Magnetic Field
Magnetic Field
Magnetic Field
Magnetic field
B and H
See also: Magnetization
Alternative names for B and H
B
name used by
1
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Magnetic field
Although views have shifted over the placed in a non-uniform external magnetic
years, B is now understood as being the fun- field.
damental quantity, while H is a derived field. In this model, each magnetic pole is a
It is defined as a modification of B due to ma- source of a magnetic field that is stronger
terial media such that (in SI): near the pole. Further, an external magnetic
field exerts a force in the direction of the
magnetic field for a north pole and in the op-
(definition of H ) posite direction for the south pole. In a
nonuniform magnetic field, each pole sees a
where M is the magnetization of the material different field and consequently is subject to
and μ0 is the magnetic constant.[2] The H- a different force. The difference in the two
field is measured in amperes per meter (A/m) forces moves the magnet in the direction of
in SI units and in oersteds (Oe) in cgs increasing magnetic field. (There may also be
units.[3] a net torque.) In contrast, a magnet in a uni-
In materials for which M is proportional to form magnetic field experiences at most a
B the relationship between B and H can be torque, and no net magnetic force, no matter
cast into the simpler form: H = B ⁄ μ, where μ how strong the field is.
is a material dependent parameter called the Unfortunately, the idea of "poles" does not
permeability. In free space, there is no mag- accurately reflect what happens inside a
netization M so that H = B ⁄ μ0 (free space). magnet (see ferromagnetism). For instance, a
For many materials, though, there is no small magnet placed inside of a larger mag-
simple relationship between B and M. For net will feel a force in the opposite direction.
example, ferromagnetic materials and super- The more physically correct description of
conductors have a magnetization that is a magnetism involves atomic sized loops of cur-
multiple-valued function of B due to hyster- rent distributed throughout the magnet.
esis.[4] Mathematically, the force on a magnet
See History of B and H below for further having a magnetic moment m is:[5]
discussion.
.
2
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3
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Magnetic field
line or not) by looking at the direction and for monopoles. Despite these efforts, no mag-
density of the field lines nearby. netic monopole has been observed to
Field lines are also a good tool for visualiz- date.[10]
ing magnetic forces. When dealing with mag-
netic fields in ferromagnetic substances like
iron, and in plasmas, the magnetic forces can
The magnetic field and
be understood by imagining that the field electrical currents
lines exert a tension, (like a rubber band)
Currents of electrical charges both generate
along their length, and a pressure perpendic-
a magnetic field and feel a force due to
ular to their length on neighboring field lines.
magnetic B-fields.
The ’unlike’ poles of magnets attract because
they are linked by many field lines, while
’like’ poles repel because the field lines
Electrical currents (moving
between them don’t meet, but run parallel, charges) as a source of magnet-
pushing on each other. ic field
B-field lines always form closed loops All moving charges produce a magnetic field.
[11] The magnetic field of a moving charge is
Field lines are a useful way to represent any
very complicated but is well known. (See Jefi-
vector field and often reveal sophisticated
menko’s equations.) It forms closed loops
properties of fields quite simply. One import-
around a line that is pointing in the direction
ant property of the B-field that can be veri-
the charge is moving. The magnetic field of a
fied with field lines is that magnetic field
current on the other hand is much easier to
lines always make complete loops. Magnetic
calculate.
field lines neither start nor end (although
they can extend to or from infinity). To date Magnetic field of a steady current
no exception to this rule has been found. (See
magnetic monopole below.)
Since magnetic field lines always come in
loops, magnetic poles always come in N and
S pairs. Magnetic field leaves a magnet near
its north pole and enters the magnet near its
south pole but inside the magnet the magnet-
ic field continues from the south pole back to
the north. [9] If a magnetic field line enters a
magnet somewhere it has to leave the mag-
net somewhere else; it is not allowed to have
an end point. For this reason as well, cutting
a magnet in half will result in two separate
magnets each with both a north and a south
pole.
Magnetic monopole
(hypothetical)
A magnetic monopole is a hypothetical
particle (or class of particles) that has, as its
name suggests, only one magnetic pole Current (I) through a wire produces a mag-
netic field (B) around the wire. The field is
(either a north pole or a south pole). In other
oriented according to the right hand grip
words, it would possess a "magnetic charge"
rule.
analogous to electric charge.
Modern interest in this concept stems
The magnetic field generated by a steady
from particle theories, notably Grand Unified
current (a continual flow of charges, for ex-
Theories and superstring theories, that pre-
ample through a wire, which is constant in
dict either the existence or the possibility of
time and in which charge is neither building
magnetic monopoles. These theories and oth-
up nor depleting at any point), is described
ers have inspired extensive efforts to search
by the Biot-Savart law.[12] This is a
4
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5
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Magnetic field
The force is always perpendicular to both the charge will point outwards from the palm.
velocity of the particle and the magnetic field The force on a negative charged particle is in
that created it. Neither a stationary particle the opposite direction. If both the speed and
nor one moving in the direction of the mag- the charge are reversed then the direction of
netic field lines will experience a force. For the force remains the same. For that reason a
that reason, charged particles move in a magnetic field measurement (by itself) can-
circle (or more generally, in a helix) around not distinguish whether there is a positive
magnetic field lines; this is called cyclotron charge moving to the right or a negative
motion. Because the magnetic force is always charge moving to the left. (Both of these will
perpendicular to the motion, the magnetic produce the same current.) On the other
fields can do no work on an isolated charge. hand, a magnetic field combined with an
It can and does, however, change the electric field can distinguish between these,
particle’s direction, even to the extent that a see Hall effect below.
force applied in one direction can cause the An alternative, similar trick to the right
particle to drift in a perpendicular direction. hand rule is Fleming’s left hand rule.
(See figure.) The magnetic force can do work
to a magnetic dipole, or to a charged particle
whose motion is constrained by other forces.
Electromagnetism: the
Force on current-carrying wire
relationship between
The force on a current carrying wire is simil- magnetic and electric
ar to that of a moving charge as expected
since a charge carrying wire is a collection of
fields
moving charges. A current carrying wire will
feel a sideways force in the presence of a The magnetic field due to a
magnetic field. The Lorentz force on a macro- changing electric field
scopic current is often referred to as the La- See also: Ampere’s Law and Maxwell’s
place force. equations
A changing electric field generates a magnet-
Direction of force
ic field proportional to the time rate of the
change of the electric field. This fact is
known as Maxwell’s correction to Ampere’s
Law. Therefore the full Ampere’s Law is:
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Magnetic field
Faraday’s Law, which forms the basis of is proportional to the torque on a dipole, and
many electric generators and electrical mo- torque is a well-known pseudovector.
tors. More generally, Faraday’s law states
that any change in the magnetic field linking Maxwell’s equations
a circuit will generate an electromotive force As a vector field, the B-field has two import-
or EMF, a force tending to drive a current. ant mathematical properties that relates this
Mathematically, Faraday’s law is com- magnetic field to its sources. These two prop-
monly represented as: erties, along with the two corresponding
properties of the electric field, make up Max-
well’s Equations. Maxwell’s Equations to-
gether with the Lorentz force law form a
where is the electromotive force (the complete description of classical electro-
voltage generated around a closed loop) and dynamics including both electricity and
Φm is the magnetic flux (the product of the magnetism.
area times the magnetic field normal to that The first property is that a B-field line nev-
area). This law includes both the case when er starts nor ends at a point but instead
the flux changes because of the magnetic forms a complete loop. This is mathematically
field generated by a time varying E-field (so- equivalent to saying that the divergence of B
called transformer EMF) and the case when is zero. (Such vector fields are called solen-
the flux changes because of movement oidal vector fields.) This property is called
through a magnetic field (so-called motional Gauss’ law for magnetism and is equivalent
EMF). The appearance of the magnetic flux to the statement that there are no magnetic
in this law is why engineers often refer to the charges or magnetic monopoles:
B-field as the "magnetic flux density". Cer-
tain calculations involving magnetic fields
are easier when formulated in terms of flux where ∇ · represents the divergence
density, for example, in magnetic circuits. operation.
A limited form of Faraday’s law of induc- The second mathematical property of the
tion that does not include motional electro- magnetic field is that it always loops around
motive force is the Maxwell-Faraday the source that creates it. This source could
equation: be a current, a magnet, or a changing elec-
tric field, but it is always within the loops of
magnetic field they create. Mathematically,
this fact is described by the combination of
the above Gauss’s law with the Ampère-Max-
which is one of Maxwell’s equations. This well equation:
equation is valid even in the presence of
magnetic material.[13]
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Magnetic field
SQUID magnetometer
See also: superconductivity
Superconductors are materials with both dis-
tinctive electric properties (perfect conduct-
ivity) and magnetic properties (such as the Hierarchy of types of magnetism. See My-
ers.[15]
Meissner effect, in which many supercon-
ductors can perfectly expel magnetic fields).
Materials placed in a magnetic field can be-
Due to these properties, loops of supercon-
come magnetized. Magnetization is due to
ducting material broken up by Josephson
the accumulated effect of many tiny magnetic
junctions can function as very sensitive mag-
dipole moments that occur on the atomic
netometers, called SQUIDs. SQUID magneto-
level. In non-magnetized materials, the mag-
meters are used in a Scanning SQUID micro-
netic dipoles align randomly such that the
scope to create a 2D map of the magnetic
net magnetic moment cancels producing no
field.
net magnetic field. But, if the magnetic di-
poles of the material becomes aligned a net
The H-field magnetization and magnetic field is pro-
In the formulation of Maxwell’s equations at duced. The magnetization field M represents
a microscopic level where all charges and how strongly a region is magnetized and is
currents are treated explicitly, only the E- defined as the volume density of the net mag-
and B-fields occur. On the other hand, when netic dipole moment in that region of
charges and currents are divided into "free" material.
and "bound" categories, D- and H-fields are An equivalent way to represent magnetiza-
used, with the H-field determined by the tion is to add all of the currents of the dipole
"free" current and time rate of change of moments that produce the magnetization.
D.[14] Thus, when the "free" and "bound" di- The resultant current is called bound current
vision of currents and charges is introduced, and is the source of the magnetic field due to
the H-field appears and simplifies the equa- the magnet. Mathematically, the curl of M
tions for the magnetic field because micro- equals the bound current. Unlike B, though,
scopic details of the B- and E-fields inside magnetization must begin and end near the
materials can be treated separately as prob- poles. (There is no magnetization outside of
lems of condensed-matter physics. The H- the material.) Therefore, the divergence of M
field is defined as: must be non-zero near the poles of a magnet.
Most materials produce a magnetization in
response to an applied B-field. Typically, the
(definition of H in SI response is very weak and exists only when
units) the magnetic field is applied. Materials are
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Magnetic field
of the sphere. The ratio of the two is called between free and bound currents. It is the
the gyromagnetic ratio, usually denoted by free current that we directly ’push’ on to cre-
the symbol γ.[24][26] ate the magnetic field. The bound currents
For an atom, individual electron spins are create a magnetic field that the free current
added to get a total spin and individual orbit- has to work against without doing any of the
al angular momenta are added to get a total work.
orbital angular momentum. These two then It is not surprising, therefore, that the H-
are added using angular momentum coupling field is important in magnetic energy calcula-
to get a total angular momentum. The mag- tions since it treats the two sources differ-
nitude of the atomic dipole moment is ently. In general the incremental amount of
then:[27] work per unit volume δW needed to cause a
small change of magnetic field δB is:
where J is the total angular momentum If there are no magnetic materials around
quantum number, gJ is the Landé g-factor, then we can replace H with B ⁄ μ0,
and μB is the Bohr magneton. The component
of this magnetic moment along the direction
of the magnetic field is then:[28]
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Magnetic field
reluctance Rm is a quantity similar in nature predicts the correct relationship between the
to resistance for the flux. H-field and the B-field, even though it
Using this analogy it is straight-forward to wrongly places H as the fundamental field
calculate the magnetic flux of complicated with B as the auxiliary field. It predicts the
magnetic field geometries, by using all the correct forces between magnets.
available techniques of circuit theory. It even predicts the correct energy stored
in the magnetic fields. By the definition of
History of B and H magnetization, in this model, and in analogy
The modern understanding that the B-field is to the physics of springs, the work done per
the more fundamental field with the H-field unit volume, in stretching and twisting the
being an auxiliary field was not easy to arrive bonds between magnetic charge to increment
at. Indeed, largely because of mathematical the magnetization by μ0δM is W = H · μ0δM.
similarities to the electric field, the H-field In this model, B = μ0 (H + M ) is an effective
was developed first and was thought at first magnetization which includes the H-field
to be the more fundamental of the two. A term to account for the energy of setting up
brief history of this important transition in the magnetic field in a vacuum. Therefore the
thought is instructional in giving insight into total energy density increment needed to in-
the nature of both H and B. crement the magnetic field is W = H · δB.
Perhaps the earliest description of a mag- This is the correct result, but it is derived
netic field was performed by Petrus Pereg- from an incorrect model.
rinus and published in his “Epistola Petri Per- In retrospect the success of this model is
egrini de Maricourt ad Sygerum de Foucauc- due largely to the remarkable coincidence
ourt Militem de Magnete” and is dated 1269 that from the ’outside’ the field of an electric
A.D. Petrus Peregrinus mapped out the mag- dipole has the exact same form as that of a
netic field on the surface of a spherical mag- magnetic dipole. It is therefore only for the
net. Noting that the resulting field lines physics of magnetism ’inside’ of magnetic
crossed at two points he named those points material where the simpler model of magnet-
’poles’ in analogy to Earth’s poles. Almost ic charges fails. It is also important to note
three centuries later, near the end of the six- that this model is still useful in many situ-
teenth century, William Gilbert of Colchester ations dealing with magnetic material. One
replicated Petrus Peregrinus work and was example of its utility is the concept of mag-
the first to state explicitly that Earth itself netic circuits.
was a magnet. William Gilbert’s great work The formation of the correct theory of
De Magnete was published in 1600 A.D. and magnetism begins with a series of revolution-
helped to establish the study of magnetism as ary discoveries in 1820, four years before
a science. Poisson’s model was developed. (The first
The modern distinction between the B- clue that something was amiss, though, was
and H- fields does not become important un- that unlike electrical charges magnetic poles
til Siméon-Denis Poisson (1781–1840) de- cannot be separated from each other or form
veloped one of the first mathematical theor- magnetic currents.) The revolution began
ies of magnetism. Poisson’s model, developed when Hans Christian Oersted discovered that
in 1824, assumed that magnetism was due to an electrical current generates a magnetic
magnetic charges. In analogy to electric field that encircles the wire. In a quick suc-
charges, these magnetic charges produce a cession that discovery was followed by Andre
H-field. In modern notation, Poisson’s model Marie Ampere showing that parallel wires
was exactly analogous to electrostatics with having currents in the same direction attract,
the H-field replacing the electric field E-field and by Jean-Baptiste Biot and Felix Savart
and the B-field replacing the auxiliary D- developing the correct equation, the Biot-
field. Savart Law, for the magnetic field of a cur-
Poisson’s model was, unfortunately, incor- rent carrying wire. In 1825, Ampere exten-
rect. Magnetism is not due to magnetic ded this revolution by publishing his
charges. Nor is magnetism created by the H- Ampere’s Law which provided a more math-
field polarizing magnetic charge in a materi- ematically subtle and correct description of
al. The model, however, was remarkably suc- the magnetic field generated by a current
cessful for being fundamentally wrong. It than the Biot-Savart Law.
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12
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Magnetic field
13
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Magnetic field
14
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Magnetic field
15
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Magnetic field
specifically follows the historical [6] Yuval Ne ̕eman, Y. Kirsh (1996). The
tradition, specifically, "In the presence of Particle Hunters (2 ed.). Cambridge
magnetic materials the dipole tends to University Press. p. 56. ISBN
align itself in a certain direction. That 0521476860. http://books.google.com/
direction is by definition the direction of books?id=K4jcfCguj8YC&pg=PA56.
the magnetic flux density, denoted by B, [7] John S Townsend (2000). "Stern-Gerlach
provided the dipole is sufficiently small experiments". A Modern Approach to
and weak that it does not perturb the Quantum Mechanics (2 ed.). University
existing field". Similarly, in Section 5 of Science Books. pp. 1–23. ISBN
Jackson, H is referred to as the magnetic 1891389130. http://books.google.com/
field. Hence, Edward Purcell, in books?id=3_7uriPX028C&pg=PA3.
Electricity and Magnetism, McGraw-Hill, [8] Note that when a magnetic field is
1963, writes, Even some modern writers depicted with field lines, it is not meant
who treat B as the primary field feel to imply that the field is only nonzero
obliged to call it the magnetic induction along the drawn-in field lines. The use of
because the name magnetic field was iron filings to display a field presents
historically preempted by H. This seems something of an exception to this
clumsy and pedantic. If you go into the picture: the magnetic field is in fact
laboratory and ask a physicist what much larger along the "lines" of iron, due
causes the pion trajectories in his bubble to the large permeability of iron relative
chamber to curve, he’ll probably answer to air.
"magnetic field", not "magnetic [9] To see that this must be true imagine
induction." You will seldom hear a placing a compass inside of the magnet.
geophysicist refer to the Earth’s The north pole of the compass will point
magnetic induction, or an astrophysicist toward the north pole of the magnet
talk about the magnetic induction of the since magnets stacked on each other
galaxy. We propose to keep on calling B point in the same direction.
the magnetic field. As for H, although [10] Two experiments produced candidate
other names have been invented for it, events that were initially interpreted as
we shall call it "the field H" or even "the monopoles, but these are now regarded
magnetic field H." In a similar vein, M to be inconclusive. For details and
Gerloch (1983). Magnetism and Ligand- references, see magnetic monopole.
field Analysis. Cambridge University [11] In special relativity this means that the
Press. p. 110. ISBN 0521249392. electrical field and the magnetic field
http://books.google.com/ must be two parts of the same
books?id=Ovo8AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA110. phenomenon. For a moving single charge
says: “So we may think of both B and H or charges moving together we can
as magnetic fields, but drop the word always shift to a reference system in
’magnetic’ from H so as to maintain the which they are not moving. In that
distinction … As Purcell points out, ’it is reference system there is no magnetic
only the names that give trouble, not the field. Yet, the physics has to be the same
symbols’.” in all reference systems. It turns out the
[2] Magnetic Field Strength H electric field changes as well which
[3] Magnetic Field Strength Converter produces the same force in the original
[4] H. P. Myers (1997). Introductory solid reference frame. It is probably a mistake,
state physics (2 ed.). Taylor & Francis. though, to say that the electric field
p. 366. ISBN 074840659X. causes the magnetic field when relativity
http://books.google.com/ is accounted for, since relativity favors
books?id=QhqyWH7DDQ0C&pg=PA366. no particular reference frame. (One
[5] See Eq. 11.42 in E. Richard Cohen, David could just as easily say that the magnetic
R. Lide, George L. Trigg (2003). AIP field caused an electric field). More
physics desk reference (3 ed.). importantly it is not always possible to
Birkhäuser. p. 381. ISBN 0387989730. move into a coordinate system in which
http://books.google.com/ all of the charges are stationary. See
books?id=JStYf6WlXpgC&pg=PA381. classical electromagnetism and special
relativity for more information.
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Magnetic field
[12] In practice the Biot-Savart law and other [19] M Brian Maple et al. (2008).
laws of magnetostatics can often be used "Unconventional superconductivity in
even when the charge is changing in novel materials". in K. H. Bennemann,
time as long as it is not changing too John B. Ketterson. Superconductivity.
quickly. This situation is known as being Springer. p. 640. ISBN 3540732527.
quasistatic. http://books.google.com/
[13] A complete expression for Faraday’s law books?id=PguAgEQTiQwC&pg=PA640.
of induction in terms of the electric E [20] Naoum Karchev (2003). "Itinerant
and magnetic fields can be written as: ferromagnetism and superconductivity".
in Paul S. Lewis, D. Di (CON) Castro.
Superconductivity research at the
leading edge. Nova Publishers. p. 169.
ISBN 1590338618.
http://books.google.com/
books?id=3AFo_yxBkD0C&pg=PA169.
[21] B. D. Cullity, C. D. Graham (2008).
Introduction to Magnetic Materials (2
ed.). Wiley-IEEE. p. 103. ISBN
where ∂Σ(t) is the moving closed path
0471477419. http://books.google.com/
bounding the moving surface Σ(t), and
books?id=ixAe4qIGEmwC&pg=PA103.
dA is an element of surface area of Σ(t).
[22] The total magnetic moment of an atom is
The first integral calculates the work
due to a combination of ’currents’ of
done moving a charge a distance dℓ
electrons ’orbiting’ the nuclei of the
based upon the Lorentz force law. In the
magnetic material plus a spin component
case where the bounding surface is
of the magnetic moment of the electrons
stationary, the Kelvin-Stokes theorem
and the nucleus. (The true nature of the
can be used to show this equation is
internal magnetic field of the electrons
equivalent to the Maxwell-Faraday
and of the nucleons that make up the
equation.
nucleus is relativistic in nature.) Uwe
[14] John Clarke Slater, Nathaniel Herman
Krey, Anthony Owen (2007). Basic
Frank (1969). Electromagnetism (first
Theoretical Physics. Springer. p. 151.
published in 1947 ed.). Courier Dover
ISBN 3540368043.
Publications. p. 69. ISBN 0486622630.
http://books.google.com/
http://books.google.com/
books?id=xZ_QelBmkxYC&pg=PA151.
books?id=GYsphnFwUuUC&pg=PA69.
and H. Haken, Hans Christoph Wolf,
[15] HP Meyers (1997). Introductory solid
William D Brewer (2000). The physics of
state physics (2 ed.). CRC Press. p. 322;
atoms and quanta (6 ed.). Springer. ISBN
Figure 11.1. ISBN 0748406603.
3540672745. http://books.google.com/
http://books.google.com/
books?id=SPrAMy8glocC&pg=PA187.
books?id=Uc1pCo5TrYUC&pg=PA322.
[23] A. E. Siegman (1986). Lasers. University
[16] ^ RJD Tilley (2004). Understanding
Science Books. pp. 1215–1216. ISBN
Solids. Wiley. p. 368. ISBN 0470852755.
0935702113. http://books.google.com/
http://books.google.com/
books?id=1BZVwUZLTkAC&pg=PA1234#PPA1215,M
books?id=ZVgOLCXNoMoC&pg=PA368.
[24] ^ Uwe Krey & Anthony Owen (2007).
[17] Sōshin Chikazumi, Chad D. Graham
Basic Theoretical Physics. Springer.
(1997). Physics of ferromagnetism (2
pp. 151–152. ISBN 3540368043.
ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 118.
http://books.google.com/
ISBN 0198517769.
books?id=xZ_QelBmkxYC&pg=PA151.
http://books.google.com/
[25] Ferromagnetic materials contain many
books?id=AZVfuxXF2GsC&printsec=frontcover.
atoms with unpaired electron spins.
[18] Amikam Aharoni (2000). Introduction to
When these tiny atomic magnetic dipoles
the theory of ferromagnetism (2 ed.).
are aligned in the same direction, they
Oxford University Press. p. 27. ISBN
create a measurable macroscopic field.
0198508085. http://books.google.com/
[26] Richard B. Buxton (2002). Introduction
books?id=9RvNuIDh0qMC&pg=PA27.
to functional magnetic resonance
imaging. Cambridge University Press.
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Magnetic field
Categories: Electric and magnetic fields in matter, Magnetism, Fundamental physics con-
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