OPC Kicker - ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSPREFACE [Asa rel ofthe phenomenal adhanss tha ave tke ple ver the ls twenty year nthe comply fof protective gear engineering, the appreciation and understanding of the subject seguir sesalt nowidge ofboth the design of pte relay and tet apications ‘There re aleay in exsence a large umber af tet books desing wih the theory and dion of protective reaps but hile has teen writen on thr appiation. Aly hae fs 2 voluminous amount Ferature published i the form of monograph sien the rastons of une sete ander baton, which nema cme elf th sg, Rat oy ale ai The objeto his book eto present the ratnng application engines with lfc infrmatin to “Ths book has en comple ty spe engines employed inthe Protection Engineering Department ofthe Company who oer serie fo any ser who wishes o make soe of ir specail knowledge he opening Chapters of this hook dal with he fdas of protestine gear pace, bas ech nology a Tat caution, solang the tannem response and saturation problems afesing he instrument transformers associated with protcne equipment, The book then goes on to deste fa dail the various applications sscciated withthe diferent types of apparatus ased Inthe elec industry. The followed by an appendix wiih ede to good prac, compiled italy by cam experts drawn fom lending ay manlctrers and subsequently mode fost todas racy indo inclde the various types of relays manaactare by The English Flee Company Limite. Tie recommended clays forthe varius syiaions ve inched in the Table hope ha this book wil he wed by the many api einer deo the wor wl in Some measure serve ae» aude 10 the user and sit hi sng young eget heat ‘ay appietio, PROTECTION ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT METER, RELAY AND INSTRUMENT DIVISION ST. LEONARDS WORKS - STAFFORD.‘cuapren s cHaprer 6 CONTENT comecton. Relay opcaon indtor. Metode of sang BASIC TECHINOLOG! Vector algebra. Manipulation of complex quant. Cieaitquatties and eonventon. Impedance notation, Baste sist lave ad ete [Network rection. Three pase au aeuations. AULT CALCULATIONS andnetverk. conetions for satous type offal Caren nd ‘ohtage distribution na system duct fu El of ssc earthing PQUIVALENT CIRCUITS AND PARAMETERS, Salient poe rotor. Transient aalsin.Arramety. Machines reac ances. Negative sequence rence, Zero sagen remtance Dee sutlene cis Awlotamsormers. Overhead ines am able, CCucfation of sees impedance.” Calculation of shunt smnpedane, Oterkea line circu with or withow arth mies. Equivalent cuts Cables, Overhcd neal eae daa (CURRENT AND VOLTAGE TRANSFORMERS: Resdualy comected vohage tratstormers, Dual purpose vole teasformes. Capacitor vase tansformers. Current hansformes Euan civic Ele of burden Kocepoin, ‘Conta sant Ssturaon- Metering requvements, Protective rquremcas, Balanced protection. Testing of protstive creat arson APPLICATION OF INVERSE AND DEFINITE TIME OVERCURRENT RELAYS: “Terminolony. Standard LD.MLT. relay. Combined .D.MT. and high inverse flys. Delite time overcurrent relay. Use of verse time raiye in voltage controlled overcurent protection of. generators Summary. Time erent charters” Method of clesting fey sigs Typist example online and nent grins. Dietionat ercrcat an ath fat chs Stale pase dctonal neuen Feays Quadrature connected fly. 0" No. | connection, Hr No 2 Connection. 0” connection. Single pase dvctina eth fl ly. Polyphase directional clays. Thee pase ale. Phase to Phase fly.cuapren cuarrer 9 cuarte 10 OF wine PROTEC HON: Princip of pl wre ching. Mev-Prie Systems. Derivation of a ‘nse pe pit elaine quay Summation raraorme. Sequence er Voltge source sjatema. The pei probe of epone ely DMW ruay. Sohoe R- Protection of ted feeders. Tratslay {eed eer protection Solkor teed eer postion. Pte Pt Serision. Caren rmnaformer_ requirments Presentation and Stuer sytem, Bias cares. Dnriiaaing actor. The ‘Somples coment plane The eet of through lad on the relay set PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF DISTANCE RELAYING [APPLIED TO NLY. AND HL. FEEDERS: ‘rnp of dtance relaying, Relay performance. Relationship between ely wolage and Zy/Z, ratio. Pelomane standards. Close up fl System chars Relay types an thei apptation. Pain ipatance fey.” Moray. Renn chy. Ofet Mw slay. rly ation. Phase fault elas, Eth faut relays Minimum voltage at relay icin Rely seine, Choice of scheme. Tutoral | Appleton POWER LINE CARRIER: Powe line carer signaling. ower tne cater application. Corie Shu sinvconductors Carrer aied distance protection scheme Transfer tipping. Care acedeaion. Carer Slacking. ‘Choke of Scheme. ‘Scomes wh nbenty provide sit rection, Sches inva power dco. “The phn compar hehe AUTO-RECLOSHE SCHEMES: Delniions and anilabe fears MLV. aloskne. Applicaton Iniiatons lockout and sla fexuresAvlomtic resowres Ty ech hm, HN stove Como eine Reslwng time. ect of autoveloe on cieut-beakers. Thee Dhow vert single ase autoveclse. Ciel beaker con ett Suconising, ae clon relays. Autorekne seems. Use ‘ant hantng deve US ZONE PROTECTION: fs zone als. rosin requirements Backup Forms af protection Franeleshage protesion. Types of schemes Check feature Fame fntling: Priston peomnce, Desert of pea ame kage Shoes "Chulting caren protection. Single and double bus Srrangements Earth fut schemes Phase and cath Tal schemes. Check fenture, Creat spersison, Routing of swe able Se veloped by curve tansformers Lacan sf euren transfor. D.C. eet. Protection performance. Typical high impedance scheme ‘tinative seme Typical eelatons, m1NbIX Nature of trasfrmer fils. Intense of winding conection nd tection, Earth fault (restricted). Differential systems. Current rans former matehing. Magnctsing ines, “Amount of winding protected Combined diferent and restricts earth fault hemes. Core tlace ‘when cathing reactor f itched in protection none.” lan tance ‘heme Farthing Wansfrmer protection The singing transforma Sire seme Autostar dierent scheme, Uranstores GENERATOR AND GENERATOH Insulation fires. Generator sina protection, neu fale protection ofthe stator winding. Sar eath fal protection. Rotor [rtection, ‘Unbalanced stator loading proction.Slatr wnericalig Low vacuum," Lubrication oil flue, Lost aie ring Fale of prime mover. ‘Overpeed poison, Rotor distortion protection. LV. restrited earth fault protection, Oil surge and Inning temperature protections, Unt tanslonmerpotetion,Heck-op A.C. MOTOR PROTECTION teliages. "Determination of sequence cients, Desating of aches ve fo unbalance cutents Stator protection.” Rotor protection. Single Terminal faults. Faulsin rotor windings" New ely desien. Adina Sinting thera ptecton. Fd icra overiadpreeion, Protection apnintnolen restoration of sup. Unerpower reverse power protection, Overvollage an ur equeney beeen, TESTING AND COMMISSIONING: Factory tt Test benches Ari rnssion fp, Heavy curent ‘est ane lial commissioning test Tnslation tex. Curent Primary teetion. Tepes sro amnion Tess Pe RELAY APPLICATION CHARIS: General. Applicaton of protetve stems. Rely tems. Teste ‘of sem neu, Recommendations for clay appctions,FUNDAMENTALS OF PROTECTIVE GEAR PRACTICE [An cet power ytem shoul be signed and ‘manage to ler eet very to the pois Where i Be uted, without intrupton or Should be taken of armel operational reat Imes ching in loads a dcomton plbat for mainenance or rat and reson est Gate nd ther sb conto, Secrity of supply canbe improved by increasing ‘ebility of plant oaist fare, ineressng ‘the spre capa margin nd sreiging erative {reat to suppl oud Dividing the system ints ithe em ch re con by wch biti dring normal operation and minimum lee tio lowing» breakdown Iauiorshor-reu,which pots en and sometimes violent change in stem operation, for the enegy”prevousy supped to loads now ‘verted ino the foul. Thi wneotale rele energy contains spe properties wich ay ‘ue fe and strctra damage tthe faut lca tion and eewhere nthe system Rapid Talk Iniated by protective per, wll mi the damage 2 the fault locaton ad prevent the fs ofthe {aul spreading ito the stm Switchgear aml protective gear movie an insite tee again lou of supp. The svtchgsne must becapble of interrepting normal and ful curent hile the proteive ear must recognise snot ‘rat contion and operate to sce ie rmoval ith the mina dturbance eo orm sant peaton. A system cannot he repre a po erly design art manigd i it not ae Protected. This is the mess of portance IMabed to protective tems in meser practice Ind the tesposbiiy vested inthe Prteton 2 WHAT IS PROTECTION? Protective gear is a coleive tem which defines all eguipmentneesiy for resenting, cating nd inating the removal of fault oF abnormal Condon trom the powcr stem Reheat Simowt exclusively med protection bu where ‘ays and critter fe mt economically iste fase ae employe, The HE. detiton ‘of protective gar Is Bven elon, exrcted Tom TEC Pubiction $0 (16)—inersoel Hee tects Vay (eco Laon), Go Te “proectve elays, Further common defition, fstractd Tom this pubeaton are gener i Intended in eat of fault or abnor conditions to ttute a signal Incladed inthe erm “accessories crrent and soltape transformers shuts, and cing ‘operation. In general, it excludes the station bat tery, euler and equipment nessay to sire normal operation ofthe ret bresk, ‘Tere ate many types of relay, wd separately or collectively depending on the ype of protection eguied nd the te a ep tobe protected rmogniide, diction, pave angle and requeney tthe cuit quanti, Theexent of thet changes Alsermins theatre ofthe disturbance the pe ‘of plat tnvelved andthe locaton of the dur these changes are observed. The method idored far scurng protection knowns the "yteton spt, tle the co-ordinated aetangements of slements of the power system is "protection ach layin protection sccme prfoms a ex tain fanetion an respons in given aero ‘aia typeof angen the ul quanti, For ‘ample oe type of ray may ort when the “aren nce shkve& tan main whe smother may compare earent and volo td peat when ther quotient i ese than gen Sale. The fest relay isan overcurrent lay while the fer isan under-impedance ray Protestion Systems and protective ea ae peer deserted sccording wo the pine of connection, stating ener PEER neEeeTeEEEnennenESSENTIAL QUALITIES OF PROTECTION sSecivig, wiout_ hich prcccton woul be ‘eee ary nective a could even become ‘iii. Orbe quis re ped a sn RELIABILITY Conditions imposed on protective gear i patio are very alten omy abeoverd by an incorrect i'mot necessriy conned protective pear but ‘component and cet invlved in fa clearance and thorough mintenanos. As an example of is posible 1 achieve, fault reords forthe British Grid for 1940—Balle of Britain year in. World War show that 92% ofall faults were cleared Jing conditions were exceptionally severe. Quality of personnel must not be ovestnake when Among die most likey causes of failure. Staff must te technically sound and properly trained well dis ‘8 mistakeproof mentality: this later quahiy & Troubles can very often be Fires by regular ruintonanee. Sch maintenance shoul Be cried est books thr eguialen, Whon dit ehance to sing is unavotdable, mites On ‘restoring comsctions can be minimized by ing intaiy ofthe et thereby checked snd any tnd robusines re rlatve tere and eam only be sma wid often ei hhrenly reliable ave high contact pressures. dust fre encore, wall braced joints nd impregnated ‘ss producing Inslation should be sveed. om Revord of iluresshow tat the order Hetihood providing local and remote back-up arrangements The wl be deus later in tht, SELECTIVITY tected the protections not selective wncceary Selective protection determines tht the Flt is Scetviy i beolte if the protection responds Ite sleaive ae. Known at "unt systems Sytem i which cectviy ie rltive ae ‘Of the Tater current time graded protection and Ssletviy achieved by proper appication ofthe ‘st potston fe responsive oly to aus win linking the priay (poms) cuit withthe ry Taken when choosing. eorent Uitsfvmers andtelatve icrimination may be fost ination SPEED lined a the eapese of eli a this wow Furthermore highspeed eosetn may not alas longed fate clearance tines For example, st event boring the sore pate ad online the fhmape tothe windings, volving = much le oly resi anda mark srt ot ine 2 futher inpontn ecason oe ft sre ties ie syaem abi The shorter then a ful allowed to persist the more load canbe ranted etneen given points om the pr sytem without ot sch hows pal tales Taal ling "7 SENSITIVITY Protetion mast he slicctly seme opr relbl under minum fal contion fora ult ‘itn its own one whe remaining sae dr ‘masimum lnd or though ul onions, Ato ‘Sting does ot neces py igh sont Tor the burden at sue stung my be prohi vey igh realing in vl insensitive po fection whic may alo Become unstable under teximam through err! condons, rental sole tensors I thief ‘wl eres thet se ‘resulting in a lower valve of transformed current ‘primary current prsives no corresponding nerease In transformed sonar curtet at thi pt the fueron tumsormer beomer tural on he ‘Chapter 5, Current and Voltage Tanstormers ZONES OF PROTECTION {ured bya certain protectin sn taaly ison the mt denen of he oe ip. 12 illustrates typical arrangement of ove lapping zones of poteton, rome str unl tins the mone bra Postioned on ech side of « chuitbeaker the ones naturally overap, but whee bent tan cit eeaker “Blind sp FatsThis ater problem is overcome by some form a reac es nu ntrap fw econ ine en shy he 0) i opened." However this doer not feet te Im mst be made ope ckeicbeker fave ban prevented frm opesng bese es {aul appear tobe nam adacet ve PRIMARY AND BACK-UP PROTECTION “The obvious esta of 9 protection sistem is that way Tetons may ale protection fren ‘akon there ean the posbiity of ee tnd back-up znes of protection to ensue that {ny even fal Is cle fom he syste, av obiaind sing Diane Scenes van cramp Wa fal cecurrt within theft half af ne CD and the ere breaker or protection at Caled to onernte the dreitcrcker a A woul lee the ‘the fale i in the second half of line CD the felt ‘woul be lear om A with somewhat longer {he native in cering # fa, fot shoul be evened rom fling intended Fonction the buck protection operates. It ca be seen fom forms, is sole function bring to remove the faut fram the stem betore damage reat. local ad remote ig. Lt isan example of the fr chovi-breaker fale ad ls in common tse tive if there are in-feeds between the back-up relay od the aul which may rise the voltage and reduce the eure a the Flay 40 at pve from the dupiation of the pwimary otaion and ‘wth the two protections (primary and Back-up) ‘The tsk of aire andthe consequences mated fxtent to which bacleup protection provide. ‘On tow voltae detribution stems where fault ‘where system stability may be lost unless fault Flere quickly Ine! tasks should be chose, ‘vo secton than sk complete system shutdown, te abe “Te bes form of bck-upprtetion for any sytem comply separte from the ni peteton ‘compromise ave ner. (0) Separate current ransfrmers ae we foreach protection ae ths Involves lite extra cost oF larger outa : (i) Common voltage transformers ae wed. be tie ‘Since loss of poten may result i Tare to por case undesirable ripping the Gi) Trip sppies tthe to protections shold be Be trp els should Be provided on the breaker. The ineeiy ofthe ep ious (69 The back-up protetion shoul! operste on 8 Aiton pecs tothe pray eon {that spre condone which ey enue nalopeation of one will not aft the otherDEFINITIONS AND TERMINOLOGY NOTE: The tem relay inches the esses tina unit combined with an overran it Protective Relay An clic relay desis to Inte folation of sport of am eel tal Intion or to oneratea waning ina in the case lents which topther provide the desired charac Awatary Relay An albornothing ry wed to Slement the performance of another relay ( ymin conta! pertornnon or hy nodes Ing ined), Time-ag Relay relay whose operation or reach. ting intentionally delayed Time agri wi he vue ofthe chao Inverse-Tinetg, Relay with Dati Misa haracerit quantity reaches certain val, fer Swbich the eae becomes subwantily dep en to the specific numberof impulses received. Based Relay A sly in which the operating vane & mechanical or nai devs, providing» restin= Carat Quay “The quant whic the ‘elay i designed to reapond, ep. cure in ie Foot reiay, vllage ina voltage rly, phase angle jn a tion clement, tne ia independent egg Quanity Te clatter the rlay to emble to fonction, eg te wher Eston for an akceohing rey, voleage fort Frequency ray each event for a Baked surent responds tothe C-T nd V.Tseconday ratings Setng ‘The actual value of the energising or haractiie quanty at which te rhs) dee (Charateriste Curve ‘The curve showing the operat oer Consumption (Baden) The power sburbed bythe creat of the relay, expressed In val sures if aerating erent adn wat rst ‘ren atthe rated curent or wpe Withand Voltage andor cuent to which the Subjected A menor the thera capil of fhe relay {he ol portion to the "on pston a” posion To Dropaat sey do the on postin tothe esting Value he lining vlc ofthe charac ise quantity at which the rely eur to the now icine Range The range of values ofthe chars {ertlequani(es oro! the eneraxing quanti) to whieh the rely will respond and say the ‘equim concerning iin prt tone Sm cectng pci Intocacng Quanity Aay guanity ber than a “quantity clades sek ieucncing factors as stting gjstmens.Ste stant when the rely operates ‘wr curve, dling ray estrone fo tr of Aieren vals of character quant. (sully ‘xpresed in terms othe pickup wale ‘usualy expressed in tims of the drop-out val) ite quay his rw tcenly restr rom spec salve to the va which Had st the {Characteristic Angle The pase anaeat which the Caractere Ingance Ratio (CIR) “The aX “The above isa summary of prieipal rely terms Should be made to the following standards C37. 1950, ASA. Sandan on Rebs Bestia Parse are life by Device Fontion Numbers td (Code Letter, Where the ey comaste ae rere button complet elerence shou be made > BSS. 106-193 igh Spot Dstnce (Mo) High Spot Ditnce(Reatancs) Pre Shoring Rely fs ar Protest Oereurent lnverie Dette Minima Tine Minion TimeFe. Sewer Trp Relay TCS Trip Crovt Sepervision INT netin Under Power N82 ih spe Abo Rese Sq Delve Aue Ree SYN Synehronsing 1D Definite Tine Rely BCE pectin Sen Roccve 12 Overspost or Over Frequency Relay 16 Underspond or Under Frequeney Rely 27 AC. Underyoltage Relay or No-voltage Relay 32 DE Revere Power Relay 37 Under Caren or Under Power Rely 45 Reverse Posen Phase lance Current Relay 50 tnstantancous Overcarent oF Rate of Rise eh 2 Main AC. Creit.reser SH High Speed D.C Greaitbveater 59 AC Ovvolage Rely 2 Time Daly Stopping or Opening Rly RELAY CONTACT SYSTEMS AND CONNECTIONS Rety cont fall fo two. matin typ: fa) sl reset and () ind or eectialy vee Sere removed. Hind or sects ret rehye hve vial condition exter by hand or by salcircuit-brenkers,anclectially operated valve. The tuuiary sich operted by the creu-reshe This aly switch eset eeave rele, ‘Asmentone earl, rnc burdens Timed making and carving capacity and indo RELAY OPERATION INDICATOR esters be citer mechanically or etry UMC hteal pote ey cement and te move “engi Elie” rd aks te frm: ta (GL) Tea" the vllage by an ane ‘ic usual convention adopted when avin vetor isera so shone one vector asthe “eernce Sector and rite the oer sector ti in terme ofthe angle of fg or fad and the numeri! Scalar agit. The quantity [2 desribe as ‘isinguishod rom avetor ony by the fact hat has no dieetion af ts ohn. A further convention by thee" ece rook mean sens fen) aus; sally wren sig the quay symbol ‘thot ta Thos, HHO) ann ve = tema | “The “root ea sunt vole tha vale which tw the mane ening let v9 ist current optics (a nonsinusoidal as well = sinusoidal aaa Fate Rive, Vliage Dr, Assined Dizon of ‘ten neesay to refer othe “penal dilerence™ friting etvecn tivo points inthe circuit. Shce Irheover such a PLD. ext, erent l Hawad egy wil hr be tafe or sbsored i obviously neesry To deine «PD. in more exactteem For his eon the ars olage ts and Soltage drop are wed to deine more scurtely the ture othe PD. Voltage ris isa ese i potenti measured inthe tte cea tr ih the th a hen places the reraindr of the cet, Thue a volage fie ea driving voltage developed across that pal oa revit conning active element and. herefore ay be regarded as soe of ener Yottage drop ita drop in potential measured in the direction of current flow, bce fw pon in cou und ergy sbuore over ha pt ofthe crit in which the drop hat taken plas Thus voltage drop a pase slags esting serss that part of a cieviecontining pase ‘ements and therfore may he roared as foe oerey Kiel’ fs tts tha he sum ofthe diving soages mart equa thew ofthe paste olapes in closed top. This lsteted by the aa mena equation of am det ie ttle whee the terms onthe et hd se he eguaton| te vole drops eros the cl lements EERDIZ ew 215 this iknow a the ted-otas equation* Its the equation most wl adopted in letra network eacilations since Ht equates the diving Slag, which re knw, to te passive voltages which ae funtion ofthe caren to be calle, Indescribiagccuts und raving veto diagrams for formal analysis or eaculations, es nosey to. adopt notation wich defines the pone ‘ection of asad current flowy and sais the dirstion in which posine voltage drops and the double sax metho, wt for symbale ‘alysis the te, the snes or diagram ‘ethod, used for numeri aealatons. 1m the double sts method the postive dsstion jo euren wis assume tbe fen node ode band the current i ignated I With he iarammatie method the dvstion sf cnrent ow isindicsted by an arom he voltage rise are postive when acting i the ieeton of corre How. Thus tom Fig, 26 By, Bon are pov voltage reed Ex, Eh ave epative voltage ics In the dgramatie metod ther distog of action i simply inated by an sero, whereasinthe Joules method, Ean, Eb L_____ Yolage drops ae alo poste when acting inthe ireton of current Pow. Thus in Fig. 28), 2,42, + 2M 8 the toa voltage drop in the Toop inthe diction of cra Ma, ahd must uate tothe Yotalvolae rie Ey = Ey. In Fi 2.6(, the voltage drop between nodes and isignted. Vb indents that point owe Poental than a. and poiive when canent lows tram a to b. Conversely hn nepntine Bab = Fan — Ph ana Pha = Pon — Von} “aon 2 where mis common ference pot aaa ‘The product of poten! diernce across, and curren through, a branch of ret, a measure‘the rate at which encey facing Btwn that branch an the remainder ofthe sie IF the PD. isa pone voltage drop the branch i pase and absorbs energy. Convery the Why convention, the power ie psive ‘nen energy it Bring absorbed aml neptve when Teng suppl With nei the power aerate, therefore to biain a ae at hich take the average power over one whole eye, IT f= Ensinot +9) and 1 Ioraior +3 3) Poel = PUL ~ cos ot + 3] + Osin on +5) Egution 2.17 wher, P= [I 8 ad @ = HE sn From gn, 217, the quantity P varies fom 0 to 27 and quantity Ovaries from ~Qo + Oinonecyele ‘Als the waveform of ic the pei ean) ofthe curent and voltage waveforms The averase vale of power exchanged in one cyte Component of curren which "in pha with the Neliage is known a "rea or “active” power “The average val of quantity Qs ero when taken halfeyele and returned to the circuit in the re Imsining alfcyle. “Qt the producto voltage [As Pand @ are constants which spc the power tchage ina pen cca, and ae proc ofthe rent and wage vcore, thon 8 the vector roduc £7 i flow tht wth Ey the reference ‘elor and a the ungebetwcen Fad I S= P40 Eqation218 The quatty Si dsris the apparent power adi the term wed in sxtabshing the rang of @ ‘Single-phase and Polyphase Systems ‘A system single of polyphase depending upon cording o whether there one or ser diving ating diving volages whi ate asad vo reach “evn voli rnsrcited with pase ranch of the sytem ner sown in 2.1, Ia potyphare system has balanced vot qual in magnitude and resching mann aualy digplaed tine itera an dhe phase Ian impedances re iental the‘ystm is Sido be"alanced lewis “unbalanced ‘Te above conditions are ot ane, Who 4 phase system an be segue a balanced Plastic, sytem, This the phase vol ive eal in mage ad can he fresnel by thre vectors spaced 120" or 2/3 rade apart a shown in Fig 27) vessel interme fon ve ee | baa) where she veetor opto", thar. ithe Pe branch impedes ar enti na alaneed System. it folowe tha he ealingcarrentsare aso talancd Euan 219 as IMPEDANCE NOTATION It can be seen by persing any power system gram that there ate several wala eel in 4system, that it common practise to refer plant EVA. in terms of pr nit or percentage tales, nd that rami ine snd eble conan ae {ven os/mile. Defore any system cleltions fin take place the system parameter te i yao openssh hh The base quantities ate power and wong. Nor rally they are given interns the thease Base impedance resulting ftom the above base ‘quantin OF se tnd provided the ste fs bac, se. lancod tent fw duc obliga ting applied to symeteeal impedances the threepace branches, the base pence may be selaed using either sngephae o thre pase ‘ante. “The per uit or pete vaue of any pean inthe rystem isthe ratio of actual and base ase MWA ova 21 pan 10 Simple tasposiion of the above formula wil refer the oh vale of impedance ta the per nit ‘or percentage vats and ave quate. 1 hay alendy eon sted that the sytem may ‘operate a dilerent voltae levels, is obout Uhr plat rating il ary conser, Navin ‘chosen hase uss of stable mapitde Sysem impedanes maybe converted to those ate ‘antes by ung the equations Even bee Z pu.cNew base MYA} ew base MVA =Z pu. tgnen tase M_ yc tae MWA) aren bse MIVA Z pa.(New base AV) = Zp. given bse kV (SE ERY pain 2.22 “The choice of impedance notation depends upon the compost of the system, plant inp notation and the mature o the sem ektlatons tthe sytem ireatiey simple and contain ily {tarsmision tine daa, given in ohms, then the folie method can be adopied with sévantae However, choosing 2 hase vole, and uniying system impedances to this tase, should be ap proached sith caution, a show in example CY rae arama in the three circuits ae in the ratio ofthe ine ‘ening Wansormers. "Therefore the rales "0 Fefer an impaance ils from one ict to another mulupy the given nyc bythe are ofthe vllage rat ofthe tring tn “The per unit method ofnpeance station ie the most advantageous for general sytem ste for 4 Impstances ate the same eter to either sie thetwonider ofa tenmlormer sel te rate turn ati, {i Confsion esd by the intoduction of omer: ‘10D in precaution i vod : - ray -O—r—_ ae Forexampleia Fig. 29 persons Gl and G2 hive {substan rectance af 20% on the MVA fating at 11 RY! and tanstormers TY and T2 4 Wola ratio‘ 11145 EV and an impodance of 12570 on TEMVA. Choong 100 MV hive MVA-and 132 KV as se voltage Bod percentage Innpedances to new bute quate. (0 Geoverator eactanees to new bases ate 100 85) ao 7 WO AN arg iaeo “ tray = 1% (i Transformer reactance ne bse te aia [Noe The base voltages ofthe genertorad cicitsface and LASKY respectively ie. the tums tio oF the tansormer. The cortsponding pet "ales can be found by ving by 100 and the ‘ohmic Yalu can he found by wing et 2.21 BASIC CIRCUIT LAWS AND. ‘THEOREMS. NETWORK REDUCTION [Most practical power sytem problems are soled ‘sing steady state analyte maths The ssa ‘ions made are thatthe creat paramotr ae Tne snd lateral and constant fr constant feguonsy ‘ieuit variable In some probes, destbed init vale problems ite meer) to say the telaviour ofa circuit inthe trish slates Soh rams ean be soled lng operational mctids ‘Again, other probs, which fortnately ae few in mmber, the assertion of linea, ltr sireait parameters is no longer val. Thee pot lems ate solved ting avanced. mathematic lecigues which are beyond the scope otis bok Cire Lawes Jn Ter, bilateral iets, tree base network lw app. segs of the sate i whch the ‘srt ext, ata peti santo ine These laws ae the branch, janetion and mesh lay dye 10 Ot and Kitch, snd are sated below, ‘sing steady state omc Branch Lae The current Fin'= sien branch oF impede 2 {proportional tothe potas irene ppearing sro the branch te F csi Lae “The alpsbrtc sum of all curr enrng any junction (or nod) in natwork zero be EI=0 alternatively if the carrnts dro towards any nade ae Considered positive and the eurents inetd away from i ee pave, then the sm ‘ofthe uments tte inthe ne ster Mesh Ln “The algebraic sum of al the diving voltages in any closed path (or mesh) in network equ (produets ofthe impodances and the curens) ‘he component Branches, 1 DE- Sz kernatvly, theft ehang in potent around a {losed loop i eo, Prey iret Theorems Arising out of the above network Is there are many theorems whic are ued to rationale nee sors fr, ether a quick. simp sluton tr fn cyulaent Trew thre may be tasied to ches: those eancernod with the goer ‘mopertis of networks: and those corned with etwork reduction OF the many theorems. avlbe, (Richardson uote thirty thre"), only three or iven, se Superposition Theorem, Thetis Therer and Kenny’s Star/Det Tso ‘Siperpston Theorem General Network Theorem) The resultant erent that ows in any branch of retwork doe tothe sinatancous ton af seer “rving voltages sequal to the alate su ofthe ‘component curents due to each diving voltae [Seti lone wih the emai shored There's Theorem (Active Network Rection ‘Theorer) ante repel By ingle ding in series with sna impedance, The rising voltage fe the openccut vo etc the two terminals the impedance the ipedines of the network vowed Tm the terminals with al sures shorts Kennels Star|Dela Dheorem (Passive Network Reduction Theorem) Any thre terial network can te replaced by a tka ora star Impedance equivalent witout dsr bing the exter network. The inpeance ot 4 Yebranch hing between sed replacing pa ot sharbranches, i equal 10 the producto the impetances of those branches, dived by the sam ‘ot pte nthe dela hop 2yo = ZasPaylDys + Pan + 2a 6 The aitance of dets-transh coresponding to and repicig any tee Yeh sal to the product of the admitanes of hone branes Avie by the sum ofthe adits thee branches, Tan Ter fin terms inpedanee, Zar = Zia + 2a 2 The sim of network reduction is to reduce a system to 8 simple equtvalent while fetiing the HMetity ofthat part of the system to be aed[Asan example of network reduction, consider the System shown in Figs 210. The network is the having to sources and", ne AOB shunted by am pote which mye regarded a the reduction ofa further network connected between ‘Rad B, and a load connected Rete © and N, “The object ofthe eduction to sad the eet of opening «Beiter i Ar Brg normal sytem perations, ora full at or Th the ent ft nodes A and B mst berlin together with the sounen but the bec ON com he smite, thus simplifying the saiy, Preceding, A, N Forms a Sar bach and hence ean be converte 10 fan equivalent del, was Zuq= 51 ohins 2a = Fa + Zo + 045 1885 Os +168 + = 306 ons Zan rat Zoo + 120 Sine Zo > Zao: 20 The network now redo as shown in Fig. 2.1, l ‘Shey tame by appling Therein’ theorem to the ete fons, ‘tage in srcs with an impedance respectively, wpb = bee (9 nenecHon oF ‘The network show ia Fig. 210 is now reds {orthat shown in Fig 2.13 sith the nes Aad fetsining their Menity Further. the had Spe lance hasbeen completely eliminate, The network shown in Fig 213 may now be we to stay system dhturbancs, ep power swings wih and without ft “Most reduction problems follow the same pattern asthe example felons "Where the sate com Ieading to great numberof routine elation, itis avin to ae network ane, “The rales apply i practi network reduction (0) Decide on nature of turbance disturbs 9 Dexide on information roqied, eg. braveh caren in network for «ful at particular (Gi) Rede ll piv etions ofthe network na ‘iret involved with the section under (6) Reduce all active methe oa simple equivalent, simple source i seis wah 8 single impes ‘anceJn cern cies. paral ies on the sume Correct et redaction mus take account of ths coupling. Tine ees are of ir. Theae {89 Two branches connected together at one node (Gin Two beaches which semaines CConiring each cain tu, (6) Consider the cet hw nF. 214. ovina og: ttc ea, Pan Where Joan J ae the current branches and B, resecvelys and = fash the toa erent gusig a rial a ing a ei (i Consider ici in Fig, 2.150. replaced by an equivalent str. Hes. fom a voltage Vinge aeons the. romaine Za Ze 2aa Dh4 eo = 266 Song ths equations, pies 26= 266-206 | eae 228 zur J (i) Cooside te four terminal network given in Fig. 21a in which the branches 11" and 22 ate Vn Zul 4 Laas 1a Yah ahsWhere Zi Zax and Yyg ~ Yay if he network is assuned fob reiprcat” artery solving the {bove eqations ican be shown that Tere are times independent cific vi. Zine Zine Zan bene the orginal Creat may Be placed by a0 equvaent mesh containing four “Mere lrminan each terial being conmered totcother treet branch impolancesashow Fie 2.160. In order to evaluate the branches of the guilt ish eal pon of enry ote sn ee he Eommoned except node Fa eet Ia shown i Fig 21ee) Then all impresed votes exept wl be or nd Iahe same eamltion fe apie to the sent ines, then hele Wilts Wie “Thos elton oll fom the fat tha he brah connecting nodes Tan I” canis cuenta the branches connecting node an "a and 2 fry curent Ty. This at be tae snc al bran hes between pairs of commonal nodes can erry iy considring cach voc in en wth the remainder mond the long relationships a found fav Wn Za Wn Hence A sila but equal rigorous equivalent ire is shown in Fig. 2.16). This creat follows fom ‘he reasoning that sine the se peace of any Ll (© mauiyaLnet wig wolavenr cncutr fe git i prc fe a iret independent of all oter ius need ot eppear in any ofthe muta ranches ump ata radia ranch a the txminals Thos putting 2, and Zan equal Io 20 In gm. 227 Asining the equiaint mesh in Fi. 2.140, and Inserting radial ranches faving panera to Zand Zp 8 termine Tn 2 esl a Fie. 24 THREE-PHASE FAULT CALCULATIONS. “Threephase Fults te unigue since they ate Bla xi synmetial th thee phases, nd cane {else rom the single-phase impedance gram Sand the epeating condi exiting pir to he fou ‘A alt condition is & siden alteration inthe ‘normal ere arangemeat. The cet quantities, rent and voltage, wil er, nd the cet wil ps through a transient oa scady ste extn, Inthe transient slate, the nil magnitude of the Fault erent will depend pon the point om the voltage wave at which the aul ecerted. The 1587 and Ep 10. “Hence, B= Ero> V._ Replcing the oving voltages E.'s by the load voltage fetween A and N modifies he cca shown in Fie 218. ‘branches, feeders radiating fom the bus via eat Tethers shown in Fig 2180). There ae two thatthe tut at X, ad te roqted to cal Tate the erent Rowing fom te bus to X “The network views from AN has driving point impotance [Z| 068 ohm, The carrent i the HIE, Ponr Sto, Vln ait, a ky & Son.{now nosey to fn the fale curtent disi= "atom inthe atious branches ofthe network and Im ptcular the current owing from A to on (0) Eas impede vow rom nde X pane viewed the assumption that a relay aX i delet the {satan The cit iene ec 219%, trom he ih 3S — 0563 From theta 24 0457 ps Thee fa parallel branch to the eight of A. “Therefore, cure in 25 ohn branch 608 or pu 252050 a6, “otal curent entering X fom left. rom A 0X, {0437 + 0183 = G@2 pa and from fi to X 1 {638 piu The equivalent networks lowed from ‘he rely is 5 shown in Fig 2190). The impe Alaneor on ether sd ae 199 = 064038 “The citeit of Fg. 2190 has oe in {he protection engineer intrsod i thes Sawn pra nenaeingetn eCHAPTER 3 ‘AULT u ‘A ower sytem normaly ep a tans three-phase network In general, when aul occurs the eset symmetry of 8 baled et Stork supe, esting in banc crrnts ad Solages appearing i he network. The ecepion {o this rule sa thephase ful which, fees it Involves all thee phases squat the sane Ioction, i decribed as 4 symm fly ‘sing Symmetreacomponent theory ad employ ing the concept of replacing the normal ste souress by asourew the point of faults possi to alee then fault conto. From the protective ger application point of vew itis eset to Know the faut erent dtibation through the sytem and the vltages in ile parts of the ysem de 0 the fall Further, boundary valucs of eurent at any ressing point ‘must be know ifthe ful isto be cleared with ‘sriminaton. The information normaly required (© Maxim fault euteat for a fale at the i) Minimacy fault current for 8 fale a the (iy Mason through fut current atthe slaying point n obianing the above information the Fits of Stable generation and posible operating onions Including mettod of stom earthing. mut be own, ad thefts are alway asso to Be through er fault inpesnce rr tha the fault eurens are @ maximum foe 3 phen stem petting endo a2 SYMMETRICAL COMPONENT. ANALYSIS OF A THREE-PHASE NETWORK 11 can be shown? that by sppivine the “Principe ff Superposition any gavel tncephae sjlem ffvecor may betplaced byte str of tlanced (Gymmetricl vector to ses ae trephsyl ving opposite pase rotation and one st o- pasa. ‘Theseyeotor st ze described as postive, eptve and aero sequences, eapetvely, CALCULATIONS The equations belvcen phase quant are aven btw, EeEj +E B B= aE, + 0B + By B= aly + 0B + By (E+ ay + a8) Fea \E+ BE) were al quantities ae refered to the reference phn sec eens Figae 3 istates the resolution ofa stn of enbnced ot, tocar in a power stem, the phase feo longer sential fexcept in the feof thee pase at) andthe rsaling cores bd sltges ae unblan th aa of pan Na”sunbalanee being the fat point. thes previously Jing out al normal driving voltages in the sjtem nd replacing the fault connection by 8 source woltage atthe Tall point Hone, the system Inedanes rnin metal, rowed fs the ‘Fata he fat point ay nw be rege as the Point of jection of belanced clap and erent fault conditions ince allows the tystem Co be represented by sequence networs® sing the ‘and zero sequence networks and ene appropriate Sequence carents and oles ape th, here ‘ego mtu comectinswhatoeer betwee the errs au ‘seman therefore the norma ssn panes eiwork fea pute seqsence ord ‘When a fal occu the urent inthe fal ranch hanges from 0 to Ty andthe pote sequence ‘replacing the fault branch by a source equal to the fangs im oltge and shorting out all noel 8 flowin inthe system, a )guaion 3.3 where 2) the postive Sequence ipa ofthe System viewed fom tbe Tau As, peor to the Fat no caren was Bowing rm the ut at the system, allo that Ty the Tl sore fog From the sytem ito the Jatt massa ~ Therefor, Ra 12, —Epwrin 34 ‘current and voltages bn te Tau branch Jaing fal Tn Fig 32, which represents simple syste, the voltage drops I} and 17 are equal to (P ~ ,) here tects a enter he al rom he Tet an rit respectively and npedances Zand Z; are the tal seem impaanees view fom ltr side of the full brah The voltage Ve ‘ually equal to the opencireut volae in ‘system, and it has been shown that V== B= E° ee Chey 2 San 2.1 Th he pone are reste alte sours shown in the gradient dlagram, ie 320), ‘Negative Sequence Network (On the premise th posi sequence quits ‘only upyear noraly in a power syle then ‘eznive sequence quanites can ony ext Suing {alt branch por tothe fly the, when fault ‘cous the ehang ia vllage Vand th ein ‘arent, flowing fom the eter inthe fet fee Pom tly Btion 3.5 “The inpedances inthe negative sequence network se genaaly the same a hone tthe pose Sequence network. In machines Zy # Zo tthe throne eonerlly nord, partly on lage The negative sequence diagrams, Fig 3.3, ae similar {0 the pone sequence digram, with tea 33, uteseneedigam asinaaa Zero Souence Network The same current and voltage relationships apply Jn the aero sequence network atin the opie sequence necwork daring aultcondition. ene, Bum lly Also, the ze sequence diagrams show Fin 33 when f Suttle orf ee pation 36 The curents and voltages in the 2e0 sequence network ate comhasl, te. all the sme phase Hence, for zero sequence cutents to low it ‘stom here mt be rlar connection, hough titer a netral conductor oe the general mass of arth. "Note mist be taken of ths fat when Alermining. zero sequence equa ciete, Porter, in general Z,# Zy athe vale of Zy ‘aris sceoring tothe iype of plan, the winding rangement and the method of eat EQUATIONS AND NETWORK CONNECTIONS FOR VARIOUS TYPES OF FAULTS © Single-phase—earth (i) Double (Gi) Dovblephase—eurth, () Three phase with oF without ert) ‘The sbove ass ate esr as nee shunt futs Tecate they occur at one location and vole & connection between one pe and another or 10 eth By ding te cuenta vos the ‘at pn ego dn the and Cote etn fei sme ‘oh se elcome the nl equa he etek pan ‘hn pnt drmin emaee the a Clo td ins niet Wee af th Netlectng load earteat and assuming that the shunt fs xed oe ae tough exo np fee then the equations dein ech fault can be wen down as fllons: () Singephase—eaeth (0) no EES | ems (Double phase (be) | ect (ii) Double pase—cath (ree) (60) Thee phase be oF wee) Exuaion 39 heheh 1h mn 1 should be noted rom the above tat for any p= of faut there ae thre equations which dine the fault conditions, All currents and voltages are phase to neutal Nalucs atthe fale point andthe asumption i ‘ade that no loa! current flowing When there atau impedance this us obo taken into ccoant then lng down the equations. For example With single-phase earth fale through ful Tnpdance Zen 27 ate rewrite uation 3.11 au Sind Phae—Bart Fal (oe) Consider fault defined by eqn. 37 and by Fi 3.e) Converting et. 1.7 ino sequence ane iy ing nel am 3.2, then, Ty =I =Iy= She Equation 312 =e + Bo) uation 3.18 Subsitting fr P, gn 34, 3a 3, Va L 2 = 1254 Iolo but, fom eg 312,15 = Te May 4 2s +29) and Fy in opm 419 fom os therfore, ation 3.16 “The constraints imposed by eg. 5.14 nate that the equivalent cet fr the fl obtained. by connecting the sequence networks in ee, Shown in Fig. 3.45,Dobe-Phase Fa (be) From sgn 18 and wang eg 3. and 3.2, BY aioe 35 eh | retin nat Potion 5.16 From network ey. Jf and 5, 69m 16 ean be Po Le = hes and sitting fo foo a 515, Pols +2, “he cmt pon by eps 8 and 17 Biparael Pig, 3S shows the. defining and ufaent sits steging the above ou Eaton 3.17 aaa Dovble-Phase—Earth Fol (ee) ‘aso, rom ey 3.9 and ean. 3.0 a 3.2, B= Uy + Td) Baoan 2.18 and = Py Bpuaion 3.19 Subang for nd Py ing network os 35 Lids le “Ths, wing eg 318 “Bae i Bvt ee Equation 3.20 he uation 321 ‘Now, equating Fy and Vand wing og. 3.4 ges, Pa1ty = hes Pate hts Subaitting for fom eam 321, vlan eal} a 42) mann 332 From the above equations i follows that a double: pus earth lt nye represent by connecting Fig 0). Tivee-Phase Fault (be oF abe) Assuming that the fal nla ath hen from tee B) a - Sl a a0 Bin 325 ane Pott, Prt .26 fa 36 that Ves toc0 when Zy i fini. The Connections for these phaseCURRENT AND VOLTAGE DISTRIBUTION IN A SYSTEM DUE TO A FAULT ofthe oft of ful Im ranches of network ‘ter than he fault Branch node ha poetive fer can be applied correctly to oat the setion Ste system srcty involv in the ful, Hs therefore nt enough to elelte te Tal current Inthe fault ly the aul cute distbution ‘must ao be erabshed. Further bora Tau and there'may fect the operation of the protctve gears Hence, x knowlege of utvent nd voltgedsibuton ina sat due ton fl ‘The approach to system fault es for asssng proectine gear appstion may be summaries Fallows: ©. From the system diagram and acompanying ati asses the lie of stable generation ‘Posie operating conditions for the yom, ‘Note: When ful srmation is ot salable sumptions may hve tobe made Wi aus seamed o sue a och scan orn entering the falta eluted for ‘ach type of fat ‘Noe: The fal i assumed to be throug zero impedance (Gi) ycaealaingtheeerent dation Frau i eiferent points nthe ston rom (3) ‘ove the maxima shag fal rents at ach caving point are salsa for ach typeof fat (60) At this stage more ores definite ies on the ype of protection to be applied are frre Fortier aleulatons for ensblishing voles variation at the reli pot othe tabi Timi of the sytem with & fault are cared out o determin the clas of ptection necessary. (ehh speed, ow Spee, un onc ete) “The phase cutent ia any branch of etwork: eterna rom the seqeenee eurent dation inthe equivalent cet forthe a Te sean ‘current are epresed per unit tems of the Sequence eurrent in the fait brah, ‘Since normally ia power sistem calculations the postive sequence and opts sequence i Prdances afe equ, the von of sequence sequenee network i wally diferent fom pose and ncaative sequence networks heme the vo sequence curent inition elelted Sorte, 1G and; ate decid 9 sro and pose sequence dtfbaton factor then tear arent int aeeene branche een by mel te stu erent inthe quence fal branch by he ‘appropriate dintibuton factor Th eI and Bae sequence cues nan abrary branch oa rework dct sept in he meter then the phase cients vat brah maybe ‘presenter ofthe dato constants nd the sequence currents in he fl. "Those are gien on 3.und the appropriate fuleqtions (Single pss cant ar) 06, + Gao (6) Doublephas (be Km ayGuh| Equation 3.28 Km @-@ Gh {iy Double phase—earth be) Kw -C,~ Cole ‘ = [e-eak aes calle p= [ore ae va 2 meh) moet | tnt nea fee ‘Asan example of catentdstribuion technique, ‘onside thesstem in Fig Mo) nd theese Sequence networks in Fig. 3.80) ad (c}-A fl is fst at A and ie dsr to ind the caren in Trach OB de tothe Fk ln each network the' strbution fstrs are sven Fr each brane, with the cure inthe fale branch taken 1-0 pa. From the diagram the sero sequence distbution factor Cy i Branch ON f O12 and the pose sqencetictr Cy O37, Foran eet alt at A the phar current in branch OF Irom eg 3.27 6 T= O76 4 011%], 858), and Kel -oss—oua, ‘= -02615 By wing network reduction methods and assuming thot al ipetanses ae reatve, Z, = Zy —/08 ‘hi Men tom p34, caret fn le ach tas oe suming hat = 6 vo hn a ata a) = = Hamp, 1 Ps takon asthe eference vector, then 1, = 268/90" amp. B= Le = 815/90" amp The yector diagram fr the above fal condition is shown in Fis 33, Vets dee The voltage dtiution in any rach ofa network is etermined from the sequence voltage tba tion As shown By eqns 34, 3-5 and 3.5, and the aradient diagrams, Fig. 3.206) and 2240), the poive sequence volage is minimum at the Fait wheres the zero and. negitie sequence Voltages are masimun, Thus, he squonce enerally ae = Pan, ~ Feud, % z, 1, = ho ~ § cata] Using the aoe ution the fuk voltage at bes B inthe previous example canbe Found.From the positive sequence distribution diagram Fir 3.80) Vim P= 124 = 10995 «075.4033 x O49) = P= KZ, —s0-464) Bee 12, — ja} From the 260 Seguenes dtibation diagram ie. 340) % 25 — NOUS « 26-4 0112 « 16) = hz ~ 408) Forearth ult the ful, = fy = Ip mp, when IVi~ 65 volts andi felercace vector Farther, Z, = Zy ~ 06 ob Hence: Vj = ens — 0216 x 302 = $676)" volts Fj = 624/180 vote Y= 225/180 voke Ba We PEM = 5616 = 614-4 225 Py = 474/0" vo Baal eats + We = 5616 = (6740 + 225) = $6758 — (6146! +225) = 6151164 volt “These volagesare shown on eelor diagram Fig. 3. EFFECT OF SYSTEM EARTHING ON ZERO SEQUENCE QUANTITIES Ie has been shown previously tha zero sequence curensfwinthe earth path dig eth ats, land i fll that he natre of thes curentewil be inoeneat bythe edd of carting Beese thse quails are unigue their aot with rth Tule they can hele potetion, Provided their mesturcment and char are Understood forall practi stem conditions Resides! Caron and Voge Residual currents and voltages depend for thet exten onto factors (©) Asytem connection to sath a two or more points (0) A potenti dilerence bstween the earthed pointe resuing ina curret ow inthe ech ae Under normal sytem operation there is capacitance etcen the pss tnd between phase a earth find these capacianae nay be repels sy tral ond dstibted normaly thro the system. Hence although () above sisi ithe ‘ving volages are symmetrical the vstr su of the corent wll equate to 2er0 and erent wl ‘When = faut teat occurs in a system ah tunbalanee results Ya condition (i) Beng satised, From the definitions piven above i follows that residual currents ad Yllges are the veto Su of phase corens and phase voliages respectively "Teeth tle a atin 332 Fea Bat Tet Pe Th tom og 22 n= 3h) so Fy= am) "natin roa Was Re Hees f Tae = Pe Fig = Pay ho Ve My Equation 235, where Bay = neta placement vole Measurements of eile are made using fuent and vollage transformer connections 3 Shown in Fi 3.10 aed lls dat i clay are Connected into the duis in ple ofthe ser Sin volieter then eth fats a these canbeasa “The sste ZolZy ria dein ws the ratio of zero sequen and positive sequence impedances poston and stem opeating sangeet In asain he dsbution of edu quatites Doint asthe erence = the pon of ton {Funbulanoed quantes ntathe system The ‘it Coen computed i the the phe felt atent tthe fuk posn Han be shown that the charter of ts” quanis an be Pesdnnc being ested by the method af eating ay contain both rive and. rele. tow Ponens "of comparable mapntade. Ths. the expres forthe a Expressing the resid cure in terms of the thre pha curent and 4/718, uation 3.36 af RE RSET es Vo | SRGRVAST TRG ne \ i zal LSet ha (0 Singe-pase—cath (on) 12 3 oP 42 TWA p hey : Be 3 ation 2.37 Roam (4) Double phase—earth (be) thay = ty, Hense ay NaH ORTIZ, a 3 ation 3.38 b= agri ont tulip qe 397 and 3-38 by (0 Single phase—earth (oe) 2K shove ral quanto ith tbe 22 oto, The esa current in any part of the tem ean be ‘btined by mulpsing the curcet fom the cure bythe appropriate erosequenedistbution factor Siri the residual oltage enka by st testing fom the curve voltage tne tie he ro Sequence voltage drop tetween the measuring i by, Wisin a. Wate, EvesVarian of Resa Quantities “The variation of esidal quantities in a stem due to dierent eat reangements canbe mos really widerstood by ung vector game: Tnce Stamp have een chon, so sdf Solid neu, sb auleeeiance net fesstenceault—olidnevtal. These aelstated in Figs 12,413 and 3.14 respect (Solid aut isotatd nota From Fig. 312, the capacitance to earth of the Fated phase i shored out by the fault andthe ‘erufingunulce eases expaciance sents to flow ino the faut, returning vin sound. phase ‘hough sound phase capt to earth Atfoll, Ty <0 “and Fa = Toe t Par es Atvource, Ty = Pe since Bat By + Ba = “Thos, with an olated neutral sytem, the eid voltage i 3% normal pase neutral vos of Falted phase and there sno variation between Py atsource and Vy st au In practice, here some fakage impedance ‘etween gout and earth an sal esd rent would be detected at i'n very snag relay was employed (Resistance neutrals fat From Fig. 313, the eapactancs of the fanad pase ae shorted out by the falta the noi {urrent combines with the sound pate capacitive furrents to pve Tain fat pha, ‘Wiha rela at, esidly conte a shown in Fig 310 the residual current wile fan, he the Va = Foe + Pon sce Top =O Mm From the residual voltage diagram, there is Hie ‘aviation inthe residual voleager at source and Fault. as most sida! vollage e ropped across he neal resistor. The degree of variation in resid ‘quantes is hence dependent upon the neil fesbtor vale Past Pre + Toe(Gy Sod neatea—resistanc alt From the eid vollage dngrams, shown in Fig At relaying point X, ing and this ia function ofthe Van Vast Wat Po Pa = Vout Vout FacHarrer 4 EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS AND PARAMETERS OF POWER SYSTEM PLANT ‘Aknovledge ofthe behaviour ofthe prncpa units ‘otsyitem plant under noval sa al comions inane prot for ib rope apiation ‘of protege This ehaper summaries baie synchronous machin, ransorner an. ans Som theory and git oqialet ict and Dorameters for succesfully completing alt Doria the section ad apieation ofthe pots tive stems described in ator chap of hs book. Powersjtem plant may be did into two broad group, vr that wick is oan and tht which aie peblem with otating plots oat hit rameters change depending onthe rapone 0 change im power stem conditions, With sate [la this in general ote ee. SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES “There ae two main typ of Syneonows Machine, vie yin rotor and salient pole- In gener, the Tormor incon to 2 and 4 pole arbo-aternatos, while stllent poe types are bul from 4 ples up ‘wads into most taser of daly Hoth lies ‘ot machine ae basically sim in fara each hea ator carrying a thes pase wining dst. ‘bute oer it nner periphery. Within the stator ‘ore carried the rotating member sor which Ismagnetiod bya winding carving ds ‘The esenat difernce between the to eases of imtchine ent ter core. Tasos {Sl rotor type it wniormly lind rotor ‘which caries excitation winding dstibuted over 4 numberof slot around te pcphy. This con fteveton i ns to male-polar chins but isvery sound mechanically. Hence tis parcalry wll adapted forthe highest speed. cesta! ‘machines and is universally employed for 2 pole “The aint poe type has pes whi are pyialy separate an each arise concentrate excitation winding. Clery this type of constuction i Inany ways complimeatay tothe clinical rotor And is employed trom 4 poles upwards, Above 6 Doles except for spa ease is wef ence a ARMATURE REACTION ‘Armature etion bis predominant effet on the ‘opention of a synehvonous machine both with ‘att the power aco at which i operates aad the amount of excitation that it needs. The phew ‘mena iron cay explained by consider Simpl Weal generator with fll pth winding fpemting at nity py zero Tag pe and 2600 lead pe alt ‘When operating aunty pf the olla and arent {nthe stator wl actly coincide withthe positon ‘tthe tor. The current inthe ator prodaces ‘agnetomtie Toree (mum) whic interacts with that of the rotor resulting in datortion of ox crs the peace. Aca seen fom Fig 18) the tendeney i to weaken the Nuc a the lading dae orto effetivey distort the fel In's manner guialeat to # shit apninst the direction of sotatonIhe power Tcl was reduced 0240 lg Dosion ax showin Fig 4.10). The stator mn Sint for operation a zero ang power fcr: mal . ator known ae *Armatire Reaction STEADY STATE THEORY The vector diagram of «single eyindea rotor Synchronous machine shown n Fig. 42 ssming fp ie uniorm and all varuble quantiles are Shull, Further, sine the reactance of machines ( teross the argnp thereby inducing 2 volage, Ey these two rotor mmf. veetors, Fig. 4.210), the resultant man AT, ithe stil exciton which Siagram, Fie. 42), anticlockwise until AT, inckes wth €, and chanaing the sce ofthe Shere AT, ~ Ey — 1 rossi Fig 4210). The tum, sector have thos become effectively voae Ii idly proportional to the sat had ‘aren. This yor enn e fly represented hy fetctance and In prt thi is called armatre Tans theremin sie of the triangle Boome [ATVATy which the per unit voage produced 08 ‘open circuit by ampereturne AT It cam be ‘onsier the itera encrated vlageofthe Thus he tue leakage reactance ofthe lator win ing which peste to voll drop or regulation fas been neleted This veclncef designated X, andthe voltage drop oseurrng ni wl be exc) in phase with tht doe to Xey, a8 shown on the ‘stor diagram Fig. 42(0, Ie hou he noted hat Keyan Xp con be combined to gre» shape fale! teaclnee snd thi is know a8 the “Synchronous Restate”, denoted By Xy. vices ¢ = ME sins Emotion whe 8 isthe ane bets the rm vllage Snel ofthe machine. 1 flows fom the above analy that for steady by the equivalent cre shown in Fit 43 where ress, bring the ati of armature reaction andSALIENT POLE ROTOR ‘The preceding thor is inte tothe inde foto In some cases this tenon isnot fr Insances where thi mot 0 “Te dierecer aie because the te stumption thatthe iran i uniform i ery bviouly ot Sali when asaiet poe ote bing considered “The floc of the that the fx produced by armature reaction mn. depends on the posion i 1 i 1 Ve ‘When a pole is aigned withthe assumed sine wave sae act up by the tor then cortesponding ‘lnc wave Sr wil be setups but leary when a8 Inter polse gp saline thn ery seer distortion Fr enaned. The difrence is tated by considering there tro ater. thos corespning tothe poe Aisignted "Dect™ and) “Quadratire™ sais Specie. and the general theory Is haown a5 Theo Axes" they tino oh forthe linia stor exes ta {he reactance anderen associated wih he ae Split into te components. The synchronous seactance for the dec anis fs Xs = Xu + Xs nile that the quadrature sus is Xt =X +X) ppropite quantities inthis case are resahed thong two anes "The veulant intra! sola i tn passing it shuld be noted that Eis he intr voltage which woul be given i end rotor ‘and V. There is very litle illerene im magnitude Irtween and By Bt a substan dirence In intra ange Thi, the inp they Ie pert 46 TRANSIENT ANALYSIS For normal changes in losd conditions, steady fre versions when simon statancous changes Gre invlvel, ocr ae rao switching erations, ‘When this happens new factors ae invoduced Shin the machine ad 0. aequatly representthese eoresponding new set of machine character. esi involved. “The generally acspled and simplet way 16 pps the meaning tnd derivation of these Shortsivuit appi to « machine fitaly canning ‘Sn open ctu excited to normal volag Ey “This volige wll be generated by a lx costing ‘Sonseueiy there wil be leakage Na which ‘nl et fom pol to ple and acros the inerpolar witout coming the mai ai-gap as shown BiFie 46 Thosthefexinihe pole wil ei 1, a 4 a I [ea L AF te stator winding is now shortcicat the Wil tend to flo the Fesalingaumatute reaction hat being ditcty desmagnetsing This wil Foc the fla and condone wil etl to one in Which the armature reaction nearly balancer the ‘actaton mam, the bales mansion «very frock doce fos acrow he shen which ust ome the stor leakage reactance (resistance eget) This the simple say sate eae of Imichine operating on shore and Tilly i might be expected that the fat current would be giten by Ey, + Xu eas to FX, bu this feyery mach reduce and the machin is operating ttihout any satration. "The value of wage sed Uherfore ithe value read feo the agape Thor ta nora! vos, Thue the sly sat Voltage fom seep ine Syacvonousveacanee OX) Eaton 42 inal and final coniions thre hae bean a etre eduction of fla The rotor cars Highly i ‘itive winding ich inks the i so tha he ator foe linkages before shores ave eed (G@'4-) (inpracc theleakage Nx sdstribted ‘ver the whole pole ad all oft does ot ink all the winding fan eile connate Bax Fmagined to Ink all he winding and of such @ Image that the otal nage sre equal o those {etl cscrrng) I x2 fundamental principle thatany tempt to change the ke with sth tehich wll oppose the change I the present case The fac being rodiced and 40 the deduced ‘rene wil end wea tion ofthe shortcut i vad to assume that the fu liked wih the rotor remains eonstant hs ting brought about by am induced current i the FOtor which lanes te heavy demagnetising eer fet up bythe shortcut armature Thus (44) vemine constant, But ae tothe in seal nm involved the Me Teskape wil fu tis cam only itese tthe expense of that flux crosing the singap. Comgoenty this rater rolled voltage, which etng on the Ieakage reactance X;pves the short ieul arent ‘Clearly its more convenient for machine analysisXjand is defined by the equation Rated Voltage) Tes greater than X an the equivalent cet represented by Fg. 405) where, Xj = efloctive lukage reactance of field winding The x ill only be sustained at ts elaively high ‘ale 20 long a8 the inden catenin the sl spprosch the tend sate vale Consequeny {he duration af this pase wl be deter by the tualy ofthe order of second or les “hen the {erm sre appli t characteris stoned 1 furthse pnt now aes. Under shortcut “ndions tere ra rnaer of ax om the min Small exon, opposed by the excatlon winding fd the main transfer wl be experienen tars It damper wining cried inthe pole ace then {hcl be sbjetel to the fl elo oc transfer to kage pate and wil gry a induced caren an flow the airgap fux il be held ata slightly Nigker value than would be the cae if only the ‘As before tis convenient to use rated votge and to create another ftious reactance whch is ‘onsered to be elletive over thir prio. This own asthe "straint rescance” X3 andi ‘clint bythe equation Rated voltage (9) uation 44 Fe a0. Ku RE XX EX oe XP= XA XG Xue = leakage renclace of damper wind- Xi = fltne lenge reactance of damp where X5 = Xy + ‘A before the duration ofthis phase depends upon the time constant of the damper winding. In oNery mmc fos tha the Wansent—hence the ie Fi. 48 shows the familiar envelope of the sym tread component of an arature short rent inisting the values described inthe proseling analy. The sudden shoreccat and mesure, z the ALLE. Test Coe for Shcvonous Machines, ar ASYMMETRY The exact fistant at which the short-circuit atic i eplgie comod With redance then the cuerent ina coi wil lag the oa by 90", [atthe stant when the vltage wave ans a ‘maximum, any curent owing trough would be fe and bon dinple a. component Hower, a the moment when the idol voltage nero, any ‘ren Towing mst pss through a maximum (ue forthe 9° lag) Ia fal cura hi moment the resulting current wl asm the coresponding Feaionip, esi wil be a He pa and inthe ong 80" wl go through zero to maim the revere dieetion and so on. In ft of cours, the caren must actually tart fom zero snd 50wil (low a sine wave whic i completely sym metre. Iniermediate postion wl ive varying gre of asymmetry, ‘This eeymetry can be conser to fe due toa <4 component of crrent which dies ay bechise “This de. component of ator caren sts. up 9 de field which cause 4 $0 cyck ripe om the fed caren and in tr hi alteoatngrtor ax as further elect onthe ttor Thies best shown by omsidring the 0 eyes Huss Being represen by" two all magoitde saver each tating ‘opposite diectons a 30 eels spond relative tothe ‘olor. Hence viened from heater, one is Stationary andthe tke rotating 100 eck, The Tater sets up second’ harmonic curente in the Stator "Further development slong this ne is possible bu the eating harmon ae nelle Sh normaly meet 4 MACHINE REACTANCES, “Table 4. given pea vals of machine vacances Torsten pole and estas roe machines 4 ‘Stuhr Rote Ry = Ny + Now “The order of Xyis normaly 01-025 pu while that ot pie 1.255 pn The shape resetance Yeon Te reduce by increasing the machin size dersting) fd increased by artical increasing the. lot leakage but twill be noted that X, ony about 10% of the total valve of X, snd bene canna “The armature evction realm can be rds by decreasing the armature reaction of the chine hick n design tems means redacing the snpere Condector o eles! (ditt frm mate) Tending wil often mean physically erst mech. ‘Mteratvely the excitation mesded to. generate ‘openieuit soa may be increased ths being simply achieved by increasing the machine sinpap (Gat it only posse the excitation sytem ti! o mos the icra requements In general, cotrol of Xe bse ss eniely by varying Xy and inmost cases olution fa X, wl eb result i nrger an hence more cotly machine. Its worth noting tat Xy wil ‘orally change in ssopathy wth ey a ‘compet overshadowed by ‘Te synchronous reactance is a measure of the stendy sate abit of the echinethe smaller jt value the more sable the machin, at eam be ‘ech from te pial power eh, Fig 43. ppeonintes to the short reuit ratio SCR, the nly dierence being that the SCR takes stars tion into acount whereas is derived rom the al earns at if Tran Reotence X5 = Xy + Xi ‘Tramient reactance covers the behaviour of Itcioe in the pend 01-30 scene afer Slstrbance "Tht generally corresponds to the ‘Spat ofchangerinayvem ands ely enplayed Insts ot tanita Generally tbe kakage reclame Xy equals the ‘Seti eld eaage reactance X i 01-025 pi “The princi factor determining the value of the Bel kage "This rely yond the cont fof the designer in 0 far a ether coniertions tre at psent more signcant than eld leakage fn ene tae precedence In determining the ld 2Xycan be vila ead olin and ia practi, onto of transient retetance i usally chine by variation of asa Subtrnsen Reactant X3 = X44 Xie [he subransiet reactance derives the iia cartent peas following a disturbance and ithe ‘heruporingcapciy fast crenihrsters The mechani! sees on the machine ata svi values hich depend on thie const The eflecive damper winding Jenkage rectance iris lvely deteined by the eskage of the hamper windings am control of thi nly posile toa hited exten The order of Ky, 005-015 pa. "The major factor ie X) which ae India previously if te order of 01-025 ps and cootol ofthe sublransent reste oun ahieved 89 variation of XSymtoms Renae et A ie, Ret Keane een | | NEGATIVE SEQUENCE REACTANCE Neatve sequence curens can arte whenever there is any unbalance preset nthe system. Phi sfc isto st up el rotating inthe opposite ‘ieton to the main fel (he. the voor) 0s {esting to double roquency foe puesto Tite ves ie fo parasite currents and eating ad mont ‘aches are quien inthe smut sch Wis almost posible o cual elevate how ‘much negative sequence curent can be ead Sine the curent path nvlved sie vry etn ‘nd willy Jute, tna trivalent Tor instance, they incl the sla ote ody, so wedges, excation winding tnd endl. There is A endeney for Toc overheating 40 occur and measurement i ot practicable In practice an empccal met is wed, based on the et that given type of machine cipbl of carping lor thre perils, un amount a heat ‘etrmined by its themal capacity and for long periods at of heat inpat wick can disp Type values Tor tirbostermtors ave pie fh ‘Table 2 “non reaare Shr pCa oo TE Fy ma (URE RS} Solent pote machines with thir tinted pole ‘ace and damper windings ca tolerate higher lls of neptive sequence lang 40 ZERO SEQUENCE REACTANCE Ia machin operating with an earthed neta ten’ system cath feu wil give rise fo 710 Sequene current in the machine. Phe rectance sents the machines onto tothe total rane ret those cent nee eneraly low and olen wutweghed by other pedanees prea nthe cit DIRECT AND QUADRATURE AXIS. VALUES. “The teamion reactance i sci with the ld winding end since on sent pole machines the ‘concerted on the direct a here no sores ST reetaneeaplcile nthe ans ste synchronous reactance, aX, — Xy “The dimper winding (or its equivalent) is more Widely spread) and” ence the subransent sean aot wih his has 2 lite quads tare ai ave XS EFFECT OF SATURATION ON MACHINE REACTANCES. I genera any coral machine s designed to avoid severe startin occuring in is magnets ‘rut. However it not economtaly posible to ‘perte atch low dene sto vend saturation ‘fs me correct, to feduce to nese pro- Portions, and in pritice 2 moderate degree of Smuaton i accepted, wsely about 10%,Since the armature reatlon reactance Xue 8 Fao AAT evident st AT, will PO ary eee fine manner for diferent soaps while [Rae wt rin unchanged. Hence the sale of ee Secmined forthe parca onions in Solved any caution ‘ctnese and actully arse from Ax Fskaee ‘uch th Texas ocers the om ars he Incines and hen nt let by stration, Serato ot man whieh eases the ion cuts wnatuate is relctance low and Tegel cai established 1 the eit are ISgn trated the sevese re ad the Fenkge Hu ecately lower Hence te reactance de {Aursted conditions ie Tower than en un Most escubtion methods assume inline iron Permealiyarlenc calculate somevhat ieaied Crontorted reactance The recognition of «tite Sha varsing permesbity makes «solution ex ‘moinatcly 09s taken as representing the ‘eeton in eactane arin rom stration, tee oper to disinwish whieh wa of rae Vacs being measured when on est The normal ‘Litrato een and the reacts meee ST's surat vale Ths value alo known. ithe ete volta ae snc ite mead by {Tihovectei applied wit the machin ext 0 sme eases where say Be wished to avoid the vere mechanial strain 10 which a machine Sbjct by such a dec sbortcieuty the tes shay be made from a suiablyveduced olin 50 {hatte iin cure i approximately of ulead fate Satration i cll ery much reduced ad Chen values for ebious reasons TRANSFORMERS ‘yam caulaent ecu representing the sine dance of ad the mutual coupling between, he Minding A two. winding teansormer can be Timp representa 2 network in whi the {he clam the extn impedance Its rately cary i fault studies to comider excitation pedance st sally many times the magne of the shorn mpeance. With these sim ieomes esr of thee pence ad 8 our ‘indi ansorner a ies of sc iypstances. ‘ihr pnt ean be even nce and fie by ve voltage, or pr wn, prcntage ers nd tne by'a base MVA. Cae should be taken {Tit mutvindng transformers to refer all f= base om which cach is given. The impedances of fine appurats. are dependant of the phase cqoenet of thea wolge,comseqenty poe sequence crrets ae Weta. In deter hens, account must be taken of the winding constructional type. For there to be a path for ‘ero sequence cents implies faut to earth and {he oof Bloncing cent he windings of POSITIVE SEQUENCE EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS To wining ranformes ty evo texminal or thee teil equal ‘its as shown Figs 410. Io Fig. 4.100) ter fim A’ and Bare sued to Beat the sanePea, Hence, i the per unit sof ipedanesof| the windings are 2, and Zyyrespetvly and the tute impedance encom tom Zs the ane former may be represented ty Fie 406). The iru in Fig. 410) ssa to that show fn Fie 215, Chapter 2 and therefore ca be re plead by a equvaent "T" shown ia Fs $110 here: eae 2 ae 2 edad einen nding ‘om 43 Ty es 110% ad 20007 espoctvely. 2 and Xy rey have t be consired toether and’ tus the tran Former may be reprseted either mt rere hi lange or sn excitation inpedance according 0 the problem being sti, Type value of percentage reactance for ¢4o wining ransformes ae given in Table 43. Hom er, sine the impedance irs espn Tate of 8 Irunstormes the tal values for practical eye ment should be oan! om the manufacturers ‘Transformers despre to work a eels wll sutstanally have the Same impedance ae thie terse Wide Impedance 25 i the mutual impedance between the ‘windings, ually represen by Ny the Me eting reactance pralsed with the hyn and ‘ay arent loops a shown n ig 4100, 1 the secondary of the transformers i shor ecaited and Zy ie asumed large with respect to Zand Z, then the short-circt inpodance Viewed From the terminals AA" Zy = Zy 4 Zs and the Wansformer cam be replaced by Ivo" ermin ‘quivalent eieuit a8 shown ia Tit. 4100). The ‘eave magitdes of Zy andy are ofthe order Tice winding toners Provided exciton impedance # neglected the suivant creat of 3 thro winding tanformer maybe represented by a tar of Spans, Shown in Fig. Stl, whee PT and S are the primary, trary snd secondary” windings re ects. The hnpadance of any ates branches fn be lerminl hy conscring the shore impedance between pais of windings wilh the ‘hd opennana Zp = My + Byx~ 20d erie, Eaton 47 Zi Hon +2, (One of the branches, usualy the least important sy exhibit egtive Impedance ZERO SEQUENCE EQUIVALENT cancurt The fw of rro sequence erent ina raaformee Ivonly posible when the trasformer form part of 1 ced loop Tor anédnclioealcutets ad fmperturn balance Is mantle Between Wind mainline to sepresent the Uasforer. But there ave certain conditions attached tot con fection into the external crt, The order of cation inpeonce snow very moh lower than for the posite quence iret; of the order of 100% 0 400% mat sl igh enough to be eacted external eeu i determined by taking acount of ‘ch winding arangement and ite connection oF ‘there tose aco sequence een on Tow tats und out of wing, de winding ter nina connected tothe extemal ret link wa icloved in Fig 412), Wer sequence rents “ety tothe very hus (oe nk "Bi lose Fig 412, “Table 4 giver the sero sequence connections of frrangement applying the above rules 10 he ero bus hvough the magnets impedance thes pa hl flnes produced by Zero sequence caren ea 2 high lucas path the let bg rede shh ‘h ‘ (THREE WINDINGS AUTO-TRANSFORMERS The autotransformer ie characters by a single tothe igh nd Tow voltage cet as shown a Fig. 413) "The “common” winding ithe nding between the low volageterminals, wheresTABLE 4.4 ZERO SEQUENCE EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT CONNECTIONS CONNECTIONS AND ZURO PIAST] SEQUENCE CURRENT PATHS 1 a —_ * » ZERO BUS ® . Z, 7 a c= » b _ ZERO BUS ZERO BUS w Z,ZERO BUSthe remind f the winding, essai oth igh oltge cite, is designated the “erie” wining, And, combined with the eomnon™ winding, forts the “Seiescommon™ winding tetween the high voage terminal, star connected main windings, the neta of which is normaly connected soi to earth In ation, {t's common practice to inlade thd winding onneced i dali ello the tertiny winding, a Shown in Fi. 136) aoa Pesiie Squence Equivalent Cie “The pose sequence equate tet of a thie phase autoteannormer bank no diferent fom {hat of two or thee winding transformers The ‘example, i= obtained in exactly the same mabe feept tbe impedances betwen windings are Ssignate dierent si #2 impedance between “serieecom mon” and teary windings impedance between “srks-com son” and “common windy 224 ~ impslancetetwencommon™ and feria winding. ‘When no load is comes to the dea testy, the pint will be openciuited and the son ‘Seuit ipedanee af the tram esomes 4 Zy Zoe be. similar to the cauvaent ‘tuie af tho winding tanformer, with mage etnginspance rele So Fie 4.18), rena 462 Zero Seguence Equant Cire The zero sequence equivalent ict i derived in «Similar smaner tthe positive sagen cet xcept tha as there fe no enti forthe eu point the caren ia the neutral andthe petal tage cannot be given deat. Furthermore, i deriving the branch impedaness account must Be {sken of any impedance the neta! Za shown In the following equntions, where ZZ, tnd 2. are the impedances ofthe ow, High nl frtry win Inge respotvely sid N fs the rao. elec the series and common windings, wen By — 30 rin 49 iene fo Baty +o aD Fig. 4.180) shows the equivalent circuit of the transformer Bank: Currents yay te OS ‘reulting Inthe low and high wong iis respectively. The diference in these cureeats, ex Pre in amperes isthe erent the comin « ed gat co ‘The cuttin the seul impedance thre times the current in he common winding. ‘Special Conditions af Neutral Earth. With a sotly prounded nett, Zy = 0, the branch inpedines 2 Zp Zy become 2, Zs Zo ‘edna othe eovresponing postive sequence cuvaentcteuit, exept that the equivalent ine Fdance 2, of the dla teary comectd to er potental busin the vero soqunge network. ‘When the neutal is ungrounded Zw and the impedancer of the equslen sar alo. becomes Intnte becase there te apparently pate fo ero Sequenoe currants betneen the windings ‘though «physeal cri exe and ampere tart alice can be oblained. A solution i oe an suivant ela eruit (ee Fig. 41), and ‘late the clement ofthe deta dite rn the seual eruit The method equtes the equationsontesponing to thee assumed operating. com: {lta impedances tothe impedance between the Series and tertiary windings. viz N | MEN Zan si With the equivalent dt replacing the sat i Dolece ithe notte sees ‘anions csi the trnaormer can bec Sth the mem impedence so {Shin the sy sr quence gr “a a7 fn this section, deeition of common overhead Hines and cabie systems B gen, topether with developed 10 zie a basic iden of the factors ine Solved and to crab aeslations the ae For “sl oe) [ar] [A teansmision cicat may be represented by a8 fauvalent x or T slwork using lumped constants, fe shown in Fig. 418. 2 the ttl seis in pesance (R 4 jX)L and Y is the total shunt ndmitance, (G+ |B) Le where Lis the rele Tema The te ‘he the whol lgth of thecicutand not amped, short tines i wualy posible to ignore the shun admitane, which greatly simplifies ctl tions, but_on longer line it must be included “Another smplieation which canbe made i that the conductor “coniguration, ie seme ye Intra and therefore the self impedance of cach ‘Sondoctor 2, an the mal impedance Detween boeing taken ofthe spacing of « conductor with its ako and ere CALCULATION OF IMPEDANCE, The self mpodance of a conductor with am eth return ad the mal impedance Between wo forall conductors with 3 common sath euch RIES. b Zp R + 000159 jOODGt oR, where R= conductor ac restance "de = geometric mena radio «ingle con ng ste the pall conductors path = 2160 where pis cath The above formule give the inpdances in ohms ine It shoul be noted thatthe last fxm fn Shustion 411 ae ery sna tothe lanza Induetance formule for fone singh conductors “The pometri mean ras ofa conductor. isan Cuislnt radio which allows the indoctance Formula to be reed 0 engl term. It te remembered tat the Inductance of ond om ofthe tral fx conductor ean be replaced fst and hence here can Beno internal Hx The rag of the eguvaent conductor is the ‘old eyinder having ead ‘rade oF O73ting equations 4.12 equations 413 eves 2) =2,=R + j0006Con | H+ mer sommernn | Epon 412 4 the formula for Zy the expresion 9YTEB? is the goomuirc mera the comducior Brow. Where deceit not symmetric the usual ese, symmetry cam be maintained by teamposing the ‘Condoetors so that each conde each hate Position for one third of the srt length EA, Bland C are the spacings between conductors be, nad ab then Din the above ations becomes the geomlre mean distance between conductors equal ABC, Woking D, = Y/EED* the sequence impedances in ome 30. become, 2, = Z= K+ 40235 ony VAM 24 = (8 + 02884 10231 on Pe Equation 4.14 CALCULATION OF SHUNT IMPEDANCE {ean be shown tha the potenti of» comutor “a abore ground di toe own Shares ah and charge ~ gh om is iage Vy 200 gation 418 where Wis the eight aboveground of the con Aloctor and i the ead of the conduct Shown in Vi. 45. Silat it cam be shown thatthe potential of « ‘conductor "a" due toa charge qh on a neighbouring Conductor "band the charge hon singe Vi = 2ab or, Be Emorion 16 wee, D is the spacing ston comctrs and Iran Dis he spacing between eondctor ba the mage of endactor= shown in Fig. 15, Since the capacitance C = g/¥ andthe capacitive reseanee X.~ "oe it follows thal the sll ad nut! eapacte reactance of the sonductor se tem in Fig. 4.15 can be laine! dec from equations 4.16 and 4.17. Further, soc lekage must be aelected the set and mts shun Irpaanst 2, and Zin megnhonaies at system request 30 ae, a -sombna™ fee 24 = =}00082 og. Where the datances shove ground ane esti relation to the conductor space, the ease with ‘verbead lier 2h'= D’. Hence fom esuations 4412, the sequence impedances of 8 symetal these phase revi ate, wema-setaten!. eae fesenme 2x joe ne 2s ¢ , —b conpuctor RADIUS © raRTH Ao FE +e 1 should be noted that the lgartimic tems above are similar those i equation 413 ence that F isthe actual adie ofthe conductors and Bs the Spacing between the contre ad tet mes,tre ditnce. between conor, VBC, and gation 419 OVERHEAD LINE CIRCUITS WITH OR WITHOUT EARTH wIRI Er i ees ie esto ‘ductors. Detailed methods of analysis are given in Seth vertone se on nea ee a. SCAN So aaa moe “The phate vollage drops Vi Vas Ve of sinle ‘ru ine wth singe earth wie dct currents Tree f owing inthe pais and I i the earth Je Zale Zak + Zul] It Zale Zadhet Zike | uaion 4.20 “The above equation i em in orm but with {raps he impedances beng derived rom eqns From equation 4.20 ican be seen tha, Making use of this reliton the sland: must ‘he towing formula, Eauaion 4.21 account ofthe effet of the crth wire by deleting the fourth sow and fourth column and substutng 3p f0F Za Ig for Zaye ley esate wing uation 31. The sage cru line with single ‘arth wie can therfore, be replace by an ee Impedances Das st wean be shown fom the symmetrical component ‘oltge drops of general thre phase ec re, Vo = Zoala + Zaly + Zoe Van Zale + Zath, + Za And, fom equation 420 modified a indcted Zo = Wan Ion + Se Hi A, Hn Lo Zia = Wy ha, + Me) Ws ay + 03) Fy Pa I) at Zag = Zor ~ We # a Hh) Sadat Za = Foy = 1a tag eo ‘The development of thee equations for double ral line with two earth wien cacy sar except that more terns are tvolved fireait lin except for the mutual impedance66 KV y—a0-x | 66 KV WOOD POLES | DOUBLE CIRCUIT EW inky ho 44 fue ey wos 380. KV 400K | 400 KY, SINGLE CikCUN | DOUBLE CIRCUIT | poUBLE CikCULbetween the eo sequence cists vi ay" Table 45 gives (pia! yluer ofall sequence taf fd motu iopedances for single snd double Seu Tine wth earth tes arated in Fig 16 All conductors ace 4s, excep for the 132 LV where. /SE isthe voltage betwen phases and 22, the tmpedene ofthe fault nop. Sireuit may be represents, without iy tows eer, bythe equivalent of Fp #170) where eine can DO Cea Le oom singe | st Goat | vote aa | pose at mae ae | ee [ee [ae 2 =P = Ci) ‘eee sate wat EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS ‘Consider atthe, nite busbar source bend a lenath of tansmsion line as shown nF. 1, ‘An earth ful involving pase "te asored to fcc al FI he desing vltage and the Tal ‘arent I then the cath fault impedance 2 From symmetrical component tory see Chapter 2am thus 2-%te Fron yun aia? 2, wena te sang condor wih Inet en Sine lay, fora phase fault hetwconphises “band ae = oe ~ 293i the impedance ofthe cath pth there ting noma inpedanee eee Ihe panes fF between phase and eth. The svete “atid for single and” double iui Ines cnet that for double eet nes there ser ante rutalimpance hence 2y"= Wan = 2a The equivalent eircit of Fig, 4.170) is vaable instance relay applications fecase the pace and ath faut relay ave set to mensore Zy and ae ompenaited for the arth selurn impedance {tis ewstomary to quote the impedances ofa fans nein hs form thy are eon diel wel ‘Seinion, the postive sequence impotence 4 function of the conductor sping ad rad Wires the a2, rato ts dependent primarily {45 give the varnione of 270 sequence pedance, Za, earth resiiyg for RV. SRN, ak, {33 RY, 275 RV and 400 £V ie in we inthe OR In dion the variation i eompenaition given to distance relays 2/2, ~ Uy 86 Chapter 8, ie shownCABLE CIRCUITS The basic formulae for calelaing the series and ‘equations 411 and 417; be pp for evant ing cable paramctes: dd sine the condor come guration is normaly symimcteal GMD. ahd {GEM values cam be wed without rio appre: table crore. However, the formule. mist be noid by the inlston of erp fcr fo {ake acount of senth and serum ets. Atel feral reference om cable formulae is. "Power System Anat" by JR. Morac and MW. iumphvey:Devies (Chapman & Hall London) more detailed jnforation on parla (pes of cables should be obtained iret from the mane The equivalent cicult for determining the postive and epaive Sequence vere impedances of cable is shown in Fig 418 From this cut i an be show tht fom ube where Ra Ry ae core and sheath (ree) resi nc per wit Tenth X, and X,. coe and sheath (ecreen)reactances por ‘unit length ard. X. the mutual reactance between core and sheath (en) ‘er unit Tengh Xin perl fcgun toe Und j Js esther ing i The zero sequence series impedances ae olsined sively wing equation 11 and account can Be taken of th tenth in an exactysnar manera that ote carts ite inthe as ofan overhead ine “The shunt capacitances of «seated cable ean be calelated from these formal, = on | whee is he err dame for rund con incor, core insuston ticks nd pei thy of leat When he cc eo rshopel an equate tar ay te Wed where a! = 1 pepery of condor, No Simple formula exe for Bote or uarecned ‘ble, but an emp formu wh Bes resonate ret Fauarion 4.26 where G i 8 peometric factor which is 8 function of cove and lt insulation thcknes and ver ‘conductor diameter,Tas 46 Re comenn ey Ngompucron Syne stquence tavour ANE SG) te foe tafe simone far et a a e} ow pte ERA Ap ee ley eee ees oe os Zz g £: re E z z O55 | compensation = ey vt 7 [Ako SEQUENCE fos : i “lIMpeDaNce Curves, ee i SE a eer HEC I , H Hie Mu SAND Fe ve 20 25 ZERO SEQUENCE IMPEDANCE O1TMS/MILEEARTH RESISTIVITY-OHMS PER CM CUBE "arto oro ese prs Wi crt ey — O/1 ne ei woirace sca sca, eno seoutsce KY" CONDUCTOR Eannt postive amcurr “ImpebaNet wine’ sequunce tavour —"awote inredance oan Hh wom fone "nse nouns Za a Si e oel/ace (oouee © fa a (sone beer boom a, 7 ONEGIZE 067 fo DOUBLE oa Jmenowny oe PME ede ump 4 ow ostgrnoume ie. a nor 6," ; a ; ho bo ' os FH 3 7 org . = : coumexsation || 4), 5 : inves 5 7 ‘ZERO SEQUENCE] nse iwpepance curves HZ a ST oes " i HE fiz, aye ; commrasanon (21-] : lo TST IMPEDANCE CURVES THNIAKO SIGUENC SL ; EUAN ONY eae HE, Wry rs 0 Z x08 20 5 ZERO SEQUENCE IMPEDANCE-OFMS)MILEEARTH RESISTIVITY-OHMS PER CM, CUEE ‘Vrain of ero quence impedans ith at reitvty — O/H ins 12KY and above eg ait eae at “ioe ge ome roe Genie pone ce moe ee a Dome Be ts ‘CURVES I'ZERO SEQUENCE! THE IMPEDANCE CURVES RELATING TO DOUBLE CIRCUIT LINDS GIVE THE ZERO [ill] SEQUEN SELF IMPEDANCE rn “THE POINTS, ZERO SEQUENCE, OF THE LINES Mt. 20 ‘ZERO SEQUENCE IMPEDANCE-OHMS)MILE COMPENSATION, IMPEDANCE CURVES. ae PLU. RESIDUAL COMPENSATIONan OVERHEAD LINE AND CABLE DATA ‘The following tables om the various equation qu ata on overhead lines and cables which can be wi! in conjunction with Se i iain Cone ii ou nue | oes rae omy ox He oS oie othe ed vet bes | Somat oh5 a = r | | shescarrer s CURRENT AND VOLTAGE TRANSFORMERS Curent and Voltige transformers neste the Secondary (ei, srmen side) eu fom the primary (power) cleat and. provide ‘anitiesn the secondary which ste proposal {0 howe in the pray. The ole of tastormer in protective velaying Ia ts sendily lnc that for metering and instrumentation. Whereas the ental role of measuring tanto to fepresentative of tat whichis ppd othe pi nary sie, protstie transform varia ole According tothe type of prose gear Ht sere, Failureot potestivesysam to pion ifn cortety is olten dae to Insect sppiation feansformers. Hence, erent and voltage trans formers must be regarded se constiating pot of the protective stem and early matched ith {he elas to Flt the essential reqiements othe ‘Tere is no great ditntion between protective Vollagstriafrier an a mcasing vlan forme the dierenee nly being the nate othe voltages tansormed. Quite ofen the sme trans former ean terse both purposes for poe the ‘otetve voltage trator talons res {bly accurately ie duty wll have boen fat This cannot be sido eutenttanstermers a the reuiemens for pratective. purposes ave often Fadia ferent fom that of metering. I te That in Some cases the same transfor may serve both purposes but in modern practice this he ception rater han there. The pinay ile: fc i hat the mens cine tnsforme ts ‘nly required to accurately pesorm its Tnton ‘ove the normal ange of load erent, whens the Brotetvecuenttmsfores most fe aptied to Ful conditions rom fection ofall td 1a ‘any te al on. RANSFORMERS forme, the primary being exited by nary ‘onsant voltage. However, wile a voltage ran Former i raed in terms of the marian burden (VA" ouput) wil deliver without exceeding speci limits of eror, a power transformer is fated bythe sonar outa i l dlver with tutexeding a speiid temprstare se sly the voltage teasformer shoot proce & Secondary voltage which i exatlypeopetona to the primary vole and extety postin phase “This eam never be achive in prt for can be Scen trom the seetor diag of Fig, 3, the olla drops inthe primary ad soomary wind ings de larpey to the moet sa rer facto tt the secondary burden rss in ratio and phase tng errors. The ati tori gven by the expreswhere, Kite tina ato an V, and Vy are he actual secondory ad primar terminal voltages Woke rors postive tesecondary volage ences the nominal vale andi the ero negative the Secondary voltage i es tha the nominal vale of phase between the primary and revese sone ‘ary voltage vectors. Is postive when he reer Secondary voltage vector leas the primary voltage ‘ect, and neatve when the revere scondary ‘volage vector lags ching th primary volagevectr Teis usualy expressd in minute The phase ale ‘rors oly af importance when the tare et with antes sd sina imtrmente re Indication depends not omy on the vlge bt ‘onthe plas angle between the voltage and the line ‘The construton of voltage transormer ifers feom hat of power tafe only ins diferent emphases placed om coon, insulstion tnd mechanical probs. A vollage transformer Seldom has an output exceding few hundred ‘oleampetes and theefore the het generated sot Encino present any serious peels. In many Feaanes ten tines trl ated utpot canbe ‘cried and the uni remains within the permissible temperate vse This dct eu othe cls Sines the numer of turns and nations propor Sonat the any vag alloys tat the se Istargaly deer by te system voltae I tion presets special problems cau of he sal ‘conductor sir lk vention and sp tions when the traarmer ie aston Shitchgenr. These cll for ieuation betes the primary winding and cicth whi cen oscpies tore volume than the winding Kel. On high Vollge Uansormers impulse wthtand volags fre frequently speied wich Yntenies the pre apucitance of the winding mst be considered and ‘he torn must either be sn depoud to give svcrmabinotcnay hei “The mechanical design of vlge transformers may also Be problem, particularly when rach trans formers are an neal part of Switchgear. Close tention must be pad to the componente dian in order to avo Increasing the dimensions fof the Switcher equipment in which the trans Tone is iste. ‘Three pve wie re mn up to AUAY, bot above this wags single phawe Fig 52 ilutrates atypia 33 KV thee pe uit sitie Fig, $3 shows bank of single phase units ‘he United Kingdon, Recent yeas have sce the nrdtion of volage Fi 34 shows an example ofa single phase 152V ‘The protetion of voltage transformers ix abo of importance. On designs upto 66 AV fuses are peo: vied on the high voltage side, either within theformer where shortcut is tly to ease dangerous vale. To guard gaint this afar as posible ies shoul be moun inthe secondary circuit due to insulution Tile of the connecting Teas between th raafvme and stromens ll ot be cleared. Furs om the HV. sie wll noi several, protect the transformer against an LV, Shorteicat because ofthe ery eal arent and ‘mechanical liitaton i the sof the se ement, METERING REQUIREMENTS “Telit of ratio and phase anal rors aceptable in Bish practice for voltage transtormers wed for metering purposes ave ven in rsh Standard 811936, and reproduced in Table $1. OF the ‘aris clases Hated only Clas Bf wed ene the remaling clases having fallen more or The eated voltage it 110 volts secondary for teas foxmers connected between phases and 625 ys scendary for transformers connected between pase Sind neutral The range ot rte burdens ae 30, {00 and 200 or single nd ree phase ans teow 33 KV. Above this lle level the lower sa PROTECTION REQUIREMENTS The permissible rato and phase angle error for voltage transformers wad sty forthe operation ‘ot protective relays cam Be moh larger than tho United Kingdom practice are given in Table 52 ‘reproduced from British Standard 20461953, The

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