COMPARISON OF WIND LOAD STANDARDS

by
SHRINIVAS KOLA, B.S.C.E..

A THESIS

IN

CIVIL ENGINEERING
Submitted to the Graduate Faculty
of Texas Tech University in
Partial Fulfillment of
the Requirements for
the Degree of
MASTER OF SCIENCE

IN
CIVIL ENGINEERING

Approved

December, 1995
\-\^ ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I would like to thank my committee chairperson, Dr. Kishor C. Mehta, for his

direction and support of this thesis. I also like to express my sincere thanks to

Dr. James R. McDonald for his helpful suggestions.

u
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ii
ABSTRACT vi
LIST OF TABLES vii
LIST OF HGURES x
CHAPTER
I. INTRODUCTION 1
II. NATIONAL STANDARDS 5
2.1 American Standard 7
2.2 Australian Standard 11
2.2.1 Simplified Procedure 12
2.2.2 Detailed Procedure 13
2.2.2.1 Static Analysis 13
2.2.2.2 Dynamic Analysis 15
2.3 British Standard 16
2.3.1 Standard Method 16
2.3.2 Directional Method 17
2.4 Canadian Standard 19
2.5 Summary 21
III. FORMULATION OF WIND LOAD PARAMETERS 23
3.1 Reference Wind Speed 24
3.2 Annual Probability 26
3.2.1 American Standard 30
3.2.2 Australian Standard 30
3.2.3 British Standard 31
3.2.4 Canadian Standard 31
3.3 Terrain Factor 32
3.3.1 American Standard 36

m
 3.3.2 Ausu-alian Standard 38
3.3.3 British Standard 38
3.3.4 Canadian Standard 40
3.4 Gust Effect Factor 40
3.4.1 American Standard 42
3.4.2 Australian Standard 44
3.4.3 British Standard 44
3.4.4 Canadian Standard 45
3.5 Pressure Coefficients 46
3.5.1 American Standard 49
3.5.2 Australian Standard 50
3.5.3 British Standard 51
3.5.4 Canadian Standard 51
3.6 Summary 52
IV. CASE STUDY 54
4.1 Low Building 100 ft X 60 ft X 15 ft 57
4.2 160 ft High Building 100 ft X 200 ft X 160 ft 67
4.3 Use of Standards 84
4.3.1 American Standard 84
4.3.2 Australian Standard 85
4.3.3 British Standard 86
4.3.4 Canadian Standard 87
4.4 Summary 87
4.4.1 Low Building 88
4.4.2 160 ft High Building 88
V. LIMIT STATE LOADING 90
5.1 Low Building 93
5.2 160 ft High Building 93
VI. CONCLUSIONS 94

IV
REFERENCES 96
APPENDICES
A. CALCULATIONS USING AMERICAN STANDARD 98
B. CALCULATIONS USING AUSTRALIAN STANDARD 112
C. CALCULATIONS USING BRITISH STANDARD 128
D. CALCULATIONS USING CANADIAN STANDARD 144
 ABSTRACT

The objective of this thesis is to compare major recognized national standards of wind

loads and to determine the correlation among them. The four national standards

compared are American Society of Civil Engineering Standard, ASCE 7-95 (ASCE 7-95),

Australian standard, SAA Loading Code, Part 2: Wind Loads, AS 1170.2-1989 (SAA,

1989), British standard, Part 2, Code of Practice for Wind Loads, BS 6399, 1994 (BS

1994), and National Building Code of Canada, 1990 (NRCC 1990).

The objective was accomplished by calculating wind loads on two buildings: a low

building with dimensions of 100 ft x 60 ft x 15 ft and a 160 ft high building with a plan

dimensions of 200 ft x 100 ft. Limit state base shear and overturning moments for the two

buildings were calculated and then compared. The study shows that the four national

standards give similar limit state base shear for the two specific buildings selected for the

study. It is also seen that the overturning moment depends largely on the roof uplift. The

roof uplift force obtained from using the four national standards vary significantly which

indicates that a thorough parametric study on roof uplift loads should be conducted to

assess the real loads. The design pressures on components and claddings differ between

the standards by as much as 200 percent. While accomplishing the objective it was

observed that the comfurtability in using any standard depicts the format of the standard in

some manner. The study shows that for that the format of the American and the Canadian

standards are easy to follow, while the Australian and the British standard are more

difficult to use to when determining the wind loads.

VI
 LIST OF TABLES

2.1. Parameters and their terminology 6

2.2 Levels of approach 8

2.3 Equations used in the American standard 9

3.1 Probability of exceeding the reference wind speed during the

reference period for various values of annual probability 29

3.2 Exposure categories used in the four standards 33

3.3 Gradient heights and the exponential coefficients

used in the American standard 37

3.4 Roughness lengths used by the Australian standard 39

3.5 Roughness lengths used by the British standard 39

3.6 Exponential coefficients used by the Canadian standard 41

4.1 Wind load parameters used in the calculations of low

building 59
4.2 Base shear, overturning moment and roof uplift for low building 64
4.3 Wind load parameters used in the calculations of 160 ft
building 70

4.4 Baseshear, overturning moment and roof uplift for 160 ft building 78

5.1 Limit state base shear, overturning moments and roof uplift
for low buildings 92

5.2 Limit state base shear, overturning moments and roof uplift
for high-rise buildings 92

A. 1 Design wind pressures and extemal pressure coefficient

values for CASE A 101

vu
A.2 Design wind pressures and extemal pressure coefficient

values for CASE B 102

A.3 External pressure coefficients for components and claddings 104

A.4 Design wind pressures for components and claddings 104

A.5 Velocity pressure exposure coefficients and velocity pressures 105

A.6 Design wind pressures for wind parallel and normal to

100 ft side 107

A.7 Extemal pressure coefficients for components and claddings HO

A.8 Design pressures for zone l(roof middle surface), zone 2

(roof edges), and zone 3(roof corners) HI
A.9 Design pressures for zone 4(wall middle surface) and zone 5

wall edges) Ill

B.l Design pressures for roof 116

B.2 External pressure coefficients for components and claddings 118

B.3 Design wind pressures for components and claddings 118

B.4 Values of terrain and structure height multiplier M(z,cat).

design gust wind speed Vz and velocity pressure qz 120

B.5 Design windward wall pressures 122

B.6 External pressure coefficients for components and claddings 125

B.7 Design pressures for zone l(roof middle surface), zone 2

(roof edges), and zone 3(roof comers) 126
B.8 Design pressures for zone 4(wall middle surface) and zone 5
wall edges) 126

C.l External pressure coefficients for components and claddings 133

C.2 Design pressures for components and claddings 133

C.3 External pressure coefficients for components and claddings 137

viii
C.4 Design pressures for zone l(roof middle surface), zone 2
(roof edges), and zone 3(roof corners) 138

C.5 Design pressures for zone 4(wall middle surface) and zone 5
wall edges) 138

C.6 External pressure coefficients for components and claddings 141

C.7 Design pressures for zone l(roof middle surface), zone 2

(roof edges), and zone 3(roof corners) 143

C.8 Design pressures for zone 4(wall middle surface) and zone 5
wall edges) 143

D. 1 External peak pressure coefficients and design pressures

on the main wind-force resisting system for wind
perpendicular to ridge 147

D.2 External peak pressure coefficients and design pressures

on the main wind-force resisting system for wind
parallel to ridge 148

D.3 Extemal peak pressure coefficients for components

and claddings 150

D.4 Design pressures on components and claddings 150

D.5 Exposure factors and design pressures on the windward wall 152

D.6 External pressure coefficients for components and claddings 155

D.7 Design pressures for zone l(roof middle surface), zone 2

(roof edges), and zone 3(roof corners) 156
D.8 Design pressures for zone 4(wall middle surface) and zone 5
wall edges) 156

IX
 LIST OF FIGURES

3.1 Mean wind speed vector V and turbulent wind speed vector V(t) 25

3.2 Ratio of probable maximum speed averaged over period

t to that averaged over one hour (Simiu, 1986) 27

3.3 Wind speed profile 35

3.4 Typical pressure record 47

4.1 Low building 55

4.2 160 ft building 56

4.3 Stmctural system for low building 58

4.4 Design pressures on the main wind-force resisting system 63

4.5 Design pressures for wall grits and roof purlins

(tributary area 100 sqft) 66

4.6 Design pressures for fasteners (tributary area 5 sqft) 68

4.7 Stmctural system for 160 ft building 69

4.8 Design pressures for the main wind-force resisting

system, based on American standard 73
4.9 Design pressures for the main wind-force resisting
system based on Australian standard 74
4.10 Design pressures for the main wind-force resisting
system based on British standard 75

4.11 Design pressures for the main wind-force resisting

system based on Canadian standard 76

4.12 Design pressures for components 80

4.13 Design pressures for claddings 83

X
 CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Wind has major effects on mankind, both favorable and unfavorable. Property losses in

windstorms and increased concem for human comfort have resulted in a discipline called

wind engineering. "Wind engineering is best described as the rational treatment of

interaction between wind in the atmospheric boundary layer and man and his works on the

surface of the earth" (Cermak, 1975, p. 9).

When wind interacts with a building, it produces pressures on both intemal and extemal

surfaces. The magnitude of developed pressures on building surfaces depend on the

characteristics of the approaching wind and the geometry of the building. These effects

are incorporated into a standard in some manner, to form the wind load standard. A wind

load standard guides an engineer to use proper wind load for design of a building that is

exposed to the action of wind during its anticipated life. Various countries develop their

own national standards for wind loads. It is recognized that wind climate in countries can

be different resulting in different wind loads. However, wind-stmcture phenomena is

invariant, hence wind loads resulting from different national standards should be the same

for a given reference wind speed.

The objective of this thesis is to compare major recognized national standards of wind

loads and to determine the correlation among them. The four national standards selected

for comparison are:

(1) American Society of Civil Engineering Standard, ASCE 7-95 (ASCE 7-95),
 (2) Australian Standard, SAA Loading Code, Part 2: Wind Loads,

AS 1170.2-1989 (SAA 1989),

(3) British Standard, Part 2, Code of Practice for Wind Loads, BS 6399, 1994

(BS 1994),

(4) National Building Code of Canada, 1990 (NRCC 1990).

The American and British standards are in the development process; latest available drafts

are used for this thesis work.

Since, only the four national standards are used in this thesis, specific references to

each standard are not given wherever the standards are mentioned. A comparative study

of the earlier editions of these four national standards was conducted by Das (1985).

Since 1985, the four national standards have been significantly revised in the

methodologies of calculating wind loads. The new editions of standards bring up to date

the considerable advances in wind engineering. The latest American standard has adopted

a 3-second gust reference wind speed (earlier edition used fastest mile wind speed) and

has included a topography factor. The latest Australian standard specifies wind speed for

the serviceability limit state, ultimate limit state and permissible stress design. The basic

wind speed in the new British standard is a mean hourly wind speed, while the previous

edition used a 3-second gust wind speed. These significant changes in reference wind

speeds affect the approach to calculation of wind loads.

The provisions in the four national standards use different terminology for similar

parameters. The descriptions such as "openings in one wall" and "one wall permeable"

are difficult to distinguish and interpret. The provisions of the four national standards
have to be interpreted correctly. In this thesis, the provisions are interpreted by the author

to the best of his ability. No responsibihty is assumed by the author or the advising

committee in interpretation of the provisions.

Chapter II of the thesis deals with the description of wind load equations and

parameters used by each standard in determining the design wind pressures. In describing

the four national standards no effort is made to explain the equations or background of the

provisions; it is beyond the scope of this thesis. The parameters which affect the design

wind pressure are reference wind speed, annual probability of wind speed, height and

terrain factor, gust effect factor and pressure coefficients. The four national standards

consider all of these parameters. However the methods to consider these parameters to

compute the design wind pressures are different. The methods and the formulation of

each parameter for each of the standard are discussed in chapter HI. Since the methods

are different in the four standards, it is meaningless to compare magnitudes of the

parameters in the standards. The four national standards can be compared by calculating

wind loads on specific buildings. In order to compare the four national standards, wind

loads are calculated on two buildings: a low building with dimensions of 100 ft x 60 ft x

15 ft and a 160 ft high building with a plan dimensions of 200 ft x 100 ft. The design

pressure are compared in chapter IV. The buildings are assumed to be located in a

suburban area in the United States, where the 3-second gust wind speed is 110 mph (49

m/s). The reference wind speeds of the British and Canadian standards are made

consistent with the reference wind speed of the American standard. Since the Australian

standard uses the 3-second gust speed, no conversion is necessary to the reference wind
speed. The appendices contain the actual wind load calculations. Chapter V deals with

the application of load factors in limit state design and compares the base shear,

overtuming moment and roof uplift for the two buildings. Conclusions drawn from this

study are presented in Chapter VI.

 CHAPTER II

NATIONAL STANDARDS

"Wind load standards and codes govern design of buildings and structures to resist

wind induced loads" (Mehta, 1980, p. 1305). A majority of stmctures can be designed

using the prevailing standards. Wind tunnel tests are recommended for unusual structures

to determine the specific wind loads. "A standard is a documentation of the state-of-

knowledge" (Mehta, 1980, p. 1306). Generally, consensus groups, professional societies

or govemmental agencies develop the standards. The standard is used by engineers to

design building frames and building components to resist wind effects.

This chapter highlights equations and parameters used by the four national standards in

determining the design wind pressures. The parameters which are used by the four

standards for calculation of wind loads are: (1) reference wind speed, (2) a factor which

accounts for variation of terrain roughness and height, (3) a factor which accounts for

increase in wind speed due to local topography, (4) a factor which modifies wind speed

based on the building classification category, (5) a factor which accounts for shielding

effect, (6) a factor which accounts for additional loading due to wind gusts and,

(7) pressure coefficients. The standards compared in the study address the above

mentioned parameters. However, the methods of consideration of these parameters are

different in each of the standard. These differences are examined in chapter HI. The

parameters used by the four national standards and their terminology is shown in

Table 2.1.
Table 2.1. Parameters and their terminology

PARAMETER AMERICAN AUSTRALIAN BRITISH CANADL\N

STANDARD STANDARD STANDARD STANDARD
Reference wind 3-second gust 3-second gust mean hourly mean hourly
speed at speed at 10 m speed at 10 m wind speed at wind speed at
standard height height above height in open 10 m above 10 m above
in open terrain ground in open terrain ground in ground in open
terrain open terrain terrain
terrain Kz, velocity M(z,cat), terrain Sb, terrain and Cc, exposure
roughness and pressure and structure building factor
height factor coefficient height multiplier factor
topography Kzt, Mt, topography None None
factor topography multiplier
factor
importance I, importance Mi, structure Sp, probability reference wind
factor factor importance factor pressures
multiplier based on mean
recurrence
interval
shielding factor None Ms, shielding None None
multiplier
gust effect G, gust effect None None Cg, gust effect
factor factor factor
pressure Cp, extemal C C • C c • C C '
coefficient and internal extemal and extemal and extemal and
pressure intemal intemal intemal
coefficients pressure pressure pressure
coefficients coefficients coefficients
The four national standards divide buildings and stmctures into rigid structures and

flexible stmctures. Each standard formulates conditions for which a specific structure is

analyzed for static or dynamic loading. The standards use different levels of approach;

simple procedures, detailed procedures, and wind tunnel tests in attaining the design wind

pressures. Low-rise buildings and all rigid stmctures are analyzed using a simplified

procedure. Detailed procedures are used where wind loads govem the economics of

structural design. Flexible buildings are analyzed using detailed procedures, which provide

the designer with more accurate wind loads. Wind tunnel tests are performed on buildings

and stmctures which have complex shapes. Wind tunnel tests are also recommended for

monumental stmctures, where the additional design expenses are justified. Apart from the

above mentioned procedures, the British standard uses a directional method to evaluate

the design wind pressures on a rigid stmcture. Various levels of approaches used by the

four national standards are as shown in Table 2.2.

2.1 American Standard

American standard ASCE 7-95 classifies buildings and other structures into rigid

stmctures and flexible or dynamically sensitive stmctures. Rigid stmctures are further

categorized into partially enclosed, special low-rise buildings and open buildings. Rexible

structures are divided into buildings and other stmctures. The equations used for the

calculation of design wind pressures p (psf), and forces F (lb) for each category are listed

in Table 2.3. The general and simplified equation for evaluating design wind pressures

P (psO is
Table 2.2. Levels of approach
LEVELS OF AMERICAN AUSTRALIAN BRITISH CANADIAN
APPROACH STANDARD STANDARD STANDARD CODE
Simple yes yes yes yes
procedure
Detailed yes yes none yes
procedure
wind tunnel test yes yes none yes

8
Table 2.3. Equations used in the American Standard

RIGID STRUCTURES

BUILDING TYPE EQUATION

Partially enclosed building p = qGCp - qh(GCpi)

Special low-rise buildings p = qh [(GCpf) - (GCpi)]

Open buildings and stmctures F = qzGCfAf

FLEXIBLE STRUCTURES

BUILDING TYPE EQUATION

Building p = qGfCp

Other stmctures F = qzGfCfAf

 P = qGCp (2.1)

where q: velocity pressure,

G: gust effect factor,

Cp: pressure coefficient.

The velocity pressure q is given by the equation

q = 0.00256KzKztV'l (2.2)

where Kz: velocity pressure exposure coefficient,

Kzt: topography factor,

V: basic wind speed,

I: importance factor.

The constant 0.00256 represents air mass density for a standard atmosphere of

0.00237 slugs/ft and constants required to convert wind speed from miles per hour to feet

per second. The basic wind speed, V, is a 3-second gust speed at 10 m height above

ground in open terrain. Basic wind speed is associated with an annual probabihty of

occurrence of 0.02 (mean recurrence interval of 50 years). The velocity pressure exposure

coefficient Kz accounts for the variations of wind speed with height above ground and

terrain roughness. The American standard define four exposure categories: Exposure A

for a large city center. Exposure B for urban or suburban areas as well as heavily wooded

areas, Exposure C for open, airport terrain, and Exposure D for wind flowing over large

bodies of water. The topography factor Kzt accounts for significant variations of wind

speed over an isolated hill or escarpment. Significant variations can occur due to the

sudden or abrupt changes in topography surrounding the site. The topography factor is

10
applied to buildings and structures which are situated in the upper part of a hill or near the

edges of escarpments. The basic wind speed map of ASCE 7-95 is based on the annual

probability of occurrence of 0.02. To modify the basic wind speed to other probabilities,

an importance factor I is used. The importance factors are based on the building and

stmctural classification categories. Each building and stmctural category is associated

with an unique importance factor. The gust effect factor G, accounts for the loading

effect due to wind turbulence. Gust effect factors for rigid structures are 0.8 for exposure

A and B, and 0.85 for exposure C and D. For flexible buildings the Commentary in the

American Standard provides a rational method for calculating gust effect factors Gf.

Pressure coefficients account for the variation in wind pressure on surfaces of buildings

and structures. Pressure coefficients are basically divided into two categories, buildings of

all height and special low-rise buildings. Combined values of pressure coefficients and

gust effect factors for special low-rise building and components and claddings, are

tabulated. Appropriate pressure coefficients must be used to calculate the design wind

pressures. For sUiictures, force coefficients Cf are provided for a limited number of

shapes.

2.2 Australian Standard

The Australian Standard, SAA Loading Code part 2: Wind Loads, describes two

procedures, a simplified procedure and a detailed procedure, to calculate the design wind

pressures.

11
2.2.1 Simphfied Procedure

This procedure is applicable to buildings, which consist of a combination of rectangles

in plan, with height and gross area of roof plan less than 15 m and 1000 m^, respectively.

The applicability of this procedure is further restricted to buildings with roof slopes less

than 30 and ratio of building height to minimum plan dimension less than 5.

The design wind pressure p (kpa) is given by

p = p'BiB2B3B4 (2.3)

where p: net basic wind pressure,

B1: regional multiplying factor,

B2: terrain and height multiplying factor,

B3: topography multiplying factor,

B4: reduction factor for roofs.

The net basic wind pressure p' is obtained by combining the intemal and extemal basic

pressures. Values of extemal basic wind pressure p* (standard's nomenclature for net and

basic pressures) are tabulated for roofs and walls. Values of p^ are also tabulated for

intemal pressures. The factor Bi depends on the geographical region in which the building

is located. Four regional factors are specified in the standard: normal, intermediate,

tropical cyclone, and severe tropical cyclone. The terrain and height multipher B2

accounts for the changes in height and terrain surrounding the building. The factor B3 is a

topographic multiplier applied to buildings siUiated along the upper half of a hill or near

the edge of a escarpment. The roof reduction factor B4 is used to reduce the wind forces

on roof supporting structures with tributary area greater than 10 m^.

12
2.2.2 Detailed Procedure

This procedure evaluates design wind pressures using two methods based on the

sensitivity of the stmcture to wind.

2.2.2.1 Static Analysis. Static analysis is applied to buildings and stmctures which are

not sensitive to wind action. The height or length to breadth ratio and the first mode of

vibration to qualify a building for static analysis should be less than 5 and greater than 1

Hz, respectively. The design pressure p (kpa), for static analysis is given by the equation

p = Cp.KaK,Kpqz (2.4)

where Cpe: extemal pressure coefficient,

Ka: area reduction factor for roofs and side walls,

Ki: local pressure factors for claddings,

Kp: reduction factor for porous claddings,

qz: velocity pressure.

The extemal pressure coefficient Cpc accounts for the variation of pressure at various

locations on the building surface. Area reduction factors for roofs and side walls are a

correction to the peak loads produced on large tributary areas. The local pressure factor

accounts for pressures developed on small areas on various locations on the building

locations. The standard recommends application of the reduction factor to porous

claddings, and to the local negative pressures, when the porosity of the claddings exceeds

0.001 but is less than 0.01. The velocity pressure is given by the equation

qz = 0.6 X 10'(M(z.ca.)MMM.V)' (2.5)

13
 The constant 0.6 is one half the air mass density of 1.2 kg/m\ The basic wind speed V

is a 3-second gust wind speed at 10 m height in an open terrain. The Australian Standard

divides the basic wind speed in different regions as serviceabihty limit state wind speed V^,

permissible stress gust wind speed Vp and ultimate limit state gust wind speed Vu. The

ultimate limit state gust wind speed and the serviceability limit state wind speeds are

associated with an annual probability of occurrence of 0.001 (1000 year mean recurrence

interval) and 0.05 (20 year mean recurrence interval), respectively. The permissible stress

gust wind speed is associated with an annual probability of occurrence of 0.02 (50 year

mean recuiTence interval). The terrain and stmcture height multiplier M(z,cat) modifies the

basic wind speed to account for the variation of terrain and height. Wind speed is retarded

considerably due to shielding from adjacent buildings. To account for the reduction in

wind speed due to obstmctions, a shielding multiplier is used. The shielding multiplier

depends on the average height, breadth and distance between the buildings surrounding

the site. The topographic multiplier Mt, modifies the basic wind speed for sudden changes

occurring in the topography. The structure importance multiplier Mi modifies the basic

wind speed based on the structural classification. The values of Mi are tabulated

according to the structural classification which is, in tum, based on the importance of the

stmcture, and its impact on humans in case of failure. The multiplying factors M(z.cat), Ms,

Mt, and Mi, which modify the basic wind speed are the same for static and dynamic

analysis. The Australian standard does not use gust effect factor in the calculation of wind

loads.

14
 2.2.2.2 Dynamic Analysis. Dynamic analysis is applied to buildings and sUiictures

which are sensitive to wind action. The conditions for the applicabihty of dynamic analysis

are (i) Height or length to breadth ratio should be greater than 5 (ii) Structures should

have the first-mode of frequency of vibration less than 1 Hz. In the dynamic analysis

Ausu-alian standard calculates the net horizontal force and design peak base overtuming

moment.

The horizontal force acting on a building or stmcture at height z is calculated from the

equation

Fz=ZCpcqzAz (2.6)

where Cpe: extemal pressure coefficient

q^: hourly mean velocity pressure

Az: the area of the structure at height z

The hourly mean velocity pressure is similar to the velocity pressure discussed in static

analysis, the only difference is that the basic wind speed used in the dynamic analysis is

hourly mean wind speed instead of 3-second gust speed used in static analysis. The

summation of moments resulting from the horizontal forces gives the mean overtuming

moment Ma. The design peak base overtuming moment is then calculated using the

equation

M, =GM3 (2.7)

where M^: mean overtuming moment

G: gust effect factor

15
 2.3 British Standard

The Part 2. Code of Practice for Wind Loads of British Standard BS6399, describes

two methods for calculating the design wind pressures: a standard method and a

directional method. The standard method is used to obtain a standard wind speed

(standard's nomenclature), without considering wind direction. The standard effective

wind speed (standard nomenclature) with standard pressure coefficients is used to evaluate

the wind load for winds parallel and wind normal to the faces of the building. In the

directional method the effective wind speed and direction pressure coefficients are used

for different wind directions to check the critical wind loads. Velocity pressure in the

standard includes wind-stmcture interaction parameters which makes it difficult to explain

use of each of the parameter.

2.3.1 Standard Method

The wind pressure p (pa) acting on the surface of a building is given by the equation

p = qCpCa (2.8)

where q: velocity pressure,

Ca: size effect factor different for extemal and internal pressures,

Cp: Cpe for extemal pressure coefficient,

: Cpi for internal pressure coefficient.

16
2.3.2 Directional Method

The wind pressure on the extemal and intemal surface of the building is given by the

equation

P = qCp (2.9)

where q: velocity pressure,

Cp: Cpe for external pressure coefficient,

: Cpi for internal pressure coefficient,

the velocity pressure q is given by the equation

q = 0.613(SaSbSdS..SpVb)' (2.10)

where Vb: the basic wind speed,

Sa: altitude factor (elevation above sea level),

Sd: directional factor,

Ss: seasonal factor,

Sp: probabihty factor,

Sb: terrain and building factor.

The constant 0.613 is one half the air mass density of 1.226 kg/m^ The basic wind

speed Vb used here is a hourly mean wind speed at height 10 m above flat terrain with

uniform roughness at sea level. Basic wind speed is associated with an annual probability

0.02. The factors Sj, Ss, and Sp, are same for standard and directional methods. The

factor Sa is employed to harmonize the basic wind speed with the elevation of site above

sea level. The computation of Sa differs based on the topography considerations. For the

simple procedure, if topography is considered, then Sa is taken as the larger of

17
 Sa= 1+0.001 As or (2.11)

Sa = 1 + O.OOIAT + 1.2\|/eS (2.12)

where A.s: site altitude.

AT: altitude of the base of significant topography,

\|/e: effective slope,

s: topographic location factor,

if topography is not significant then

Sa= 1+0.001 As. (2.13)

For the directional method, if topography is considered,

Sa= 1+O.OOIAT, (2.14)

and, if topography is not considered

Sa = 1 + O.OOlAs. (2.15)

The basic wind speed is modified by the directional factor Sd to wind speeds with same

risk of exceedence in any wind direction. The east wind is taken as a wind direction <|) =

90°. Directional factors for wind directions from <)) = 0° to (j) = 330° are tabulated with 30°

intervals. If the building position is unknown or ignored the directional factor is taken

equal to 1.0 for all directions. The probabihty factor Sp is used to modify basic wind

speed for probability of occurrence other than 0.02. The seasonal factor Ss is used to

modify basic wind speed to wind speeds that a building experiences for a specific period,

i.e., temporary works and buildings during construction. Ss is taken equal to 1.0 for

permanent structures and structures exposed to wind for a period of more than six

months. Sb is the terrain and building factor which accounts for the effective height, the

18
distance of the site from the sea and the site terrain category. Sb is calculated differently

for standard method and directional method. In the directional method, a gust peak factor

gt is introduced in the calculation of terrain and building factors, which give the

appropriate gust speed for structure or its component that produce the maximum loading.

Ca is the size effect factor, which accounts for the influence of the wind gusts operating at

different time intervals across an extemal surface and for the response of intemal

pressures. The size effect factor used in the standard method is determined assuming a

gust peak factor gt = 3.44. The factor C, depends on the exposure of the site and the

diagonal dimension of the loaded area. Pressure coefficients, which account for the shape

and form of the building, depend on the method used to calculate wind loads. It is evident

from the above discussion that the British standard is difficult to describe and is just as

difficult to interpret.

2.4 Canadian Standard

In the Canadian standard the design wind pressure p (kpa) is given by the equation:

p = qCeCgCp (2.16)

where q = reference velocity pressure,

Cc = exposure factor,

Cg = gust effect factor,

Cp = external pressure coefficient.

The National Building Code of Canada refers to three different procedures for

calculating wind loads on buildings and stmctures. The first procedure is a simplified

19
procedure used for low and medium rise buildings. The second method is a detailed

procedure, which is apphcable to tall buildings and slender sUiictures. The third

procedure is an experimental method or wind tunnel test used for complex shaped

buildings, where the details of dynamic response of the stmcture are essential.

The reference wind pressure, q, is given by q = 0.5pV^ where V is the reference wind

speed and p is the air density. The reference wind speed is a mean houriy wind speed at

10 m above ground in open terrain. The air mass density p is taken as 1.229 kg/m^ The

Canadian standard tabulates reference wind pressure q, for three annual probabilities of

0.1,0.033, and 0.01 for specific Canadian locations.

The exposure factor Ce accounts for changes in wind speed and height. The exposure

factor also takes into account the variations in terrain roughness and topography. In the

simple procedure, there is only one value of exposure factor for one reference height and

for any terrain roughness. For low-rise buildings reference height is taken as the mean

height of the roof or 6m, whichever is greater. For windward walls of tall buildings, the

reference height is taken as the total height of the building and for leeward wall the

reference height is taken as half the height of the building. In the detailed procedure three

exposure categories are specified, which depend on the terrain roughness. The gust effect

factor, Cg accounts for the additional load due to the wind gusts and the dynamic

properties of the structure. In the simple procedure, Cg is taken as 2.5 for cladding

elements and 2.0 for the entire building system. Gust effect factor for the detailed

procedure of flexible buildings is evaluated using a technique given in the "Supplement to

the National Building Code of Canada, 1990" (NRCC, supplement 1990). The pressure

20
coefficient Cp, accounts for the pressure variations on the surface due to the variation of in

shape, direction of wind and wind velocity profile. Values of pressure coefficients for

various building shapes are tabulated in the "Supplement to the National Building Code of

Canada, 1990" (NRCC, supplement 1990).

2.5 Summary

For calculating wind loads the four standards compared in the study consider the

parameters reference wind speed, terrain roughness, height above ground, topography

factor, gust effect factor and pressure coefficients. In addition to these parameters,

Australian standard uses a shielding factor. The American, Australian and Canadian

standards specify provisions to obtain wind loads for rigid and flexible buildings. The

British standard provides procedures to analyze rigid buildings only. The design pressure

equation (2.4) indicates that the Australian standard uses area reduction factor K,, local

pressure factor Ki and reduction factor for porous claddings Kp. In order to apply these

factors effectively the designer should know the details of the component tributary areas

and the porosity of the cladding elements. For calculating the terrain and stmcture height

multiplier, the designer should know the terrain conditions within a 2500 m radius from

the site, and the wind speed with respect to each direction (northeast, east, southeast,

etc.). In addition, for calculating the shielding multiplier Ms the designer should know the

average height, breadth, and distance between the buildings surrounding the site. The

interpretation and application of these factors is a time consuming process.

21
 From the description of British standard (section 2.3), it is evident that the standard

includes a wind-stmcture interaction parameter (factor accounting for elevation of site

above sea level) in the velocity pressure. The determination of altitude factor requires the

knowledge of the topography surrounding the site.

22
 CHAPTER III

FORMULATION OF WIND LOAD PARAMETERS

The study of the equations and parameters involved in determining the wind pressures

in Chapter II indicates that all standards take into account the surrounding terrain, the

variation of pressure coefficients at different locations on the building surface, and the

effect of sudden changes in topography. It is also seen in Chapter II that the reference

wind speed used by the American and Australian standards is a 3-second gust wind speed

while the reference wind speed used by the British and Canadian standards is a mean

hourly wind speed. Even though the American standard uses 3-second gust speed the

standard applies a gust effect factor (see section 3.4.1) and though the British standard

uses mean hourly wind speed the standard does not use gust effect factor (see section

3.4.3). One more parameter worth mentioning is the use of importance factor. The

American standard and British standard change wind speeds to probabilities of occurrence

other than the common annual probability of 0.02 (50 year mean recurrence interval) by

using importance factor and probability factor, respectively. However Canadian standard

does not use an importance factor; it specifies wind speeds associated with different

annual probabilities of occurrence. The stmctural importance multiplier of the Austrahan

standard does not change the annual probabilities of occurrence, since the basic wind

speed is itself formulated to account for specific annual probabilities, depending on the

designing method. To understand these differences, it is important to review the

formulation of these wind load parameters. In the following sections the critical

23
parameters used in the four standards are reviewed. Detail study of each of the parameter

is beyond the scope of this thesis. The common parameters which are used in four

standards are

1. reference wind speed,

2. probability of occurrence associated with the reference wind speed,

3. height and terrain factor,

4. gust effect factor,

5. pressure coefficients.

In addition to these parameters, the Australian standard uses a factor known as

shielding factor. As the name implies it accounts for the reduction in wind speed caused

by upwind buildings. The shielding factor depends on the height, number of buildings, and

the spacing between the buildings in the 45° sector of radius 20h (h is the height of the

building being shielded) upwind of the building being shielded.

3.1 Reference Wind Speed

Wind speed is measured at an established base plane of reference. The plane of

reference for the four standards is wind speed measured at 10 m height above ground in an

open terrain. A typical record of the horizontal wind speed measured by a wind measuring

instrument is shown in Figure 3.1. Figure 3.1 describes the wind speed at a given point as

a function of time. The wind speed recorded can be considered as having a mean

component and a fluctuating component.

24
 o
o E
oo c
E
D
r;
o r5
o
>^

~D
o 'J
6
o

o c
o ;/•.

IT)

^
o
6
o
N;

D
o r-
o •.4_,
ro
c
TJ
O ^^
6
o
N ^-.
rs
'J
o
6 H
o
»"
^
C".
o
u
Ui
d
CO
(JU

paods puiM p.-^.^ils pUl/^

25
 The American and the Australian standards use 3-second wind speed as the reference

wind speed. The 3-second gust wind speed, which is the peak wind speed is assumed to

be averaged over a period of 3-seconds, because of the limitations of the response of the

anemometer. The 3-second gust wind speed is assumed to include the fluctuating

component of wind speed. The Canadian standard and the British standard use mean

hourly wind speed as the reference wind speed. Mean hourly wind speed is defined as the

wind speed averaged over one hour. Mean wind speed is the value of a wind speed

recorded over some time interval, hence mean wind speed depends on the averaging time.

Mean wind speed increases with the decrease in length of averaging interval. For open

terrain conditions Durst (1960), proposed a curve (Figure 3.2) based on the statistical

studies, which permits the transformation of wind speed from one averaging time to

another. The curve in Figure 3.2 relates the ratio of wind speed (Vt) averaged over t

seconds to mean hourly wind speed (V) versus the averaging time (t).

3.2 Annual Probability

Basic wind speed is defined as the wind speed corresponding to a specified mean

recurrence interval of the cumulative distribution function. The cumulative distribution

function of annual maxima, when fitted to Fisher Tippett Type I extreme value

disU"ibutions, gives a relationship between wind speed and annual probability of being

exceeded. The relationship is

V = X + -[-ln[-ln(l-Pj]] (3.3)
a^

26
 1.7 I I I I !I]I| 1 I I lll|l| 1 I I lllll| 1 I I I Mil

1.6

1.5

1.4

>
1.3
>

1.2

1.1

1.0 I I 1iiini 1 i I mill I I Imil llAhi

10 100 1000 10.000
/ (sec)

Figure 3.2. Ratio of probable maximum speed averaged over

period t to that averaged over one hour (Simiu, 1986).

Note: V,: Wind speed averaged over l .seconds

V: Mean hourly wind speed

t: averaging lime

27
where V: wind speed,

X: mode.

Pa: annual probabihty,

—: dispersion,
a

The four standards use the Fisher Tippett Type I distribution to model the wind speeds.

Let Pa be the annual probability of the extreme wind speed V at some given location.

Then the probability p that the wind speed V will not occur once in n years ( n trials) is

(1 - Pa)". The probabihty that the wind speed V will occur once in n trials is

Pn=l-(1-Pa)". (3.4)

If the random variable N represents the number of years in which the wind speed V occurs

for the first time, then the expected value or the mean recurrence interval of N is equal to

1 / Pa. Hence a wind speed with an annual probability of 0.01 corresponds to mean

recurrence interval of 100 years. The value of probability Pn exceeding the reference wind

speed are tabulated in Table 3.1 with respect to reference periods. A reference period is

the period of time the stmcture is exposed to wind. Table 3.1 indicates that the

probability that a wind speed of given magnitude will be equaled or exceeded increases

with increase in reference period. The annual probabihties used by the four standards are

discussed below.

28
Table 3.1. Probability of Exceeding the Reference Wind Speed During the
Reference Period for Various Values of Annual Probabihty

Annual Reference Periods, Years

Probability

Pa 1 5 10 25 50 100

0.04 0.04 0.18 0.34 0.64 0.87 0.98

0.02 0.02 0.10 0.18 0.40 0.64 0.87

0.01 0.01 0.05 0.10 0.22 0.40 0.64

0.005 0.005 0.02 0.05 0.10 0.22 0.39

0.001 0.001 0.005 0.01 0.02 0.05 0.10

29
3.2.1. American Standard

The basic wind speed map of the American standard gives 3-second gust wind speeds

associated with an annual probability of 0.02. To modify the wind speed to other annual

probability of occurrences, consistent with the building classification category, an

importance factor I is used. The American standard modifies wind speed to mean

recurrence intervals other than 50 years based on building and stmcture classification

categories. For normal stmctures like the buildings associated with the Case Study, mean

recurrence interval of 50 years is used. A mean recurrence interval of 100 years is used

for important buildings and stmctures which have special post-disaster functions. For

unoccupied buildings mean recurrence interval of 25 years may be used.

3.2.2. Australian Standard

The Australian standard provides the designer with the ultimate hmit state gust speed,

Vu, permissible stress gust wind speed, Vp and serviceabihty hmit state wind speed, Vs

through the basic wind speed map. The ultimate limit state gust wind speed Vu has 0.05

probabihty of being exceeded in a 50 year reference period, which correspond to annual

probability of occurrence of 0.001 (1000 year mean recurrence interval). The

serviceabihty hmit state wind speed Vs is associated with an annual probability of 0.05 ( 20

year mean recurrence interval). The permissible stress gust wind speed Vp is similar to the

basic wind speed used by American standard and is associated with an annual probability

of 0.02 (50 year mean recurrence interval). Unlike the American standard, the Australian

standard does not modify the basic wind speed based on sUuctural classification category.

30
3.2.3. British Standard

The British standard also gives basic wind speeds associated with an annual probability

of exceedence of 0.02. To change the basic wind speed to other annual probabilities, the

basic wind speed Vb is multiplied by a probabihty factor Sp. Probability factor is obtained

by using the following expression

^ [5-ln[-ln(l-Q)]]
' ^[5-ln[-ln(0.98)]] ^^'^^

where Q is the desired annual probability of occurrence. The above equation is deduced

from the Fisher-Tipett Type I model for dynamic pressures that has mode / dispersion

ratio equal to 5. The probability factor modifies the basic wind speed to account for the

design method (limit state or working su-ess) used. For ultimate limit state a probabihty

factor of Sp = 1.18 (annual probability of 5.7 x 10"^) corresponding to mean recurrence

interval of 1754 years is used. Bridges and nuclear installations are designed with annual

probabilities of 0.0083 (120 year mean recurrence interval) and 10"* (10000 year mean

recurrence interval), respectively. For standard design, a probability factor of 1.0 is used.

3.2.4. Canadian Standard

The Canadian standard specifies velocity pressures based on annual probabilities of 0.1,

0.033 and 0.01. For the design of components and cladding the standard requires velocity

pressures with an annual probability of occurrence of 0.1 (10 year mean recurrence

interval). The design of building structural members are based on an annual probabihty of

occurrence of 0.033 (30 year mean recurrence interval). Important structures such as

31
buildings which have special post-disaster functions, are designed with an annual

probability of 0.01 (100 year mean recurrence interval). The Canadian standard does not

provide an importance factor like the American and British standards for changing the

velocity pressures to an altemate annual probabihty of occurrence.

3.3 Terrain Factor

The wind moving over the ground surface experiences retarding forces due to the

ground surface roughness. The layer of air experiencing retardation is referred to as the

boundary layer. The wind speed increases from zero at the ground surface to its

maximum value, at the gradient height Zg of the boundary layer. The depth or height of

the boundary layer depends on the wind intensity, roughness of terrain, and angle of

latitude. The wind speed at the top of the boundary layer is referred to as the gradient

speed. Above the gradient height the effect of ground roughness is negligible.

When determining the wind loads, the frictional force retarding the wind speed near the

ground surface is accounted by an exposure coefficient. The change in wind speed due to

large natural features of earth such as hills and valleys is accounted for by a topography

factor. All four standards define exposure categories based on the surface roughness. The

exposure coefficients used in the four standards are defined as the velocity pressure

coefficient in the American standard Kz, the terrain and stmcture height multiplier M(z.cat)

in the Australian standard, the terrain and building factor Sb in the British standard and the

exposure factor Cc in the Canadian standard. The exposure categories used in the four

standards are tabulated in Table 3.2.

32
Table 3.2. Exposure categories used in the four standards

Exposure Description American Australian British Standard Canadian

Standard Standard Standard
large city centers Exposure A Category 4 Town Terrain Exposure C
urban and suburban areas Exposure B Category 3 Town Terrain Exposure B
open terrain Exposure C Category 2 Country Terrain Exposure A
wind flowing over water Exposure D Category 1 Sea
bodies

33
The variation in wind speed with height, known as a wind speed profile (Figure 3.3 ), can

be represented by the logarithmic law or the power law equation.

Logarithmic law:

1 z
V, = - U J n — (3.6)
k z„

where Vz: wind speed at height z,

Z(,: roughness length,

U*: frictional velocity.

constant.

Power law:

V =V or (3.7)
* zl ^ i2 _ 2_

z 7^
(3.8)
zg Z„

where Vzg gradient wind speed,

height above ground,

^g gradient height,

Vz wind speed at any height Z,

a exponential coefficient.

Meteorologists consider the logarithmic law as the superior representation of wind

profiles in the lower atmosphere (Simiu, 1986), but for engineering purposes the power

law is used without significant eiTor. Davenport (1965) assumed that the power law holds

34
 Wind speed

Figure 3.3. Wind speed profile

35
with constant exponent a up to the gradient height Zg. The gradient height and the

exponential coefficient depend on terrain roughness. Reference wind speeds are usually

measured at the airport locations in open terrain. This exposure category is taken as the

reference exposure category. The reference exposure categories in the four standards are

Exposure C (American standard). Category 2 (Australian standard). Country Terrain

(British standard) and Exposure A (Canadian standard). The wind speed at any height and

for any exposure category can be determined using equations (3.6), (3.7), or (3.8).

3.3.1. American Standard

The velocity pressure exposure coefficient Kz in the American standard is based on the

power law.

f^, V r- 900^1
— - - 9.5
- ( -^ ^Z^
K:Z = = 2.01 for 15 ft <Z<Zc
V^33y v 3 3 y V^sy vZ.y

/^N0.21

— I for open exposure (a = 7) (3.9)

U3.

K, = 2.01 for Z < 15 ft (3.10)

The values of gradient height Zg and the exponential coefficient a used by the American

standard are tabulated in Table 3.3.

36
Table 3.3. Gradient heights and the exponential coefficients used in the American
standard

Terrain Description Exposure Exponential Gradient

Category coefficient, a height, Zg
(m)
large city centers A 5.0 1500
urban and suburban areas B 7.0 1200
open terrain C 9.5 900
wind flowing over water bodies D 11.5 700

37
3.3.2 Australian Standard

The terrain and height multipher M(z,cat) of the Austrahan standard is obtained from

the engineering wind model developed by Melbourne which is based on the Deaves and

Harris model (SAA, 1989). The model developed by Melbourne, based on the logarithmic

law is given by the equation

U* ^z^ z z r \' z
log. + 5.75 -1.88 -1.33 -hO.25 (3.11)
' 0.4 K^oJ v^.y V^s/ v^sy v^y

For z less than 30 m the above model reduces to

u*, r z ^
Vz = In (3.12)
' 0.4 y^oj

where Vz: wind speed at height z,

U*: friction velocity,

z : height above ground,

Zo : terrain roughness length,

Zg : gradient height.

The roughness lengths used by the Australian standard for each exposure category are

tabulated in Table 3.4.

3.3.3. British Standard

British standard does not specify on which law (power law or logarithmic law) it is

representing the terrain and building factor Sb. The roughness lengths used for each

terrain category are tabulated in Table 3.5.

38
Table 3.4. Roughness lengths used by the Australian standard

Terrain Description Exposure Category Roughness lengths, Zo

large city centers 2.0

urban and suburban areas 0.2

open terrain 0.02

wind flowing over water bodies 0.002

Table 3.5. Roughness lengths used by the British standard

Terrain Description Exposure Category Roughness lengths, Zo

large city centers Town Terrain 0.3

urban and suburban areas Town Terrain 0.3

open terrain Country Terrain 0.03

wind flowing over water bodies Sea 0.003

39
3.3.4. Canadian Standard

For the simple procedure, the exposure factor Ce is based on the power law with an

exponential coefficient equal to 1/5. The exposure coefficients for the detailed procedure

are obtained following an approach similar to one followed by the American standard. For

open exposure the Canadian standard gives the exposure coefficient as

C = (3.13)
Jo,
The Canadian standard does not specify the gradient heights used in determining

exposure coefficient. The exponential coefficients for each terrain category are tabulated

in Table 3.6.

3.4 Gust Effect Factor

Most modem stmctures, which are more flexible, lower in damping, and hghter in

weight than the older structures, may have natural frequencies of vibrations in the same

range as the average frequencies of powerful gusts. These powerful gusts can induce

large resonant motions in alongwind direction. The resonant motions on flexible

stmctures or the additional loading effect induced by atmospheric turbulence on non-

flexible structures are accounted for by a gust effect factor. Atmospheric turbulence is

greater in rough terrain than in smooth terrain. In other words the magnitude of

turbulence increases with increase in terrain roughness and decreases with increase in

height above ground. However, gust size is smaller in rough terrain than in smooth

terrain. The rapid fluctuations of wind which cause dynamic amplification or resonant

40
Table 3.6. Exponential coefficients used by the Canadian standard

Terrain Description Exposure Category Exponential

coefficients, a

large city centers Exposure C 7.2

urban and suburban areas Exposure B 4.0

open terrain Exposure A 2.8

wind flowing over water bodies - -

41
motion are taken into account by applying a gust factor to the average wind pressure

(Davenport, 1967). Davenport (1967) accounted for the dynamic response by applying a

gust factor to the average wind pressure

P(z)n,ax =Gp(z) (3.14)

where p^^^ = average pressure on the structure at height 'z',

p(z) = total wind pressure,

G = gust factor.

The four national standards, use different approaches to account for additional loading

effects due to wind turbulence.

3.4.1. American Standard

The American standard accounts for the loading effect induced by atmospheric

turbulence by applying a gust effect factor to wind pressure. The reference wind speed

used by the American standard is a 3-second gust speed. The 3-second gust speed is an

instantaneous wind speed equal to sum of mean wind speed and gusting wind speed. This

fact indicates that the American standard includes gustiness induced by the wind

turbulence in the reference wind speed itself The motion of air near the ground surface is

very turbulent. The eddies formed as a result of wind turbulence vary over a wide range

of sizes. When eddies, which are smaller than the structure, impinge on the stmcture they

will not produce maximum pressure over the entire structure surface. The wind pressures

produced by a 3-second gust speed should account for lack of correlation of wind induced

loads over large size surfaces. Hence, as the size of the stmcture increases, the gust effect

42
factor should reduce. The American standard accounts for the lack of correlation of wind

induced loads, by incorporating a gust effect factor which decreases to less than unity with

an increase in the stmcture size and with increase in the terrain roughness. Using the

above argument for rigid stmctures, the American standard uses a gust effect factor of 0.8

for Exposures A and B and 0.85 for Exposures C and D.

For flexible stmctures the American standard uses a rational method for evaluating the

gust effect factor. The approach described in the commentary of ASCE 7-95 takes into

account the terrain roughness in terms of the power law exponent, the effect of building

size, average size of the turbulent eddies (integral scale), mass, natural frequency and

damping of the structure.

For special low-rise buildings having height less than or equal to 60 ft and for

components and claddings, the American standard gives combined values of gust effect

factor and pressure coefficients in the form of graphs. The combined values of gust effect

factor and pressure coefficients are obtained from the data coUected in wind tunnel

experiments; these values should not be separated. The combined values of gust effect

factor and pressure coefficients for special low-rise buildings are tabulated in the standard

for different building areas represented by zones based on the roof angle. The combined

values of gust effect factor and pressure coefficients for components and claddings are

formulated based on the effective wind area or the tributary area pertaining to the

respective zones and roof angles.

43
3.4.2. Australian Standard

The static analysis of the Austrahan standard uses 3-second gust wind speed as the

basic wind speed. The effect of wind gustiness is included in the reference wind speed

itself Therefore, the Australian standard does not use gust effect factor to account for the

loading effects due to wind turbulence. The Australian standard applies an area reduction

factor Ka for roofs and side walls to reduce the peak loads produce on large tributary

areas. The standard uses an area reduction factor of 1.0 for tributary areas of less than 10

m and an area reduction factor of 0.8 for tributary areas of more than 100 m .

In the dynamic analysis for flexible stmctures, the AusU-alian standard uses a gust factor

similar to the gust effect factor used by Canadian standard. For the dynamic analysis of

structures the Australian standard coverts the 3-second gust wind speed to a mean hourly

wind speed. The gust effect factor used by the standard is based on the model proposed

by Davenport (1967).

3.4.3. British Standard

The British standard uses mean houriy wind speed as the reference wind speed. Since

mean hourly wind speed is converted to a gust wind speed by a gust peak factor gt, the

British standard does not use a gust effect factor. The gust peak factor is used in the

calculation of the terrain and building factor Sb, which takes into account the gust

duration, the height and the size of the stt-ucture. The size effect factor Ca, of the standard

method is based on gt = 3.44.

44
 Gust peak factor gt is used for static stmctures to give the appropriate gust speed

which will envelope the structure or component to produce the maximum load. In the

calculation of terrain and building factor Sb for country terrain, gust peak factor is

multiplied by turbulence factor St which varies with height above ground. For town

terrain, turbulence factor St is multiplied by ttirbulence adjustment factor Tc. This shows

that although the standard does not use a gust effect factor it is considering the gust

influence on the building size and its variation with terrain roughness and height above

ground.

3.4.4. Canadian Standard

Canadian standard defines the gust effect factor as the ratio of the maximum and mean

effect of the loading. The procedure adopted by the Canadian standard in evaluating the

gust effect factor is essentially based on the procedure proposed by Davenport (1967), and

is similar to the one used in the detailed procedure for dynamic analysis in Austrahan

standard. The gust effect factor in the Canadian standard takes into account: the surface

roughness of the terrain, the background turbulence, size reduction factor, building

dimension, natural frequency, and damping of the stmcture. For rigid sU-uctures,

Canadian standard employs a gust effect factor of 2.5 for components and claddings and a

gust effect factor of 2.0 for the main wind resisting system.

Canadian standard divides the total response caused by the wind gustiness into two

components: the background component, acting quasi-statically without any sU-uctural

dynamic magnification, and a resonant component close to the natural frequency of the

45
structure. In the simple procedure used for rigid structures the resonant component is

assumed to be small and the gustiness is taken as a static load. Similar to the American

standard, the Canadian standard also gives combined values of gust effect factor and

pressure coefficients for low-rise buildings. Gust effect factor for flexible buildings is

calculated using the procedure given in the "Supplement to the National Building Code of

Canada" (NRCC, supplement 1990).

3.5 Pressure Coefficients

The pressure coefficients are determined from wind tunnel experiments on small

scale models or from experimental results from full scale buildings. Pressure

coefficients are represented by a non-dimensional parameter Cp as

Cp=^^^ (3.15)
\f>Vl

where p : pressure at some point on the building surface,

po : pressure of the undisturbed flow of air,

p : density of the undisturbed flow of air,

Vo: velocity of the undisturbed air flow.

The pressures and forces obtained by using any wind load standard gives the

impression that these pressures and forces are steady or constant with time. In reality,

pressures measured on a building surface fluctuates rapidly with time and with large

amplitudes (see Figure 3.4) in a manner similar to wind speed. Figure 3.4 shows a typical

pressure record, where ^ and p represent the mean pressure and the peak pressure. The

46
 o
o
ii
ii

Vi
ii
Q.

rn

3)

47
mean and peak pressure coefficients are represented as

Cp=f-^ (3.16)

_P-P.
Cp=-^-^ (3.17)

The mean pressure coefficient obtained from the mean pressure correspond to the

average extemal loads on the various surfaces of a building. Mean pressure coefficients

are independent of time averaging. Peak pressure coefficients, obtained from peak

pressure, are time and specially averaged pressure coefficients. The combined values of

pressure coefficients and gust effect factors given by the American standard and Canadian

standard are peak pressure coefficients.

Pressures acting on a building can be divided into two categories; extemal and intemal

pressures. Air flowing over and around a building causes pressure on the building's

surface; this pressure is called external pressure. The obstruction of the building induces

the separation of flow from the boundary surface causing wind turbulence. The turbulent

regions where the flow separation takes place is known as the separation region. The

point where the flow separation takes place is known as the separation point. The region

downstream from the flow separation point is termed as the wake region. The pressure in

this wake region may be represented as a non-dimensional pressure coefficient Cp given

by equation (3.15). Openings in the extemal surface of a building can increase or decrease

the pressure inside the building. This increase or decrease in pressure within the building

is called intemal pressure. Openings in the windward wall increase the pressure inside the

48
building. The leeward or a side wall openings decrease pressure within the building as the

air inside the building is removed by the suction created by the wind flowing around the

building. Intemal pressure behavior differs from extemal pressure in two ways: Liu

(1983)

1. Internal pressure depends on openings such as windows and doors.

2. Intemal pressure is constant through out a room and for buildings with

loosely separated rooms, it is constant throughout the building.

The forces exerted by the wind on walls and roof depends both on the external and

internal pressure. The vector sum of the internal and external pressure gives the

magnitude and the direction of the resultant force.

In all the four standards the extemal and intemal pressure coefficients are given in

figures and tables, which facilitates the design of claddings and stmcture for many simple

building geometry's. Since pressure coefficients vary with shape, size, and wind direction

it is very difficult to provide pressure coefficients for all shapes and sizes in the standards.

The sign convention used by all four standards is +ve for pressure acting toward a surface

and negative for pressure acting away from a surface. All standards give intemal pressure

coefficients based on wall openings and porosity. To facilitate use of tables and graphs

given for pressure coefficients all standards give notes.

3.5.1. American Standard

The American standard divides extemal pressure coefficients into two main categories:

(1) pressure coefficient Cp for buildings of all height;

49
 (2) combined values of pressure coefficients and gust effect factor GCp for

buildings with height less than or equal to 60 ft (special low-rise buildings)

and for components and claddings.

The extemal pressure coefficients Cp are the mean pressure coefficients which represent

the actual loading on each surface of the building based on wind direction. These

pressure coefficients are specified according to a given wind direction and various building

aspect ratios. The combined values of pressure coefficients and gust effect factor GCp

given by the standard are both time and specially averaged. For components and

claddings the American standard provides GCp values based on the tributary area. For

special low-rise buildings GCp values are given based on the zonal division of the building

surface.

3.5.2. Australian Standard

For windward walls, the Australian standard gives different average pressure

coefficients for buildings with height less than 25 m and for buildings with height greater

than 25 m. The standard gives same pressure coefficients for leeward walls, side walls,

and roofs for high-rise and low-rise buildings. Pressure coefficients for leeward walls are

based on the ratios between the two horizontal dimensions of the buildings and the roof

angle. For roofs, pressure coefficients are assigned according to the horizontal distance

from the windward edge and the h/d ratios. Pressure coefficients for side wall are also

given according to the horizontal distance from the windward face. To determine wind

pressure on components and claddings, the Australian standard gives local pressure factor

50
Ki which is multiplied by the appropriate wall or roof pressure coefficients to give the

peak pressures. The standard does not give -hve or inward acting pressure coefficients on

roofs.

3.5.3. British Standard

In contrast with the American and AusU-alian standards, which give pressure

coefficients based on the ratio of horizontal dimension, the British standard gives the

pressure coefficients for windward and leeward walls based on the D/H ratio (where D is

the dimension parallel to wind and H is the height of the building). In comparison to the

Australian standard, the British standard gives side wall and roof pressure coefficients

according to the horizontal distance from the windward edge. For components and

claddings British standard does not give separate pressure coefficients. The size effect

factor in the standard method of the British standard is taken as 1.0 for any surface area

with diagonal dimension less than 5 m. In directional method the gust peak factor for

designing components and claddings is taken equal to 3.44.

3.5.4. Canadian Standard

Similar to American standard, Canadian standard also gives combined values of

pressure coefficients and gust effect factors for components and claddings and for low-rise

buildings. For high-rise buildings separate pressure coefficients are given. The standard

does not give pressure coefficients for buildings having HAV ratio less than one. For small

51
cladding areas on high-rise buildings the standard gives local pressure coefficient which

facilitate the design of components and claddings.

3.6 Summary

The American standard and the AusU-alian standard use 3-second gust wind speed

while the British standard and the Canadian standard use mean houriy wind speed. For

dynamic analysis the AusU-ahan standard uses mean houriy wind speed. The Australian

standard gives basic wind speeds associated with mean recurrence intervals of 20, 50, and

1000 years. The mean recurrence intervals in Australian standard are based on the

designing method used. The Canadian standard gives wind speeds with mean recurrence

intervals of 10, 33, and 100 years. The American standard and the British standards

modify basic wind speed to other probability of occurrences using importance factor and

probabihty factor respectively.

All the standards account for variation in wind speed with height and terrain. In

determining the coefficients related to variation in wind speed with height and terrain, the

American and the Canadian standards adopted power law equation, while the Australian

standard adopted the logarithmic law equation. The British standard does not specify

which law (power law or logarithmic law) it has adopted.

The American and the Canadian standards use gust effect factor both for static analysis

and for dynamic analysis. The Australian standard applies gust effect actor for dynamic

analysis only. The British standard does not use gust effect factor. However, by

incorporating gust peak factor and turbulence adjusunent factor in the calculation of

52
terrain and building factor, the standard does consider gust influence on building size and

its variation with terrain roughness and height.

All the standards determine pressure coefficients similarly either by wind tunnel

experiments or by full scale experiments. However, differences in averaging time and

methods adopted for accounting exposure factor and gust effect factor result in the values

of the pressure coefficients varying significantly. For low-rise buildings, the American and

the Canadian standard gives combined values of pressure coefficients and gust effect

factor for the main wind-force resisting system and components and claddings. The

American standard also uses these combined values for calculating design pressure on

component and claddings of buildings with height greater than 60 ft.

53
 CHAPTER IV

CASE STUDY

The case study deals with the calculations of wind loads on a low building (60 ft x 100

ft X 15 ft) and a 160 ft high building (100 ft x 200 ft in plan) using the four national

standards. The actual wind load computations for each standard are given in the

appendices. The low building and the 160 ft building selected for the case study are

shown in Figure 4.1 and Figure 4.2, respectively. The calculation of wind pressures on

both buildings, using the four standards, are based on the following set of conditions

(1) The buildings are assumed to be located in a suburban area.

(2) The 3-second gust wind speed associated with 0.02 annual probability of

exceedance is assumed to be 110 mph (49 m/s).

(3) Both the buildings are assumed to be conventional stmctures.

For calculating wind loads based on the Australian standard a permissible stress gust

wind speed Vp of 49 m/s (110 mph) is used. The basic wind speed used by the British

standards is mean hourly wind speed. An equivalent mean hourly wind speed for the 3-

second gust speed of 110 mph used in the American standard is 72.7 mph (32.4 m/s). The

Canadian standard recommends a reference wind speed associated with annual

probabilities of 0.033 for design of main wind-force resisting system and 0.1 for design of

components and claddings. The equivalent mean hourly wind speed associated with

annual probabihties of 0.1 and 0.033 are 61.1 mph (27.2 m/s) and 68.3 mph (30.4 m/s),

respectively. The equivalent wind speeds are obtained using the Durst curve (Figure 3.2)

54
 00
c
3

u
3>

55
160 ft

Figure 4.2. 160 ft building.

56
and the factors given in the commentary of the American Standard (Figure C6, ASCE 7-

95).

4.1 Low Building

The low building selected for case study is a 100 ft x 60 ft x 15 ft single story flat roof

building. The building structural framing contains six portal frames spaced at 25 ft on

center. Roof purlins and wall grits span between main frames with a 5 ft spacing between

them. The stmctural framing system is shown in Figure 4.3. The building is provided

with one 10 ft x 8 ft door in one of the 60 ft walls. One 6 ft x 5 ft window is provided in

each of the 60 ft long walls and two windows of the same area are in each of the 100 ft

long walls. For the selection of intemal pressure coefficients, the building is considered to

have uniform openings in all four walls. None of the openings are considered a dominant

opening in one particular wall.

The wind load parameters used in the computations for each standard are shown in

Table 4.1. The detailed procedure for static stmctures of the Australian standard does not

use gust effect factor. An area reduction factor K, is used as a correction factor to the

peak loads on side walls and roof when large U-ibutary areas are involved. The area

reduction factor decreases to a minimum value of 0.80 with increase in tributary area from

10 m^ to 100 m l The computational methods given in the British standard not use gust

effect factor, since the mean houriy wind speed is converted to a gust wind speed by the

gust peak factor. The gust peak factor accounts for the gust duration, height and size of

the structure. The size effect factor used in standard method of the British standard is

57
 Vi

Vi
C no

ii
B
a
In
t:
o 00
c
is
"5
X)
o
a
ii
*->
Vi
>^
Vi
u
3
•4-)

o
s
•«->

r-i
rf
ii

58
Table 4.1. Wind load parameters used in the calculations for low building

Parameter American Australian British Canadian

standard standard standard standard

Basic wind 110 mph 110 mph 72.7 mph 68.3 mph &

speed 61.1 mph

Exposure factor 0.85 0.75 1.325 0.9

Shielding factor - 0.85 - -

Topography 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00

factor

Gust effect gives combined gives combined

factor values values

Extemal pressure coefficients

Windward wall 0.40 0.7 0.6 0.75

Leeward wall -0.29 -0.5 -0.1 -0.55

Roof -0.69(0 - 30)* -0.9(0 - 15) -1.4(0-3) -1.3(0-30)

-0.37(30 - 60) -0.5(15 - 30) -0.7(3 - 12) -0.7(30 - 60)

-0.3(30 - 45) -0.2(12 - 45)

-0.2(45 - 60)

Intemal pressure 0.18 &-0.18 0.0 & -0.3 0.2 & -0.3 0.0 & -0.3

59
Table 4.1. (continued)
External pressure coefficients for components and claddings

Purlins and grits

roof middle 0.2 & -0.9 -0.5(1.0)* 0.2(0.98) & 0.675 &

surface -0.7(0.98)* -1.5

roof eaves 0.2 &-1.1 -0.9(1.5) 0.2(0.98) & 0.675 &

-1.4(0.98) -2.0

roof corners 0.2 &-1.1 -0.9(1.5) 0.2(0.98) & 0.675 &

-2.0(0.98) -2.0

wall middle 0.72 & -0.855 0.7(1.0) & 0.6(0.98) & 0.55 &-1.67

surface -0.5(1.0) -0.8(0.98)

wall comers 0.72 & -0.855 0.7(1.0) & 0.6(0.98) & 0.55 &-1.67

-0.65(1.5 -1.3(0.98)

Fasteners

roof middle 0.3 &-1.0 -0.5(1.0) 0.2(1.00) & 0.5 &-1.81

surface -0.7(1.00)

roof eaves 0.3 &-1.8 -0.9(2.0) 0.2(1.00) & 0.5 & -2.5

-1.4(1.00)

roof corners 0.3 & -2.8 -0.9(2.0) 0.2(1.00) & 0.5 & -5.375

-2.0(1.00)

60
Table 4.1. (continued)
wall middle 0.9 & -0.99 0.7(1.25) & 0.6(1.00) & 1.82 &-1.8

surface -0.5(1.0) -0.8(1.00)

wall comers 0.9 &-1.23 0.7(1.25) & 0.6(1.00) & 1.82 &-2.08

-0.65(2.0) -1.3(1.00)

Note: * distance from the windward edge

* external pressure coefficient (local pressure factor)

* external pressure coefficient (size effect factor)

61
determined based on gust peak factor gt = 3.44. The American and Canadian standards

give combined values of pressure coefficients and gust effect factor for the components

and claddings and the main wind force resisting system of a low building. The Austrahan

standard gives a single value for the pressure coefficient on a windward wall. The

pressure coefficients on leeward walls are divided based on the d/b ratio, where 'b' and 'd'

are the across wind and along wind dimensions. The British standard gives the windward

wall and leeward wall pressure coefficients based on the D/H ratio, where D is the

alongwind dimension and H is the height of the stmcture. The American and the Canadian

standards give pressure coefficients for components and claddings based on the tributary

areas. The peak loads arising on small tributary areas are accounted by size effect factor

in the Bridsh standard and by local pressure factor and area reduction factor in the

Austrahan standard.

The design pressures on the main wind force resisting system obtained for each

standard are shown in Figure 4.4. The base shear, overtuming moment and roof uplift

calculated from the design pressures for each standard are given in Table 4.2. The base

shear obtained from using the four standards ranges from 21.7 to 23.1 kips, while the

overtuming moment ranges from 1527 to 3346 ft-kips. The mean base shear value of

22.25 kips shows that the difference in base shear values obtained from using the four

standards is small. The significant difference in the overtuming moments is due to the

difference in roof zonal classification with respect to the windward edge. For roof uplift

the American and the Canadian standards divide roof surface area into two zones, while

the Australian and the British standards divide roof surface area into four and three zones

62
 19.5 psf

12.3 psf American standard

i A A A A A A A A i f A

30 ft 30 ft
6.5 psf 8.9 psf
<-
immniii innnniminiinnnnniinnni nfniiinn

11.0 psf
6.1 psf U iI M A U ii

2A4 psf 3.7 psf A A A A ii Australian standard

llii
15 ft 15 ft 15 ft 15 ft
6.1 psf J 8.6 psf

unnin) n iinmimnuimnn )iinnimmnt)m}iin

ii n

31.9 psf
17.6 psf
k. k k i\
7.5 psf
British standard

45 ft 12ft
2.1 psf . 12.4 psf

}nmnnmnmnimnnnnnnnnim}nini
rrrmrrrr

16.7 psf

9.0 psf Canadian standard

30 fl 30 ft
7.1 psf J 9.6 psf

i/mhi
/nnn/hf/jfurnf/nnnnmniiiinifnininniiintin

Figure 4.4. Design pressures on the main wind force resisting system.

63
Table 4.2. Base shear, overtuming moment, and roof uplift for low building

Standard Base shear Overtuming moment Roof uphft

kips ft-kips kips
American 23.1 3345.7 95.4
Australian 22.1 1526.6 34.9
British 21.7 2555.9 64.4
Canadian 22.1 2505.6 77.1

64
respectively, from the windward edge. The values in Table 4.2 shows that: the American

standard gives the highest base shear and overtuming moment, the AusUalian and the

Canadian standards give identical base shear values, the British and the Austrahan

standards give the lowest base shear and overturning moment.

The design pressures for the wall grits and roof puriins calculated using the four

standards are shown in Figure 4.5. The tributary areas for wall grits and roof purhns is

100 sqft. The values shown in Figure 4.5 indicates that there is significant difference in

wind pressures obtained from using the four standards. The reasons for these difference

of pressures is difficult to interpret, because each standard uses different parameters in

obtaining the wind loads. The American and Canadian standards give combined values of

pressure coefficients and gust effect factor. The Australian standard multiplies the

appropriate local pressure factor (which is fixed for a specific range of area) with pressure

coefficients. The British standard multiphes size effect factor (which varies with the loaded

area), with pressure coefficient. The Austrahan standard does not give pressure

coefficients for inward acting pressure on roof area. The wind pressure values obtained

from using the Australian standard are 50 to 60% less than the values obtained from using

the other three standards. The British standard gives the highest outward acting pressures

at the roof corners and wall comers. The values at the roof comers and wall comers are

80% and 30% higher than the value obtained from using the American standard. All

standards except the Australian standard yield higher outward acting pressure than inward

acting pressure on wall corners and wall middle surfaces. On roof areas all standards give

higher outward acting pressure than inward acting pressure.

65
 <
w
C/5

8
Standard +ve -ve 1
American 8.5 28.6 1

>
+
Standard -ve 1

1
Australian 16.5
1 British 10.0 37.2 American 8.5 28.6 1

•
Australian 16.5

>
4>
Standard -ve 1 1 Canadian 8.8 18.1 1
British 10.0 51.7
1 American 8.5 24.2 1
Canadian 8.8 18.1 1

1
'

vd
1 Australian
1 British 10.0 20.4 1
1 Canadian 8.8 13.6

66
>
0)
+
1 Standard -ve 1
>
+

Standard -vc 1
1 American 20.1 23.2 1
1 American 20.1 23.2 1
1 Ausu-alian 12.2 11.9 1
1 British 1 Australian 12.2 6.1
19.7 34.8 1
1 Canadian 1 British 19.7 22.8 1
7.7 15.9 1
Canadian 7.7 15.1 1

3
in

Ui
ii

a
'vi
ii
ii

l-l

G
Vi
Vi
Vi
3

a.
a
c

••-J
Vi
T3
O

ii

•*->

(_
o
o
c
o

en
Vi
x>
Vi

ed

en
u.
en

CL
Wind pressure on fasteners obtained from using the four standards are shown in Figure

4.6. The tributary area used for fasteners is 5 sqft. The AusUalian standard does not give

positive or inward acting pressure coefficients for complete roof area. All standards give

higher pressures for roof comer areas than any other area on the building. The American

standard gives highest outward acting pressure on roof comers, roof eaves, roof middle

surface and on wall middle surface. The Australian standard gives least wind pressure

values on all parts of the building surface.

4.2 160 ft High Building

The building selected for this part of the case study is a 200 ft x 100 ft x 157 ft, 15-

story typical office building. A 3 ft parapet is provide above the roof making total height

of the building equal to 160 ft. The stmctural system contains reinforced concrete rigid

frames in both directions as shown in Figure 4.7. The floor slabs are assumed to provide

diaphragm action. The mullions dividing the panes of glazing panels span 11 ft between

floor slabs. The center to center distance between mullions is 5 ft. The wall glazing

panels are 5 ft wide x 5.5 high.

Wind load parameters used in wind pressure computations for each standard are shown

in Table 4.3. As discussed earlier, for computing wind pressures using the Australian,

British, and the Canadian standards the basic wind speeds are made consistent with the

American standard. The design wind pressures on the main wind force resisting system

obtained for each standard are shown in Figure 4.8 to Figure 4.11. For all standards,

except the British standard, design wind pressures on windward wall are the same for

67
 <

O
o
Pi
W
oo
9A-I-
1 Standard -ve 1

>
+
1 American 10.7 44.3 Standard -ve

1
1 Australian 22.0 1 American 10.7 66.7 1

1
1 British 10.2 37.9 1 Australian 22.0 1
1 Canadian 7.2 22.6 1 British 10.2 52.7 1

>
+
Standard -ve 1
1 American 10.7 26.4 1 Canadian 7.2 48.6

1
1-H
vd
1 Australian
1 British 10.2 20.7 1
1 Canadian 7.2 164 1

68
>
+

Standard -ve 1

>
+
1 Standard -ve 1 American 24.2 26.2
1 American 24.2 32.2 1
1 Australian 14.4 6.1
1 Ausu-alian 14.4 15.9 1 1 British 20.0 23.2 1
1 British 20.0 35.5 1
1 Canadian 19.2 16.3 1
1 Canadian 19.2 18.8 1

ii
ii

Ui
Q
ii

'(A

'^'
ii

vo
C
Vi
Vi
ii
ii

Vi
u

Vi
a

u,
C
in

C+H
•4->

a
•*-•

Vi
••-<

.SP
ex
C
i—

_o
Vi

cd
en
en
 Reinforced concrete
beams and column

160 ft

Figure 4.7. Stmctural system for 160 ft building.

69
Table 4.3. Wind load parameters used for the 160 ft high building

Parameter American Australian British Canadian

standard standard standard standard

Basic wind 110 mph 110 mph 72.7 mph 68.3 mph &

speed 61.1 mph

Exposure factor

0-15* 0.57 0.75 1.98 0.9

30 0.70 0.816 1.98 0.9

50 0.81 0.892 1.98 1.104

80 0.93 0.966 1.98 1.143

120 1.04 1.026 1.98 1.265

160 1.13 1.066 1.98 1.324

Topography 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00

factor

Shielding factor - 0.85 - -

Gust effect 0.80 2.0

factor

External pressure coefficients, wind parallel to 100 ft side

Windward wall 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8

Leeward wall -0.5 -0.5 -0.3 -0.5

70
Table 4.3. (continued)

External pressure coefficients, wind normal to 100 ft side

Windward wall 0.8 0.8 0.733 0.8

Leeward wall -0.3 -0.3 -0.233 -0.5

Intemal 0.18 & 0.0 & 0.3 0.2 & -0.3 0.0 & -0.3

pressure -0.18

coefficients

Extemal pressure coefficients for components and claddings

Roof middle surface

tributary area -1.4 -1.3(1.0)* -0.7(1.0)* -1.0

10 sqft

tributary area -1.1 -1.3(1.0) -0.7(1.0) -1.0

100 sqft

Roof edges

tributary area -2.3 -1.3(1.5) -1.4(1.0) -1.5

10 sqft

tributary area -1.9 -1.3(1.5) -1.4(1.0) -1.5

100 sqft

Roof comers

tributary area -2.3 -1.3(2.0) -2.0(1.0) -2.0

10 sqft

71
Table 4.3. (continued)
tributary area -1.9 -1.3(2.0) -2.0(1.0) -2.0

100 sqft

Wall middle surface

tributary area 0.85 & -0.86 0.8(1.25) & 0.8(1.0) & 0.8 & -0.7

28 sqft -0.65(1.5) -0.8(1.0)

tributary area 0.8 & -0.8 0.8(1.25) & 0.8(1.0) & 0.8 & -0.7

55 sqft -0.65(1.5) -0.8(1.0)

Wall edges

tributary area 0.85 &-1.7 0.8(1.25) & 0.8(1.0) & 0.8 &-1.0

28 sqft -0.65(3.0) -1.3(1.0)

tributary area 0.8 &-1.5 0.8(1.25) & 0.8(1.0) & 0.8 &-1.0

55 sqft -0.65(3.0) -1.3(1.0)

Note: * height above ground

* external pressure coefficient (local pressure factor)

* extemal pressure coefficient (size effect factor)

72
 Base shear = 970.5 kips
Overtuming moment = 8.2 x 10^ ft-kips
22.4 psf

40 ft
20.6 psf

40 ft
wind parallel 17.9 psf /
14.0 psf to 100 ft side
/
30 ft
16.8 psf;

13.9 psf 20 ft

15ft
11.3 psf 0- 15ft
/////////////////////////. -0-' / / / /• / / ••'

Base shear = 395.7 kips

Overtuming moment = 3.4 x lO" ft-kips
22.4 psf

40 ft
20.6 psf

40 ft
8.4 psf 17.9 psf
wind parallel
to 200 ft side
16.8 psf i 30 ft

13.9 psf 20 ft

15 ft
11.3 psf I 0 - 1 5 ft
yyx^yyyyx'y/^/^^.^yy/^/yyyyyy/x^y/x/,^xyyy/yyyy^y/-yy///V/^yy>^^^
/ / // ^

Figure 4.8. Design pressures for the main wind-force resisting system
based on American standard.

73
 Base shear = 854 kips
Overturning moment = 7.2 x 10" ft-kips
19.8 psf

1
A k

40 ft
18.3 psf /
/ . k

/ •

/ 40 ft
16.2 psf ,
wind parallel
12.4 psf
I

to 100 ft side
13.8 psf 30 ft
^ J
20 ft
4. 1
j 11.6 psf ' 15 ft
L

9.8 psf "^

/ / / / / / / / y " / / / / / / / / / /
1
'
/////////// ////// //// // //////

Base shear = 347 kips

Overtuming moment = 3.0 x IO"* ft-kips
19.8 psf

40 ft
18.3 psf

40 ft
16.2 psf
7.4 psf wind parallel
to 200 ft side
13.8 psf, 30 ft

11.6 psf/ 20 ft
15 ft
9.8 psf
yy. / -Vyyy/V/VVy/xVVVx^ r ^yVVV ^yxVVV/V/v •/////////////. rTTTTTT-

Figure 4.9. Design pressures for the main wind-force resisting system
based on Australian standard.

74
 Base shear = 1392 kips
0\'ertuming moment - 11.1 x lO" ft-kips

11.9 psf wind parallel

31.6 psf
to 100 ft side

/ .rr-rrrrTT'rrrT'T-rrrrTTy
/ y / -TTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTT?
' / / / / /

Base shear = 647.8 kips

Overtuming moment = 5.4 x 10'' ft-kips 33.7 psf

12.1 psf 60ft

wind parallel
to 200 ft side
28.3 psf.
100 ft

9.0 psf

/////// / / y
t
/ / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / ,/ r ' /

Figure 4.10. Design pressures for the main wind-force resisting system
based on British standard.

75
 Base shear = 779.6 kips
Overtuming moment = 6.2 x 10' ft-kips
30.2 psf

40 ft
28.8 psf

40 ft
wind parallel 26.1 psf
17.1 psf
to 100 ft side
30 ft
23.7 psf

20 ft

20.52 psf 32.8 ft

/ / • ' / / /
'// y // / // / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / ' / / / y /x //

Base shear = 389.8 kips

Overtuming moment = 3.1 x IO"* ft-kips
30.2 psf
7 , k
^

40 ft
28.8 psf /
•
/ '.

40 ft
26.1 psf /
7.1 psf ^ wind parallel '

to 200 ft side
30 ft
23.7 psf /
/ '

20 ft
•-
.

20.52 psf 32.8 ft

/.// / //Vy^ // /'.^yvyyyy/'/y/'/'/V/yyyy/y/V/'/vy/'/yy^yyy/ //>////^/ /'/'/'/'/'/'J^7"

Figure 4.11. Design pressures for the main wind-force resisting system,
based on Csmadian standard.

76
wind parallel to 100 ft and 200 ft side. The design windward wall pressure is taken as

constant up to a certain height in the American, Australian, and Canadian standards and

from there varies linearly up to the total height of the building. The height up to which

wind pressure is constant is 15 ft in the American standard, 16.4 ft in the Australian

standard and 32.8 ft in the Canadian standard. The British standard states that buildings

whose height (H) is less than or equal to crosswind breadth (B) should be considered as

one part. The British standard also states buildings whose height (H) is greater than

crosswind breadth (B), but less than twice the crosswind breadth, should be considered as

two parts; with lower part height equal to B. Based on this, for wind parallel to 100 ft the

building is treated as one part with constant windward and leeward wall pressure

throughout the height of the stmcture, and for wind parallel to 200 ft side the building is

treated as two parts with constant windward and leeward wall pressure for each part (see

Figure 4.10). All standards give a constant leeward wall pressure throughout the height of

the building, with the exception of the British standard.

The calculated base shear, overtuming moment and roof uphft for wind parallel to 100

ft and 200 ft side are tabulated in Table 4.4. Values in Table 4.4 shows that the range of

base shear for wind parallel to 100 ft and 200 ft side is 854 to 1392 kips and 347 to 647.8

kips respectively. The range of overtuming moments for wind parallel to 100 ft and 200 ft

side are 10.4 x 10"* to 15.5 x IO"* and 8.0 x 10^* to 11.4 x 10^ The above values indicate

that when wind is parallel to 100 ft side, the Australian standard gives the lowest base

shear and overtuming moment; in conUast the British standard gives the highest base

shear and overtuming moment. When wind is parallel to 200 ft side the AusU-alian

77
Table 4.4. Base shear, overtuming moment, and roof uplift for 160 ft high building

Wind parallel to 100 ft side

Standard Base shear Overtuming moment Roof uphft

kips ft-kips kips

American 970.5 11.8 X 10^ 654.4

Australian 854.0 10.4 X 10' 582.8

British 1392.0 15.5 X 10' 795.6

Canadian 1144.9 12.9 X 10' 664.0

Wmd parallel to 200 ft side

Standard Base shear Overtuming moment Roof uplift

kips ft-kips kips

American 395.7 9.2 X 10' 525.6

Australian 347.0 8.0 X 10' 441.2

British 647.8 10.7 X 10' 424.8

Canadian 572.5 11.4x10' 664.0

78
standard gives the lowest base shear, while the Canadian standard gives the highest

overturning moment.

Design pressures for components obtained from using four standards are shown in

Figure 4.12. The tributary areas for roof and wall areas are 10 sqft and 28 sqft

respectively. The 28 sqft tributary area pertains to the mullions separating the panes of the

glazing panels. The values shown in Figure 4.12 indicates that there is significant

difference in wind pressure obtained from using the four standards. As discussed earher,

the significant differences in the wind pressures obtained from using the four standards is

difficult to interpret. American standard gives the combined values of pressure

coefficients and gust effect factor based on the tributary area and component location.

Australian standard gives local effect factors for a fixed range of areas for different

locations of the component on the building. For 160 ft buildings, Canadian standard gives

outward acting local pressure coefficients C* for walls and roof areas. For inward acting

pressures, the pressure coefficients used for the main wind-force resisting system are

multiplied by a gust effect factor of 2.5. In the British standard the pressure coefficients

used for the main wind-force resisting system are multiplied by the size effect factor of the

loaded area. In the wind pressure calculations for the components and claddings the

loaded area is taken as the tributary area and the size effect factor is obtained based on the

diagonal dimension of this tributary area. Canadian standard does not differentiate

between the wall middle and wall edge areas. This is the reason for the design pressures

being same for wall middle surface and for wall edges. With the exception of the

Australian standard, all other standards account for the 3 ft parapet provided above the

79
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roof line of the building. American standard treats the roof comer areas as roof edge

areas because of the parapet. The Canadian standard reduced the local pressure

coefficient for roof comers of -2.3 for roofs with out parapet to -2.0 for roofs with

parapets greater than Im. British standard reduces the pressure coefficients for complete

roof area depending on the h/b ratio; where h is the height of the parapet and b is the

scaling length equal to crosswind breadth B or twice the height of the stmcture H,

whichever is smaller. The values in Figure 4.12 shows that the American standard gives

higher design pressures on roof middle surface and on roof edges, while the Australian

standard gives the lowest design pressures on these roof areas. The British standard yields

the highest wind pressure value for roof comer areas. All standards give higher outward

acting pressure on roof corners than any other area of the building surface. The design

pressures on roof areas are comparable for the Australian and Canadian standards.

The design pressures on walls varies linearly with the height of building. The American

standard gives a constant value of outward acting pressure, since the velocity pressure qz

(which varies with height) is replaced by velocity pressure qh (corresponding to the total

height of the stmcture). At the total height (160 ft) of the sUiicture the British standard

gives highest wind pressures on wall middle and wall edge areas. On wall middle and wall

edges; the Australian standard gives the lowest inward acting pressures, while the

Canadian standard gives the lowest outward acting pressures. On wall middle surfaces the

Australian, the British and the Canadian standards give higher inward acting pressure,

while the American standard gives higher outward acting pressure. On wall edges all

81
standards, except the Canadian standard, give higher outward acting pressure than inward

acting pressure.

The design pressures for claddings calculated using the four standards are shown in

Figure 4.13. The tributary area for claddings on the wall and the roof are 55 sqft and 100

sqft respectively. The values in Figure 4.13 shows that the American standard gives

higher wind pressure value on roof middle surface and on roof edge areas, while the

British standard gives higher value on the roof corner. Australian standard gives least

design pressures on all areas of the building. All standards give higher wind pressure on

the roof comer areas than on any other area of the building. The British standard gives

higher wind pressure than any other standard for the wall middle surface and wall comers

at the total height of the building. The wind pressures obtained using the Canadian

standard for wall middle and for wall comer areas are the same, since the Canadian

standard specifies that the local pressure C* = -1.0 can occur any where at any height on

the building and is not hmited to comer areas. The inward acting pressures on the wall

middle surface and on the wall comers obtained from using the American standard are

about 50% less and about 20% greater than the pressure obtained from using British or

Australian standards. The outward acting pressure at a height of 160 ft obtained from

using the American standard are about 40% greater on the wall middle surface and 30%

greater on the wall edge area than the pressures obtained from using the Australian

standard. As seen in the case of claddings, the design pressures for components on roof

areas are the same for the Australian and Canadian standards.

82
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 4.3 Use of Standard.^

The principal aim of any sUindard is to guide a practicing professional in assessing wind

loads on buildings and sU-uctures with minimum effort and chance of misinterpretation. As

any other standard wind load standards are also developed to make wind load

requirements as simple as possible. However, the format of wind load standards, in order

to be applicable to all structures create, situations which are hard to deal with, while

determining the wind loads on a particular stmcture.

The evaluation of wind loads for low and 160 ft buildings involves the completion of

the following three tasks:

1. Calculation of velocity pressure.

2. Interpretation of pressure coefficients for the main wind-force resisting

system and the calculation of design pressures on the windward wall,

leeward wall and roof.

3. Interpretation of pressure coefficients for the wall middle, wall edge, roof

middle, roof edge and roof comer surfaces and the calculation of design

pressures.

The simplicities and the difficulties encountered during the determination of loads using

each standard will be the topic discussed below.

4.3.1. American Standard

The format of American standard allows for quick interpretation of wind load

parameter, making the calculation of velocity pressure very simple. For special low-rise

84
buildings and for components and claddings the American standard gives combined values

of extemal pressure coefficients and gust effect factors. The combined values of pressure

coefficients and gust effect factor for components and claddings given in the American

standard are based on the U-ibutary area and the location of components and claddings on

the building surface. This makes the calculation of design pressures on components and

claddings very simple. For buildings with height greater than 60 ft the standard provides

simple figures and tables. The intemal pressures coetTicients are also given as combined

values of pressure coefficients and gust effect factor. The notes pertaining to figures and

tables in the standard make the interpretations even more simpler.

4.3.2. Australian Standard

The calculation of velocity pressure using the Australian standard is a lengthy process.

Calculation of velocity pressure involves the determination of the design wind speed. The

shielding multipher Ms and the terrain and structure height multiplier M(z.cat) must be

determined to calculate the design wind speed. To determine the shielding multipher the

designer should know the average height, breadth and distance between the buildings

surrounding the site. In the case study a typical value of 0.85 for Australian suburbs is

used, reducing the complications involved in determining the shielding factor. The terrain

and structure height multipher M(z,cat) of the Australian standard takes into account the

changes in terrain categories surrounding the site. Therefore, the standard requires the

terrain conditions for a upwind distance of at least 2500 m. The application of these

parameters without any assumptions is a time consuming process. In addition, the

85
interpretation of the area reduction factor Ka, and the reduction factor for claddings Kp, is

difficult. Further difficulty in using the Australian standard is encountered during the

calculation of design pressures on components and claddings. The descriptions given for

the local pressures factors Ki is difficult to interpret with respect to each component

location. The Australian standard does not give pressure coefficients for components and

claddings with respect to specific tributary area. The local pressure factors given in the

standard are for a range of areas from 0.25a^ or smaller and l.Oa^ or smaller, where "a" is

taken as a minimum of 0.2 x crosswind breadth or 0.2 x alongwind breadth. For a given

building, Australian standard gives design pressure on components and claddings for a

fixed range of areas. To calculate and compare design pressures on components and

claddings with tributary areas of 5 sqft, 10 sqft, 28 sqft, 55 sqft and 100 sqft for roof

middle surface, roof corners, wall edges (inward acting pressure), and wall middle surface

(outward acting pressure), logical reasoning is required.

4.3.3. British Standard

As discussed in Section 2.3 the determination of velocity pressure involves parameters

which are difficult to interpret. The inclusion of the altitude factor (elevation above sea

level) with the other parameters modifying the basic wind speed makes it difficult to

explain the use of each parameter. In addition, the British standard also does not give

external pressure coefficients based on tributary area and component location on the

building surface. The size effect factor C, requires the diagonal dimension of the loaded

area (tributary area). The designer has to calculate the diagonal dimension of the tribuUry

86
area with respect to the component location. This dependence on the diagonal dimension

could result in different design pressures being given for two identical areas with different

diagonal dimension. The format of the British standard makes the interpretation of

pressure coefficients for the components and claddings very difficult.

4.3.4. Canadian Standard

The format of the Canadian standard, though different from the American standard is

easy to interpret. The calculation of velocity pressure is quite simple. Similar to the

American standard, the Canadian standard gives combined values of extemal pressure

coefficients and gust effect factor for low buildings and for components and claddings

with height less than or equal to 6 m, which is simple to interpret for the given tributary

areas. External pressure coefficients for buildings with height greater than 6 m, or for

buildings having height greater than width, the standard provides figures which are easy to

interpret.

4.4 Summary

The two buildings considered in the case study are (i) a low building (60 ft x 100 ft x

15 ft) (u) a 160 ft high building (100 ft x 200 ft in plan). Both the buildings are assumed

to be located in a suburban area. The 3-second gust wind speed is assumed to be 110 mph

(49 m/s). The equivalent mean houriy wind speed is 72.7 mph (32.4 m/s) for 50 year

mean recurrence interval, 68.3 mph (30.4 m/s) for 30 year mean recurrence interval and is

87
61.1 mph (27.2 m/s) for 10 year mean recurrence interval. Some of the significant loads

are summarized below.

4.4.1 Low Building

For the low building the base shear obtained from using the four standards ranges from

21.7 to 23.1 kips, while the overtuming moment ranges from 1527 to 3346 ft-kips. The

significant difference in the overtuming moments is due to the difference in roof zonal

classification in each standard with respect to the windward edge. The roof uplift force

ranges from 34.9 kips (Australian) to 95.4 kips (American). The American standard gives

highest base shear while the Australian standard gives the lowest base shear value. Wind

pressures on purlins, grits and fasteners for each loading zone vary significantly from one

standard to another. The differences are as much as more than 3(X) percent. The

Australian standard does not give the inward acting pressures for roof areas.

4.4.2 160 ft High Building

For the 160 ft high building the windward wall pressures for the American, Australian,

and Canadian standards are constant up to a height of 15 ft, 16.4 ft, and 32.8 ft

respectively, from these heights the wind pressures vary up to the total height of the

building. In the British standard the wind pressures on windward and leeward walls are

constant for the entire height when wind is parallel to 100 ft dimension and in two

constant parts when wind is parallel to 200 ft dimension. Values in Table 4.4 shows that

the range of base shear for wind parallel to 100 ft and 200 ft side is 854 to 1392 kips and

88
347 to 647.8 kips respectively. The range of overturning moments for wind parallel to

100 ft and 200 ft side are 10.4 x 10^ to 15.5 x IO'' and 8.0 x 10^ to 11.4 x 10^ When wind

is parallel to 1(X) ft side, the Australian standard gives the lowest base shear and

overtuming moment while the British standard gives the highest base shear and

overtuming moment. When wind is parallel to 200 ft side, the Australian standard gives

the lowest base shear, while the Canadian standard gives the highest overtuming moment.

Wind pressures on components and claddings for each zone vary significantly from one

standard to another.

89
 CHAPTER V

LIMIT STATE LOADING

Design based on failure conditions rather than the working load conditions is known as

hmit state. The failure loads are always more than actual loads by a factor of safety

known as load factor. Load and resistance factor design (LRFD) is similar to plastic

design. In LRFD the theoretical su-ength of a member is reduced by application of a

resistance factor in addition to multiplying the loads by a load factor. The criterion that

must be satisfied in selecting a member is

factored load < factored strength,

^(working loads x load factor) < nominal strength x resistance factor.

LRFD is similar to the limit state design or the ultimate limit state design used in the

Australian, British and Canadian standards. The American standard gives six load

combinations, which should be checked to give the most critical load on a member. The

load factor for a given load effect is not the same in all load combinations given. This is

because in each combination one of the load effects (live, dead, wind or snow loads) is

considered to be at its life time maximum, while the others are at their arbitrary point in

time.

For wind loads, the American standard uses a load factor of 1.3 in combinations with

dead load. This load factor of 1.3 is used in the calculations of hmit state base shear and

overturning moment using the American standard. In Chapter IV, the wind load

computations based on the Australian standard are accomphshed using the permissible

90
stress gust wind speed, which is based on a 50 year mean recurrence interval. To obtain

the limit state wind loads ( wind speed associated with 1000 year mean recurrence

interval) Australian standard multiplies the permissible sUess wind loads by a load factor

of 1.5 (E 3.2.2(4); SAA, 1989). The British standard obtains the ultimate hmit state wind

loads by applying a probability factor Sp = 1.183 (1754 years mean recurrence interval) in

the calculation of site wind speed; this translates into the load factor of 1.4. The factored

loads for the Canadian standard are obtained by multiplying the wind loads by a load

factor of 1.5.

The wind load factors of 1.5 and 1.4, given by the Australian and the British standards,

are based on mean recurrence intervals. For limit state design, load factors should

increase with increase in mean recurrence interval since the chance of experiencing high

wind speed (which may become the failure load) increases with the increase in mean

recurrence interval. However, it is noteworthy to see a low load factor used by the British

standard for 1754 year mean recurrence interval compared to the load factor used by the

Australian standard for 1000 year mean recurrence interval; this anomaly is difficult to

reconcile.

The loads obtained using the four standards in chapter IV for both the low and 160 ft

buildings are multiplied by their respective load factors to give limit state base shear,

overtuming moment, and roof uplift, for the buildings. The calculated limit state base

shear, overturning moment, and roof uplift, for low and 160 ft buildings are tabulated in

Table 5.1 and Table 5.2.

91
Table 5.1. Limit state base shear, overtuming moment, and roof uplift
for low building

Standard Base shear Overtuming moment Roof uphft

kips ft-kips kips
American 30.0 4349.4 124.0
Australian 33.2 2289.9 52.4
British 30.5 3578.3 90.2
Canadian 33.1 3758.0 115.7

Table 5.2. Limit state base shear, overturning moment and roof
uphft for 160 ft high building
Wind parallel to 100 ft side

Standard Base shear Overtuming moment Roof uphft

kips ft-kips kips

American 1261.7 15.3 X 10^ 850.7

Australian 1281.0 15.6 X IO'' 874.2

British 1948.8 21.7 X IO'* 1113.8

Canadian 1717.4 19.4 X 10' 996.0

Wind parallel to 200 ft side

Standard Base shear Overtuming moment Roof uphft

kips ft-kips kips

American 514.4 12.0 X 10' 683.3

Australian 520.5 12.0x10' 661.8

British 906.9 15.0 X 10' 594.7

Canadian 858.8 17.1 X 10' 996.0

92
 5.1 Low Building

For the low building, limit state base shear values are comparable for the American and

the British standards; and for the Ausu-alian and the Canadian standards. The base shears

for all standards are within 10 percent of each other. However, die limit state overtuming

moments obtained from the four standards differ significanUy due to the differences in roof

uplift forces. Table 5.1 shows that the American standard yields highest roof uplift force,

while the AusU-ahan standard yields the lowest roof uplift force. The roof uplift force

yielded from the American standard is about 200% greater than the value obtained from

the Austrahan standard.

5.2 160 ft High Building

Limit state base shear, overturning moment and roof uplift for the 160 ft building are

shown in Table 5.2. The American and Australian standards give almost the same values

of limit state base shear, overtuming moment and roof uplift. The limit state values

yielded by the British and the Canadian standards differ significantly from the values

obtained by the American and the Australian standards. The British standard gives the

highest roof uplift load when wind is parallel to 100 ft while the Canadian standard gives

the highest roof uplift when wind is parallel to 200 ft side. The roof uplift forces given by

the British and the Canadian standards are about 150% greater than the values given by

the Australian and the American standards.

93
 CHAPTER VI

CONCLUSIONS

The four national standards American, Australian, British and Canadian are compared

by calculating wind loads on two buildings: a low building with dimensions of 100 ft x 60

ft X 15 ft, and a 160 ft high building with a plan dimensions of 200 ft x 100 ft. The

reference wind speeds of the British and Canadian standards are made consistent with the

reference wind speed of the American standard. Since the AusUalian standard uses the 3-

second gust wind speed, no conversion to the reference wind speed is necessary. In

calculating the wind loads all standards follow a similar approach. For reference wind

speed all standards except the Canadian standard use a 50-year mean recurrence interval.

The Canadian standard uses a 30-year mean recurrence interval for the design of main

wind-force resisting system and a 10-year mean recurrence interval for the design of

components and claddings. The wind loads obtained from using the four standards are

multiphed by there respective limit state load factors and then compared. The conclusions

drawn from the above study are as follows:

1. The format of the American and Canadian standards are easy to follow when

determining wind loads. The Australian and British standards are more difficult to

use. In Australian standard several parameters are difficult to interpret including

shielding parameter Ms, structure height multiplier (M(z, cat)), area reduction factor

Ka, factor for porous cladding Kp and pressure coefficients for components and

94
 claddings. The format of the British standard is difficult to use because several

factors are interrelated.

2. Limit state base shear for the low building example are comparable for Australian

and Canadian standards and for American and British standards. The Australian and

Canadian standards specify a base shear 10 percent larger than the American and the

British standards.

3. The limit state base shear for the 160-ft high building is the very similar in all four

standards.

4. Overturning moments largely depend on roof uplift. Limit state roof uplift for the

low building ranged from 52.4 kips (Australian standard) to 124 kips (American

standard); while for 160 ft high building it ranged between 850.7 kips (American

standard) and 1113.8 kips (Canadian standard) with wind parallel to 1(X) ft side.

These variations in roof uphft suggest that it is not appropriate to compare

overtuming moments and that a thorough parametric study on roof uplift loads

should be conducted to assess the real loads.

5. The design pressures on components and claddings differ between the standards by

as much as 2(X) percent.

95
 REFERENCES

ASCE, 1995: "Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Stmctures," Proposed
Wind Load Provisions, Draft 6, ASCE 7-95, American Society of CivU Engineers,
New York, NY.

BS, 1994: "Code of Practice for Wind Loads," Part 2, BS6399, Calibrated Draft, British
Standards Institution, London, England.

Cermak, J. E, 1975: "Applications of Fluid Mechanics to Wind Engineering." A Freeman

Scholar Lecture, Journal of Fluid Engineering, American Society of Mechanical
Engineers, United Engineering Center, New York, NY.

Das, N. K, 1985: "A Comparative Study of Wind Load Standards," A M.S Degree Thesis,
DeparUnent of Civil Engineering, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, Texas

Davenport, A. G, 1967: "Gust Loading Factors," Joumal of the Stmctural Division,

ASCE, Vol. 93 pp 11-34.

Dursts, C. S, 1960: "Wind Speeds Over Short Periods of Time," Meteorological Mag.,
Vol 89, 181-187-

ESDU, 1983: "Strong Winds in the Aunospheric Boundary Layer," Part 2: Discrete Gust
Speeds, Engineering Science Data Item Number 83045, London, England.

Green way, M. E, 1979: "An Analytical Approach to Wind Velocity Gust Factors," Joumal
of Industrial Aerodynamics, Vol 5, pp 61-91.

Holmes, J. D, Melbourne, W. H, and Walker, G. R, 1990: "A Commentary on the

Australian Standard For Wind Loads," Australian Wind Engineering Society, Lilidale,
Victoria, Australia.

Holmes, J.D. and Best, R. J, 1979: "A Wind Tunnel Study of Wind Pressures on Grouped
Tropical Houses," James Cook University, Wind Engineering Report 5/79.

Houston, E. L, And Carruthers, N. B, 1976: " Wind Forces on Buildings and Su-uctures
an Introduction," John Wiley and Sons, New York NY.

Liu, H, 1983: "Internal Pressure and Cladding Loads in Buildings," Fall Convention of the
American Society of Civil Engineers, Houston, Texas.

96
Mehta, K. C, 1980: "Wind Load Standards and Codes," Proceedings of the Fifth
Intemational Conference on Wind Engineering, J.E. Cermak. ed.. Ft. Colhns,
Colorado, Pergaman Press.

Mehta, K. C, 1981: "Evolution of Wind Load Standards," Fourth U.S. National

Conference on Wind Engineering Research, B.Hartz. ed.. University of Washington,
Seattle.

Mehta, K. C , Marshall, R. D., and Perry, D. C , 1991: "Guide to the Use of the Wind
Load Provisions of ASCE 7-88," American Society of Civil Engineers, New York, NY.

NRCC, 1990: "Nafional Building Code of Canada, 1990," Associate Committee on die
National Building Code, National Research Council of Canada, NRCC No. 32379,
Ottawa, Canada.

NRCC, Supplement 1990: "Supplement to the National Building Code of Canada,"

Associate Committee on the National Building Code, National Research Council of
Canada, NRCC No. 30629, Ottawa, Canada.

SAA, 1989: "Minimum Design Loads on Stmctures, Part 2: Wind Loads," AS 1170.2,
Standards Association of AusUalia, Standards House, North Sydney, Austraha.

Simiu, E and Scanlan, R.H, 1986:, "Wind Effects on Stmctures: An Introduction to Wind
Engineering," John Wily and Sons, New York, NY.

97
 APPENDDC A

CALCULATIONS USING AMERICAN STANDARD

This appendix contains the wind pressure calculations using the American standard.

Wind pressure calculations for the 160 ft building follow the wind pressure calculations for

the low building. The references cited herein regarding sections, tables, and figures,

belong to the American standard.

98
 A.1 Low Building

Dimension: 100 ft x 60 ft x 15 ft

Exposure: B, urban and suburban area

Basic wind speed: 110 mph, 3-second gust wind speed

As per section 6.2, buildings with mean roof height less than or equal to 60 ft are

designed as special low buildings. For special low buildings, the main wind-force resisting

systems and the components and claddings are designed based on Exposure C; as per

section 6.5.3.2.2 and section 6.5.3.3.1. The basic wind speed of 110 mph is a 3-second

gust speed at 33 ft above ground in Exposure C and is associated with an annual

probabihty of occurrence of 0.02 (50-year mean recurrence interval). The building and

structural classification category in Table 1-1 indicates that present buildings falls under

Category II. The importance factor I, in accordance with classification category II, is 1.00

(from Table 6-2).

Design Wind Pressures for the Main Wind-Force Resisting System:

For special low-rise buildings. Table 6-1 gives the following equation for main wind-

force resisting system

p = qi,[(GCpf)]

Velocity pressure, q,. = 0.00256K„KztV^I (psf)

Ki, = 0.85 for Exposure C from Table 6-3

Kzt= 1.00 as per provisions of 6.5.5

q,. = 0.00256(0.85)(1.00)(1 lO)'(l.OO) = 26.3 psf

99
 GCpf from Figure 6-4 of the ANSI standard are given in Table A. 1 and Table A.2 for

Case A and Case B. The internal pressure coefficient GCp, (Table 6-4) is taken equal to

±0.18, as the building does not have any unusual openings. Note #6 of Figure 6-4 suites

that, for buildings sighted within Exposure B in all directions, calculated pressures must be

multiplied by 0.85.

The design pressure for Case A and Case B are tabulated in Table A. 1 and Table A.2 for

each building surface (zones). A few sample calculations are shown below

Design pressures for CASE A:

zone 1:

p = 26.3[(0.40)](0.85)= 8.9 psf

zone 4:

p = 26.3[(-0.29)] (0.85)= -6.5 psf

Base shear for the entire building:

= [8.9(15)(100) -+- 6.5(15)(100)] / 1000 = 23.10 kips

Overtuming moment:

= [8.9(15)(100)(7.5) + 19.5(30)(100)(45) + 12.3(30)(10{))(15) +

6.5(15)(100)(7.5)] /1000 = 3345.7 ft-kips

Roof uphft:

= 100[ 19.5(30) + 12.3(30)] / 1000 = 95.4 kips

Design Wind Pressures for Components and Claddings:

The design wind pressure for components and claddings of a special low buildings is

given by the equation

100
Table A. 1. Design wind pressures and external pressure
coefficient values for CASE A

Building Surface Extemal Pressure Design

Zones Coefficients, GCpf Pressures

(psf)

1 ( windward wall middle 0.40 8.9

surface)

2 (30 ft from windward -0.69 -19.5

wall)

3 (30 ft to 60 ft fiom -0.37 -12.3

windward wall)

4 (leeward wall middle -0.29 -6.5

surface)

IE (windward wall 0.61 13.6

corners)

2E (roof eaves) -1.07 -28.0

3E (roof eaves) -0.53 -15.9

4E (leeward wall comers) -0.43 -9.6

101
Table A.2. Design wind pressures and external pressure
coefficient values for CASE B

Building Surface Extemal Pressure Wind Pressures

Zones Coefficients, GCpf (psf)

1 fside wall middle surface) -0.45 -10.1

2 (roof middle surface) -0.69 -19.5

3 (roof middle surface) -0.37 -12.3

4 (side wall middle surface) -0.45 -10.1

5 (windward wall middle surface) 0.40 8.9

6 (leeward wall middle surface) -0.29 -6.5

IE (side wall corners) -0.48 -10.7

2E (roof eaves) -1.07 -28.0

3E (roof eaves) -0.53 -15.9

4E (side waU comers) -0.48 -10.7

5E (windward wall corners) 0.61 13.6

6E (leeward wall comers) -0.43 -9.6

102
 p = q,.[(GCp) - (GCp.)]

Velocity pressure q,, = 26.33 psf, extemal pressure coefficients GCp for tributary areas of 5

sqft, and 1(K) sqft are given in Table A.3. The extemal pressure coefficients for walls are

reduced by 10% as per note 5. Internal pressure coefficients are taken as ±0.18. Table

A.4 shows the calculated design wind pressures for components and claddings. The

design pressures tabulated in Table A.4 are corrected (multiplied by 0.85) for buildings

sighted within exposure B, in accordance with Note #6 of Figure 6-6.

A.2 160 ft Building

Dimension: 100 ft x 200 ft x 160 ft, the total height of 160 ft includes 3 ft parapet

provided above the roof.

The building classification category, importance factor, and the basic wind speed

determined for the low building are applicable to the 160 ft building.

Exposure: B, urban and suburban area

Importance factor: 1.00

Basic wind speed: 110 mph

Velocity pressure from equation 1 of the ANSI standard :

qz = 0.00256KzKztV^I (psf)

qh = 0.00256KhKztV^I (psQ

The values of Kz from Table 6-3, and the calculated velocity pressures qz, are tabulated in

Table A.5. The velocity pressure at total height of the structure qi, is

qh = 0.(K)256(1.13)(1.00)(110)^(1.00) = 35.00

103
Table A.3. External pressure coefficients for components and claddings

Building Surface Tributary Area TribuUiry Area

5 sqft 1(X) sqft

+GCp -GCp -^^GCp -GCp

1 (roof middle surface) 0.3 -1.0 0.2 -0.9

2 (roof eaves) 0.3 -1.8 0.2 -1.1

3 (roof corners) 0.3 -2.8 0.2 -1.1

4 (wall middle surface) 0.9 -0.99 0.72 -0.855

5 (wall comers) 0.9 -1.23 0.72 -0.855

Table A.4. Design wind pressures for components and claddings

Tributary Area 5 sqft Tributary Area 100 sqft

Building Surface -I- ve Design -ve Design + ve Design -ve Design

Pressures, Pressures, Pressures, Pressures,

psf psf psf psf

1 (roof middle surface) 10.7 -26.4 8.5 -24.2

2 (roof eaves) 10.7 -44.3 8.5 -28.6

3 (roof corners) 10.7 -66.7 8.5 -28.6

4 (wall middle surface) 24.2 -26.2 20.1 -23.2

5 (wall comers) 24.2 -32.2 20.1 -23.2

104
Table A.5. Velocity pressure exposure coefficients and velocity pressures

Height Above Ground (ft) Velocity Pressure Exposure Velocity Pressure (pst)

Coefficient, Kz (ft)

0-15 0.57 17.7

30 0.70 21.7

50 0.81 25.1

80 0.93 28.8

120 1.04 32.2

160 1.13 35.0

105
 As the suiTounding topography near the building location does not constitute any

abmpt changes, the topography multiplier Kzt is taken as l.(K).

Design Pressures for the Main Wind-Force Resisting System:

From Table 6-1, the equation for determining design wind pressures for the main wind

force resisting systems is given by

P = qGCp

Velocity pressure q:

= qz for windward wall (as tabulated in Table A.5)

= qi, for leeward wall, side walls and roof = 35.00

Gust effect factor G:

= 0.80 for exposure B as per section 6.6.1

Pressure coefficients Cp:

= 0.8 for windward wall

= -0.5 for leeward wall for I7B ratio of 100 ft / 200 ft = 0.5

= -0.3 for leeward wall for L/B ratio of 200 ft / 100 ft = 2.0

Design wind pressures on the windward wall for wind parallel to 100 ft and 200 ft side are

the same as Uibulated in Table A.6. For leeward wall design pressure is constant through

out the height of the building. Design leeward pressure for wind parallel to 100 ft side is

p = 35.0(0.80)(-0.5) = -14.00 psf

and for wind parallel to 2(K) ft side is

p = 35.0(0.80)(-0.3) = -8.4 psf

Base shear and over tuming moment for the entire building when wind is parallel to 1(X) ft

106
Table A.6. Design windward pressures for
wind parallel and normal to 1(K) ft Side

Height Above Ground, ft Windward Wall, psf

0 - 15 11.3

30 13.9

50 16.8

80 17.9

120 20.6

160 22.4

107
side:

= 200[ 11.3( 15) + i (11.3 + 22.4)(145) ] = 970550 lb = 970.5 kips

Overtuming moment:

= [200(11.3(160)(80) +-(ll.l)(145)(15-h 96.67)-f 14.0(160)(80) + 80(35.4)(60) +

22(20)(10))]/1000

= 11.8x10'ft-kips

Roof uphft:

=200[35.4(80) + 22(20)] / 1000 = 654.4 kips

Base shear and over tuming moment for the entire building when wind is parallel to 200 ft

side:

= 100[11.3(15)-h|(l 1.3-H22.4)(145)] = 395670 lb = 395.67 kips

Overtuming moment:

= [100(11.3(160)(80) - h | ( l 1.1)(145)(15-H96.67)-h 8.4(160)(80) -h 31.8(80)(160) -i-

80(23.8)(80) + 20.2(40)(20))] / 1000

= 9.2 X 10' ft-kips

Roof uplift:

= 100[31.8(80) + 23.8(80) -»- 20.2(40)] / 1000 = 525.6 kips

Design Wind Pressures for Components and Claddings:

Design pressures for components and claddings are given by the equation

p = q[(GCp) - (GCpi)]

108
 q = qz given in Table A.5 for positive pressures

= qi, (35.0 psO for negative pressures

GCp = from Figure 6-8 tabulated in Table A.7

GCpi = ±0.18

The 3 ft parapet provided over the roof allows zone 3 to be treated as zone 2 (in

accordance with note #7 of Figure 6-8). Design pressures for components and claddings

are calculated and tabulated in Table A.8 and Table A.9. A few sample calculations are

shown below.

Design pressure for 10 sqft tribuUiry area in zone 1 (roof middle area)

p = 35.0[(-1.4) - (-0.18)] = -55.3 psf

design pressure for 100 sqft tributary area in zone 2 (roof edges) is

p = 35.0[(-1.9) - (-0.18)] = -72.8 psf

design pressure for 28 sqft tributary area in zone 4 (wall middle surface) at 80 ft above

ground is

p = 28.8[(0.85) + (0.18)] = 29.7 psf and

p = 35.0[(-0.86) - (0.18)] = -36.4 psf

the variation of negative pressure with height is very small, hence velocity pressure qh is

used instead of qz, with intemal pressure coefficient GCpi, to give uniform design pressure

for full height of the building.

109
Table A.7. External pressure coefficients for components and claddings

Building Surface Tributary Area, sqft Pressure Coefficients

+GCp -GCp

1 (roof middle surface) 10 - -1.4

100 - -1.1

2 (roof edges) 10 - -2.3

100 - -1.9

3 (roof corners) 10 -2.3

100 - -1.9

4 (wall middle area) 28 0.85 -0.86

55 0.8 -0.80

5 (wall edges) 28 0.85 -1.7

55 0.8 -1.5

110
Table A.8. Design pressures for zone 1 (roof middle surf-ace),
zone 2 (roof edges), and zone 3 (roof comers)

Building Surface Tributary Area, Positive Pressures Negative Pressures

sqft

1, roof middle surface 10 - -55.3

100 -44.8

2, roof edges 10 - -86.8

100 - -72.8

3, roof corners 10 - -86.8

100 - -72.8

Table A.9. Design pressures for zone 4 (wall middle surface) and zone 5 (wall edges)

Height Above Zone 4 (wall middle surface) Zone 5 (waU edges)

Ground, ft

Tributary Area Tributary Area Tributary Area Tributary Area

28 sqft 55 sqft 28 sqft 55 sqft

0 - 15 18.2 -36.4 17.3 -35.3 18.2 -35.3 17.8 -58.8

30 22.3 -36.4 21.2 -35.3 22.3 -35.3 21.9 -58.8

50 25.8 -36.4 24.6 -35.3 25.8 -35.3 25.3 -58.8

80 29.7 -36.4 28.2 -35.3 29.7 -35.3 29.1 -58.8

120 33.2 -36.4 31.6 -35.3 33.2 -35.3 32.5 -58.8

160 36.1 -36.4 34.3 -35.3 36.1 -35.3 35.3 -58.8

111
 APPENDIX B

CALCULATIONS USING AUSTRALIAN STANDARD

This appendix contains the wind pressure calculations using the Australian standard.

Wind pressure calculations for the 160 ft building follow the wind pressure calculations for

the low building. The references cited herein regarding sections, tables, and figures, belong

to the Australian standard.

112
 B.l Low Building

The simplified procedure given in section 2 yields greater loads than loads calculated

using the detailed procedure given in section 3. In order to make a dependable

comparison, the detailed procedure is used in the following compuUitions. Australian

standard defines three basic gust wind speeds for each region in Australia; namely,

serviceabihty limit states gust wind speed, Vs, ultimate limit states gust wind speed, Vu,

and permissible or working sUess gust wind speed, Vp. Each type of gust wind speed is

associated with a specific retum period or mean recurrence interval. The permissible

stress gust wind speed Vp is a 3-second gust speed at 10 m height in open terrain

associated with a 50 year mean recurrence interval, which is similar to the basic wind

speed used in the American standard. Hence, the 110 mph (49 m/s) basic wind speed used

in the wind load calculations using American standard is applicable for the computations

using Australian standard. The building is assumed to be located in a sub-urban area;

therefore. Terrain Category 3 is chosen for the following calculations. Terrain Category 3

is equivalent to the Exposure Category B in the American standard.

The design gust wind speed Vz, assumed constant in any wind direction, is given by

V z = VM(z.cat)MsMtMi.

Basic wind speed V: 49 m/s (permissible sU-ess gust wind speed)

Terrain and stmcture height multiplier M(z:4.57.cat:3) :0.75 (from Table 3.2.5.1)

Shielding multiplier, Ms:

As the parameters (average spacing, height and breadth of shielding buildings) involved

in the calculation of building spacing parameter D are not defined, an average value of

113
0.85 (typically used for AusU-alian suburbs) is used (section E3.2.7).

Topographic multipher, Mt:

As the building falls outside the local topographic zone M,= 1.00 (section 3.2.8).

Stmcture importance multiplier. Mi:

1.00, since the present building comes under normal class of structure (from Table

3.2.9).

The design gust wind speed Vz = 49(0.75)(0.85)(1.00)(1.00) = 31.24 m/s.

Design Pressures for the Main Wind-Force Resisting System:

The velocity pressure or the dynamic wind pressure qz is given by

q, = 0.0006V^' = 0.0006(31.24)^ = 0.585 kpa = 12.23 psf

The design wind pressure p for the main wind force resisting system is given by the

equation

p = qzKCpeKaKp)]

Extemal pressure coefficient Cpc : 0.7 for windward wall (Table 3.4.3.1)

: -0.5 for leeward waU with d/b ratio = 60 ft/100 ft

= 0.6<1 (Table 3.4.3.1(B))

: for roofs -0.9 for a distance of 0 - 15 ft from

windward edge

-0.5 for 15 ft - 30 ft from windward edge

-0.3 for 30 ft - 45 ft from windward edge

-0.2 for 45 ft - 60 ft from windward edge

Internal pressure coefficient, Cpi : condition 3 (openings of equal area on all walls) is

114
 an appropriate choice for the present building which

gives mtemal pressure as -0.3 or 0.0 (whichever is

more severe) for combined loading

Area reduction factor, Ka: 1.00 for windward, leeward and side waUs (section

3.4.4)

Reduction factor for porous claddings Kp: 1.00 (assumed)

The design pressures for the windward wall is

P = 12.23[(0.7)(1.00)(1.00)] = 8.6 psf

The design pressure for the leeward wall is

p = 12.23[(-0.5)(1.00)(1.00)] = -6.1 psf

The calculated design wind pressures for the roof are tabulated in Table B.l.

Base shear and over tuming moment for the entire building:

Base shear:

= [8.6(15)(100) -I- 6.1(15)(100)] / 1000 = 22.1 kips

Overtuming moment:

= [8.6(15)(7.5)(100) -I- 11(15)(52.5)(100) + 6.11(15)(100)(37.5) -i-

3.67(15)(100)(22.5) + 2.44(15)(100)(7.5) -f 6.1(15)(100)(7.5)] / 1000

= 1526.6 ft-kips

Roof uphft:

= 15(100)[11+6.1+3.1 + 2.44] / 1000 = 34.9 kips

Design Wind Pressures for Components and Claddings:

In the Australian standard, pressures on the components and claddings are defined as

115
Table B.l. Design pressures for roof

Distance from Windward Design Pressures,

Edge, ft psf

0 - 15 -11.0

15 - 30 -6.1

30 - 45 -3.7

45 - 60 -2.44

116
the local pressures acting on specific areas of the windward wall, the side wall and the

roof The local pressure coefficients are described in Table 3.4.5. The design wind

pressures for components and claddings is given by the equation

P = qz[(Cp.KaK,Kp) - (Cp.)]

velocity pressure, qz = 12.23 psf The coefficients Cpe, Ka, and Kp are the same as

described design of the main wind-force resisting system. The local pressure factor Ki is

1.25 for windward wall areas of less than or equal to 0.25a^, where 'a' is taken as the

minimum of 0.2b or 0.2d or the height of the building. The local pressure factor for the

roofs and the side walls is 1.5 acting on areas of l.Oa^ within a distance of 1.0a from the

windward wall edge and is 2.0 on areas of 0.25a within a distance of 0.5a from the

windward wall edge. The extemal pressure coefficients, along with the local pressure

factors for components are tabulated in Table B.2. The calculated design pressures are

tabulated in Table B.3. A few sample calculations are shown below.

Positive design pressure on the wall middle surface for the fastener tributary area of 5

sqft is

p = 12.23[(0.7)(1.00)(1.25)(1.00) + (0.3)] = 14.4 psf

Negative design pressure on wall edges for fastener tributary area of 5 sqft is

p = 12.23 [(-0.65)(1.00)(2.00)(1.00) - (0.0)] = -15.9 psf

Negative design pressure on roof eaves for puriins and grits of tribuUry area 100 sqft is

p = 12.23 [(-0.9)(1.00)(1.5)(1.00) - (0.0)] = -16.5 psf

and negative design pressure on roof eaves for fasteners u-ibutary area of 5 sqft is

p = 12.23 [(-0.9)(1.00)(2.00)(1.00) - (0.0)] = -1.054 kpa

117
Table B.2. Extemal pressure coefficients for components and claddings

Building Surface Tributary Area Tributary Area

5 sqft 100 sqft

+ Cpe(Kl) -Cpe(Kl) -hCpe(Kl) -Cpe(Kl)

roof middle surface - -0.5(1.0) - -0.5(1.0)

roof eaves - -0.9(2.0) - -0.9(1.5)

roof corners - -0.9(2.0) - -0.9(1.5)

wall middle surface 0.7(1.25) -0.5(1.00) 0.7(1.0) -0.5(1.0)

wall comers 0.7(1.25) -0.65(2.00) 0.7(1.0) -0.65(1.5)

Table B.3. Design wind pressures for components and claddings

Building Surface Tributary Area 5 sqft Tributary Area 1(X) sqft

+ ve Design -ve Design + ve Design -ve Design

Pressures, Pressures, Pressures, Pressures,

psf psf psf psf

1 (roof middle surface) - -6.1 - -6.1

2 (roof eaves) - -22.0 - -16.5

3 (roof corners) - -22.0 - -16.5

4 (wall middle surface) 14.4 -6.1 12.23 -6.1

5 (wall comers) 14.4 -15.9 12.23 -11.92

118
 B.2 160 ft Building

Dimension: 100 ft (30.5 m) x 200 ft (61 m) x 160 ft (48.8 m)

The basic wind speed, Vp, and the terrain category are the same for the office building

as for the low building. Summarizing the values again

Basic wind speed Vp : 49 m/s

Terrain category : 3 (suburban terrain)

The design gust wind speed Vz is given by the equation:

Vz = VM(z,cat)MsM.M.,

the terrain and stmcture height multiplier, M(z,cat: 3) obtained from Table 3.2.5.1 is

tabulated in Table B.4. As explained in the case of the low building, an average value of

0.85 is taken as shielding multiplier, Ms, for Australian suburbs. The stmcture falls outside

the local topographic zone, making the topographic multiplier, Mt = 1.00. The 160 ft

building considered here is a normal structure. The stmcture importance multiplier. Mi =

l.(X) is taken from Table 3.2.9. The computed design gust wind speeds for the

corresponding heights above ground are tabulated in Table B.4. The velocity pressure qz

is given by the equation:

q^= 0.0006 V ^

where Vz is the design gust wind speed. The calculated velocity pressures in psf for the

respective heights above ground are tabulated in Table B.4.

Design Pressures for the Main Wind-Force Resisting System:

The design wind pressures for the main wind force resisting system is given by the
equation:

119
Table B.4. Values of terrain and sUucture height multiplier M(z,cai),
design gust wind speed Vz and velocity pressure qz.

Height Above M(z,cat:3) Design gust wind Velocity

Ground, m speed Vz, m/s Pressure qz, psf

0 - 16.4 0.750 31.2 12.2

30 0.816 34.0 14.5

50 0.892 37.2 17.3

80 0.966 40.2 20.3

120 1.026 42.7 22.9

160 1.066 44.4 24.7

120
 p = qz[(Cp.KaKp)],

the area reducfion factor Ka, and the reduction factor Kp for porous claddings, are uiken as

equal to 1.00.

External pressure coefficients, Cpe:

Wind ward wall: 0.80 for wind parallel to 100 ft or 200 ft side,

(Table 3.4.3.1(A)) with qz

Leeward waU: -0.3 for wind parallel to 200 ft side (d/b = 2.0, Table

3.4.3.1(B)) with q„

-0.5 for wind parallel to 100 ft side (d/b = 0.5) with qh

Calculated values of design windward wall pressures are tabulated in Table B.5. The

windward wall pressures are the same when the wind is parallel to the 100 ft and the 200

ft side. The design leeward wall pressure when the wind is normal to the 100 ft side is:

p = 24.7(-0.3)(1.00)(1.00) = -7.4 psf, and

when the wind is parallel to the 30.5 m side

p = 24.7(-0.5)(1.00)(1.00) = -12.4 psf

Base shear and overtuming moment for the entire building when the wind is parallel to the

100 ft side:

Base shear:

= [200(9.8(16.4)-h-(143.6)(9.8-h 19.8)-h 12.4(160))]/1000 = 854 kips

Overtuming moment:

121
Table B.5. Design windward wall pressures

Height Above Ground, m Design windward Wall

Pressure, psf

0 - 16.4 9.8

30 11.6

50 13.8

80 16.2

120 18.3

160 19.8

122
 = [200(9.8(160)(80) +^(143.6)(10.0)(16.4 + 95.7) +12.4(160)(80) + 32.1(80)(60) +

17.3(20)(10))]/1000

= 10.4 X 10' ft-kips

Roof uphft:

= 2OO[32.1(80) + 17.3(20)] /1000 = 582.8 kips

Base shear and over tuming moment when the wind is parallel to the 200 ft side:

Base shear:

= [100(9.8(16.4) +i(i43.6)(9.8 -f 19.8) + 7.4(160))] / 1000 = 347 kips

Overtuming moment:

= [100(9.8(160)(80) 4--(143.6)(10.0)(16.4 + 95.7)-h7.4(160)(80) + 28.2(80)(160) +

19.3(80)(80) -f 15.3(40)(20))] /lOOO

= 8.0 X 10' ft-kips

Roof uphft:

= 100[28.2(80) -f 19.3(80) + 15.3(40)] / 1000 = 441.2 kips

Design Pressures for Components and Claddings:

The local pressure acting on the windward wall, side wall and roof is given by the

equation

p = qh[(CpeKaKiKp)-(Cpi)]

the extemal pressure coefficient for the windward wall is 0.8. For the leeward wall,

external pressure coefficient is taken as -0.3 for wind normal to 30.5 m side and -0.5 for

123
wind parallel to 30.5 m side. Condition 5 of Table 3.4.7 is a reasonable choice for the

intemal pressure coefficients for the present building. The pressure coefficients from

Table 3.4.7 is -0.2 or 0.0, whichever tends to give the most severe combination of loads.

The velocity pressure q,, is 24.7 psf The area reduction factor Ka, and the reduction

factor for claddings porosity are taken as 1.00. The local pressure factor Ki for windward

wall areas of 0.25a^ or less, is 1.25 (a = 6.1 m (20.0 ft); taken as the minimum of 0.2b or

0.2d or the height of the building ht). For roofs and side walls, the local pressure factor is

1.5 for areas of 0.25a^ or less, beyond a distance of 1.0a from the windward wall edge.

For areas of 1 .Oa or less within a distance of 1 .Oa from windward wall edge the local

pressure factor is 2.0. For areas of side walls of 0.25a^ or less, and at a distance of 0.5a

from windward wall edge, the local pressure factor is given as 3.0. The extemal pressure

coefficients for components and claddings are tabulated in Table B.6. Design pressures

for the components and claddings are tabulated in Table B.7 and Table B.8. A few sample

calculations are shown below.

Positive design pressure on wall middle surface of Uibutary area 55 sqft at 160 ft height is

p = 24.7[(0.8)(1.00)(1.25)(1.00) + (0.2)] = 29.6 psf

Negative design pressure on wall middle surface of Uibutary area 55 sqft at 160 ft height

IS

p = 24.7[(-0.65)(1.00)(1.5)(1.00) - (0.0)] = -24.1 psf

Negative design pressure on roof edges for u-ibutary areas of 100 sqft is

p = 24.7[(-0.9)(1.00)(1.5)(1.00) - (0.0)] = -33.34 psf

124
Table B.6. Extemal pressure coefficients for components and claddings

Building Surface Tributary Area, sqft Pressure Coefficients

-i-CPe(Kl) -CPe(Kl)

1 (roof middle surface) 10 - -0.9(1.0)

100 - -0.9(1.0)

2 (roof edges) 10 - -0.9(1.5)

100 - -0.9(1.5)

3 (roof corners) 10 - -0.9(2.0)

100 - -0.9(2.0)

4 (wall middle area) 28 0.8(1.25 -0.65(1.5)

55 0.8(1.25) -0.65(1.5)

5 (wall edges) 28 0.8(1.25) -0.65(3.0)

55 0.8(1.25) -0.65(3.0)

125
Table B.7. Design pressures for zone 1 (roof middle surface),
zone 2 (roof edges), and zone 3 (roof comers)

Building Surface Tributary Area, Positive Design Negative Design

sqft Pressures, psf Pressures, psf

1, roof middle surt'ace 10 - ^22.4

100 - -22.4

2, roof edges 10 - -33.3

100 - -33.3

3, roof corners 10 - -44.5

100 - -44.5

Table B.S. Design pressures for zone 4 (wall middle surface) and zone 5 (wall edges)

Height Above Design Pressures Design Pressures

Ground, ft Zone 4 (wall middle surface) Zone 5 (waU edges)

Tributary Tributary Tributary Tributary

Area 28 sqft Area 55 sqft Area 28 sqft Area 55 sqft

0-16.4 14.7 -11.9 14.7 -11.9 14.7 -23.8 14.7 -23.8

30 17.4 -14.1 17.4 -14.1 17.4 -28.2 17.4 -28.2

50 20.8 -16.9 20.8 -16.9 20.8 -33.7 20.8 -33.7

80 24.3 -19.8 24.3 -19.8 24.3 -39.5 24.3 -39.5

120 27.5 -22.3 27.5 -22.3 27.5 -44.6 27.5 -44.6

160 29.6 -24.1 29.6 -24.1 29.6 -48.2 29.6 -48.2

126
Negative design pressure on roof comers for tributary areas of 100 sqft is

p = 24.7[(-0.9)(1.00)(2.0)(1.00) - (0.0)] = -44.5 psf

127
 APPENDIX C

CALCULATIONS USING BRFFISH STANDARD

This appendix contains the wind pressure calculations using the British standard. Wind

pressure calculations for the 160 ft building follow the wind pressure calculations for the

low building. The references cited herein regarding sections, tables, and figures, belong to

the British standard.

128
 c . l Low Building

The basic wind speed used in the British standard is a mean houriy wind speed,

measured at 10 m height in open flat terrain with an annual probability of occurrence of

0.02. The equivalent mean houriy wind speed for the 110 mph (49 m/s) 3-second gust

wind speed used in the American standard is 72.7 mph (32.4 m/s). The equivalent

suburban terrain category of exposure B used in the American standard is town category

in the British standard. The basic wind speed, Vb of 32.4 m/s is modified by following

four factors to give the site wind speed Vs.

Altitude factor Sa: a value of 1.00 is assumed based on the following conditions

(a) the building falls outside the local topographic zone

(b) the site altitude A* is not defined (section 5.2.2.2)

Direction factor Sa: l.(X), since the building orientation is ignored (section 5.2.3)

Seasonal factor Ss: 1.00, since the present building is a permanent construction

(section 5.2.4.2).

Probability factor Sp: l.(X), since the annual probability is not changed from the standard

value of 0.02 (section 5.2.5.1).

From the above factors the site wind speed is calculated as

Vs = (32.4)(1.00)(1.00)(1.00)(1.00) = 32.4 m/s.

The effective wind speed Vc is given by the equation:

Ve = Vs(Sb)

from Table 4, for town terrain Sb is 1.352 with effective height He = 4.57 m and 64.4 km

(40 miles) away from sea.

129
 Ve = (32.4)(1.352) = 43.8 m/s

The velocity or dynamic pressure is given by the equation:

q, = 0.613V,^ = 0.613(43.8)^ = 1176 pa = 24.6 psf

Design Pressures on the Main Wind-Force Resisting System:

The design pressure on the main wind-force resisting system is given by the equation:

P = q-s[(CpeCa)]

External pressure coefficients:

windward wall: 0.6 for D/H = 60 ft / 15 ft = 4, where D is the dimension of

the building parallel to wind duection and H is the height of the

stmcture.

leeward waU: -0.1 for D/H = 60 ft / 15 ft = 4

roof: -2.0 for zone A

-1.4 for zone B

-0.7 for Zone C

±0.2 for zone D

Size effect factor for extemal pressures:

windward and leeward walls: 0.84 for diagonal dimension of 30.84 m of windward

and leeward wall (Figure 4)

roofs: 0.82 for diagonal dimension of 35.56 m (Figure 4).

Intemal pressure coefficients: values of -0.3 or -1-0.2 given in clause 9.1.2 is an appropriate

choice for the present building.

Size effect factor for internal pressure: diagonal dimension 'a' for the intemal pressure is

130
 a = 10[y (internal volume of room)]

= 137m

from Figure 4 for a = 137 m, Ca = 0.71

Design wind pressure for the windward wall is

p = 24.6 [(0.6)(0.84)] = 12.4 psf

design wind pressure for the leeward wall is

p = 24.6 [(-0.1)(0.84)] =-2.1 psf

design wind pressure for the roof

zone A p = 24.6 [(-2.0)(0.82) - (0.2)(0.71)] = -43.8 psf

zone B p = 24.6 [(-1.4)(0.82) - (0.2)(0.71)] = -31.9 psf

zone C p = 24.6 [(-0.7)(0.82) - (0.2)(0.71)] = -17.6 psf

zone D p = 24.6 [(-0.2)(0.82) - (0.2)(0.71)] = -7.5 psf and

p = 24.6 [(0.2)(0.82) -i- (0.3)(0.71)] = 9.3 psf

Base shear and overtuming moment for the entire building:

Base shear:

= [12.4(15)(100) + 2.1(15)(100)] = 21.75 kips

Overtuming moment:

= [12.4(15)(100)(7.5) + 31.7(3.0)(100)(58.5) + 17.6(12)(100)(51) -»-

7.5(45)(100)(22.5) + 2.1(15)(100)(7.5)] / 1000 = 2555.9 ft-kips

Roof uphft:

= 100[31.9(3) + 17.6(12) + 7.5(45)] / 1000 = 64.4 kips

131
Design Wind Pressures for Components and Claddings:

The design pressure for components and claddings is given by the equation

P = q.s[(CpeCa) - (CpiCa)]

the internal pressure coefficient is the same as used for the design of the main wind force

resisting system. The extemal pressure coefficients are tabulated in Table C. 1, along with

size effect factor. The uibutary areas considered in the computations involving American

standard are 5 sqft (0.465 m^) and 100 sqft (9.3 m^). The diagonal dimension for the

1.525 m X 6.1 m cladding area is 6.3 m, which from Figure 4 gives a size effect factor Ca

of 0.98. For fasteners, the diagonal dimension for 0.305 m x 1.525 m area is 1.55 m,

which gives a size effect factor of 1.00. The calculated values of design pressures are

tabulated in Table C.2.

Sample calculation for purhns and grits of tributary area 100 sqft:

Positive pressure on wall middle surface:

p = 24.6 [(0.6)(0.98) + (0.3)(0.71)] = 19.7 psf

Negative pressure on roof eaves:

p = 24.6 [(-2.0)(0.98) - (0.2)(0.71)] = -51.7 psf

Sample calculation for fasteners of tributary area 5 sqft:

Positive pressure on wall middle surface:

p = 24.6 [(0.6)(1.00) + (0.3)(0.71)] = 20.0 psf

Negative pressure on roof corners:

p = 24.6 [(-2.0)(1.00) - (0.2)(0.71)] = -52.7 psf

132
Table C. 1. Extemal pressure coefficients for components and claddings

Building Surface Tributary Area Tributary Area

5 sqft 100 sqft

+ Cpe(Ca) -Cpe(Ca) -i<:pe(Ca) -Cpe(Ca)

roof middle surface - -0.7(1.0) - -0.7(0.98)

roof eaves - -1.4(1.0) - -1.4(0.98)

roof corners - -2.0(1.0) -2.0(0.98)

waU middle surface 0.6(1.0) -0.8(1.0) 0.6(0.98) -0.8(0.98)

wall comers 0.6(1.0) -1.3(1.0) 0.6(0.98) -1.3(0.98)

Table C.2. Design pressures for components and claddings

Building Surface Tributary Area 5 sqft Tributary Area 100 sqft

+ ve Design -ve Design + ve Design -ve Design

Pressures, Pressures, Pressures, Pressures,

psf psf psf psf

1 (roof middle surface) - -20.7 - -20.4

2 (roof eaves) - -37.9 - -37.2

3 (roof corners) - -52.7 - -51.7

4 (wall middle surface) 20.0 -23.2 19.7 -22.8

5 (wall comers) 20.0 -35.5 19.7 -34.8

133
 c.2 160 ft Building

The basic wind speed Vb, used with the compuUitions involving the low building, and

the factors modifying the basic wind speed to site wind speed V,, are applicable for the

following computations. The site wind speed Vs is

Vs = (32.4)(1.00)(1.00)(1.00)(1.00) = 32.4 m/s.

Section 5.4.2.2 states that, the building should be considered as one part if the building

height H is less than or equal to crosswind breadth B. The building should be considered

two parts if building height H is greater than B, but less than 2B. The present building is

considered as one part when wind is parahel to the 30.5 m side and is considered two

parts when wind is normal to the 30.5 m side.

Wind Parallel to the 30.5 m Side:

Effective wind speed Ve is given by the equation

Ve = Vs(Sb)

The terrain and building factor Sb, for town terrain, from Table 4, based on He = 48.89

m and distance from sea = 64.4 km (40 miles) is 1.98. Hence, effective wind speed is

Vc = (32.4)(1.98) = 64.15 m/s

The velocity pressure is given by the equation

q^ = 0.613V,' = 0.613(64.15)2 = 2522.6 pa = 52.7 psf

Design Pressures on the Main Wind-Force Resisting System:

The design pressure on the main wind-force resisting system is given by the equation

p = q.s[(CpcCa)]

External pressure coefficients, Cpc:

134
 Windward wall: 0.8 for D/H = 100 ft/160 ft = 0.62, where D is the

dimension of the building parallel to wind direction with height H

(from Table 5)

Leeward wall: -0.3 for D/H = 100 ft/160 ft = 0.62, (from Table 5)

Size effect factor, Ca:

From Figure 4, for the windward and leeward walls, size effect factor is taken as 0.75

for diagonal dimension 78.17 m.

Design windward wall pressure is

p = 52.7[(0.8)(0.75)]= 31.6 psf

Design leeward wall pressure is

p = 52.7[(-0.3)(0.75)] = -11.9 psf

Base shear:

= [200(31.6(160) + 11.9(160))] /1000 = 1392 kips

Overtuming moment:

= [200(31.6(160)(80) + 11.9 (160)(80) -f- 20(90)(58.5) + 80(40)(35.1))] / 1000

= 15.5x10'ft-kips

Roof uphft:

= 200[58.5(20) + 35.1(80)] / 1000 = 795.6 kips

Design pressures on Components and Claddings:

Design pressures for the components and claddings are given by the equation

P = q.s[(CpeCa) - (CpiCa)]

The extemal pressure coefficients for windward and leeward walls along with the size

135
effect factors are shown in Table C.3.

Size effect factor:

For wall panels of Uibutary area 1.676 m (5.5 ft) x 1.524 (5 fO, the diagonal dimension

is 2.265 m, which gives a size effect factor of 1.00 from Figure 4. For wall mullions of

U-ibutary area 3.353 m (11 ft) x 1.524 m (5 ft), with a diagonal dimension of 3.683 m size

effect factor is 1.00. The diagonal dimensions of areas of components and claddings on

the roof are 3.063 m and 4.31 m, which also gives size effect factor as 1.00.

Internal pressure coefficients:

Section 9.1.2 indicates that for the present enclosed building, the intemal pressure

coefficient be taken as -0.3 or 0.2; whichever gives larger net pressure coefficient across

the wall.

Size effect factor:

For intemal pressure coefficient the diagonal dimension for obtaining size effect factor

IS

a = 10[y (intemal volume of story)]

= 1 0 [ ^ ( 3 0 . 5 X 61 X 3.352) = 184 m

the size effect factor for a diagonal dimension of 184 m is 0.66. The calculated values of

design pressures for components and claddings are given in Table C.4 and Table C.5.

Wind parallel to 60.0 m Side:

Since the building height H is greater than the crosswind breadth B, the building is

divided into two parts. Effective wind speed Ve is given by the equation

136
Table C.3. Extemal pressure coefficients for components and claddings

Building Surface Tributary Area, sqft Pressure Coefficients

-i-Cpe(Ca) -Cpe(Ca)

1 (roof middle surface) 10 - -0.7(1.0)

100 - -0.7(1.0)

2 (roof edges) 10 - -1.4(1.0)

100 - -1.4(1.0)

3 (roof corners) 10 - -2.0(1.0)

100 - -2.0(1.0)

4 (wall middle area) 28 0.8(1.0) -0.8(1.0)

55 0.8(1.0) -0.8(1.0)

5 (wall edges) 28 0.8(1.0) -1.3(1.0)

55 0.8(1.0) -1.3(1.0)

137
Table C.4. Design pressures for zone 1 (roof middle surface),
zone 2 (roof edges), and zone 3 (roof comers)

Building Surface TribuUiry Area, Positive Design Negative Design

sqft Pressures, psf Pressures, psf

1, roof middle surface 10 - -43.8

100 - -43.8

2, roof edges 10 - -80.7

100 - -80.7

3, roof corners 10 - -112.4

100 - -112.4

Table C.5. Design Pressures for Zone 4 (wall middle surface) and Zone 5 (wall edges)

Height Above Design Pressures Design Pressures

Ground, ft Zone 4 (wall middle surface) Zone 5 (wall edges)

Tributary Area Tributary Area Tributary Tributary Area

28 sqft 55 sqft Area 28 sqft 55 sqft

0 - 15 52.6 -49.1 52.6 -49.1 52.6 -75.5 52.6 -75.5

30 52.6 -49.1 52.6 -49.1 52.6 -75.5 52.6 -75.5

50 52.6 -49.1 52.6 -49.1 52.6 -75.5 52.6 -75.5

80 52.6 -49.1 52.6 -49.1 52.6 -75.5 52.6 -75.5

120 52.6 -49.1 52.6 -49.1 52.6 -75.5 52.6 -75.5

160 52.6 -49.1 52.6 -49.1 52.6 -75.5 52.6 -75.5

138
 Ve = Vs(Sb)

For part 1, the terrain and building factor Sb is 1.895 with effective height He = 30.5 m and

64.4 km (40 miles) away from the sea. For part 2, Sb is 1.980 for H, = 48.89 m and 64.4

km (40 miles) away from the sea.

Effective wind speed Ve, is 61.4 m/s for part 1 and is 64.15 m/s for part 2.

Design Pressures on the Main Wind-Force Resisting system:

Design pressures for the main wind force resisting system is given by the equation

P = q.s[(CpeCa)]

Velocity pressure is given by the equation

q , = 0.613V,'

for part 1 qs = 48.3 psf and for part 2 qs = 52.7 psf

Extemal pressure coefficients for part 1:

windward waU: 0.733 for D/H = 200 ft/100 ft = 2

leeward waU: -0.233 for D/H = 2

Size effect factor:

From Figure 4 for diagonal dimension of 43.13 the size effect factor Ca is 0.80

Design windward wall pressure is p = 48.3[(0.733)(0.80)] = 28.3

Design leeward wall pressure is

p = 48.3[(-0.233)(0.80)] = -9.0 psf

Extemal pressure coefficients for Part 2:

windward wall: 0.78 for D/H = 200 ft/100 ft = 1.247 from Table 5

leeward wall: -0.28 for D/H = 1.247

139
Size effect factor:

For the loaded area of Part 2 the diagonal dimension is 35.61 m, which gives a size

effect factor of 0.82.

Design windward wall pressure is

p = 52.7[(0.78)(0.82)] = 33.7 psf

Design leeward wall pressure is

p = 52.7[(-0.28)(0.82)]=-12.1 psf

Base shear and overturning moment for the entire building:

Base shear:

= [100(28.3(100) + 33.7(60) -f- 9.0(100) + 12.1(60))] /1000 = 647.8 kips

Overtuming moment:

= [100((28.3 + 9.0)(100)(50) -f- (33.7 + 12.1)(60)(130) + 10(195)(57.9) +

40(170)(35.1) + 150(75)(15.1))] / 1000 = 10.7 x lO' ft-kips

Roof uplift:

= 100[57.9(10) + 35.1(40) + 15.1(150)] /1000 = 424.8 kips

Design Pressure on Components and Claddings:

Design pressures on components and claddings is given by the equation

P = qs[(CpcCa) - (CpiCa)]

The extemal pressure coefficients, along with the size effect factor, are tabulated in

Table C.6. Velocity pressure is equal to 52.7 psf

The internal pressure coefficients are -0.3 or 0.2; whichever gives the larger net

pressure coefficient across the wall. The size effect factor used with the internal pressure

140
Table C.6. Extemal pressure coefficients for components and claddings

Building Surface Tributary Area, sqft Pressure Coefficients

-i-Cpe(Ca) -Cpe(Ca)

1 (roof middle surface) 10 - -0.7(1.0)

100 - -0.7(1.0)

2 (roof edges) 10 - -1.4(1.0)

100 - -1.4(1.0)

3 (roof corners) 10 - -2.0(1.0)

100 - -2.0(1.0)

4 (wall middle area) 28 0.78(1.0) -0.78(1.0)

55 0.78(1.0) -0.78(1.0)

5 (wall edges) 28 0.78(1.0) -1.3(1.0)

55 0.78(1.0) -1.3(1.0)

141
coefficient is 0.66. The size effect factor Ca is 1.00 for waU panels of tributary area 2.6

m', waU mullions of tribuUiry area 5.12 m^, and for roof tributary areas of 0.93 m' and 9.3

m^. The calculated values of design pressures for components and claddings are tabulated

in Table C.7 and Table C.8.

142
Table C.7. Design pressures for zone 1 (roof middle surface),
zone 2 (roof edges), and zone 3 (roof comers)

Building Surface TribuUiry Area, Positive Design Negative Design

sqft Pressures, psf Pressures, psf
1, roof middle surface 10 - -43.8

100 - -43.8

2, roof edges 10 - -80.7

100 - -80.7

3, roof corners 10 - -112.4

100 - -112.4

Table C.8. Design pressures for zone 4 (wall middle surface) and zone 5 (wall edges)

Height Above Design Pressures Design Pressures

Ground, ft Zone 4 (wall middle surface) Zone 5 (wall edges)

Tributary Area Tributary Area Tributary Tributary Area

28 sqft 55 sqft Area 28 sqft 55 sqft

0-15 51.5 51.5 51.5 51.5 51.5 -75.5 51.5 -75.5

30 51.5 51.5 51.5 51.5 51.5 -75.5 51.5 -75.5

50 51.5 51.5 51.5 51.5 51.5 -75.5 51.5 -75.5

80 51.5 51.5 51.5 51.5 51.5 -75.5 51.5 -75.5

120 51.5 51.5 51.5 51.5 51.5 -75.5 51.5 -75.5

160 51.5 51.5 51.5 51.5 51.5 -75.5 51.5 -75.5

143
 APPENDIX D

CALCULATIONS USING CANADIAN STANDARD

This appendix contains the wind pressure calculations using the Canadian standard.

Wind pressure calculations for the 160 ft building follow the wind pressure calculations for

the low building. The references cited herein regarding sections, tables, and figures,

belong to the Canadian standard.

144
 D.l Low Building

The reference wind speed used by the Canadian standard is a mean houriy wind speed

measured at 10 m height in an open terrain and associated with an annual probability of

occurrence of 0.01,0.033 and 0.01. hi the commentary for Canadian standard reference

wind pressures based on reference wind speed are tabulated for many Canadian locations.

Canadian standard recommends a reference velocity pressure, q, associated with an annual

probability of 0.1, for design of claddings and a reference velocity pressure, q, associated

with an annual probability of 0.033 is recommended for design of the main wind-force

resisting system. The reference wind speed employed for calculations using American

standard is a 3-second gust wind speed of 110 mph associated with an annual probabihty

of 0.02. To modify the wind speed to annual probabilities of 0.1 and 0.033, the wind

speed is multiphed by 0.84 and 0.94 respectively. The obtamed wind speeds are then

converted to mean hourly wind speed to give reference wind speeds 27.2 m/s (61.07 mph)

and 30.4 m/s (68.34 mph), to be used with the calculation of design wind pressures for

components and claddings and for the design of the main wind-force resisting system.

Design Pressures on the Main Wind-Force Resisting System:

The design pressures on the main wind-force resisting system is given by the equation

p = qCc[(CgCp)].

The reference wind pressure for the main wind-force resisting system is given by the

equation

q = 650 X lO-^(V)^ = 650 x 10"^(30.4)^ = 0.6007 kpa = 12.55 psf

From section 12 (commentary) for low-rise structures with roof slope less than lO", the

145
mean roof height is taken as the eave height. The exposure factor C^, for reference height

4.57 m, is 0.9 (from Table 4.1.8.A).

External peak pressure coefficients, CpCg:

External peak pressure coefficients obtained ftom Figure B.7 for wind generally

perpendicular and parallel to ridge are tabulated in Table D.l and Table D.2.

Internal pressure coefficients, Cp,:

Section 37 of commentary gives three basic design categories into which a given

building can be categorized based on the prevailing condition of the building. For the

present building category 1 (uniformly distributed openings) is an appropriate choice,

which gives internal pressure coefficients as 0.0 to -0.3. The intemal pressure coefficients

of category 1 should be used with a gust effect factor Cg = 1.0.

The calculated design pressures for wind normal and parallel to ridge are tabulated in

Table D.l and Table D.2. A few sample calculations are given below.

Wind perpendicular to ridge:

wind pressure on building surface 1 is

p = 12.54(0.90)[(0.75)] = 8.5 psf

wind pressure on building surface 2 is

p = 12.54(0.90)[(-1.3)] = -14.7 psf

Wind parallel to ridge:

wind pressure on building surface IE is

p = 12.54(0.90)[(-0.9)] = -10.2 psf

wind pressure on building surface 5E is

146
Table D.l. External peak pressure coefficients and design pressures
on the main wind-force resisting system for wind
perpendicular to ridge.

Building Surfaces Extemal Peak Design Pressures,

Pressure psf

Coefficients, GCpe

1 (windward wall 0.75 8.5

middle surface)

2(roof middle area) -1.3 -14.7

3(roof middle area) -0.7 -7.9

4(leeward wall 0.55 -6.2

middle surface)

lE(windward wall 1.15 13.0

corner)

2E(roof edge) -2.0 -22.6

3E(roof edge) -1.0 -11.3

4E(leeward wall -0.8 -9.1

corner)

147
Table D.2. Extemal Peak Pressure Coefficients and Design Pressures
on the Main Wind-Force Resisting System for Wind Parallel
to Ridge.
Building Surfaces Extemal Peak Design

Pressure Coefficients, Pressures, psf

GCPC

1 (windward wall -0.85 -9.6

middle surface)

2(roof middle surface) -1.3 14.7

3(roof middle surface) -0.7 -7.9

4(leeward wall middle -0.85 -9.6

surface)

5(side wall) 0.75 8.5

6(side wall) -0.55 -6.2

lE(windward wall -0.9 10.2

comer)

2E(roof edge) -2.0 -22.6

3E(roofedge) -1.0 11.3

4E(leeward wall -0.9 -10.2

corner)

5E(side wall corner) 1.15 13.0

6E(side wall corner) -0.8 -9.1

148
 p=12.54(0.90)[(1.15)] = 13.0 psf

Base shear and Overtuming moment for the entire building:

Base shear:

= [8.5(100)(15) + 6.2(100)(15)] / 1000 = 22.05 kips

Overtuming moment:

= [8.5(15)(100)(7.5) + 14.7(30)(100)(45)

+ 7.9(30)(100)(15) + 6.2(15)(100)(7.5)] / 1000 = 2505.3 ft-kips

Roof uplift:

= 30(100)[16.7 + 9.0] / 1000 = 77.1 kips

Design Wind Pressures on Components and Claddings:

Design wind pressures on Components and Claddings are given by the equation

p = qCcKCgCp) - (CgCpi)]

The reference wind pressure for the components and claddings is given by the equation

q = 650 X lO-^(V)^ = 650 x 10-^(27.2)^ = 0.4809 kpa = 10.04 psf

The exposure factor, Ce = 0.9, (used for the design of the main wind force resisting

system) is applicable for the design of components and claddings also. Extemal peak

pressure coefficients, CgCp, obtained from Figure B.8 and Figure B.9 are tabulated in

Table D.3. Internal pressure coefficient is 0.0 or -0.3 for intemal pressure category 1 to be

used with a gust effect factor = l.(K). The calculated design pressures for components and

claddings are tabulated in Table D.4.

149
Table D.3. External peak pressure coefficients for components and claddings
•y
Building Surface Tributary Area, 0.465 m^
Tributary Area, 9.3 m'
(5 sqft)
(100 sqft)
+GCpc -GCpe +GCpe -GCpe

r (roof middle surface) 0.5 -1.81 0.675 -1.5

s (roof edges) 0.5 -2.5 0.675 -2.0

c (roof corners) 0.5 -5.375 0.675 -2.0

w (wall middle surface) 1.82 -1.80 0.55 -1.67

e (wall corners) 1.82 -2.08 0.55 -1.67

Table D.4. Design pressures on components and claddings

Building Surface Tributary Area, 5 sqft Tributary Area, 100 sqft

-Hve Design -ve Design -i-ve Design -ve Design

Pressures, Pressures, Pressures, Pressures,

psf psf psf psf

r (roof middle surface) 7.2 -16.4 8.8 -13.6

s (roof edges) 7.2 -22.6 8.8 -18.1

c (roof corners) 7.2 -48.6 8.8 -18.1

w (wall middle surface) 19.2 -16.3 7.7 -15.1

e (wall corners) 19.2 -18.8 7.7 -15.9

150
 D.2 160 ft Building

Design Pressures on the Main Wind-Force Resisting System:

The design pressures for the main wind-force resisting system is given by the equation

p = qCeCgCp

The reference wind pressure for the main wind-force resisting system is given by the

equation

q = 650 X lO-^(V)^ = 650 x 10"^(30.4)' = 0.6(K)7 kpa = 12.54 psf

Exposure factor:

The reference height, H, (used to obtain the exposure factor Ce) depends on the surface

the design pressure is calculated upon. For windward waU exposure factor various with

height above the constant of 10 m. Note 6 of Figure B-11 indicates that for simple

procedure a constant value of exposure factors up to a height of 10 m should be used.

The exposure factors for the windward wall are tabulated in Table D.5. Exposure factor

for leeward wall is obtained based on one half the height of the stmcture. For the present

buildmg the exposure factor for the leeward wall is 1.143 (Table 4.1.8.A).

Gust effect factor Cg:

From 4.1.8.1 .(6) the gust effect factor Cg, for the design of main wind-force resisUng

system, is 2.0.

External pressure coefficient, Cp (same for wind parallel to 100 ft and 200 ft side):

windward wall: 0.8 used with H

leeward: -0.5 used with 0.5H

151
Table D.5. Exposure factors and design pressures on the windward wall

Height Above Ground, m Exposure Factor, Ce Design pressure, psf

0 - 10 0.9 18.1

12 1.0 20.1

50 1.104 22.2

80 1.143 23.0

120 1.265 25.4

160 1.324 26.6

152
Design pressures for the windward wall are tabulated in Table D.5. The design leeward

wall pressure is

p = 12.54(1.143)(2.0)(-0.5) = -14.3 psf

Base shear and overtuming moment for wind parallel to 1(X) ft side:

Base shear:

= [200(18.1(32.8)-f--(127.2)(18.1 + 26.6)-h 14.3(160))] / 1000 = 1144.9 kips

Overtuming moment:

= [200(18.1(160)(80) -»-i(127.2)(8.5)(117.6)-h 14.3(160)(80) + 50(100)(33.2))] / 1000

= 12.9 X 10' ft-kips

Roof uphft:

= 200[33.2(100)] / 1000 = 664 kips

Base shear and overtuming moment for wind parallel to 200 ft side:

Base shear:

= [100(18.1(32.8) -h-^(127.2)(18.1 + 26.6)+ 14.3(160))] /1000 = 572.5 kips

Overtuming moment:

= [100(18.1(160)(80) -h-(127.2)(8.5)(117.6)-h 14.3(160)(80) + 100(200)(33.2))] /lOOO

= 11.4x 10'ft-kips

Roof uphft:

= 100[33.2(200)] / 1000 = 664 kips

153
Design Pressures on Components and Claddings:

Design pressures on components and claddings are given by the equation

p = qCe[(CgCp) - (CgCpi)]

Velocity pressure q = 10.04 psf Exposure factors are obtained based on the reference

height H = 48.8 m. Gust effect factor for components and claddings is 2.5 (from Section

4.1.8.1.(6)). External pressure coefficients for components and claddings are given in

Table D.6. The intemal pressure coefficient is 0.0 or -0.3 for intemal pressure category 1

used with a gust effect factor = 1.00. The calculated design pressure for components and

claddings are tabulated in Table D.7 and Table D.8.

154
Table D.6. Extemal pressure coefficients for components and claddings

Building Surface Tributary Area, sqft Pressure Coefficients

+Cp -Cpe

1 (roof middle surface) 10 - -1.0

100 - -1.0

2 (roof edges) 10 - -1.5

100 - 1.5

3 (roof corners) 10 - -2.0

100 -2.0

4 (wall middle area) 28 0.8 -0.7

55 0.8 -0.7

5 (wall edges) 28 0.8 -1.0

55 0.8 -1.0

155
Table D.7. Design pressures for zone 1 (roof middle surface),
zone 2 (roof edges), and zone 3 (roof comers)

Building Surface Tributary Area, Positive Design Negative Design ]

sqft Pressures, psf Pressures, psf

1, roof middle surface 10 - -33.2

100 - -33.2

2, roof edges 10 - -49.8

100 - -49.8

3, roof corners 10 - -66.5

100 - -66.5

Table D.8. Design Pressures for Zone 4 (wall middle surface) and Zone 5 (wall edges)

Height Above Design Pressures Design Pressures

Ground, ft Zone 4 (wall middle surface) Zone 5 (wall edges)

Tributary Area TribuUiry Area Tributary Tributary Area

28 sqft 55 sqft Area 28 sqft 55 sqft

15 24.8 -15.8 24.8 -15.8 24.8 -22.6 24.8 -22.6

30 27.6 -17.6 27.6 -17.6 27.6 -25.1 27.6 -25.1

50 30.5 -19.4 30.5 -19.4 30.5 -27.7 30.5 -27.7

80 31.6 -20.1 31.6 -20.1 31.6 -28.7 31.6 -28.7

120 34.9 -22.2 34.9 -22.2 34.9 -31.8 34.9 -31.8

160 36.6 -23.3 36.6 -23.3 36.6 -33.2 36.6 -33.2

156

\..1S1
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