Redundancy and Performance in Public Service Delivery Networks
Redundancy and Performance in Public Service Delivery Networks
Redundancy and Performance in Public Service Delivery Networks
Sean Nicholson‐Crotty
Department of Political Science and
Harry S Truman School of Public Affairs
University of Missouri
Jill Nicholson‐Crotty
Harry S Truman School of Public Affairs
University of Missouri
Robert Shireman
Department of Political Science
University of Missouri
Scholars studying policy implementation in traditional hierarchical organizations have
long been interested in the impact of redundancy on program performance. Specifically, they
have asked if a duplication of effort among agencies performing similar or competitive functions
is justified by an improvement in the quality of programmatic outcomes. Early work in this area
suggested that redundancy increases program effectiveness by reducing the errors and omissions
that might occur in single agency production. More recent work has been less sanguine,
suggesting that redundancy may actually decrease performance as all agencies gravitate toward
the standards of the least effective, or that the increased costs of redundancy are only justified by
During the same period that scholars have been debating the impact of redundancy in
traditional policy implementation, we have learned that fewer and fewer programs are actually
implemented within such structures. Research now suggests that many (most?) public programs
government, private, and third-sector organizations, rather than through singular (or redundant)
hierarchical government agencies. Thanks to a large and growing body of research, we have also
learned a great deal about the impact of these network structures on the performance of public
organizations and programs, as well as the factors that condition that impact.
be explored.1 This oversight is particularly surprising because redundancy is at least as likely (if
not more likely) to occur in nonhierarchical and decentralized network settings, relative to a
1
Redundancy as we describe it is different than the concept of network redundancy described in the private sector
management literature. That concept describes the degree to which an organization is a part of two or more
networks with overlapping or redundant members or purposes (see Echols and Tsai 2005) and not the degree to
which two organizations within a network are providing the same services to clients.
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potential consequences of redundancy for network performance. As in traditional settings,
duplication of effort in networks inevitably produces increased costs that can only be justified by
however, that such performance gains are likely to occur only under certain conditions.
network settings and, more specifically, the network, organizational, and individual
characteristics that moderate that impact. We test assertions regarding the relationship between
Missouri in 2009/2010.
Over the past several decades, public management scholars have become increasingly
focused on the implementation of public programs via interorganizational networks (see for
example Agranoff and McGuire 1998; O’Toole 1997). An important dimension of this work has
focused on the creation, structuring, size, and management of, as well as the interactions within,
these networks (see for example Agranoff 1991; Graddy and Chen 2006; Silva and McGuire
2010; Alter and Hage 1993; Sydow 2004; Teisman and Klijn 2002). Another body of work has
focused on the impact that networks have, relative to one another or traditional hierarchical
arrangements, on the organizations within them and the programs they implement (see for
example O’Toole and Meier 1999; Provan and Milward 1995). Because we are ultimately interested in
The predominant assertion in this literature has been that collaboration is generally better than
isolated action and that coordination among service providers increases effectiveness through the
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dispersion of information and expertise, the attainment of economies of scale in resource use,
and the ―catching‖ of clients who might be missed or fail to take advantage of programs offered
by a single provider (see for example Alter and Hague 1993; Provan and Milward 2001). The
majority of work in this area has focused on organizations, or nodes, within networks when assessing
performance. This work has suggested that, when holding inputs and other characteristics (including
internal management activities) constant, interaction with more nodes in the network increases the
performance of public organizations (see for example Meier and O’Toole 2001; Nicholson-Crotty and
O’Toole 2004; Rethemeyer and Hatmaker 2007). More recent work, in public management, has
posited a nonlinear relationship between network activity and effectiveness, suggesting that staff
resources and managerial quality moderate the impact of networking on organizational performance
Scholars have also suggested that the character of interaction between nodes, rather than simply
the volume, determines the impact of networking on the outcomes for individual organizations. The
private-sector management literature has long recognized for some time that ―embeddedness‖ within a
network also correlates with firm performance (see Borgatti and Foster 2003; Moran 2005).
Embeddedness differs from network activity, or ―centrality,‖ in that it is the strength of connections with
a subgroup of organizations in one part of the network, rather than the total number of connections that is
assumed to determine outcomes for an individual node (Wasserman and Faust 1994). Strong ties and
consistent interactions among a small group of organizations aids in the development of trust and
reputation, which are ultimately attributes that quality organizations can leverage to receive more
resources from the network. The public management literature has also explored the impact of
the mental health networks the studied. Schalk et al. (2010) find higher levels of satisfaction among
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the graduates of colleges that have strong ties to cohesive subgroups of other organizations within the
A smaller body of work has examined the performance of networks (or the service delivery
nexus) as the unit of analysis (Knoke et al. 1996; Provan, Fish, and Sydow 2007). Provan and
Milward (1995) find that integration and centralization among network nodes, external control of
network activities, and the stability of network partners all influence the perceived effectiveness
of mental health networks among clients. Provan and Kenis (2008) also argue that network
governance matters, but suggest that its impact on effectiveness is moderated by the fit between
structure and other network characteristics. Specifically, they suggest that more decentralized
forms—such as shared governance among nodes—is most effective in networks marked by low
membership, high trust, and relatively little need for network level competencies. Alternatively,
end of that continuum—is best suited to larger networks, where nodes have lower levels of
experience/trust, and which must perform tasks that require higher levels of inter-node
coordination.
Scholars of implementation first addressed the issue of redundancy more than 50 years
ago. The interest in the subject was driven by the recognition that the duplication of effort among
agencies existed in myriad corners of the federal government and, more importantly perhaps, that
such duplication was frequently encouraged through formalized interagency competition and
review procedures. Downs’ (1967) argued that such competition was likely to produce increased
organizational effectiveness when 1) both agencies were funded by the same budgetary
authority and 2) when the agencies were sufficiently distant organizationally to ensure that they
had distinct loyalties and did not temper their behavior for fear of retribution. Landau (1969)
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similarly suggested that intentionally overlapping services could increase the performance of the
duplicate agencies, primarily due to the increased reliability and quality that arises from having
one agency check the outputs of another. Others suggested that redundancies might also increase
efficiency and lower costs by reducing the level of errors or mistakes (Landau 1979).
Initial accounts of potential benefits of redundancy for reliability have been empirically
tested and theoretically extended. Bendor (1985) formalized the relationship between
redundancy and reliability and provided empirical tests in the area of metropolitan transportation,
which largely confirmed the existence of a positive relationship. Others demonstrated empirical
support for the benefits of redundant systems in air traffic control and naval operations (LaPorte
and Consolini 1991; Rochlin, LaPorte, and Roberts 1987). Heinman (1993) extended the concept
of redundancy by considering the different types of error that public organizations might try to
avoid through redundant systems. Through an examination of the Challenger disaster, his work
demonstrates that redundant systems are better at preventing ―type II‖ administrative errors,
where an agency fails to take an action that is necessary, but are actually more likely to create
―type I‖ errors, where an agency chooses to act when it should not. Heinmann (1995)
demonstrates that redundancy is a superior choice for increasing reliability when agencies must
make nonprogrammatic decision, where variability and uncertainty are high. Alternatively, he
suggests that serial strategies are preferable when decisions are repetitive and routinized.
Others have also argued that redundancy only increases effectiveness under certain
conditions. Krause and Douglas (2003) suggest that gravitation toward performance of the least
Drawing on the theoretical perspective of Adverse Reputational Herding, they argue that, ―when
a parallel (redundant) agency performs at the same or lower level compared to an initial agency
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did before the former bureau’s creation, the initial bureau will play to the level of its competition
by either exhibiting no change or a reduction in task performance quality‖ (Krause and Douglas,
2003). Ting (2003) also illuminates a number of conditions under which redundancy may not
increase effectiveness. In a game theoretical approach which allows for strategic action by
agents, he demonstrates that that redundancy can help the principal achieve a policy goal, which
is assumed to be effectiveness, when the that principal and the agents have divergent preferences.
The positive impacts of redundancy decrease markedly, however, when the principal and at least
one of the agents share preferences regarding outcomes. Redundancy may also not be
unnecessary if the principal can take away a single agent’s right to produce a good in the event of
poor performance.
expectations about the relationship between these concepts and effectiveness. In other words,
both suggest a potential positive impact on organizational performance under the right
conditions. Interestingly, however, there has been relatively little work attempting to integrate
these approaches to program effectiveness. Landau (1991) did envision the possibility for
jurisdictions and functions. He suggested that this type of system would be better at recognizing
and correcting errors in the provision of public services, making the system better than any of the
component parts. Landau’s (1991) account is suggestive and intriguing, but, to date, no one has
built upon it to offer a more systematic examination of the impact redundancy in network
implementation settings.
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Doing so requires that we 1) define network redundancy and 2) attempt to reconcile the
disparate literatures discussed above to understand conditions under which such redundancy
where a client receives a similar good or service from more than one organization within a
network of nonhierarchically linked providers within six months, when they could be receiving
that service from a single provider. There may be performance effects from simply having two or
more organizations offering the same services to different clientele within the network, but
restricting the definition to redundant services delivered to the same client better matches the
concept of parallel processing used to define redundancy in the more traditional implementation
(Graddy and Ferris 2006) or goal-oriented (Kilduff and Tsai 2003) networks, where
organizations purposefully come together and coordinate some degree of their action in order to
produce a particular outcome or accomplish a particular goal. Redundancies likely exist in what
have been described as ad-hoc or ―serendipitous‖ networks (see Provan and Kenis 2008), but,
because these often are not organized to produce a specific outcome it may be more difficult to
With network redundancy defined, we move now to integrating the disparate literatures
on these topics. In order to do so, we take what we believe is a parsimonious and intuitive, if not
literatures regarding the factors that condition their impact on performance move in the same
they move in opposite directions, we expect a null impact. In other words, if a characteristic
increases the likelihood that redundancy will improve effectiveness and increases the likelihood
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that a network arrangement increases performance, then we expect redundancy within a network
increases the positive impact of networks, but decreases the advantage of parallel systems, then
we expect those things to cancel one another out, producing a null impact for network
redundancy. In those cases where either literature is conflicted on the impact of a particular
variable on effectiveness, we do not offer an expectation about the direction or significant of the
relationship network redundancy and effectiveness under those conditions. By using the
individual receiving services from organizations in the network as the foundation for our
We begin with propositions regarding the moderating impact of network structure and
activity on redundancy. The literature on networks suggests that those organized around a central
node or authority tend to be more effective (Provan and Milward 1995), particularly when goal
consensus and the need for coordination among nodes is relatively high (Provan and Kenis
2008). The benefits of these structures accrue because they result in greater integration and
coordination of network activities (Graddy 2008). In a similar vein, the network literature
consistently suggests that ―centrality,‖ or the frequency of contacts with other nodes, is an
and O’Toole 2004; O’Toole and Meier 2004; Schlak et al. 2010). Centrality (as opposed to
expertise and improving its ability buffer key operations from environmental shocks.
issues of integration and communication among organizations, and it has evolved regarding the
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expected impact of these factors. Downs (1967) suggested that coordination among units
eliminated the benefits of redundancy. Alternatively, Bendor (1985) demonstrated formally that
integration does not necessarily reduce the positive effects of parallel processing. Finally,
Landau (1991) provides some case evidence that coordination among ―loosely coupled,‖
redundant service providers is what allows that type of system to better identify and solve
problems relative to hierarchical or serial production systems. Because it seems as though the
expectations in the literatures on redundancy and networks move in the same direction, we offer
Proposition 1: All else being equal, the impact of redundancy on network effectiveness will be
Proposition 2: Redundancy will have a larger impact on effectiveness when an organization has
There are also places where the literatures on redundancy and networks overlap in terms
of their expectations regarding effectiveness of organizations within networks. The first of these
that we treat deals with the issues of organizational capacity and/or quality. The literature on
network effectiveness originally argued that contact between network nodes was sufficient to
increase performance relative to hierarchical implementation (See O’Toole and Meier 1999).
Recent work suggests that the benefits of network activity may not accrue equally to all
organizations, and demonstrates that the staff resources of an organization and the quality of its
manager moderate the relationship between network activity and performance (Hicklin et al.
2008).
organizations. Indeed, work in this area consistently suggests that increasing the capabilities of
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individual organizations is necessary to reduce error and improve reliability (see Landau 1969;
Heinman 1993). It simply argues that this approach is not sufficient to guarantee reliable outputs
and that overlap and duplication are, therefore, warranted. Interestingly, even work challenging
the desirability of redundancy indicates the need for high quality organizations. Krause and
Douglass (2003) argue that performance in redundant systems sometimes regresses to the level
of the lowest performing organization. This suggests that such system will be most effective
when both organizations have higher individual performance levels. Combining these arguments
from the literatures on redundant systems and networks, which again seem to move in the same
Proposition 3: Redundancy will have a larger impact on effectiveness when the organizations
redundancy suggest at least one individual level factor that may influence the impact of
This seems to be particularly true, however, in the area of human service delivery, not only
because the incentives of providers are more properly aligned in such settings (Provan and
Milward 2001), but also because these are ―wicked‖ problems that require a multifaceted
approach (O’Toole 1997) and because they often serve the most ―vulnerable‖ clients (Aday
2001). This latter point reappears regularly in the literature with assertions that network
implementation is better at catching those difficult clients who are most likely to fall through the
cracks in traditional settings (Alter and Hague 1993; Provan and Milward 2001).
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Interestingly, though it was never explicitly been interested in individual client outcomes,
the literature on redundancy makes a similar argument regarding difficult problems. Initial work
suggested that redundant systems were preferable for most problems faced by government
(Downs 1967). Subsequent work demonstrated formally and empirically, however, that
redundancy was best suited to deal certain types of problems and less able to provide
effectiveness gains in others. Heinman (1993) argues that Type II errors, where government
failed to act when action was necessary, are particularly amenable to correction by parallel
systems. This becomes more true the greater the necessity of action. So, combining the findings
regarding problem type from the literatures on networks and redundancy, we expect that:
Proposition 4:Redundancy will have a larger impact on effectiveness for the most difficult
clients.
Empirical Test
We test hypotheses drawn from these general propositions in data from community
relative to its population (Pew Trust 2008) and in 2009, there were more than 100,000 persons on
parole or probation within the state (MODOC 2010). The challenge of reintegrating these
persons into society is well documented. Within 3 years of their discharge from the system,
approximately 67% of convicted felons will be rearrested. Forty-four percent will come in
contact with the justice system within 1 year of release. Of course, these rates vary dramatically
by offense severity and criminal history. A study by the U.S. Sentencing Commission found that,
among those convicted in federal court, the most serious offenders had a 1-year rearrest rate of
55% , while the lowest risk individuals reoffended at approximately 14% (CRS 2008). Despite
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this variation, few dispute that offender reentry is a significant problem, particularly for
In response to the scale and scope of the reentry problem, the state of Missouri has taken
a progressive approach to reintegration. It was among the first 8 states chosen by the U.S.
Transition from Prison to Community Initiative (TPCI) developed by the National Institute of
Corrections and Abt Associates (Parents and Barnett, 2004). Lawmakers, judges, and
corrections administrators have taken a variety of steps creating this system. The first of these
was the creation of Transition Accountability Plans (TAP) (Parents and Barnett, 2004). TAPs
provide valuable information about offender needs to organizations that administer services post-
release. Assessment is done through a series of different programs that are administered in the
release.
The second step was the creation of Missouri Reentry Process Teams to coordinate the
activities of local public, private, and nonprofit organizations that might deliver reentry services.
This began with the formation state-level MRP Steering Team, which included representatives
Safety, Department of Transportation and the Department of Health and Senior Services. This
steering committee oversaw the creation of 34 local MRP teams that are responsible for
coordinating reentry activities in 1 to 5 counties each. These teams work with parole officers and
service providers to coordinate reentry activities with the goal of decreasing recidivism rates in
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the community. As an example these Teams’ activities, the District 11 team, which is responsible
for five counties, said in its annual report that it ―worked with the Central Ozarks Private
Industry Council Inc. (COPIC) in order to increase the effectiveness, efficiency and availability
of client employment referrals and opportunities.‖ These teams resemble, though are not
identical, to what scholars have identified as Network Administrative Organizations (See Provan,
Issett, and Milward 2004; Provan and Kenis 2008). They do not deliver services themselves, but
instead focus on building overall network capacity. The act primarily as a coordinator of network
activities, but may become more or less involved with individual programs as needed to produce
network goals.
The third step that the state took produced the data for this project. The Community
Reentry Funding Initiative (CRFI) was launched in 2007 with the supervision fee collected by
the Department of Corrections and the Division of Probation and Parole. The Initiative is
offenders as they reenter the community. The initiative focuses on programs that assist offenders
with housing, transportation, employment, mental health and substance abuse, education, basic
essentials, training, and a variety of other needs. The CRFI is intended to support local efforts
that will reduce the risk presented by offenders to commit new crimes and return to prison. In
2009, CRFI provided funding to 36 reentry providers across the state. These organizations
provide employment, housing, transportation and basic skills assistance, as well as cognitive
behavioral counseling. These organizations were funded with the understanding that they would
fit into community corrections networks already being coordinated (in most places) by a local
MRP team.
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As a component of an evaluation conducted for the Missouri Department of Corrections
and the National Institutes of Justice in 2010/2011, the Institute for Public Policy at the
University of Missouri collected data from the 36 funded organizations and the 4276 clients they
served. Organizational data include information on staff, budgets, funding sources, clients
served, and services offered, as well as communication with other reentry service providers,
parole officers, and MRP teams. Client data include information on employment, housing,
perceived needs, perceived support, and services received. We also collected information from
the MDOC on clients and all other parolees and probationers in the state in 2010, which included
demographics (race, sex, age, and marital status), risk assessment (from a standardized Field
Risk Reduction Instrument), offense type (violent, drug, etc…), sentence type (parole or
In terms of network structure, our data collection allows us to see pieces (smaller and
larger) of 15 community corrections networks around the state of Missouri. We know the basic
structure of these networks based on the guidelines established by the state-level MRP team.
Typically, each network includes multiple service providers, the parole and probation office
associated with the local district court, and the regional MPR team tasked with coordinating
community corrections activities in the area. We can observe the degree of integration at the
organizational level with data on MRP involvement in each organization’s delivery of services.
We can observe the activity of the 36 organizations we studied within these networks with data
on their contacts with other service providers, municipal government agencies, community
groups/members, and parole/probation officers. The greatest limitation of these data is that we
do not observe all community reentry providers within each network. This limits the questions
we can ask, but does not impair our ability to address the propositions discussed above, which
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are all at the level of the organization or individual. Because we do not have data on every
possible organization from which an individual could receive services, there may be
redundancies that we cannot observe. These should, however, bias the results against our
hypotheses and, therefore, be unproblematic for the analysis. Nonetheless, we urge readers to
exercise the appropriate amount of caution given the imperfect nature of our data.
Dependent Variable
individual was rearrested within one year of entering parole or probationary custody. We choose
this measure because recidivism prevention is the primary stated objective of the Transition from
Prison to Community Initiative, the Missouri Reentry Project, and the Community Reentry
Funding Initiative. As such, it is the best measure of the effectiveness of the network of providers
created and/or coordinated by these efforts. The overall reoffense rate in our data is .14, though
that figure varies dramatically depending on the type of offender. The one-year recidivism rate is
only .05 for persons with a recommended supervision level of 1. Alternatively, it is .33 among
classified as Level 3, which indicates the most serious and/or repeat offenders.
Independent Variable
received redundant employment, housing, counseling, or basic skills services. There are several
subcategories within each of these service types, including for example training, resume
development, GED acquisition, and job search within Employment, or short-term shelter versus
rental assistance within Housing. We do not directly observe which of these subcategories of
service a client receives, but we do know the range of services provided by the organizations
with which they are enrolled. In other words, we do not know whether Client A received resume
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or training assistance from Organization X, but we do know that she could have received all 4
The score on our measure of redundancy is determined by the services delivered by the
organizations that an individual is enrolled with, as well as the date on which he or she began
receiving services from them. If a person is enrolled contemporaneously with two organizations,
redundancy is coded 1 if they receive services in the same category from both, when either one
employment services) and Y provides job training, we code that as redundant because they could
have received all services from Organization X. Alternatively, if Client B simultaneously enrolls
Organization X, which provides training, that is coded as nonredundant because they could not
the coding of redundancy depends most heavily on the services offered by the initial provider. If
the first provider offers all services offered by the second provider, we code this as redundant.
Alternatively, if the second provider with which a client enrolls offers a different basket of
subservices within a category, this is not coded as redundant. Using these decision rules, 477
individuals, or approximately 10% of those served, received redundant services in our sample.
As noted above, we code redundancy only for housing, employment, basic skills, and
counseling services. Transportation services are not treated as redundant or not because
numerous organizations assist clients with transportation to the services they provide. So, even if
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an individual received transportation services from two providers it would not be redundant in
the same way that receiving rental or job search assistance from two organizations is.
Moderating Variables
We have identified 4 factors that should moderate the relationship between redundancy
measure integration, at least to the degree it affects our organizations, with a question to service
providers regarding the ―involvement‖ that the local MRP team has with their program. Answers
range from 1 for no involvement to 5 for very high involvement. To provide some substance to
these numerical categories, one organization that marked a 1 said in an available comments field
that ―We do not know our MRP team.‖ Alternatively, an organization that marked a 5 said, ―The
local MRP team is very active and engaging. Attendance has remained high and many segments
of our community are represented.‖ We assume that higher involvement from the MRP team is a
good proxy for the level of integration and expect it to enhance the effect of redundancy on
recidivism prevention.
members (or centrality) by asking if they communicate regularly with other community
organizations, members of the community, government officials, and the parole/probation office.
The measure ranges from 0 to 4, with higher values indicating more communication. We expect
effectiveness.
We measure capacity with the number of paid staff. Most of the organizations we study
are 501(c)(3) service providers and there is evidence that staff resources correlate with capacity
in these types of organizations (Eisinger 2002; Hall 1998). Nonprofit organizations can serve a
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relatively large number of clients relying heavily on volunteer labor. Volunteers certainly
provide valuable resources to the organizations they serve, but they are interchangeable with paid
staff for only a limited proportion of tasks (Handy, Mook, and Quarter 2008). In part, this is
because volunteers have significantly higher levels of turnover which affects continuity,
institutional memory, and agency morale (Fischer & Schaffer, 1993). We expect redundancy to
have a greater positive impact on effectiveness when staff capacity in the organizations
Finally, we measure the need of individual clients—or the relative importance that the
network act to help prevent their reoffense—with the supervision category. Based on the
characteristics of current and past offenses, as well as the Field Risk Reduction Instrument score,
each offender in the Missouri system is assigned a Supervision Category between 1 and 3. The
highest value represents those offenders who, by the state’s assessment, are at the highest risk of
reoffense and need the most significant intervention to prevent that from occurring. We suggest
that these offenders represent the greatest possibility for a Type II error in Heinman’s (1993)
conceptualization, where government must act in order to produce a desired outcome. According
to the author, these are the problems that redundancy is best suited to address. We expect that
redundancy will have a greater positive impact on effectiveness as the supervision level of the
Control Variables
Finally, subsequent models include a set of variables designed to control for alternative
explanations for recidivism. The first of these is race. Nationally, Hispanics are slightly more
likely to come in contact with the criminal justice system than Whites relative to their
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population, while African Americans are significantly more likely to do so. More importantly for
our purposes, the recidivism rate among African American offenders is also significantly higher
(CRS 2008). Evidence suggests that these differences become far less evident when controlling
for other factors (see for example Florida Department of Corrections 2010), but we, nonetheless,
control variable measures sentence type. It is coded 0 for previously incarcerated offenders
currently on parole and 1 for those who were sentenced to probation rather than a prison term.
Even after controlling for other factors, incarceration dramatically increases the risk of reoffense
relative to those offenders who are allowed to remain in their communities. All models also
include the supervision score discussed above as a control. In our theoretical story the variable
moderates the impact of redundancy, but it is also the single best available predictor of
Subsequent models also control for age, based on the recognition that the likelihood of
Corrections 2010). We also control for offense type, based on evidence that certain types of
offenders are most likely to come back in contact with the criminal justice system. Nationally,
drug offenders have among the highest recidivism rates, because physical and mental addiction
make it very difficult for these individuals to abstain from illegal behavior (New York State
Commission on Drugs and the Courts 2000). All models discussed below include a dichotomous
indicator of whether or not an individual was convicted of a drug crime. Finally, we control for
the ―dosage‖ of treatment received by offenders from organizations in the community corrections
network. Prior to the data collection, organizations were asked to standardize their treatment
measurement based on a metric that we developed and all providers agreed to. So, as examples,
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all organizations reported 1 hour of job readiness classes as 1 unit of employment, or 1 day of
Methods
The community corrections organizations that we study treated 4276 of the more than
do not observe random selection of offenders into these organizations. In fact, sample selection is
process that we suggested at the outset of this paper could produce redundancy in network
settings. Despite the seemingly stochastic nature of selection into these programs, however, we
know that certain offender characteristics, such as age, race, sex, sentence type, and supervision
level, predict selection into these programs. This complicates the analyses because many of these
characteristics also predict the likelihood of reoffense. This selection effect biases the findings in
most standard analytic techniques because any observed impact from a program or service is
likely to be a function of the characteristics of those selected into the program. In other words, a
program populated by older lower supervision offenders will correlate negatively with the
likelihood of reoffense, but the result simply reflects the fact that older nonviolent offenders are
The most appropriate way to deal with such bias is via a selection model and we employ
a Heckman approach. Generally speaking, the Heckman procedure corrects for sample selection.
More specifically, the model estimates the two equations simultaneously and takes advantage of
information from the individuals that select out of the sample in order to produce asymptotically
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efficient and unbiased estimates for those that remain. In the case of reentry programs, the model
uses information about individuals that are not treated by our grantees to more accurately
estimate the probability of recidivism among those that are. In other words, it reduces the
likelihood that differences in the characteristics between offenders treated and untreated
offenders do not drive the findings. Because the dependent variable here is categorical, we
employ a Heckman estimator that fits a maximum likelihood probit model with sample selection.
recidivism, as well as the interaction between these factors, we have an inherently multi-level
question. Typically this would suggest the use of a Hierarchical Linear Model or some other
multilevel estimator. Unfortunately, we are not aware of (and are not skilled enough to derive) a
model that can deal with sample selection in the first stage and estimate an HLM in the second.
As an alternative, we estimate a model with both organizational and individual variables and
cluster the standard errors at the organizational level. This does not provide all of the information
that an HLM estimation would, like the proportion of variance explained by different levels, but
Findings
The results from Heckman probit models testing the propositions outlined above
presented in Tables 1 through 4. Collinearity, as well as the difficulty of getting the selection
models to converge when estimating multiple interactive parameters, compels us to test these in
4 separate models. We focus most of the discussion on the second stage results, presented in the
bottom panel of the tables. Before moving to those we can briefly discuss the first stage models
predicting selection out of our analytic sample, which are presented in the top panels. Because of
missing data in the information collected from the MDOC, we have 85, 185 usable observations
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in the total sample. The sample in the second stage is 4276, indicating 80, 955 censored
observations. We predict censoring with race, age, sex sentence type, and supervision level. The
model suggests that parolees and those with higher recommended supervision levels were more
likely to select into, or be selected into, the programs funded by Community Reentry Funding
Initiative. In all 4 models, a significant Wald test suggests that the first and second stage
equations are not independent of one another and, thus, that the selection model is appropriate.
The upper panel of Table 1 presents the second stage results from the model of the
interaction between MRP team involvement and redundant service provision. Because we are
measuring the impact of integration in both organizations that provide a redundant service, the
model contains 2 measures of MRP involvement and 2 interaction terms, along with the indicator
systems, increased integration also does not have an independent impact on the likelihood of
reoffense. The insignificant coefficient on redundancy suggests that, when both measures of
MRP involvement were 0, it has no effect on the probability of recidivism, though it is important
to remember that this condition is impossible because the lowest value of the MRP measure is 1.
The significant coefficient on the first interaction term indicates that redundancy becomes
significant as the level of MRP involvement in the first organization’s program increases. The
second interaction term is not significant either alone or jointly, indicating that, after controlling
for integration in the first organization, the level of MRP involvement with the second does not
In order to assess the direction of the impact of redundancy at higher levels of MRP
of the two variables and their interaction, with all other variables set to their means or modes.
22
We do so by calculating the change in predicted probability of going from nonredundant to
redundant services in conditions of low and high MRP involvement. The results suggest that,
when the level of MRP involvement is at the lowest level switching to redundant service
switching to redundant provision at the highest level of the MRP variable decreases recidivism
by .008. This represents a substantial change, and given that the baseline probability of offense in
The control variables in this first model performed largely as expected. Parolees were
more likely to reoffend relative to probationers, with former incarceration increasing the
probability of recidivism by .04. Those with higher supervision scores also had a higher
probability of recidivism, with the likelihood of reoffense increasing by .042 from the lowest to
the highest category. Drug offenders were more likely than individuals that committed other
crimes to come back in contact with the criminal justice system, but the substantive effect was
recidivism, suggesting that even after controlling for other factors, a higher dosage of the
services offered in the community corrections network help to reduce the probability of
reoffense. On the other hand, when other factors were controlled for, race of the offender did not
The upper panel in Table 2 contains the second stage model examining the moderating
impact of network activity on the relationship between redundancy and recidivism. The
significant coefficients on networking suggest that increased activity correlates negatively with
the likelihood of reoffense when an offender is not receiving redundant services. The null
coefficient on redundancy suggests that, in the absence of any network activity it does not have a
23
discernable impact recidivism. One of the interactions between networking and redundancy is
Calculating the change in predicted probabilities suggests that the moderating impact of
network activity is quite substantial. With at least one organization that engages in no network
activity, redundancy actually appears to increase the likelihood of recidivism, though the change
is not statistically significant. Alternatively, if that organization engages in the highest level of
activity, redundancy decreases the probability of reoffending by a very large .038. Not
surprisingly, the control variables performed identically, with parolees, those that received fewer
treatment units, those with a higher risk score, and drug offenders having the highest probability
of recidivism.
The upper panel in Table 3 presents the findings from the analysis of staff resources and
redundancy in networks. In this case, both interaction terms are significant, suggesting that
greater staff resources in the second organization providing redundant services moderate the
impact of that redundancy even after controlling for the moderating impact of staff in the first
organization. The positive and significant coefficient on the measure of redundancy indicates
that it would actually increase the likelihood of reoffense if both organizations delivering
services had 0 paid staff. Of course, that condition does not exist in our sample, but even if we
calculate the change in the predicted probability of recidivism with both staff levels set to 10
.004. Alternatively, if each organization has 50 full and part time staff, moving from singular
24
Finally, the results from the second stage model of supervision level are presented in the
upper panel of Table 4. The significant interaction term suggests that redundancy is moderated
by supervision, but the direction of the effect was different that we expected. At the lowest level
of supervision, indicating offenders with the lowest risk of reoffense, a change from
the highest level, receiving services from two rather than one provider increases probability that
an offender will come back into contact with the criminal justice system.
Discussion
As noted above, the result regarding supervision level is contrary to our expectations. Our
assertion here was that the benefits of redundancy should be particularly evident for the highest
risk offenders, where the necessity of government action is highest. The findings suggest,
however, that it is these offenders who are actually harmed by redundant services. The direction
of this result holds, though not always the significance, if we use alternative measures for
―need.‖ More research is needed to better understand this result, but it may arise because of the
opportunity costs that redundancy imposes. Receiving the same service from two providers helps
to increase reliability, but it may also mean that an individual is forgoing another service that
might benefit them. It appears as if the more serious offenders benefit from exposure the varied
basket of services available in the community corrections network, rather than from the more
The remainder of the results provide support for the propositions outlined earlier in the
paper. Integration, captured at the organizational level by the involvement of the local MRP team
in program delivery, increases the positive impact of redundancy. We suggested that this should
be the case because integration has been shown to have a positive impact on network
25
performance (Graddy 2008) and because the redundancy literature has come to support some
The benefits of integration in the case we study are particularly unsurprising because of
the nature of the networks we examine in this study. The majority of these networks are in
nonurbanized portions of the state and, typically, cover offenders in several towns across more
than one county. This produces a condition that should increase the benefits of more centralized
integration. Despite their distance from one another, offenders regularly receive services from
providers in different communities. Because of those distances, however, the need for a
coordinating entity that has a sense of the network as a whole, including which services are being
offered by which providers and on what schedule, is particularly high. Under these conditions,
we believe that redundancy may have greater benefits in more integrated networks because
offenders (or their POs) that are unsatisfied with a service being received from one organization
are more likely to be aware of programs in neighboring areas that can provide them with a
slightly different version of that service. Even in cases where clients ―stumble‖ into redundant
services, they may be more effective in integrated networks because the MRP team has worked
The findings also provide strong support for our assertion that greater network activity by
redundancy actually correlates positively with the probability of recidivism, but as such activity
increases it becomes negatively associated with reoffense. This result likely arises because more
active organizations have a better sense of not only what other organizations in the network are
doing, but also what community members and local government officials believe are the biggest
26
challenges facing offenders trying to gain employment, housing, or the skills and temperament
better suited to identifying and solving service delivery problems relative to serial production
systems (Landau 1991), this should be particularly true when those organizations communicate
more regularly with others in the network about the nature of and solution to those problems.
Finally, our proposition that organizational capacity should increase the positive impact
of redundancy was also supported by the analysis. Network scholars have begun to argue that
capacity may moderate the positive impact of network activity and redundancy scholars have
always suggested that parallel processing among high skill agencies was the best approach.
Similarly, we find that redundant service provision by organizations that do not invest heavily in
human resources actually produces more negative outcomes for clients, while redundancy in
organizations with higher staff capacity reduces the likelihood that an individual will reoffend
(relative to provision by a single organization). In many ways, this result is intuitive simply
because having two organizations produce the same service when both have limited capacity to
provide it is unlikely to produce measurable performance gains. Indeed, in our model, it is not
just one, but rather both, redundant providers that must have above average staff capacity before
Conclusion
We began this essay with the assertion that the characteristics of policy implementation
networks make redundancy and duplication among providers relatively likely and that it is
redundant service provision improves outcomes for clients when integration, network activity,
27
and staff capacity are high. We believe the findings suggest a need for the literature on networks
to seriously consider the topic of redundancy. Numerous questions persist about the impact of
redundancy on effectiveness and answering these is important for scholars who study
performance in network systems, but also for the policy makers who design them and the
organizations that deliver public goods and services within them. There are also myriad
questions for those that study the structure of and interaction within networks including: the
extent of redundancy in service delivery networks, the variation that might exist based on the
service being delivered or the size and structure of the network and the degree to which
While we believe the results of our analyses do warrant a closer examination of the role
of redundancy in networks, we also caution readers about drawing definite conclusions because
of the many shortcomings in this study. First and foremost, these data were collected for a
slightly different purpose than a study of network effectiveness and, therefore, do not always
provide perfect measures of the concepts we are interested in. This is also a study of only a
single service type delivered via a single type of network structure. Future research will
determine if the results we report here are robust to more precise measurement, different service
28
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Table 1 Interactive Effect of MRP Involvement and Redundancy on Recidivism
Coef. s.e.
Stage 2: Reoffense
Race -0.129 0.135
Sentence Type -1.140 **** 0.173
Supervision 0.285 **** 0.061
Age 0.000 0.004
Redundancy -0.117 0.161
MPR org. 1 0.020 0.023
MRP org. 2 -0.007 0.022
Redun X MRP org. 1 -0.070 ** 0.037
Redun X MRP org. 2 0.077 0.048
Drug Offense 0.046 * 0.025
Total Units 0.000 ** 0.000
Intercept -0.708 0.665
Stage 1: Selection
Race 0.187 0.128
Sex -0.096 0.099
Sentence Type -0.198 **** 0.040
Age 0.005 0.004
Supervision 0.268 **** 0.056
Intercept -1.941 0.579
Standard Errors Clustered on Organization. * p<.1, ** p<.05, *** p<.01, **** p<.000
33
Table 2 Interactive Effect of Network Activity and Redundancy on Recidivism
Coef. s.e.
Stage 2: Reoffense
Race -0.127 0.128
Sentence Type -1.151 **** 0.173
Supervision 0.287 **** 0.061
Age 0.000 0.004
Redundancy 0.013 0.041
Nework org. 1 -0.052 ** 0.026
Network org. 2 -4.072 **** 0.282
Redun X Network org. 1 0.019 0.030
Redun X Network org. 2 3.986 **** 0.281
Drug Offense 0.049 * 0.026
Total Units 0.000 ** 0.000
Intercept -0.604 0.680
Stage 1: Selection
Race 0.187 0.128
Sex -0.098 0.098
Sentence Type -0.198 **** 0.040
Age 0.005 0.004
Supervision 0.268 **** 0.056
Intercept -1.939 0.579
Standard Errors Clustered on Organization. * p<.1, ** p<.05, *** p<.01, **** p<.000
34
Table 3 Interactive Effect of Staff Resources and Redundancy on Recidivism
Coef. s.e.
Stage 2: Reoffense
Race -0.127 0.137
Sentence Type -1.143 **** 0.173
Supervision 0.286 **** 0.062
Age 0.000 0.004
Redundancy 0.083 ** 0.040
Staff org. 1 0.000 0.000
Staff org. 2 0.000 0.000
Redun X Staff org. 1 0.000 **** 0.000
Redun X Staff org. 2 -0.002 ** 0.001
Drug Offense 0.045 ** 0.024
Total Units 0.000 * 0.000
Intercept -0.666 0.670
Stage 1: Selection
Race 0.187 0.128
Sex -0.099 0.100
Sentence Type -0.198 **** 0.040
Age 0.005 0.004
Supervision 0.268 **** 0.056
Intercept -1.937 0.581
Standard Errors Clustered on Organization. * p<.1, ** p<.05, *** p<.01, **** p<.000
35
Table 4 Interactive Effect of Supervision Level and Redundancy on Recidivism
Coef. s.e.
Stage 2: Reoffense
Race -0.130 0.135
Sentence Type -1.147 **** 0.174
Supervision 0.276 **** 0.062
Age 0.000 0.004
Redundancy -0.200 0.136
Redun X Supervision -0.091 * 0.053
Drug Offense 0.048 ** 0.025
Total Units 0.000 * 0.000
Intercept -0.625 0.684
Stage 1: Selection
Race 0.187 0.128
Sex -0.097 0.097
Sentence Type -0.198 **** 0.040
Age 0.005 0.004
Supervision 0.268 **** 0.056
Intercept -1.940 0.579
Standard Errors Clustered on Organization. * p<.1, ** p<.05, *** p<.01, **** p<.000
36