IsmeLarivery Gacar a. THE DISTANCE FROM THE SPECIMEN TO FILM IS SMalL WHENEVER POSSIBLE, THE RAYS FROM THE SOURCE SHCULD BE _- PERPENDICULARLY 70 THE FILM TO PREVENT A DISTORTED IMAGE. \ = = 2k 2. NORMAL DistoRTED HBB BB BERR BS ee ooFL Leetwre Guide AS SHOWN BELOW, A DISTORTED IMAGE COULD AFFECT THE FILM INTERPRETATION. THE ANGLED LEG OF THE SPECIMEN HAS BEEN SHORTENED ON THE RADIOGRAPHIC IMAGE, SPECIMEN SHAPE IS ANOTHER GEOMETRICAL FACTOR THAT AFFECTS THE DEFINITION SEEN ON THE RADIOGRAPH. THE IMAGE OF AN INCLUSION COULD SE ALMOST INVISIBLE BECAUSE OF A VER GRADUAL CHANGE IN PHOTOGRAPHIC DENSITY, SPECIMEN "A" SELOW WILL HAVE THE BEST DEFINITION BECAUSE OF THE ABRUPT THICKNESS CHANGE. rqa a em Ll om AT Lecte Guide Uesson 2 THE FORMATION OF AN IMAGE ON THE FILM DEPENDS UPON THE AMOUNT OF RADIATION RECEIVED BY DIFFERENT SECTIONS OF THE FILM. AS SHOWN BELOW. A DISCONTINUITY SUCH AS A VOID REPRESENTS A THICKNESS DIFFERENCE IN THE SPECIMEN AND WILL APPEAR AS A DARK SPOT ON THE DEVELOPED FILM. IF THE DISCONTINUITY SHOWN ABOVE HAD SEEN AN INCLUSION THAT WAS. MORE DENSE THAN THE SPECIMEN MATERIAL, THEN THE IMAGE ON THE FILM. WOULD HAVE BEEN LIGHTER AT THAT SPOT THE XGRAYS WOULD HAVE BEEN ABSORBED BY THE DENSE INCLUSION.STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM ALL ATOMS ARE COMPOSED OF THREE BASIC PARTICLES: 1. PROTON — HAS A POSITIVE CHARGE AND IS RELATIVELY HEAVY. 2 NEUTRON — ABOUT THE SAME SIZE AND WEIGHT AS THE PROTON BUT HAS NO ELECTRICAL CHARGE. 3. ELECTRON —VERY LIGHT PARTICLE, ABOUT 1/1840 OF THE WEIGHT OF A PROTON. IT HAS A NEGATIVE CHARGE. THE NUMBER OF THE ABOVE PARTICLES DETERMINES THE KIND OF ATOM ms, THERE ARE OVER 100 DIFFERENT KINDS OF ATOMS KNOWN, AND THEY ARE CALLED ELEMENTS AND GIVEN A NAME, OXYGEN, COPPER AND LEAD. ARE SOME COMMON ELEMENTS. ELEMENTS OR COMBINATIONS OF ELEMENTS (MOLECULES) FORM ALs THE THINGS WE SEE IN EVERYOAY LIVING, FOR EXAMPLE, THERE ARE BILLIONS OF ATOMS IN THE TIP OF A PENCIL, WITH OVER 89.98% OF EACH ATOM BEING EMPTY SPACE. AVERY SIMPLE ATOM IS THAT OF THE ELEMENT HELIUM, eT THE PROTONS AND NEUTRONS ARE PACKED TOGETHER IN THE CENTER OF THE ATOM. THIS FORMS THE NUCLEUS. THE HELIUM ATOM HAS TWO PROTONS AND TWO NEUTRONS IN THE hucueus THE NEUTRONS ARE NEUTRAL SO THIS GIVES THE NUC.EUS A PLUS 2 ELECTRICAL CHARGE, TO BE COMPLETE, THE ATOM MUST GE NEUTAAL, THEREFORE 2 ELECTRONS WITH NEGATIVE CHARGES ORBIT THE NUCLEUS, l=e laa A Lacie Guide A COMPLETE ATOM MUST HAVE AN EQUAL NUMER OF PROTONS AND ELECTRONS. EXAMPLES OF TWO COMPLETE ATOMS (ELECTRICALLY NEUTRAL) ARE SHOWN BELOW. : g X \ ge J This ts . atom of beryllium THE NUMBER OF ELECTRONS AND PROTONS MUST GE THE SAME, HOWEVER, THE NUMBER OF NEUTRONS MAY BE QUITE DIFFERENT. THE NUMBER OF PROTONS IN AN ATOM DETERMINES THE KIND OF ATOM OR ELEMENT. ALL ATOMS THAT CONTAIN. 2 PROTONS ARE "!ELIUM ATOMS, ALL ATOMS THAT CONTAIN. 4 PROTONS ARE GERYLLIUM ATOMS, ALL ATOMS THAT CONTAIN. 8 FROTONS ARE OXYGEN ATOMS, ALL ATOMS THAT CONTAIN 26 PROTONS ARE IRON ATOMS,IDENTIFICATION OF ELEMENTS . ATOMIC NUMBER OR "2" NUMBER IS THE NUMBER OF PROTONS IN Th NUCLEUS OF THE ATOM AND IS USED FOR IDENTIFYING BASIC ELEMENTS. THEREFORE, AN ATOM OF BERYLLIUM WITH 4 PROTONS WOULD HAVE A "2" NUMBER OF 4 BASIC ELEMENTS MAY ALSO BE IDENTIFIED BY THEIR WEIGHT. MASS NUMBER OR “A" NUMBER IS A COMBINATION OF PROTONS AND NEUTRONS (HEAVY PARTS OF THE ATOM) EACH ATOM IS THEN ASSIGNED A NUMBER EQUAL TO THE TOTAL NUMBER OF PROTONS AND NEUTRONS IN THE NUCLEUS. \ AS SHOWN BELOW, THE BERYLLIUM ATOM HAS A“ A NUMBER OF 9, NUMBER OF 4 AND AN, 2" NUMBER 1A" NUMBER — ATOMIC NUMBER = THE NUMBER OF PROTONS ONLY IN THE NUCLEU: THIS DETERMINES THE TYPE OF ELEMENT, = MASS NUMBER = THE NUMBER OF PROTONS AND NEUTRONS IN THE Nucteus, THIS IDENTIFIES DIFFERENT ATOMS OF THE SAME ELEMENT,~o FT Lecture Gute RADIOACTIVE MATERIALS ELEMENTS WITH A COMMON “2” NUMBER AND DIFFERENT “A NUMBERS ARE CALLED "ISOTOPES" OF THAT ELEMENT. AS THERE ARG DIFFERENT BREFDS OF DOGS AND CATS, SO ARE THERE ISOTOPES OF DIFFERENT ELEMENTS. ISOTOPES OF DIFFERENT ELEMENTS ARE IDENTIFIED BY SHOWING THE MASS NUMBER “A” AFTER THE NAME OF THE ELEMENT. E.G. COBALT -60) FOR EXAMPLE: HYOROGEN HAS A "2" NUMBER OF 1 BUT ADDING A NEUTRON GIVES IT AN “A” NUMBER OF 2 om x ‘ f bad P Z" NUMBER = 1 2" NUMBER = 1 "A" NUMBER = 1 "A" NUMBER = 2 BELOW ARE TWO ATOMS OF HELIUM. THEY ARE DIFFERENT ISOTOPES OF HELIUM BECAUSE THEY HAVE THE SAME “2” NUMBER, BUT DIFFERENT “A’ NUMBERS. THE HELIUM ATOMS BELOW ARE REFERRED TO AS HE-4 AND HES , & 3B f L 7 Z" NUMBER = 2 2” NUMBER = 2 ‘A HUMBER = 4 A” NUMBER = 5aT Lecture Guise Useson MANY ISOTOPES OF THE VARIOUS ELEMENTS OCCUR IN NATURE, BUT ARTIFICIAL ISOTOPES ANE NOW VERY COMMON. ARTIFICIAL ISOTOPES ARE CREATED SY BOMBARDING AN ELEMENT WITH AN EXCESS OF NEUTRONS. THis IS DONE IN A NUCLEAR REACTOR WHERE THE ATOMIC FISSION PROCESS GIVES OFF LARGE NUMBERS OF FREE NEUTRONS, AFTER BEING EXPOSED IN THE NUCLEAR AEACTOR, THE BASIC ELEMENT ABSORBS SOME OF THE FREE NEUTRONS. THIS INCREASES THE ELEMENT'S “A" NUMBER OR MASS, WHEN THESE EXCESS NEUTRONS DO NOT UPSET THE BALANCE OF THE VUCLEUS, THEN THIS NEW ISOTOPE IS SAID TO BE "STABLE", WHEN THESE EXCESS NEUTRONS 00 UPSET THE BALANCE GF THE NUCLEUS, THE ISOTOFE IS UNSTABLE AND WILL DISINTEGRATE OR DECAY INTO A MORE STABLE Font UNSTABLE ATi SOME RADIOAG URANIUM, 'S ARE SAID TO BE RADIOACTIVE. 'VE ISOTOPES ARE FOUND IN NATURE, SUCH AS RADIUM AND 'SOTOPES COMMONLY USED IN RADIOGRAPHY, SUCH AS IRIDIUM 192 AND COBALT 60 Ane ARTIFICIAL WHEN AN ELEMENT IS MADE RADIOACTIVE IN THE NUCLEAR REACTOR, THISWHEN AN UNSTABLE ISOTOPE IS DECAYING OR DISINTEGRATING, TINY PARTICLES TRAVELING AT HIGH SPEFDS ARE I MITTED ANDIOR ENERGY IN THE FORM OF WAVES IS GIVEN OFF. ALL RADIATION COMES FROM 1! = NUCLI 1JS OF THE ATOMS, THE FOLLOWING PARTICLES AND ENERGIES ARE RELEASED FROM THE RADIOACTIVE ATOM: "ALPHA" PARTICLE — LARGEST RADIATION PARTICLE WITH 2 PROTONS AND 2 NEUTRONS. “BETA” PARTICLE — VERY LIGHT HIGH SPEED ELECTRON igen "GAMMA" RAY (NOT A PARTICLE) — AN ENERGY WAVE, HS NO TWO RADIOACTIVE ISOTOPES HAVE EXACTLY THE SAME DECAY PATTERN. ‘A RADIOACTIVE ISOTOPE CAN DECAY BY ANY ONE OF THE FOLLOWING: 1. ALPHA EMISSION ONLY 2, BETA EMISSION ONLY ALPHA EMISSION WITH ASSOCIATED GAMMA RAY EMISSION, 4. BETA EMISSION WITH ASSOCIATED GAMMA RAY EMISSION, WE ARE NOT 100 CONCERNED WITH ALPHA AND BETA PARTICLES BECAUSE ALPHA PARTICLES CAN TRAVEL ONLY A FEW INCHES IN AIR AND BETA PARTICLES ONLY A FEW FEET ONLY GAMMA NAYS ARE OF USE TO THE RADIOGRAPHER,MEASUREMENT OF RaDioacTiviTy THE BASIC UNIT OF RADIOACTIVE MATERIAL IS THE “CURIE”, WHEN A RADIOACTIVE MATERIAL DECAYS IT IS Sal0 TOHAVE AN “ACTIVITY” ONE CURIE WHEN 97 BILLION OF ITS ATOMS DISINTEGRATE IN ONE SECON THIS IS WRITTEN 97 x 10" DISINTEGRATIONSISECOND, WHAT IS THE ACTIVITY OF A RADIOACTIVE SOURCE THAT HAS 148 BILLIC DISINTEGRATIONSISECOND? causwen: acrvrry cunt \ HOWEVER. WHEN COMPARING TWO SOURCES, JUST BECAUSE ONE Has MIGHER ACTIVITY DOES NOT MEAN IT IS ALWAYS PRODUCING ot RADIATION. EXAMPLE WHEN A COBALT 60 ATOM DECAYS IT EMITS ONE BETA PARTIC! AND TWO GAMMA Rays, WHEN A THULIUM 170 ATOM DECAYS, “4 OF THE ATOMS EMIT BETA PARTICLE AND ONE GAMMA RAY, AND % OF THE ATOW EMIT BETA PARTICLES WITH NO GAMMA RAYS, BERING ACTIVITY OF ANY RADIOACTIVE SOURCE IS THE ACTIVITY IN CURES PE Gram, EXAMPLE IF 4 GRAMS OF COBALT 60 HAS AN ACTIVITY OF 100 CURIES THEN THE SPECIFIC ACTIVITY WOULD BE 25 CURIES PER GRAN WHAT ARE THE SPECIFIC ACTIVITIES OF THE FOLLOW!» 3 GRAMS OF AN ISOTOPE WiTH AN ACTIVITY OF 2000 cURiES. G@NSWERSPECIFIC GRAVITY » 667 cuiIT Lectwe Guide Ueeton ¢ THE HALF-LIFE OF AN ISOTOPE IS THE TIME IT TAKES FOR Y% OF THE ATOMS TO DECAY OR DISINTEGRATE. SOME ISOTOPES DECAY RAPIDLY (SHORT HALF-LIFE) THEREFORE THEY HAVE AWIGH SPECIFIC ACTIVITY. OTHER ISOTOPES DECAY SLOWLY (LONG HALF-LIFE) AND HAVE A LOW SPECIFIC ACTIVITY, EVERY ISOTOPE HAS ITS OWN PECULIAR HALF-LIFE RANGING FROM MICROSECONOS TO YEARS. \ EXAMPLE— CESIUM 137 HAS A HALF-LIFE OF 30°YEARS, WHETHER YOU STARTED WITH 1 GRAM OR 10 FOUNDS AT THE END OF 30 YEARS. YOU WOULD ONLY HAVE vz REMAINING. AFTER 120 YEARS. WHAT FRACTION OF THE ORIGINAL AMOUNT WOULD You Hav! oNSWER— y, RENAN) HALF-LIVES OF SOME COMMON RADIOISOTOPES ARE AS FOLLOWS: ADIN 2 1620VEARS S0YEARS, COBALT 60(C2-60) 53YEARS THULIUM 170 (7-170) 13008YS, RIDIU 8240-182) 75DAYS WHAT WILL BE THE ACTIVITY OF 150 CURIES OF Ia-192 AFTER 75 DAYS? WHAT WILL BE THE ACTIVITY OF 50 GURIES OF In-192 AFTER 225 DAYS? (ANSWER 75 CURIES & 64 CURES)LESSON 5 THE TWO KINDS OF RADIATION USEO IN RADIOGRAPHY ARE GAMMA RAYS AND X-RAYS, EXCEPT FOR THEIR SOURCES, GAMMA AND X-RAYS ARE EXACTLY THE SAME KIND OF RADIATION. eee oe ue xno co WW eer 7 AN X-RAYS AND GAMMA RAYS ARE NOT BITS OF MATTER AS ARE ALPHA ANO BETA PARTICLES, XCRAYS AND GAMMA RAYS HAVE NO MASS OR WEIGHT, AND OUR NORMAL, SENSES CANNOT DETECT THEM, THE ENERGY OF X- AND GAMMA RAYS IS MEASURED IN: THOUSAND ELECTRON VOLTS (KEV) MILLION ELECTRON VOLTS (MEV) AN ELECTRON VOLT IS AN AMOUNT OF ENERGY EQUAL TO THE ENERGY GAINED BY ONE ELECTRON WHEN IT IS ACCELERATED BY QNE VOLT. EXAMPLE IF ONE ELECTRON WERE ACCELERATED BY A POTENTIAL OF 10 THOUSAND VOLT (100 kV) X-RAY MACHINE, THE ELECTRON WOULD HAVE AN ENERGY OF 100 THOUSAND ELECTRON VOLTS (100 KEV), WHEN X-RAYS ARE PRODUCED, THERE IS_A WIDE RANGE OF ENERGIES (WAVELENGTHS). NOT ALL ELECTRONS ARE ACCELERATED TO THE MAXIMUM VOLTAGE SET ON THE X-RAY MACHINE, HOWEVER, EVERY GAMMA PRODUCING ISOTOPE EMITS RAYS OF ONE OR MORE SPECIFIC ENERGIES.I Lecture Guise Leeton § ENVERGIES ARE ALWAYS THE SAME FOR ANY ONE ISOTOPE. EXAMPLE ~ COBALT-t0 ALWAYS EMITS THO "HARO” GAMMA RAYS. OWE OF THESE AAYSIS EQUIVALENT TO THe “WARDEST? PAY TWAT Cat 8 PRODUCED BY A 1.98 HEV RAY MACHINE Te OTHER RAY Ig EOUWALENT TO THE "HARDEST RAY FROM A LAT MEV AY MACHINE REGARDLESS OF CUME STRENGTH (ACTIY) OR SZE CF AN IGOTOPE. THE ENERGY OF OIVOURL MAY REMAINS Tie SAME (SEE BELOW .\ oe ENERGY | C)ractivity -50¢ ENERGY” "TG activity ~ 506 BD lie GAMMA RAY ENERGIES ARE DETERMINED BY THE TYPE OF SOURCE. GAMMA RAY INTENSITY (wuMecR OF Ravsi IS DETERMINED BY THE ACTIVITY CURIE STRENGTH OF THE ISOTOPE. X-RAY ENERGIES ARE DETERMINED SY THE VOLTAGE APPLIED TO THE X-RAY Tuae, X-RAY INTENSITY IS DETERMINED BY THE CURRENT WiLuiawes) APPLIED TO THE XCRAY TUBE FILAMENT,ed Yo od 1 Lecture Guta THE COMPTON EFFECT IS A LOGICAL EXTENSION OF THE PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT EXCEPT THAT THE PHOTON ENERGIES ARE USUALLY HIGHER, IN THE COMPTON EFFECT ALL OF THE PHOTON'S ENERGY CANNOT BE ABSORBED IN REMOVING THE ELECTRON, AND THERE IS ENERGY LEFT OVER. THE EXCESS ENERGY TAKES THE FORM OF A NEW PHOTON THAT HAS A LONGER WAVELENGTH. THE NEW PHOTON MOVES OFF IN A NEW PATH. oo Ee “LES Caen wlan WB (etnois Force / 12 rev) oF “ (e0 He) IN THE EXAMPLE ABOVE, ASSUME THAT THE PHOTON HAS AN ENEAGY OF 450, KEV. ALSO ASSUME THAT IT REMOVES AN ELECTRON THAT HAD 4 BINDING FORCE OF 12 KEV AND GIVES IT A BOOST OF 80 KEV. WHAT IS THE ENERGY OF THE NEW PHOTON? owswen: «50-12-20 THE SCATTERED PHOTON WILL GO THROUGH SEVERAL COMPTON EFFECTS BEFORE IT IS COMPLETELY ABSORBED IN A LAST PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT. cee 58 KEY) pm ¢ ee ot ah, ERLE enAE Loeture Gulla onsen § THE ILLUSTRATION 8ELOW SHOWS A POSSIBLE GYCLE OF COMPTON SCATTER: HIGH ENERGY PHOTONS SCATTER VERY LITTLE, BUT LOW ENERGY PHOTONS MAY EVEN SCATTER BACKWARDS. RADIATION THAT IS PART OF THE ORIGINAL BEAM IS CALLED "PRIMARY". SCATTER RADIATION IS A GENERAL TERM REFERRING TO RADIATION RESULTING FROM THE PRIMARY BEAM, PROPERLY CALLED “SECONDARY RADIATION". COMPTON SCATTER IS 4 SPECIFIC TYPE OF SECONDARY RADIATION.Lesson HIGH SPEED ELECTRONS — UP TO THIS POINT WE HAVE NOT DISCUSSED WHAT HAPPENS TO THE HIGH SPEED ELECTRONS PRODUCED IN THE COMPTON AND. PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECTS, THE KINETIC ENERGY (ENERGY OF MOTION) OF THESE HIGH ELECTRONS 1S ABSORBED IN TWO WAYS: 1. ADDITIONAL IONS ARE CREATED SIMPLY BY AN ELECTRON COLLIDING WITH ANOTHER ELECTRON. THE ELECTRON THAT IS STRUCK IS KNOCKED OUT OF ORBIT, BUT HAS TAKEN SOME OF THE ENERGY OF THE FIRST ELECTRON, THIS PROCESS CONTINUES UNTIL THERE IS VERY LITTLE ENERGY IN ANY (ONE ELECTRON, ‘ THIS LOW ENERGY IS THEN GIVEN OFF AS ULTRAVIOLET RAYS, LIGHT OR HEAT. 2 THE BREMSSTAAHLUNG PROCESS SLOWS DOWN OR COMPLETELY STOPS THE HIGH SPEED ELECTRON DUE TO THE POSITIVE FIELD OF THE ATOMIC NUCLEUS, 6 teivne e e 6 ° e e eS oceeus e ° ae ° Ne 0 palociag iC cae THE ENERGY THAT IS ABSORBED BY THE NUCLEUS IS IN EXCESS TO THE ATOM'S NEED AND THIS ENERGY IS IMMEDIATELY RADIATED AS AN X-RAY OF EQUAL OR LOWER ENERGY. (SEE ABOVE) IF THE ELECTRON WERE COMPLETELY STOPPED, THE X-AAY GIVEN OFF WILL HAVE AN ENERGY EQUAL TO THE TOTAL KINETIC ENERGY OF THE ELECTRON.THE BREMSSTRAHLUNG PROCESS CAN CAUSE OTHER (LOWER ENERGY) X-RAYS WHICH IN TURN CAN CAUSE ADDITIONAL COMPTON ANO PHOTOELECTRIC EF- FECTS, THIS SCATTERED (SECONDAAY) RADIATION CAN BE A SERIOUS PROBLEM FOR THE RADIOGRAPHER, HALF VALUE LAYER AS AN X-fAY PENETRATES A MATERIAL THE ENERGY IS ABSORBED BY THE PHOTOELECTRIC AND COMPTON EFFECT. AT SOME PLACE IN THE MATERIAL THERE IS A LEVEL AT WHICH THE NUMBER, OF RAYS (INTENSITY) OF THE PADIATION IS ONE HALF OF THE INTENSITY ON THE SURFACE, THIS DEPTH IS THE HALF VALUE LAYER, FOR THAT PARTICULAR BEAM IN THAT PARTICULAR MATERIAL, THE RADIATION IS REDUCED BY ONE HALF FOR EACH H.V.L. IT PAT THROUGH.I Lecture Guide “asso 8 PARTICULATE RADIATION THERE ARE THREE TYPES OF PARTICULATE RADIATION AND THEY ARE OF LITTLE CONCERN TO THE AVERAGE RADIOGRAPHER., PARTICULATE RADIATION IS DIFFERENT FROM X AND GAMMA RAYS AS THEY HAVE MASS AND DO NOT TRAVEL AT THE SPEED OF LIGHT. HOWEVER, PARTICULATE RADIATION WILL PENETRATE MATTER, WILL CAUSE IONIZATION AND CANNOT BE DETECTED BY HUMAN SENSES. 1. ALPHA RADIATION AS DISCUSSED IN LESSON 4HAS A POSITIVE CHARGE AND IS SLOW AND HEAVY, ALPHA PARTICLES IONIZE ATOMS BY REMOVING ELECTRONS AS THEY PASS BUT THEY 00 NOT PENETRATE DEEPLY. 2 BETA PARTICLES (HIGH SPEED ELECTRONS) HAVE A NEGATIVE CHARGE AND BECAUSE THEY ARE LIGHTWEIGHT THEY ARE NOT AS IONIZING AS ALPHA PARTICLES, 3. NEUTRON RADIATION HAS PECULIAR PENETRATING QUALITIES. IT PENETRATES MANY HEAVY ELEMENTS WITH EASE ANC IS ABSORBED READILY BY MANY LIGHTER ELEMENTS, PARTICULARLY HYDROGEN, THIS QUALITY IS JUST THE REVERSE OF X AND GAMMA RAYS, THE NEUTRON SOURCE IS USUALLY COLLIMATED AND PASSES THROUGH THE SPECIMEN TO ACTIVATE A CONVERSION SCREEN. WHEN THE ACTIVATED CONVERSION SCREEN IS EXPOSED TO X-RAY FILM OR SOME OTHER IMAGE RECORDER, THE IMAGE IS “RANSFERRED BY THE IONIZING RADIATION FROM THE CONVERSION SCREEN.. Lesson 6 CONTINUOUS AND CHARACTERISTIC X-RAYS ARE BOTH PRODUCED AS A RESULT OF HIGH SPEED ELECTRONS STRIKING THE TARGET MATERIAL IN TH, X-RAY TUBE. CONTINUOUS, X-RAYS INCLUDE A SPECTRUM OF ENERGIES AND ARE THE RESULT OF ELECTRONS WITH A SPECTRUM OF ENERGIES GIVING UP THAT ENERGY TO THE TARGET ATOM, THIS IS REFERRED TO AS THE “BREMSSTRAHLUNG" PROCESS AND THE NUCLEUS IMMEDIATELY RELEASES THE ELECTRONS ENERGY IN THE FORM OF A HIGH ENERGY X-RAY, CHARACTERISTIC X-RAYS ALSO RESULT WHEN, A HIGH SPEED ELECTRON FROM THE HEATED FILAMENT COLLIDES WITH AN ORBITAL ELECTRON IN THE TARGET MATERIAL, BUT NARROW BANDS OF HIGHER INTENSITIES ARE. GENERATED, THE ORBITAL ELECTRON IN TURN MUST RID ITSELF OF THIS EXCESS ENERGY AND OOES SO PARTLY IN THE FORM OF X-RADIATION. CHARACTERISTIC X-RAYS HAVE MUCH LOWER ENERGY AND ARE OFTEN ‘A SOURCE OF UNWANTED SCATTERED RADIATION. REMEMBER THAT THE ENERGY OF A CONTINUOUS X-RAY IS FELATED TO THE VOLTAGE IMPRESSED ACROSS THE X-RAY TUBE, REMEMBER ALSO THAT THE INTENSITY OF THE X-RAY BEAM IS RELATED TO THE NUMBER OF RAYS STRIKING A UNIT AREA IN A GIVEN LENGTH OF TIME. INTENSITY OF THE X-RAY BEAM IS CHANGED WHEN EITHER THE VOLTAGE (ON THE ANODE OR THE CURRENT ON THE FILAMENT IS CHANGED, THE GENERATION OF X-RAY IS A VERY INEFFICIENT PROCESS AND ONLY a FRACTION OF THE ELECTRONS STRIKING THE TARGET WILL ACTUALLY PRODUCE X-RAYS, MOST OF THE ENERGY OF THE HIGH SPEED ELECTRON IS CONVERTED INTO HEAT AT THE TARGET AREA. THIS HEAT MUST BE REMOVED BY. PROPER, COOLING AND OBSERVING THE DUTY CYCLE OF THE UNIT.I Lacie Golde THE SHARPNESS OF A RADIOGRAPHIC FILM IMAGE IS PARTLY DETERMINED BY THE SIZE OF THE RADIATION SOUNCE OR “FOCAL SPOT". USUALLY THE TARGET IS SET AT AN ANGLE AND THE PROJECTED SIZE OF THE SOMBARDED AREA IS SMALLER THAN THE ACTUAL FOCAL SrOT. THE SIZE OF THE FOCAL SPOT IS LIMITED BY THE HEAT GENERATED IN THE TARGET BOMBAROMENT. X-RAYS CAN BE GENERATED THAT WILL RADIATE IN ALMOST ANY DIRECTION. THE DIRECTION IS DETERMINED BY THE TARGET POSITIONING IN THE ANODE AND THE PLACEMENT OF LEAD SHIELDING ABOUT THE TUBE.FA Lustre Guide aston & Te WAZORITY OF X-RAY EQUIPMENT USED IN INDUSTRIAL RADIOGRAPHY USE IRON CORE TRANSFORMERS To PRODUCE ACQUIRED HIGH VOLTAGE | USUALLY THREE TRANSFORMERS ARE REGUIRED:(SCHEWATIC BELOW |. AUTOTRANSFORME WiNicH WLL FURRISH 110 VOLS TO THE FILAMENT AND High VOLTAGE TRANSFORMER. 2 STEP-UP TRANSFORMER (IGH-VOLTAGE TRANSFORER | 9. STEP-DOWH TRANSFORMER ELAWENT TRANSFORMER) | Oz” \ Go = 2 F : i a (2) | » Hae 1G) eae. ze (WD) IRON CORE TRANSFORMERS ARE USED TO PRODUCE VOLTAGES UP TO ABOUT 400 KEV. HIGHER VOLTAGE X-AAY UNITS USUALLY USE EITHEA A RESONANT TRANSFORMER OR AN ELECTROSTATIC GENERATOR.PET Eee eee, I Leciwe Guido IN X-RAY GENERATION THERE ARE TWO MAIN METHODS OF RECTIFICATION OF ALTERNATING CURRENT: _ 1. SELF-RECTIFICATION 2. THE RECTIFYING TUBE JHE SELF-RECTIFICATION IS THE SIMPLEST METHOD OF RECTIFICATION AND CAN BE USED WITH X-RAY TUBES HAVING AN ANODE THAT IS MUCH COOLER THAN THE CATHODE. AS SHOWN BELOW, ELECTRONS WILL BE ACCELERATED FROM THE HOT CATHODE DURING THE HALF CYCLE WHEN THE GURRENT ON THE ANODE |S POSITIVE, ‘ DURING THE OTHER HALF CYCLE WHEN THE ANODE IS NEGATIVE, NO ELECTRONS ARE EMITTED; THEREFORE, X-RAYS ARE PRODUCED ONLY HALF OF THE TIME. SELF-RECTIFIED X-RAY TUBES ARE USUALLY THE TANK-TYPE UNITS SIMILAR TO THE ONE SHO\ N BELOW. | ti Fe inealTHE RECTIFYING TUBE UTILIZES EITHER HALF-WAVE RECTIFICATION OR FULL-WAVE RECTIFICATION, ” HALF-WAVE RECTIFICATION, AS SHOWN BELOW, |S MORE EFFICIENT THAN ‘SELF-RECTIFICATION, BUT STILL HAS THE DISADVANTAGE OF THE CURRENT FLOWING ONLY HALF OF THE TIME. \WALF-WAvE RECTIFICATION FULL-WAVE RECTIFICATION USES A SYMMETRICAL ARRANGEMENT OF TWO DIODES AND A TRANSFORMER AS SHOWN BELOW. THIS PROVIDES CONTINUOUS CURRENT FLOW IN ONE DIRECTION,REACHED THE ELECTRONS ARE THEN GUIDED FROM THEIR CRCULAR PATH AND MADE TO STRIKE THE TARGET AND PRODUCE X-RAYS. FT Lecture Gute esson 6 , sae SPECIAL ELECTRON ACCELERATORS HAVE BEEN DESIGNED TO PROVIDE VERY HIGH ENERGY X-RAYS. BETATRON ACCELERATORS USE A MAGNETIC INDUCTION TYPE OF ELECTRON ACCELERATOR. (SEE BELOW) THE X-RAY TUBE IS "DOUGHNUT" SHAPED AND IS LOCATED BETWEEN THE POLES OF A LARGE MAGNET. THE ELECTRONS ARE INJECTED INTO THE TUBE ‘AND ARE CAUSED TO CIRCLE AROUND WITHIN THE TUBE BY A MAGNETICFIELD. VOLTAGE IS INCREASED AS THE ELECTRONS ORBIT UNTIL A HISH ENERGY ISLecture Guide Lesson 6 LINEAR ACCELERATORS USE A HIGH FREQUENCY WAVE ANC WAVE GUIDE TO ACCELERATE ELECTRONS TOWANID THE TARGET. (SEE BELOW) THE RANGE IN ENERGY (S FROM ABOUT 5 MEV (uILLION ELECTRON voLTS) TO ABOUT. 25 MEV AND CAN PENETRATE MORE THAN 16 INCHES OF STEEL, /eittinowtan penceLesson 7 GAMMA RAY SOURCES THERE ARE TWO RADIOACTIVE ISOTOPES THAT ARE IN GENERAL USE IN INDUSTRIAL RADIOGRAPHY, 1. COBALT 60 IS AN ARTIFICIAL ISOTOPE WITH A HALF-LIFE OF 5.9 YEARS. 2. IRIDIUM 192 IS AN ARTIFICIAL ISOTOPE WITH A HALF-LIFE OF 75 DAYS. OTHER ISOTOPES WHICH ARE SOMETIMES USED INCLUDE: |. RADIUM 226 IS A NATURAL ISOTOPE WITH A HALF-LIFE OF 1,600 YEARS. 2. CESIUM 197 A 8Y-PRODUCT OF FISSION PROCESS, HALF-LIFE 30 YEARS. 3. THULIUM 170 IS AN ARTIFICIAL ISCTOPE WITH A HALF-LIFE OF 130 DAYS, ISOTOPES ARE A SOURCE OF GAMMA RAYS. HOWEVER, IT SHOULD BE REMEMBERED THAT X AND GAMMA RAYS OF THE SAME ENERGY ARE EXACTLY ALIKE, THE FOLLOWING IS A LIST OF THE COMMONLY ACCEPTED ACVANTAGES OF USING ISOTOPES. 1}. THE COST OF EQUIPMENT AND SOURCE IS MUCH LESS THAN THAT OF X-RAY MACHINES OF COMPARABLE KILOVOLT RANGE. ISOTOPE EQUIPMENT IS MORE EASILY TRANSPORTED THAN X-RAY FOUIPMENT, THE ISOTOPE SOURCE IS SMALL ENOUGH TO PASS THROUGH SMALL (ONE INCH) OPENINGS. 4 NO EXTERNAL POWER SUPPLY IS NECESSARY, PERMITTING USE IN REMOTE AREAS, BOTH PANORAMIC AND DIRECTIONAL EXPOSURES CAN BE MADE. THE EQUIPMENT IS RUGGED AND SIMPLE TO OPERATE. 7 THEIR SIZE IS SMALL, MAKING THEM SPECIALLY SUITED TO CIRCUMSTANCES WHERE A SHORT SOURCE-TO-FILM DISTANCE 1S NECESSARY. 5. SOME ISOTOPES HAVE A VERY HIGH PENETRATING PoWEn, RADIOGRAPHY OF VERY THICK MATERIALS. MITTINGA Lecture Golde asso? . sina DISADVANTAGES OF USING IsoTOPES, |. THE RADIATION CANNOT BE TURNED OFF AND PRESENTS A GREATER SAFETY CONSIDERATION THAN X-RAY SOURCES, 2. ISOTOPE RADIOGRAPHS GENERALLY HAVE LESS CONTRAST THAN THOSE EXPOSED BY X-RAY, 5. THE PENETRATING ABILITY IS DEPENDENT UPON THE PARTICULAR 'SOTOPE AND CANNOT BE CHANGED OR VARIED TO ACCOMODATE DIFFERENT THICKNESSES OF MATERIALS, 4 IE THE ISOTOPE HAS & SHORT HALF-LIFE, THERE IS AN ADDED COST OF REPLACING THE SOURCE. 5. THE SHIELDING NECESSARY TO PROPERLY HANDLE AN ISOTOPE MAY BE ouire Heavy. 'SOTOPE ENERGY AND EQUIVALENT ENERGY: WHEN TALKING ABOUT THE ENERGY OF RADIATION GIEY OFF BY A RADIOACTIVE SOURCE, WE TALK IN TERMS OF AVERAGE KILOVOLTAGE, EXAMPLE: COBALT EMITS RAYS WITH ENERGIES OF 1.17 MEV AND 1.93 MEV, WHICH GIVES AN AVERAGE OF 1.25 MEV RADIUM = 1.22 MEV AVERAGE CESIUM = 0.65 MEV AVERAGE IRIDIUM = 0.35 MeV AVERAGE THULIUM = 0.072 MEV AVERAGE THE ABOVE {SA LITTLE CONFUSING BECAUSE X-RAY MACHINES ARE RATED IN rails OF PEAK VOLTAGES (SEE BELOW) AND NOT AVERAGES AS ARE ISOTOPES, aaa PERE a om7 ewe 1 Leet Guide Lesson 7 SINCE ISOTOPES ARE RATED ACCORDING TO THEIR AVERAGE VOLTAGE AND XCRAYS ARE RATED ACCORDING TO THEIN PEAK VOLTAGE, THE POWER OF AN ISOTOPE IS DETERMINED BY HOW MANY PEAK KEV OR MEV AN X-RAY MACHINE WOULD NEED TO DO THE SAME JOB, THIS IS CALLED THE EQUIVALENT ENERGY OF THE ISOTOPE. ISOTOPES. X-RAY EQUIVALENT ENERGY copaLr 2000 TO 3000 KVP RAOIUM 1000 TO 2000 kve cesius 1500 TO 1500 KVP ‘sI01UM 15070 800 KVP THULIUM 30TO 150 KvP THE REASON THAT X-RAY MACHINES MUST BE RATED BY THEIA PEAK VOLTAGE ANO NOT THEIR AVERAGE VOLTAGE LIKE ISOTOPES, IS THAT DIFFERENT X-RAY MACHINES HAVE DIFFERENT WAVE FORMS DEPENDING ON THE TYPE OF RECTIFICATION. THE AVERAGE VOLTAGE FROM A HALF-WAVE RECTIFIED X-RAY MACHINE MAY HAVE AN AVERAGE AS SHOWN BELOW: THE AVERAGE FROM A FULLY RECTIFIED X-RAY MACHINE MAY HAVE AN AVERAGE THAT IS MUCH HIGHER, ‘eo —————— ‘vena SS —————————— _1 Lecture Gute ‘TO PRODUCE A HIGH QUALITY RADIOGRAPH USING ISOTOPES, THE FOLLOWING CONSIDERATIONS PROVIDE A BASIS FOR CHOOSING THE CORRECT SOURCE: 1. ACTIVITY — THE ACTIVITY OF A SOURCE'IS, IN PART, A MEASURE OF THE NUMBER OF “GAMMA RAYS THAT ARE SEING PRODUCED FROM THE lsorare, 2, EQUIVALENT ENERGY — AN IDEAL RADIOGRAPHIC SOURCE WOULD EMIT EXACTLY THE RIGHT MONOCHROMATIC BEAM THAT WOULD GIVE THE CORRECT AMOUNT OF EXPOSURE. X-RAYS ARE MUCH MORE FLEXIBLE IN THAT THE ENERGY OF THE X-RAY MAY BE CONTROLLED BY THE RADIOGRAPHER, 3, HALF-LIFE — AS ISOTOPES DECAY, THEIR INTENSITY DECREASES AND THEREFORE THE EXPOSURE TIME MUST BE INCREASED. A TYPICAL DECAY RATE OF COBALT 60 IS SHOWN BELOW. WHAT WOULD BE THE ACTIVITY OF A 100 CURIE SOURCE OF COBALT 60 AFTER A PERIOD OF 21.2 YEARS? _____ (SEE BELOW) BEERARER EM BRB RRR KARR BRBR BB Ist nalfeiite 2nd hat f-1ife ara half-life ath tatfeasee Too cortes |g Cosact eo” | S0 curfes | 25 curies | 12.5 curies | 6.25 curtes Sd years 10.6 years 15.9 years 212 years | aAF Lostra Gusta THE CHART BELOW GIVES SOME OF THE IMPORTANT CHARACTERISTICS OF RADIOISOTOPES. faitiuane | 2109 | 1102 |aerors | eaten | earo8a [seis OTHER FACTORS THAT ARE INELPFUL IN SELECTING AN ISCTOPE ARE LISTED. BELOW i Twi oe ‘ont [onrore [REE] vervsore [teFT Lecture Guido Lesson T ISOTOPES EQUIPMENT ISOTOPE SOURCES PRESENT A SEVERE RADIATION HAZARD AND WHEN NOTIN ACTUAL USE THESE-SOURCES MUST BE HANDLED CAREFULLY AND STORED AND. LOCKED IN SHIELDED CONTAINERS. REMOTE HANDLING FALLS INTO TWO AREAS. 1, MOVING THE SOURCE FROM THE CENTER TO THE SURFACE OF A SHIELDED CONTAINER. 2 MOVING THE SOURCE FROM THE CENTER TO A POINT SME DISTANCE AWAY, RADIOISOTOPES ARE READILY AVAILABLE FROM COMMERCIAL SUPPLIERS. MANUFACTURERS USUALLY RATE AN ISOTOPE FIRST BY ITS PENETRATING POWER (X-RAY EQUIVALENT), THEN BY THE HALF-LIFE AND FINALLY BY ITS ACTIVITY (USUALLY EXPRESSED IN CURIES, E.G. 10 CURIES, 50 CURIES), BERBER BREW RRR ee eee eeUneson 7 THE DIAGRAM BELOW SHOWS ONE TYPE OF ISOTOPE EQUIPMENT AND IS OFTEN REFERRED TO AS A “CAMERA” On “PROJECTOR" THE FOLLOWING SHOWS THE OPERATION OF A TYPICAL ISOTOPE CAMERA.Lesson a SUBJECT AND FILM CONTRAST REMEMBER THAT WE HAVE SAID THAT CONTRAST IS A COMPARISON BETWEEN FILM DENSITIES FOR DIFFERENT AREAS OF THE RADIOGRAPH. Bi cn contnasr Lowcherasr CONTRAST IS A COMBINATION OF “SUBJECT” CONTRAST AND "FILM" CONTRAST. THOSE FACTORS IN THE SPECIMEN THAT AFFECT CONTRAST ARE REFERRED TO AS “SUBJECT CONTRAST". THOSE FACTORS IN THE FILM THAT AFFECT CONTRAST ARE FEE “FILM CONTRAST". SUBJECT CONTRAST ‘A RADIOGRAPH OF A SPECIMEN OF UNIFORM SUBJECT CONTRAST AS SHOWN BELOW. BY DEFINITION, SUBJECT CONTRAST IS THE RATIO OF X CR GAMMA RAY INTENSITIES TRANSMITTED 8Y TWO SELECTED PORTIONS OF THE SPECIMEN. RED TO AS THICKNESS AND DENSITY HAS NO he, \ BEY He,AT Lecture Gute Usason THE BEST POSSIBLE SUBJECT CONTRAST IS ACHIEVED BY UTILIZING RAYS PRODUCED BY THE LOWEST KILOVOLTAGE (SOFT RADIATION) THAT WILL. PENETRATE THE SPECIMEN. uae f- | i I FOR EXAMPLE, LETS ASSUME THAT THE HALF-VALUE LAYER OF THE’SPECIMEN AT THE LEFT IS EQUAL TO “s" IN THE THICK SECTION THE RADIATION WILL HAVE TO PENETRATE THROUGH 4 HALF-VALUE LAYERS AND WILL EMERGE AT i, THE ORIGINAL VALUE. IN THE THIN SECTION THE RADIATION WILL ONLY HAVE TO PENETRATE THROUGH 2 HALF-VALUE LAYERS ANO WILL EMERGE AT v4 THE ORIGINAL. VALUE. 7 HOWEVER, IN THE SPECIMEN ON THE RIGHT THE RADIATION WILL ONLY HAVE TO PENETRATE 2 HALF-VALUE LAYERS IN THE THICK SECTION AND WILL EMERG” AT % THE ORIGINAL VALUE. IN THE THIN SECTION THE RAY WILL ONLY HAVE TO PENETRATE 1 HALF-VALUE LAYER AND WILL EMERGE AT Ys THE ORIGINAL VALUE. THE COMPARISON OF THE TRANSMITTED DENSITIES: CAN’B: SHOWN AS A “RATIO” AND WILL BE DISCUSSED ON THE NEXT PAGE.1 to mam stm fr Lecture Guide FILM CONTRAST . FILM CONTRAST IS DEFINED AS THE INHERENT ABILITY OF A “ILM TO SHOW A DENSITY DIFFERENCE FOR A GIVEN CHANGE IN FILM EXPOSURE, ALL FILM MANUFACTURERS PRODUCE SEVERAL DIFFERENT TYPES OF FILM AND SOME TYPES HAVE THE ABILITY 10 SHOW MORE “FILM CONTRAST" THAN corners AS SHOWN ABOVE, BOTH FILM TYPES RECEIVED THE SAME AMOUNT OF RADIATION itt 4 SINGLE EXPO: HOWEVER, THE FILM ON THE TOP HAS THE ABILITY TO SHOW BETTER “FILM conrrasr FILM CONTRAST VALUES OF ANY PARTICULAR FILM ARE USUALLY EXPRESSED AS A RELATIONSHIP SETWEEN FILM EXPOSURE AND RESULTING DENSITY. THE RELATIONSHIP IS EXPRESSED IN THE FORM OF FILM CHARACTERISTIC CURVES WHICH WILL 8€ DISCUSSED LATER IN THIS LESSON. TOTAL RADIOGRAPHIC CONTRAST I$ DEFINED AS THE COMBINATION OF ‘SUBJECT CONTRAST” AND “FILM CONTRAST” AND DEPENDS JON RADIATION APPLIED. FILM TYPE, EXPOSURE, FILM PROCESSING. SPECIMEN, SCATTERED RADIATION, ND KIND OF SCREENS USED aeH&pcuRVES IT IS DIFFICULT FOR THE HUMAN EYE TO READILY DISTINGUISH BETWEEN SMALL DENSITY DIFFERENCES IN A RADIOGRAPHIC FILM. THE H & D CURVES MAKE IT APPARENT THAT AS EXPOSURE AND DENSITY INCREASE, FILM CONTRAST ALSO INCREASES, BEBEBBEE FA £ Fatecseumeciisae Ee Ey (ON THE ABOVE H & D CURVE. SUPPOSE THAT THE EXPOSUNE OF THE FILM VARIES FROM &, 10 Ey DUE TO.A CHANGE IN THICKNESS OF THE SPECIMEN. NOTE THAT THE RESULTING CONTRAST IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN D, and D, HOWEVER, IF A HIGHER RADIATION LEVEL WERE USED SO THAT THE THICKHESS DIFFERENCE HAD CAUSED A DIFFERENCE IN EXPOSUNE Ey TO Ey (EQUAL TO &, TO Ep, THE DIFFERENCE IN DENSITY WOULD INCREASE AS SHOWN BY D, 10, THE H & D CURVE CLEARLY SHOWS THAT THE DENSITY DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THICKNESSES D, AND , IS CONSIDERABLY GREATER THAN THE DENSITY BETWEEN 0, AND 0, BEBBBRBKCERBBEE: | | \mm mm mom Pi Lecture Guide essen 8 A PRACTICAL EXAMPLE IS SHOWN BELOW TO DEMONSTRATE THE (FILM (CHARACTERISTIC CURVE) H & D CURVE, TWO SIMILAR SPECIMENS ARE SHOWN THAT DIFFER ONLY IN THEIR THICKNESS. NOTE THAT THE CHANGE IN THICKNESS () IS THE SAME. IF BOTH SPECIMENS RECEIVE THE SAME EXPOSURE ON THE SANE TYPE OF FILM, THE ONE ON THE RIGHT WOULD SHOW THE MOST CONTRAST. : 1 T 5 Fiuy #1 Fun #2 OBVIOUSLY, FILM #1 ABOVE IS GOING TO RECEIVE LESS RADIATION AND BE LESS DENSE AND THEREFORE HAVE LESS CONTRAST THAN FILM #2. THE FILM) CHARACTERISTIC CURVE BELOW SHOWS THAT WHERE FILM #2 RECEIVED A HIGHER RADIATION LEVEL (E; 70) T WOULD BE MORE DENSE AND. SHOW MORE CONTRAST (0, TO 0,)AN IMPORTANT CONSIDERATION TO REMEMBER IS THE EFFECT OF LOW KILOVOLTAGE RELATING 0 INCREASED SCATJEGED RADIATION. WHILE IT IS DESIRABLE TO ATTAIN GOOD CONTRAST BY USING A LO RADIATION LEVEL, THE LOWER RADIATION WiLL ALSO PRODUCE MORE SCATTER, SCATTER FROM LOW ENERGY RADIATION WILL CAUSE "FUZZINESS” IN THE IMAGE, AS THE VOLTAGE ACROSS A X-AAY TUBE IS INCREASED SOME CONTRAST IS LOST, BUT ALSO LESS SCATTER IS PRODUCED TO FOG TH: FILM AND CAUSE FUZZY IMAGES, LATITUDE!S CLOSELY RELATED TO CONTRAST BUT IN THE OPPOSITE SENSE. AS SHOWN BELOW, THE RADIOGRAPH WITH THE HIGHEST CONTRAST HAS THE LEAST LATITUDE AND VICE VERSA LATITUDE IS THE RANGE OF THICKNESSES THAT CAN BE ADEQUATEL RECORDED ON THE RADIOGRAPH. BEST CONTRAST (70KV)Ar tecture Gute RADIOGRAPHIC FILM— A TRANSPARENT POLYESTER OR ACETATE IS USED AS THE BASE OF RADIOGRAPHIC FILM. MOST RADIOGRAPHIC FILM HAS A SENSITIVE EMULSION ON BOTH SIDES OF THE ACETATE @ASE, |4—acevate sase (poLyEsTER) ——Ir Laois Gude esson 9 THERE IS NO PARTIAL EXPOSURE OF A SILVER GRAIN. [AREAS ON THE FILM OF LIGHT AND DARK SIMPLY REPRESENTS THE NUMBER OF GRAINS EXPOSED IN THAT AREA MORE EXPOSED GRAINS GIVES A DARKER IMAGE. THE DIFFERENCE IN RADIOGRAPHIC FILMS IS MAINLY DUE TO THE VARIOUS (GRAIN SIZES, (EVEN THE LARGEST OF WHICH ARE MICROSCOPIC] BECAUSE “GRAININESS" (VISIBLE CLUMPS OF GRAINS) IS PRESENT IN ALL FILM, THE LARGER THE GRAIN THE LESS SHARP THE IMAGE. THE LARGER GRAINED FILMS EXPOSE MORE SILVER TO THE PAYS PER GRAIN, THEREFORE, THE IMAGE IS EXPOSED MORE QUICKLY THE FINE DETAIL HOWEVER IS LACKING WIC}! COARSE-GRAINED FILM ABBEBE SB! {Which OFTHE AGOVE WOULD BE THE FASTEST FILM? seen 9°) WHICH OF THE ABOVE WOULD GIVE THE SHARPEST DETAIL? wvtewen \WHILEITIS OFTEN ECONOMICALLY ADVANTAGEOUS TO MAKE EXPOSURES AS FAS: 1S POSSIBLE, THE USE OF FAST (COARSE-GRAINED) FILM IS LIMITED BY THE GSAAIINESS THAT CAN BE TOLERATED. DURING NORMAL PROCESSING, THE GRAINS THAT HAVE BEEN EXPOSED WILL TURN ease AND Those wien HAVE HeceveD No exeosune wu. 8€ ReNoveD Bl FROM THE FL BASE CURING PROCESSING BLE BBELESSON 9 AADIOGRAPHIC FILM AND PROCESSING TECHNIQUES DARKROOMS— THERE ARE MANY SIZES AND DESIGNS OF DARKROOMS, BUT THEY ARE USUALLY DIVIDED INTO TWO AREAS: A WET SIDE AND A DRY SIDE. A iz a [- a f= me SAFELIGHTS— SAFELIGHTS PROVIDE A FILTERED LIGHT WHICH LESSENS THE DANGER OF EXPOSING THE X-AAY FILM. EXTRA CAUTION SHOULD BE OBSERVED WHEN FILM IS BEING LOADED OP UNLOADED (ORY SIDE) ATEST STRIP CAN BE USED TO INSURE THAT “FOGGING” IS AT A MINIMUM. SIMPLY COVER A TEST STRIP OF FILM WITH AN OPAQUE MATERIAL AND EXPOSE CERTAIN PORTIONS AT DIFFERENT TIME INTERVALS IN THE LOCATION WHERE A PROBLEM IS SUSPECTED,1 Geeta Guido eaten 8 TIME AND TEMPERATURE ARE IMPORTANT FACTORS IN DEVELOPMENT. TYPICALLY, A TEMPERATURE OF 68°F (20°C) 1S USED WITH A DEVELOPMENT TIME OF BETWEEN § AND 8 MINUTES, HOWEVER, THIS SHOULD ALWAYS BE ‘VERIFIED WITH THE PROCEDURE OR SPECIFICATION BEING USED. [AS THE TEMPERATURE OF THE SOLUTION IS INCREASED, THE SPEED AT WHICH THE ALKALI PENETRATES IS ALSO INCREASED. THEREFORE, A FILM DEVELOPED AT 68° FOR SIX MINUTES WOULD BE MORE DENSE THAN A FILM DEVELOPED AT 60° ALSO FOR SIX MINUTES. ‘THE DENSITY (DEGREE OF BLACKNESS) IS DETERMINED BY THE NUMBER OF SILVER BROMIDE GRAINS REDUCED BY THE DEVELOPER, DEVELOPING SOLUTIONS CAN BECOME EXHAUSTED. (CHEMICAL DEPLETION OF THE DEVELOPER IS PROPORTIONAL TO THE AND DENSITY OF THE FILMS DEVELOPED. THE FILM ON THE LEFT BELOW SHOWS THE RESULTS OF A WEAKENED (DEVELOPER SOLUTION. UMS "REPLENISHMENT" IS THE USUAL TECHNIQUE USED TO DEAL WITH A WEAKENED DEVELOPER SOLUTION REPLENISIIMENT CONTROL IS A COMBINATION OF RECORD-KEEPING AND THE USE OF A "CONTROL STRIP" (DISCUSSED ON NEXT PAGE)ea Adam REPLENISHMENT OF THE DEVELOPER IS OFTEN DETERMINED 8Y THE USE OF A CONTROL STRIP AND INVOLVES TIE FOLLOWING STEPS: 1, SEVERAL FILMS ARE EXPOSED USING A STEP WEDGE TO GET A FULL PANGE OF DENSITIES. 2. AFTER EXPOSURE, THE =ILM IS CUT INTO STRIPS AND ALL BUT ONE STRIP |S STORED IN A LIGHT “IGHT 80x. 3. THE SINGLE STRIP IS DEVELOPED IN FRESH SOLUTION AND BECOMES THE “CONTROL sTRIP™. 4 TO DETERMINE WHEN AEPLENISHMENT IS NERESSARY, THE REMAINING STRIPS ARE PERIODICALLY PROCESSED AND COMPARED TO THE CONTROL STRIP. WHEN ADDED REPLENISHER IS EQUAL TO ABOUT TWO TO THREE TIMES THAT OF THE ORIGINAL DEVELOPER, THE ENTIRE SOLUTION SHOULD BE CHANGED. THE NEXT TWO STEPS IN TANK PROCESSING RADIOGRAPHIC FILMS INCLUDES THE “STOP BATH” AND "FIXER" AS SHOWN BELOW (DISCUSSED ON THE NEXT PAGE),Oo er mm tm Lesson 9 AFTER CHEMICAL PROCESSING, THE FILM IS WASIIED AND DRIED AS SHOWN INTHE FLOW CHART BELOW. WHERE HARD WATER IS A PRODLEM, THE FILM IS SOMETIMES PLACED IN A SOLUTION TO PREVENT "WATER SPOTS” (uN THE FILM, THIS SOLUTION MAKES THE WATER "WETTER” AND PROVIDES MORE EVEN Davina. ~AT Lecture Guide essen FILM MUST ALWAYS BE HANDLED WITH CARE AND CLEANLINESS. DUST AND IMPROPER HANDLING OF THE FILM WILL CAUSE "ARTIFACTS", AN ARTIFACT IS ANY FILM IMPERFECTION WHICH RESULTS FROM LACK OF CARE OR CLEANLINESS. [ACOMMON ARTIFACT IS SIMPLY DUST, THE TANKS, BENCHES AND FLOOR MUST BE KEPT CLEAN. SPILLED CHEMICALS EVAPORATE AND LEAVE A CHEMICAL DUST” THAT CAN CAUSE ARTIFACTS. AS SHOWN BELOW, PRESSURE MARKS, CRIMP MARKS AND STATIC MARKS CAN ALSO CAUSE ARTIFACTS. FILM SHOULD BE REMOVED CAREFULLY FROM THE BOX THUS AVOIDING CRIMPING OR BENDING. CARE SHOULD ALSO BE TAKEN TO AVOID PLACING OF, DROPPING HEAVY OBJECTS ON THE FILM CASSETTE AS THIS COULD CAUSE A PRESSURE MARK. STATIC MARKS ARE USUALLY CAUSED 8Y REMOVING THE FILM TOO QUICKLY FROM THE BOX AND CAUSING THE GENERATION OF STATIC ELECTACITY. ALWAYS MAKE SUNE THAT THE FILM HOLDER AND LEAD SCREENS ARE FREE OF DUST BEFORE LOADING CASSETT! ARE BEEBBLBRBBRRABBBE SBLESSON 10 RADIATION CAN BE A HAZARD TO THE HUMAN BODY. X-RAY MACHINES AND RADIOACTIVE MATERIALS ARE NOT THE ONLY SOURCES OF RADIATION, ‘COSMIC RADIATION” FROM SPACE REACHES OUR PLANET AND IT IS IMPOSSIBLE FOR HUMANS TO AVOID ALL RADIATION. HOWEVER, ONE FACT MUST 8& REMEMBERED: IONIZING RADIATION HAS THE ABILITY TO DAMAGE HUMAN BODY TISSUE. RADIATION HAZARDS— THE BASIC BUILDING BLOCK OF ALL LIVING TISSUE IS THE “CELL”, WHICH CONTAINS MINERALS, LIQUIDS, PROTEINS, AND SUGARS HELD TOGETHER IN A WATERY COMBINATION BY A THIN MEMBRANE, MOST CELLS HAVE A LIMITED LIFE SPAN AND, AS THEY DIE, AFE REPLACED BY NEW CELLS CREATED BY CELL-DIVISION. BELOW IS SHOWN THE ATOMS OF A WATER MOLECULE IN A CELL BEING PENETRATED BY IONIZING RADIATION. THE MAIN PROCESS BY Wi IONIZATION, DAMAGE TO TISSUE OCCURS IS KNOWN AS AS SHOWN ABOVE, THE PHOTON KNOCKED AN ELECTRON OUT OF ORBIT, THEREBY CREATING AN ION PAIR (IONIZATION), BRE BRBAWUARBBAR ARERR BeeAT Lecture Gin Lesson 10 DAMAGE TO HUMAN TISSUE OCCURS WHEN ENOUGH ELECTRONS ARE KNOCKED OUT OF ENGUGH ATOMS TO: 1. BREAK DOWN THE STRUCTURE OF CELLS TO THE POINT WHERE THEY MAY DIE 2. CAUSE THE CELLS TO LOSE THEIR ABILITY TO REPRODUCE. 3. CAUSE THE CELLS TO REPRODUCE IN AN ABNORMAL MANNER, REMEMBER THAT THE ONLY DIFFERENCE BETWEEN X-RAYS AND GAMMA RAYS IS THEIR ORIGIN, BUT BOTH HAVE THE ABILITY TO DAMAGE HUMAN TISSUE. AS SHOWN, BELOW, RADIATION HAZARDS EXIST IN BOTH PRIMARY AND SECONDARY (SCATTERED) RADIATION, \ ' WHEN THE X-RAY OR GAMMA RAY SOURCE IS REMOVED, THE SPECIMEN CEASES TO BE AFFECTED BY RADIATION. THE SPECIMEN OOES NOT BECOME RADIOACTIVE, A PERSON WHO HAS SUFFERED RADIATION DAMAGE COULD NOT SPREAD RADIATION DAMAGE TO OTHER HUMANS, THE NUCLEUS OF AN ATOM MUST SE SOMBARDED WITH NEUTRONS TO BECOME RADIOACTIVEFT Lecture Guide ae Lesson 10 rons MINATION'S HOT A MAJOR SAFETY HAZARD IN TY>I0AL RADIOGRAPH work Oo RHO THE ISOTOPE WERE CRUSHED AND BLOWN NTOTHE Al, THEN IT oFrtC—~—s=—Sses carga TR, SOME MOUSTTIES 00 USE RADIOACTIVE MATERIALS Thar eouLD CO ACCNTAMINATION. INTHE EVENT OF AN AGCIDENT eaeeee CONTAMINATION, SMPLY KEEP PEOPLE AT A SaFe CISTANGE Wanye nS AUTHORIZED CLEANUP CREW HAS REMOVED THe Hasan EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL RADIATION EXPOSURE THe cS gCATION EXPOSURE COMES FROM RADIATION SOURCES OUTSIE THE BODY, SUCH AS X-RAY MACHINES AND GAMMA RAY SOURCE eer eons rao ge,PENETRATING TYPE OF RADIATION FROM ISOTOPES Te camMa RADIATION CS AER TYPES OF RADIATION ARE BETA AND ALPWA, ALPHA Is THE LEAST PENETRATING OF ALL AND CAW BE STOPPED BY Ase ce Manne TRIOS CADIATION EXPOSURE RESULTS WOEN RADIOACTIA® MATEARAL ene OREAKS Hee USUALLY 8Y BREATHING, SWALLOWING, Om nance BREAKS IN THE ski MANOR NRIAL RADIOGRAPHY, THE POSSIBILITY OF INTERWAL RADIATION 1s RATHER REMOTE, TAMAIOR FACTOR IN THE AMOUNT OF DAMAGE THAT A RADIOACTIVE a Rint WILL 00 INSIDE THE BODY Is DETERMINED BY we HALF-LIFE C THE IsoTOPE THE VARIOUS TYPES OF HALF-LIFE WILL BE DISCUSSED ON THE NEXT PAGE,Lectura Guide THE “REM” 16 THE STANDARD UNIT FOR RELORD KEEPING OF THE RADIATION WORKER'S BIOLOGICAL DOSE. FOR X AND GAMMA RADIATION, THE ROENTGEN IS THE EQUAL OF THE REM AND THIS IS THE ONLY TYPE WE ARE PRESENTLY CONCERNED WITH “DOSE RATE” I THE TIME RATE AT WHICH A RADIATION DOSE IS RECEIVED. THE EXPRESSION "REMS PFA HOUR" I THE BIOLOGICAL DOSE RATE. WITH x AND GAMMA RAYS, THE EXPOSURE RATE IN ROENTGENS PER HOUR IS THE SAME AS DOSE RATEINREMS. HOWEVER, WITH A! PHA RAYS, THE RGE FACTOR OF Yo MUST BE CONSIDERED.NAME. Key LESSON 10 WORKSHEET “his worksheet shouldbe completed by the student alr she ecure but Before tating the qt, {Toggtied thal each problem be discussed in class fo insure comprehension Example (or tinding "REMS" (lolocie! Dose Tan exporue ct 008 Roentgen ar garune ray8 a ona hau cq be sted as 8 MUHA, {The @ MPUMA would be equal fo a dose in REMSIot 009 REW. it you were standing nan Xa ate for reg Hovis thal showed a survey neler reaing of Sob uri wnat meus ba your dove in RES? (anew your eaeutatons) 200 MAUUIA x 2 NRS = 600 mitroentgen =e nes if your bay recewed 02 RACS per hou ef Ala cation ever apevod el & naw, what would 02 RAOSINR x 4 HAS x = ne acs it you received 3 dote of 0.008 Reengons of game ralatin ever a petiod of one half nour teeey cay for 10 Gays, what would ba your dose In REMS? {snow yeureatcuiaions) 008 Ax SHAS =.04 RENSLESSON 11 PERMISSIBLE RADIATION DOSE THE PRIMARY AGENCY FOR ESTABLISHING DOSE LIMITS IS THE UNITED STATES NUCLEAR REGULATORY COMMISSION (USNRC). HOWEVER, ANY TIME RADIATION EXPOSURE IS RECEIVED UNNECESSARILY, THE EXPOSURE IS CONSIDERED TO BE EXCESSIVE WHETHER OR NOT IT EXCEEDS THE ALLOWABLE LIMITS, RADIOGRAPHY WORK BECOMES UNSAFE ONLY WHEN EXCESSIVE RADIATION IS. RECEIVED, THE BASIC REQUIREMENTS ARE THAT THE RADIATION WORKER WILL NOT RECEIVE AN OCCUPATIONAL DOSE IN EXCESS OF THE FOLLOWING REMS PER AREA OF BODY EXPOSED CALENDAR QUARTE WHOLE 8ODY—HEAD, TRUNK, ORGANS, EYES, GONADS 1 REM HANDS AND FOREARMS, FEET AND ANKLES 18% AEM ‘SKIN OF WHOLE BODY 7% REM CALENDAR QUARTER IS APPROXIMATELY v4 YEAR OR 3 MONTHS, NOT ONLY DOES RADIATION DAMAGE VARY WITH THE AMOUNT OF THE BODY EXPOSED, AS SHOWN ABOVE, IT ALSO VARIES WITH THE PART OF THE BODY ExPOsED, ‘A RADIATION DOSE OF A GIVEN AMOUNT WILL HAVE LESS EFFECT IF iT 1S RECEIVED OVER A LONG PERIOD OF TIME, THE SAME DOSE MAY CAUSE PERMANENT DAMAGE IF PECEIVED ALL AT ONCE. THE BODY IS CAPABLE OF REPAIRING SOME RADIATION DAMAGE IF IT IS GIVEN ADEQUATE TIME TO 00 50, THE ENTIRE 114 REMS COULD BE ABSORBED AT ONE TIME, BUT 0.1 REMISA COMMON WEEKLY LIMIT,AT Lecture Guide AGE IS ANOTHER VARIABLE WHICH AFFECTS THE AMOUNT OF DAMAGE RADIATION CAN D0 TO THE PERSON EXPOSED, BODY CELLS WHICH ARE ACTIVE IN DIVIDING AND REPRODUCING ARE THE MOST VULNERABLE TO RADIATION DAMAGE, ‘A 13 YEAR OLD PERSON IS MORE VULNERABLE TO RADIATION DAMAGE THAN A 25 YEAR OLD. FEDERAL REGULATIONS HAVE ESTABLISHED THAT NO PERSON UNDER 18 YEARS OF AGE CAN WORK IN AN AREA WHERE RAUIAGRAPHIC INSPECTIONS. ARE SEING PERFORMED, \ THE NAC LIMIT STATES THAT A COMPANY OA AGENCY USING RADIATION MUST ASSURE THAT NO ONE UNDER 18 RECEIVES RADIATION EXPOSURE IN EXCESS OF 10% OF THE LIMITS FOR RADIATION WORKERS. FEMALES OF CHILOBEARING AGE ARE ALLOWED LESS MA PEA QUARTR THAN OTHER RADIATION WORKERS. ANOTHER VARIABLE |S THE BIOLOGICAL DIFFERENCE AMONG INDIVIDUALS. AN OVERDOSE OF RADIATION CAN BE FATAL FOR ONE PERSON WHILE THE SAME DOSE WOULD NOT SE FATAL FOR ANOTHER, REVIEW ‘THE SIX VARIABLES WHICH INFLUENCE THE EFFECT RADIATION DOSES HAVE ON AN INDIVIDUAL ARE: THE AMOUNT OF THE BODY EXPOSED. THE PART OF THE BODY EXPOSED. THE TIME SPAN OVER WHICH DOSE IS RECEIVED. THE AGE OF THE INDIVIDUAL EXPOSED. THE BIOLOGICAL, DIFFERENCE AMONG INDIVIDUALS, THE RADIATION LEVEL,EMPLOYERS USING RADIATION EQUIPMENT ARE REQUIRED TO KEEP UP-TO-DATE RECORDS ON ALL EMPLOYEES IN AREAS WIIERE RADIATION EXCEEDS A CERTAIN Level. Cuveent Geevpational Extern Resietion Exposure THE ABOVE FORM SHOWS THE TYPICAL INFORMATION THAT IS FOUND ON ‘OCCUPATIONAL EXPOSURE” FORMS. ITEM 5 — REQUESTS INFORMATION ON THE PART OF THE BODY EXPOSED, INDUSTRIAL RADIOGRAPHY USUALLY INVOLVES THE WHOLE Bony. ITEM §— THE DOSE ENTERED HERE IS FROM ITEM 10 ON LAST FORM. THIS FORM MUST BE FILLEO OUT AT LEAST EACH QUARTER. ITEMS 7-13 — ARE SELF-EXPLANATORY, WITH DOSE ALWAYS IN REMS.1 Lacie Gulda osson 11 ITEM 14— 15 OBTAINED FROM THE LAST PRECEDING FORM, ITEM 15— 1S THE TOTAL DOSE RECORDED IN ITEM 13 ON THE CURRENT FOAM, ITEM 15— IS THE TOTAL AMOUNT OF OCCUPATIONAL RADIATION DOSE AECEIVED DURING A PERSON'S LIFETIME TO DATE. ITEM 17— 1S THE PERMISSIBLE ACCUMULATED DOSE WHICH IS MORE COMMONLY CALLED "MAXIMUM PERMISSIBLE DOSE THE PERWISSIBLE ACCUMULATED’ DOSA IS THE OCCUPATIONAL DOSE A PERSOW COULD HAVE BEEN PERMITTED Ii RELATION 70 igen AGE DEPENDING OW YOUR AGE. YOU CAN ACCUMULATE A CERTAIN DOSE AND NOT EXCERD THE LIE LATS THE FORMULA 51-18) = PERMISSIBLE ACCUMULATED DOSE EASURED IN RES 5 = AVERAGE YEARLY ALLOWABLE WHOLE-BODY OSE BASED ON THE LIMIT OF 1% REMS FER CALENDAR uaares N= AGE IN YEARS OF THE PERSON FOR WHOM THE FORM 1S BeWG courtereO 13 veARS OF AGE 8 ITEM 18 — PERMISSIBLE OOSE IS THE UNUSED PORTION OF THE PERMISSIBLE ACCUMULATED DOSE, FINO PERMISSIBLE DOSE, YOU WOULD SUBTRACT ITEM 16 FROM 17 = SAMPLE PROBLEM — WHAT IS THE PERMISSIBLE ACCUMULATED DOSE FOR A PERSON WHO IS 18 YEARS OF AGE? WHOIS 36 YEARS OF AGE?_____angwer eo Rem ANSWER. 5 REMnr Lectore Guido Ueason TT THERE ARE EXCEPTIONS TO THE WHOLE-BODY"LIMIT OF 1% REMS PER CALENDAR QUARTER. THE EXCEPTION STATES THAT A PERSON MAY RECEIVE UP TO 9 REMS PER CALENDAR QUARTER (OR 12 REMS PER YEAR) IF HIS/HER TOTAL ACCUMU- LATED DOSE DOES NOT EXCEED § (N-16) REMS. THIS MEANS A PERSON MAY RECEIVE UP TO 3 REMS PER CALENDAR QUARTER PROVIDED THAT HISIHER AVERAGE EXPOSURE FOR EACH YEAR PAST 18 YEARS OLD DOES NOT EXCEED § REMS PER YEAR, THE “RADIATION BANKING CONCEPT” IS OFTEN DEMONSTRATED AS SHOWN IN THE GRAPH BELOW. \ \ dy = oe a os #8 eto \ | | ae DENTIFTCATION WuMBER 05" BASED ON THE DIAMETER HOLE PERCEPTIBLE ON THE RADIOGRAPH, THE QUALITY LEVEL AND EQUIVALENT SENSITIVITY CAN BE DETERMINED AS SHOWN BELOW, REERBREBBRLOE BRB eee eeeFT Lecture Guide Leeson 1 SENSITIVITY STANDARDS IF A SPECIFICATION REGUIRED THAT THE RADIOGRAPH HAVE A SENSITIVITY OF 2%, THIS WOULD MEAN THAT THE THICKNESS OF THE PENETRAMETER MUST BE 2% OR LESS OF THE THINNEST SECTION OF THE SPECIMEN BEING RADIOGRAPHED, FURTHERMORE, IN THE ANALYSIS OF THE RADIOGRAPH, THE IMAGE OF THE PENETRAMETER MUST CLEARLY SHOW THE 2T HOLE. AS SHOWN BELOW, IF THE RADIOGRAPH HAS 22T'GENSITIVITY, IT GAN BE REASONABLY CONCLUDED THAT ALL VOIDS OR DISCONTINUITIES OF THE ‘SAME DIMENSIONS WOULD BE DETECTED IN VIEWING THE FILM AS SHOWN BELOW. IT IS GENERALLY REQUIRED THAT THE MATERIAL UNDER THE FE MARAMETER BE EQUAL TO THE THICKNESS OF THE MATERIAL BEING RADIOGRAPHED. IN SOME CASES, A SHIM CAN BE PLACED UNDER THE PENETRAMETER, wet, i | ! ceeenee SHERWISE ALLOWED, THE PENNY SHOULD ALWAYS BE PLACED ON THE ‘SOURCE SIDE” OF THE SPECISIEN, ay MOULD ALSO BE NOTED THAT WITH SOME TYPES OF PENETRAMETERS, THE 17 Srcenneg NOLES 00 NOF CHANGE DIAMETER BELOW A CERTAIN THICKNESS10 Lecture Golde asson 1 PENETRAMETERS ARE ALSO AVAILABLE IN OTHER TYPES, HOWEVER, THE “FLAT TYPE" IS THE MOST COMMON IN THE UNITED STATES. THE WIRE TYPES A EUROPEAN IMAGE QUALITY INDICATOR WHICH CONSISTS OF VARIOUS THICKNESSES OF WIFE WHICH ARE MOUNTED AND PLACED ON THE SPECIMEN. THE SMALLEST WIRE WHICH CAW RE OBSERVED IS AN INDICATION OF THE SENSITIVITY. THE STEP TYPE INOICATORS ARE USUALLY STEP WEDGES OF VARYING THICKNESSES IN WHICH A HOLE IS DRILLED Iv EACH STEP. SENSITIVITY 15 JUDGED BY THE MINIMUM THICKRIESS IN WICH THE HOLE CAN BE OBSERVED. BEADS MADE OF STEEL (ANRANGED IN INCREASING DIAMETER) CA BE PLACED ON THE SPECIMEN TO SHOW SENSITIITy ThE SMALLEST BEAD VISIBLE WILL INDICATE THE SENSITIVITY. rinrens FILTERS ARE SHEETS OF: HIGH ATOMIC NUMBER METAL, USUALLY BRASS COPPER, STEEL OR LEAD, PLACED IN THE X-RAY BEAM AT THE TUBEHEAD. THE FILTER ABSORBS THE SOFT RADIATION OF THE BEAM AND: 1, REDUCES SUBJECT CONTRAST = PERMITTING A WIDE RANGE OF ASS SPECIMEN THICKNESSES TOBE FILTER et RECORDED WITH ONE EXPOSURE : 2. HELPS TO ELIMINATE SCATTER CAUSED BY SOFT RADIATION, _ se THE FILTER ABSORBS THE LOW ENERGY RADIATION LEAVING A HIGHER. AVERAGE ENERGY BEAM TO PENETRATE THE SPECIMEN.THE LEAD SCREEN ESSENTIALLY INTENSIFIES THE HIGH ENERGY RAYS ANO ABSORBS THE LOWER ENERGY RAYS THE INTENSIFICATION EFFECT IS MOST EFFECTIVE ABOVE 180 KV. BELOW 4160 KV THE SHIELDING EFFECT OVERCOMES THE INTENSIFYING EFFECT. LEAD SCREENS MUST BE FREE OF HOLES, SCRATCHES, WRINKLES OR PITS. FLAWS SUCH AS THESE MAY APPEAR ON THE RADIOGRAPH AND BE MISTAKEN AS A DISCONTINUITY IN THE SPECIMEN, SCREENS THAT HAVE BEEN DAMAGED ANO CANNOT BE PROPEALY CLEANED, SHOULD BE DISCARDED. FLUORESCENT INTENSIFYING SCREENS — \ FLUORESCENT SCREENS CONTAIN CERTAIN CHEMICALS WHICH WILL EMIT LIGHT WHEN THEY ABSORB X- AND GAMMA RAYS. CALCIUM TUNGSTATE IS ONE OF THESE CHEMICALS AND THIS EMISSION OF LIGHT 1S CALLED “FLUORESCENCE”. THE VISIBLE LIGHT EMITTED FROM THE SCREEN WILL FURTHER EXPOSE THE RADIOGRAPHIC FILM, BEBBEUBLE BREE AREER ERGE!FF Lacie Golda Unnson 14 MASKING IS A TECHNIQUE USED TO REDUCE THE EFFECT OF SCATTER WHEN RADIOGRAPHING IRREGULARLY SHAPED OBJECTS. THE MASK IS MADE OF RADIATION ABSORBING MATERIAL (LEAD OR STEEL. SHOT) AND IS PLACED AROUND THE SFECIMEN TO: ; ae A. ABSORB EXCESS PRIMARY RAYS, CUTTING DOWN THE NUMBER OF RAYS AVAILABLE TO CAUSE EXTERNAL SCATTER, 8. REDUCE INTERNAL SCATTER WHICH CAUSES EDGE UNDERCUTTING, ©. REDUCE SIDE SCATTER WHICH ALSO CAUSES EDGE UNDERCUTTING. AS SHOWN BELOW, METALLIC SHOT CAN ALSO BE USED EFFECTIVELY TO REDUCE SCATTERED RADIATION. REMEMBER THAT KV AND SCATTER HAVE A DIRECT RELATIONSHIP, LOWER. ENERGY X-RAYS HAVE A LARGER SCATTER ANGLE THAN DO HIGHER ENERGY. RAYS, BECAIISE OF THIS LARGEA SCATTER ANGLE, THE LOW ENERGY RAY CAUSES A GABATER DEGREE OF “FUZZYNESS™ IN THE IMAGEX-RAY EXPOSURE CHARTS THESE CHARTS SHOW THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN MATERIAL THICKNESS, KILOVOLTAGE, AND EXPOSURE. EACH CHART APPLIES ONLY TO A SPECIFIC SET OF CONDITIONS: 1. ACERTAIN X-RAY MACHINE A CERTAIN TARGET-TO-FILM DISTANCE (TFO) A CERTAIN TYPE OF FILM CERTAIN PROCESSING CONDITIONS DENSITY UPON WHICH THE CHART IS BASED, AS SHOWN ASOVE THE EXPOSURE IS PLOTTED ON A LOGARITHMIC SCALE TO SHORTEN THE CHART IN THE VERTICAL DIRECTION, THE LEFT SIDE OF THE CHART SHOWS EXPOSURE IN MILLIAMPERE- MINUTES MAM) AND THICKNESS OF THE MATERIAL AT THE BOTTOM. 10 USE THIS TYPE OF CHAAT YOU ENTER THE CHART AT THE THICKNESS OF ‘THE SPECIMEN, FOLLOW THE CHART VERTICALLY TO THE SELECTED KY AND THEN HORIZONTALLY TO FIND THE CORRECT EXPOSURE, EXAMPLE: 14" OF STEEL AT 200KV WOULD REQUIRE ABOUT 5.3 MAM.GAMMA RADIOGRAPHY ALSO USES CHARTS TO DETERMINE THE EXPOSURE FACTOR. ‘THE GAMMA RAY EXPOSURE CHART IS SIMPLER THAN THE X-RAY CHART SINCE THE GAMMA SOURCE IS A FIXED ENERGY. es : | eal er SHOWN ABOVE IS A SAMPLE GAMMA EXPOSURE CHART FOR IR-192. HE EXPOSURE FACTOR FOR A GAMMA RAY SQURCE IS DEFINED IN TERMS OF THE INTENSITY OF THE SOURCE (CURIES), THE TIME OF EXPOSURE (MINUTES). AND SQUARE OF THE SOURCE-TO-FILM DISTANCE (INCHES! XPOSURE FACTOR =/_% T = CURIEMINUTES oF INCHES BRBREE. AELELIBEEECETHE FOLLOWING IS AN EXAMPLE THAT WILL HELP TO EXPLAIN THE USE OF THE GAMMA EXPOSURE CHART. \ IF YOU HAD A 40 CURIE SOURCE OF IR-192 AND WERE GOING TO RAIOGRAPH 2 INCHES OF STEEL WITH A SOURCE-TO-FILM DISTANCE OF 20 INCHES, WHAT WILL BE THE EXPOSURE TIME THAT WOULO GIVE A DENSI OF 1.57 THE FIRST STEP WOULD BE TO FIND THE “EXPOSURE FACTOR" IN THE SAMPLE CHART BELOW: ee seas THE EXPOSURE FAGTOR WOULD BE .67 AND THE NEXT STEP WOULO BE TO SOLVE FOR TIME (7) AS SHOWN BELOW: 7 er x oO TT 6.7 MINUTES 67 x (20 67 x 400 0 Cae1 Gece ule Unsson 15 TO BE ABLE TO USE THE GAMMA EXPOSURE CHART, THE RADIOGRAPHER MUST KNOW THE ACTIVITY OF THE ISOTOPE. THE ACTIVITY OF ANY GIVEN ISOTOPE ON ANY GIVEN DAY IS DEPENDENT ON THE ORIGINAL ACTIVITY AND THE HALF-LIFE OF THE ISOTOPE, ‘THE SIMPLEST WAY TO DETERMINE THE ACTIVITY OF A GIVEN ISOTOPE IN ANY TIME IS TO CONSULT THE DECAY CHAAT THAT IS FROVIDED WITH THE ISOTOPE BY THE MANUFACTURER. ‘A SAMPLE DECAY CHART 1S SHOWN BELOW. EniloraeD 7/6/ WHAT WOULD BE THE ACTIVITY OF THE ABOVE SOURCE AFTER A PERIOD OF 40 pays? ANSWER — (APPROXIMATELY 35 CunIeS) J ' t i II Lecture Guide Unason TS EQUIVALENCE CHARTS i GSENERALLY, EXPOSURE CHARTS ARE MADE FOR EITHER ALUMINJM OR STEEL, THIS COULD CREATE & PROBLEM WHEN YOU WISH TO RADIOGRAPA A SPECIMEN CF SOME OTHER MATERIAL, { THE FOLLOWING CHART SHOWS A RADIOGRAPHIC EQUIVALENCE CHART WHICH RELATES OTHER MATERIALS TO ALUMINUM AND STEEL THE FIGURES GIVEN IN THE CHART ARE MULTIPLICATION FACTORS AND ARE USED TO CONVERT A PARTICULAR THICKNESS OF THE SELECTED MATERIAL TO THE EQUIVALENT THICKNESS OF THE STANOARD MATERIAL NOTE THE STANDARO MATERIAL FOR 50—100 kv ALUMINUM (FACTOR 1.0) ALSO NOTE THAT FOR HIGHER VOLTAGES AND ISOTOPES, THE STANDARD MATERIAL IS STEEL (FACTOR 1.0) (POSURES 1S ee Ce i wel |? USL ste la Le |F YOU WANTED TO X-RAY 0.5 INCHES OF COPPER AT 220 KV USING AN EXPOSURE (CHART FOR STEEL, WHAT WOULD BE THE EQUIVALENT THICKNESS IN STEEL?___ SSWER — 007" STEEL) (MULTIPLICATION FACTOR 1.4 TIMES 05" CORPER = 7°)1 Lacuna Guido nano" 15 SOURCE-TO-FILM DISTANCE SOURCE-TO-FILM DISTANCE (SFO), WHICH IS SOMETIMES REFERRED TO AS TARGET-TO-FILM PISTANCE WITH RELATIONSHIP TO X-RAY EQUIPMENT, IS USUALLY SPECIFIED 1N CODES AND SPECIFICATIONS. |e THE SED OR TFD IS NOT SPECIFIED, THE RADIOGRAPHER MJST MAKE HIS OWN SELECTION, THE SOURCE-TO-FILM DISTANCE IS A PRIMARY FACTOR IN CONTROLLING THE UNSHARPNESS OF A RADIOGRAPH, IT HAS BEEN DETERMINED THAT 0.020 INCHES OF PENUMERA WILL STILL APPEAR SHARP TO THE HUMAN EYE. ‘ THEREFORE, ANY UNSHARPNESS OVER .020 INCHES WILL START TO APPEAR “FUZZY” OR UNSHAAP TO THE UNAIDED HUMAN EYE, HOWEVER, SOME SPECIFICATIONS MAY REQUIRE THAT UNSHARPNESS, BE LIMITED TO .010 INCH OR EVEN .005 INCHES. THE AMOUNT OF UNSHARPNESS CAN BE CONTROLLED BY THREE FACTORS: 1. SOURCE-TO-OBJECT DISTANCE (4) 2. SPECIMEN THICKNESS (FILM IN (CONTACT WITH SPECIMEN) (). 3, FOCAL SPOT SIZE OR SOURCE DIAMETER (F} lf WE REWRITE THE EQUATION, BASED ON 0.020 INCHES BEING THE MAXIMUM LUNSHARPNESS ALLOWED, WWE COULD FINO THE SOURCE-TO-FILM DISTANCE BY THE FOLLOWING: o=Fla 1 020 IF YOU WANT AN UNSHARPNESS AT OR EELOW .020° USING A 125" SOURCE SIZE TO RADIOGRAPH A 2° THICK SPECIMEN, WHAT WOULD BE THE REQLIRED SOURCE- TOFILM DISTANCE? puswien— 0 «2% 125 4 2 = 145 moHEs 020 EEEREERLABBEEEEJBEOGEC SE)I Leet THE SELECTION OF A RADIOGRAPHIC TECHNIQUE DEFEHOS ON FOUR IMPORTANT FACTORS: MINIMUM DISTORTION — THE IMAGE OF THE SPECIVEN AND DIS CONTINUITY MUST BE TRUE, THEREFORE,THE GEOMETRY AND POSITIONING OF THE SPECIMEN IS IMPORTANT. SHARP DEFINITION — THE EDGES OF THE IMAGE SHOULD BE SHARPLY DEFINED, HIGH CONTRAST — A MARKED CHANGE IN DENSITY Ie ESSENTIAL IF SMALL DISCONTINUITIES ARE TO BE SEEN IN THE RADIOGRAPHY ADEQUATE FILM DENSITY — IF 700 DENSE, THE FLMI WiLL NOT TRANSMIT LIGHT; IF NOT DENSE ENOUGH, THERE WILL NoT BE ENOUGH ‘CONTRAST TO SEE DISCONTINUITIES UAE RECOMMENDED KV OR GAMMA ENERGY REQUIRED To PENETRATE A Senin THICKNESS OF MATERIAL IS GENERALLY PRESENTED IN A CHART SIMILAR TO THE ONE BELOW, dlNAME ker LessoW 15, Worksheet The follwing alumipum exposure chart should ® used fr all compas regrding his worksheet “a a ‘008 { L 000] 1 =] 13 i 4Lesson 16 SPECIALIZED TECHNIQUES THE INFORMATION IN THIS LESSON WILL DISCUSS SOME OTHER METHODS OF USING RADIATION AS A FLAW DETECTION TOOL. FLUOROSCOPY — THIS PROCESS ENABLES US TO DISPLAY AN IMAGE ON A SCREEN BY CONVERSION OF X-RADIATION INTO VISIBLE LIGH™. THE FLUOROSCOPIC SCREEN FUNCTIONS IN A SIMILAR MAtINER TO THE FLUORESCENT INTENSIFICATION SCREENS. AS SHOWN BELOW, THE IMAGE IS PROJECTED ONTO THE FLUOROSCOFIC SCREEN AND USUALLY IS VIEWED FROM THE.REVERSE SIDE \ incre ADVANTAGES OF FLUOROSCOPY: +. MUCH FASTER 2, SIMPLER AND LESS EXPENSIVE 3. NO FILM PROCESSING 4, PART CAN BE MOVED TO PERMIT VIEWING FROM ALL ANGLES DISADVANTAGES OF FLUOROSCOPY: 1. NO PERMANENT RECORD 2. OPERATOR FATIGUE 3. LOW DEFECT seNsiTIVITY 4. USED ONLY ON THIN SPECIMENS1 Rr Lactne Guise Uesson 16 AS SHOWN BELOW A TYPICAL FLUOROSCOPIC SYSTEM WOULD INVOLVE A SHIELDED WALL OR CONTAINER THAT COULD BE EQUIPPED WITH A CONVEYOR BELT TO MOVE THE PARTS UNDER THE TUBE HEAD. | \ ‘THE SYSTEM WOULD ALSO REQUIRE LEAD GLASS IN THE VIEWING PORT AND THE USE OF MIRROAS FOR ADDITIONAL OPERATOR SAFETY, ame \\ 2) AD orsenen “OM (ON A FLUQROSCOPE, THE DEFECTS WOULD APPEAR AS LIGHT SPOTS INSTEAD (OF DARK SPOTS AS ON X-RAY FILM. THE USE OF FLUOROSCOPY PERMITS A LARGE NUMBER OF ARTICLES TO BE SCREENED QUICKLY LOOKING FOR GROSS DISCONTINUITIES,AT Leet Guida Uesson 16 THE IMAGE AMPLIFIER OVERCOMES SOME OF THE PROBLEMS OF BRIGHTNESS THAT ARE ENCOUNTERED WITH A REGULAR FLUORESCENT SCREEN. THE IMAGE TUBE SHOWN BELOW CCNVERTS THE IMAGE ON THE FLUORESCENT SCREEN TO- ELECTRONS. THE ELECTRONS ARE THEN FOCUSED ONTO A SMALLER SCREEN FOR VIEWING CR PROJECTING ONTO A TV MONITOR. [ines rue —— SHOWN BELOW IS A X-RAY SENSITIVE VIDICON CAMERA WITH TV MONITOR pare | KL srecuenIr Lacuna Guido XERORADIOGRAPHY XERORADIOGRAPHY IS A DRY PHOTOGRAPHIC, PROCESS USING AN ELECTRO: STATIC SYSTEM FOR COPYING OR REPRODUCING AN IMAGE. THE PROCESS USES AN ALUMINUM PLATE WITH A THIN COATING OF SELENIUM ON ONE SIDE THE SELENIUM, WITH AN ELECTROSTATIC CHARGE APPLIED TOIT, IS LIGHT SENSITIVE SO THAT IN A DARK AREA IT WILL HOLD THE CHARGE, BUT IF EXPOSED TO LIGHT OR X-RAY THE CHARGE WILL DECAY. ‘THE RESULT OF THE EXPOSURE TC X-RAY IS ANY INVISIBLE IMAGE MADE UP OF ELECTROSTATIC CHARGES. \ A SPECIAL POWDER IS ATTRACTED TO ANO HELD BY THT ELECTROSTATIC CHARGE ANO THUS FORMING THE MAGE OF THE SPECIMEN. (SEE BELOW) sowdered area IF & PERMANENT RECORD IS DESIRED FROM THE XERORADIOGRAPH. A SPECIAL PAPER WITH A PLASTIC ADHESIVE IS USED TO LIFT THE IMAGE FROM THE SELENIUM PLATE,ft (eet Guide STEREORADIOGRAPHY STEREORADIOGRAPHY GIVES THE VIEWER A THREE-DIMENSIONAL EFFECT BY USING TWO RADIOGRAPHS OF A SPECIMEN AND A STERECSCOPE AS SHOWN BELOW: THE DISTANCE THE TUBE IS MOVED, AS SHOWN ON THE RIGHT ABOVE, MUST EQUAL APPROXIMATELY THE DISTANCE BETWEEN OUR EYES. FLASH RADIOGRAPHY WHEN IT IS NECESSARY TO STOP THE ACTION OF RAPIDLY MOVING PARTS, THE FLASH RADIOGRAPHY TECHNIQUE CAN BE USED TO GOOD ADVANTAGE. A SIMPLE SCHEMAMIC OF THE SYSTEM IS SHOWN BELOW mae 4, .__} owen1 Lacie Guide ese 10 IN-MOTION RADIOGRAPHY IN-MOTION RADIOGRAPHY SIMPLY INVOLVES MOVING EITHER THE FILM AND SPECIMEN OR THE SOURCE OURING THE EXPOSURE. THERE ARE MANY VARIATIONS OF THIS TECHNIQUE AND THE MAJOR CONSIDERATION 1S THAT THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE FILM AND THE ‘SPECIMEN MUST REMAIN FIXED.LESSON 17 THIS LESSON WILL DISCUSS TYPES OF DISCONTINUITIES THAT CAN BE EVALUATED WITH THE RADIOGRAPHIC METHOD, DISCONTINUITIES CAN “SE DIVIDED INTO THREE GENERAL CATEGORIES INHERENT, PROCESSING, AND SERVICE. 1. INHERENT DISCONTINUITIES ARE USUALLY FORMED WHEN THE METAL IS MOLTEN. INHERENT WROUGHT DISCONTINUITIES RELATE TO THE MELTING AND SOLIDIFICATION OF THE ORIGINAL INGOT BEFORE IT 'S FORMED INTO SLABS, BLOOMS, AND BILLETS. \ INHERENT CAST DISCONTINUITIES RELATE TO THE MELTING, CASTING AND SOLIDIFICATION OF A GAST ARTICLE. USUALLY CAUSED BY INHERENT VARIABLES SUCH AS INADEQUATE FEEDINS, GATING, EXCESSIVE POURING TEMPERATURE, AND ENTRAPPED GASES, 2, PROCESSING DISCONTINUITIES ARE USUALLY RELATED TO THE VARIOUS. MANUFACTURING PROCESSES SUCH AS MACHINING, FORMING, EXTRUDING, ROLLING, WELDING, HEAT TREATING, AND PLATING, SERVICE DISCONTINUITIES ARE RELATED TO THE VARIOUS SERVICE CONDITIONS SUCH AS STRESS, CORROSION, FATIGUE, AND EROSION, DURING THE MANUFACTURING PROCESS, MANY DISCONTINUITIES THAT WERE SUBSURFACE WILL BE MADE OPEN TO THE SURFACE BY MACHINING, SAINDING, ETC. REMEMBER THAT DISCONTINUITIES ARE NOT NECESSARILY DEFECTS. ANY INDICATION THAT IS FOUND BY THE INSPECTOR IS CALLED A DISCONTINUITY UNTIL IT CAN BE IDENTIFIED AND EVALUATED 4S TO THE EFFECT IT WILL HAVE ON THE SERVICE OF THIE PART. SEEEREEREC< BBE EBRBOBB BEECLASSIFICATION OF DISCONTINUITIES BY ORIGIN ld MORE DETAILED STUDY OF TYPICAL DISCONTINUITIES CAM BE OBTAINED BY READING PROGRAMMED INSTRUCTION HANDBOOK Plt) WHERENT DISCONTINUITIES — RELATE TO THE ORIGINAL MELTING AND SOLID! FICATION OF THE METAL IN THE INGOT OR IN A CASTING, FT Leclurm cuige Uesson 17 TYPICAL DISCONTINUITIES FOUND IN THE INGOT AR INCLUSIONS, BLOWHOLES, PIPE AND SEGREGATIONS, 1 NON-METALLIC INCLUSIONS SUCH AS SLAG, OXIDES, AND SULPHIDES ARE PRESENT (N THE ORIGINAL INGOT. etasiows-—h BLOWHOLES (PORES) ARE FORMED BY GAS |” WHICH IS INSOLUBLE IN THE MOLTEN METAL rotosiry SND IS TRAPPED WHEN THE METAL SOLIDIFIES, PIPE IS A DISCONTINUITY IN THE CENTER OF THE INGOT CAUSED BY INTERNAL SHRINKAGE URING SOLIDIFICATION. SEGREGATIONS OCCUR WHEN THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE VARIOUS ELEMENTS IS NOT UNIFORM THROUGHOUT THE INGOT, THIS CONDITION IS CALLED "BANDING, v WHEN AN INGOTS FURTHER PROCESSED INTO SLABS, BLOOMS, AND BILLETS, IT > POSSIBLE FOR THE ASOVE DISCONTINUITIES TO CHANGE SIZE AND SHAPE. THE DISCONTINUITIES AFTER ROLLING AND FORMING ARE CALLED LAMINATIONS, STRINGERS, OR SEAMS DEFENDING ON THE TYPE OF PROCESSING AND THE ORIGINAL TYPE OF DISCONTINUITY. THE "HOT TOP" IS USUALLY CROPPED OFF TO REMOVE MOST OF THE DISCONTINUITIES BEFORE THE INGOT Is FURTHER PROC SED.TYPICAL INHERENT DISCONTINUITIES FOUND IN CASTINGS ARE COLD SHUTS. HOT TEARS, SHRINKAGE CAVITIES, MICROSHRINKAGE, BLOWHOLES, AND POROSITY. A COLD SHUT IS CAUSED WHEN MOLTEN METAL IS POURED OVER SOLIDIFIED METAL AS SHOWN BELOW! FSuDati conven hneeanance HOT TEARS (SHRINKAGE CRACKS) OCCUR WHEN THERE IS UNEQUAL S4RINKAGE BETWEEN LIGHT AND HEAVY SECTIONS AS SHOWN BELOW: (SRE Lor sean sHLEEERLEBEEE CREE BEBFT Lectura Guide ssson 17 SHRINKAGE CAVITIES ARE USUALLY CAUSED BY LACK OF ENOUGH MOLTEN METAL TO FILL THE SPACE CREATED BY SHRINKAGE, SIMILAR TO PIPE IN THE INGOT. MICROSHRINKAGE IS USUALLY MANY SMALL SUBSUAFACE HOLES THAT APPEAR, AT THE GATE OF THE CASTING. MICROSHRINKAGE CAN ALSO OCCUR WHEN THE MOLTEN MEAL MUST FLOW FROM A THIN SECTION INTO A THICKER SECTION OF A CASTING. BLOW HOLES ARE SMALL HOLES AT THE SURFACE OF THE CASTING CAUSED BY GAS WHICH COMES FROM THE MOLO ITSELF. MANY MOLDS ARE NADE OF SAND, '|ANO WHEN MOLTEN METAL COMES INTO CONTACT WITH THE MOLD, THE WATER IN THE SAND IS RELEASED AS STEAM, POROSITY IS CAUSED BY ENTRAPPED GAS, POROSITY IS USUALLY SUBSURFACE BUT CAN OCCUR ON THE SURFACE DEFENDING ON THE DESIGN OF THE MOLD,Usteon 17 PROCESSING DISCONTINUITIES ARE THOSE FOUND OA PRCDUCED BY THE FORMING OR FABRICATION OPERATIONS INCLUDING ROLLING, FORGING, WELDING, MACHINING, GRINDING AND HEAT TREATING. AS A BILLET [S FLATTENED AND SPREAD OUT, NONMETALLIC INCLUSIONS MAY (CAUSE A LAMINATION. PIPE AND POROSITY COULD ALSO CAUSE LAMINATIONS IN THE SAME MANNER AS SHOWN BELOW: AS A BILLET IS ROLLED INTO BAR STOCK, NONMETALLIC INCLUSIONS ARE SQUEEZED OUT INTO LONGER AND THINNER DISCONTINUITIES CALLED STRINGERS.WELDING DISCONTINUITIES — IH1E FOLLOWING ARE TYPES OF “PROCESSING DISCONTINUITIES. CRATER cracks STRESS CRACK FoRosiTy SLAG INCLUSIONS ea SS — TungsreN os INCLUSIONS EE Lex oF PENETRATION vere SSE unvencut = —— EXELL, TEEAY Lectura Gian FORGING DISCONTINUITIES OCCUR WHEN METAL IS HAMMERED OR PRESSED INTO SHAPE, USUALLY WHILE THE METAL IS VERY HOT, ‘A FORGED PART GAINS STRENGTH DUE TO THE GRAIN FLOW TAKING THE SHAPE OF THE DIE, AND THE PROCESS IS SHOWN BELOW: ‘A FORGING LAP IS CAUSED BY FOLDING OF METAL ON THE SJAFACE OF THE FORGING, USUALLY WHEN SOME OF THE FORGING METAL IS SQUEEZED OUT BETWEEN THE TWO DIES. A FORGING BURST IS A RUPTURE CAUSED BY FORGING AT IMPROPER. TEMPERATURES, BURSTS MAY BE EITHER INTERNAL OR CFEN TO THE SURFACE AS SHOWN BELOW, ELesto 17 SEAVICE DISCONTINUITIES ARE ALSO IMPORTANT TYPES TO CONSIDER. ARTICLES WHICH MAY DEVELOP DEFECTS DUE TO METAL FATIGUE ARE CONSIDERED EXTREMELY CRITICAL AND DEMAND CLOSE ATTENTION. FATIGUE CRACKS ARE SERVICE TYPE DISCONTINUITIES THAT ARE USUALLY OPEN 0 THe SURFACE WHERE THEY START FROM STRESS CONCENTRATION POINTS: FATIGUE CRACKS ARE POSSIBLE ONLY AFTER THE PART IS PLACED INTO SERVICE, BUT MAY GE THE RESULT OF POROSITY, INCLUSIONS OR OTHER DISCONTINUITIES IN A HIGHLY STRESSED METAL PART. ee = --=-se8 ewe eee ee eek ee eeeLESSON 19 THE INFORMATION IN THIS LESSON CAN BE USED-BY THE INSTRUCTOR AS A, PRACTICAL “PROBLEM SOLVING" APPROACH IN USING THE VARIOUS RADIO: GRAPHIC TECHNIQUES. EACH OF THE SITUATIONS PRESENTED ARE TYPICAL SET-UPS INVOLVING THE USE OF RADIOGRAPHY. IT I$ SUGGESTED THAT THE INSTRUCTOR DISCUSS EACH SITUATION AND RELATE PERSONAL EXPERIENCE AS APPROPRIATE. TYPICAL BUTTWELD AND V.GROVE WELDMENTS “4 i ZZ LA: MHL TYPICAL FILLET WELDS eeTYPICAL FILLET WELDS IN CORNER JCINTS hen i ra \ WELDMEN/‘S ON A CLOSED TANKRADIOGRAPHIC MULTIPLE COMBINATION APPLICATION THIS TECHNIQUE UTILIZES SEVERAL FILM CASSETTES LOADED WITH FILM AND LEAD SCREENS. THIS IS NOT RECOMMENDED AS A STANDARD PRACTICE BUT WILL GIVE A HIGH DEGREE OF LATITUDE WITH A SINGLE EXPOSURE. THE SCREENS IN THE BOTTOM CASSETTES WILL FILTER RATHER THAN INTENSIFY PROVIDING A VARYING DEGREE OF DENSITIES, | i Pew ' \ \ i 1 € S—————— Js eassertes 2D G WELDED HEMISPHERICAL SECTION =)1 Leste Guna osson 1 PANORAMIC APPLICATION FOR LARGE VESSEL iAr Lacs Guide ANGULATION AND FLAW ALIGNMENT THE EXAMPLE BELOW ILLUSTRATES WHY SOME DISCONTINUITIES (SUCH AS A TIGHT CRACK) ARE OFTEN NOT RECORDED ON THE RADIOGRAPH. THE DIAGRAM ON THE LEFT BELOW SHOWS INCORRECT ALIGNMENT, IT IS OFTEN DIFFICULT TO IMAGE A DISCONTINUITY THAT-HAS.A THICKNESS (OF LESS THAN 2% OF THE OVERALL THICKNESS OF TE SPECIMEN, CONSEQUENTLY, SEVERAL DIFFERENT EXPOSURES AT SEVERAL DIFFERENT ANGLES MAY BE NECESSARY FOR A COMPLETE RADIOGRAPHIC EXAMINATION.FT Lecture Guide Ussson 18 IDENTIFICATION AND COMPARISON OF DISCONTINUITIES THA” CAN GE FOUND WITH THE RADIOGRAPHIC TESTING METHOD. THE STUDENT IS ASKED TO STUDY THE PHOTOGRAPHS AND DESCRIPTIONS OF TYPICAL DISCONTINUITIES AS PRINTED IN THE RT CLASSFOOM TRAINING HANDBOOK (CT-6-6). THE INSTRUCTOR MAY WISH TO DISCUSS ZACH OF THESE EXAMPLES IN THE CLASSROOM, EACH OF THE SPECIFIC DISCONTINUITIES ILLUSTRATED ARE DINIDED INTO THE THREE GENERAL CATEGORIES: INHERENT, PROCESSING AND SERVICE. coup sur PAGE 7-8 CONVOLUTION cracks. PAGE 716 INCLUSIONS PAGE 7-22 LACK OF PENETRATION PAGE 7.36 MICRO-SHRINKAGE PAGE 7-44 GAS POROSITY PAGE 7.46 SEMICONDUCTORS: PAGE 756 HOTTEARS PAGE 7.58 IT IS ALSO SUGGESTED THAT THE STUDENT STUDY THE OTHER EXAMPLES GIVEN. AND MAKE A COMPARISON OF THE TYPES OF DISCONTINUITIES THAT CANNOT BE DETECTED WITH RADIOGRAPHIC TECHNIQUES