pandas: powerful Python data analysis

toolkit
Release 0.21.0

Wes McKinney & PyData Development Team

Oct 27, 2017

 CONTENTS

1 What’s New 3
1.1 v0.21.0 (October 27, 2017) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.1 New features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.1.1.1 Integration with Apache Parquet file format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.1.1.2 infer_objects type conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.1.1.3 Improved warnings when attempting to create columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.1.1.4 drop now also accepts index/columns keywords . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.1.1.5 rename, reindex now also accept axis keyword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.1.1.6 CategoricalDtype for specifying categoricals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.1.1.7 GroupBy objects now have a pipe method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.1.1.8 Categorical.rename_categories accepts a dict-like . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.1.1.9 Other Enhancements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.1.2 Backwards incompatible API changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.1.2.1 Dependencies have increased minimum versions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.1.2.2 Sum/Prod of all-NaN Series/DataFrames is now consistently NaN . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.1.2.3 Indexing with a list with missing labels is Deprecated . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.1.2.4 NA naming Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.1.2.5 Iteration of Series/Index will now return Python scalars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.1.2.6 Indexing with a Boolean Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.1.2.7 PeriodIndex resampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.1.2.8 Improved error handling during item assignment in pd.eval . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.1.2.9 Dtype Conversions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.1.2.10 MultiIndex Constructor with a Single Level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.1.2.11 UTC Localization with Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.1.2.12 Consistency of Range Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.1.2.13 Other API Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.1.3 Deprecations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.1.3.1 Series.select and DataFrame.select . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.1.3.2 Series.argmax and Series.argmin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.1.4 Removal of prior version deprecations/changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1.1.5 Performance Improvements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1.1.6 Documentation Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1.1.7 Bug Fixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1.1.7.1 Conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1.1.7.2 Indexing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
1.1.7.3 I/O . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
1.1.7.4 Plotting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
1.1.7.5 Groupby/Resample/Rolling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
1.1.7.6 Sparse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
1.1.7.7 Reshaping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

i
 1.1.7.8 Numeric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
1.1.7.9 Categorical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
1.1.7.10 PyPy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
1.1.7.11 Other . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
1.2 v0.20.3 (July 7, 2017) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
1.2.1 Bug Fixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
1.2.1.1 Conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
1.2.1.2 Indexing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
1.2.1.3 I/O . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
1.2.1.4 Plotting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
1.2.1.5 Reshaping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
1.2.1.6 Categorical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
1.3 v0.20.2 (June 4, 2017) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
1.3.1 Enhancements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
1.3.2 Performance Improvements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
1.3.3 Bug Fixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
1.3.3.1 Conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
1.3.3.2 Indexing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
1.3.3.3 I/O . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
1.3.3.4 Plotting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
1.3.3.5 Groupby/Resample/Rolling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
1.3.3.6 Sparse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
1.3.3.7 Reshaping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
1.3.3.8 Numeric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
1.3.3.9 Categorical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
1.3.3.10 Other . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
1.4 v0.20.1 (May 5, 2017) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
1.4.1 New features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
1.4.1.1 agg API for DataFrame/Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
1.4.1.2 dtype keyword for data IO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
1.4.1.3 .to_datetime() has gained an origin parameter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
1.4.1.4 Groupby Enhancements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
1.4.1.5 Better support for compressed URLs in read_csv . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
1.4.1.6 Pickle file I/O now supports compression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
1.4.1.7 UInt64 Support Improved . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
1.4.1.8 GroupBy on Categoricals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
1.4.1.9 Table Schema Output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
1.4.1.10 SciPy sparse matrix from/to SparseDataFrame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
1.4.1.11 Excel output for styled DataFrames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
1.4.1.12 IntervalIndex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
1.4.1.13 Other Enhancements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
1.4.2 Backwards incompatible API changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
1.4.2.1 Possible incompatibility for HDF5 formats created with pandas < 0.13.0 . . . . . . 47
1.4.2.2 Map on Index types now return other Index types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
1.4.2.3 Accessing datetime fields of Index now return Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
1.4.2.4 pd.unique will now be consistent with extension types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
1.4.2.5 S3 File Handling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
1.4.2.6 Partial String Indexing Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
1.4.2.7 Concat of different float dtypes will not automatically upcast . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
1.4.2.8 Pandas Google BigQuery support has moved . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
1.4.2.9 Memory Usage for Index is more Accurate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
1.4.2.10 DataFrame.sort_index changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
1.4.2.11 Groupby Describe Formatting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
1.4.2.12 Window Binary Corr/Cov operations return a MultiIndex DataFrame . . . . . . . . 56

ii
 1.4.2.13 HDFStore where string comparison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
1.4.2.14 Index.intersection and inner join now preserve the order of the left Index . . . . . . 57
1.4.2.15 Pivot Table always returns a DataFrame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
1.4.2.16 Other API Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
1.4.3 Reorganization of the library: Privacy Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
1.4.3.1 Modules Privacy Has Changed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
1.4.3.2 pandas.errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
1.4.3.3 pandas.testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
1.4.3.4 pandas.plotting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
1.4.3.5 Other Development Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
1.4.4 Deprecations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
1.4.4.1 Deprecate .ix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
1.4.4.2 Deprecate Panel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
1.4.4.3 Deprecate groupby.agg() with a dictionary when renaming . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
1.4.4.4 Deprecate .plotting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
1.4.4.5 Other Deprecations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
1.4.5 Removal of prior version deprecations/changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
1.4.6 Performance Improvements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
1.4.7 Bug Fixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
1.4.7.1 Conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
1.4.7.2 Indexing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
1.4.7.3 I/O . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
1.4.7.4 Plotting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
1.4.7.5 Groupby/Resample/Rolling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
1.4.7.6 Sparse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
1.4.7.7 Reshaping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
1.4.7.8 Numeric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
1.4.7.9 Other . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
1.5 v0.19.2 (December 24, 2016) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
1.5.1 Enhancements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
1.5.2 Performance Improvements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
1.5.3 Bug Fixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
1.6 v0.19.1 (November 3, 2016) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
1.6.1 Performance Improvements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
1.6.2 Bug Fixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
1.7 v0.19.0 (October 2, 2016) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
1.7.1 New features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
1.7.1.1 merge_asof for asof-style time-series joining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
1.7.1.2 .rolling() is now time-series aware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
1.7.1.3 read_csv has improved support for duplicate column names . . . . . . . . . . . 83
1.7.1.4 read_csv supports parsing Categorical directly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
1.7.1.5 Categorical Concatenation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
1.7.1.6 Semi-Month Offsets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
1.7.1.7 New Index methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
1.7.1.8 Google BigQuery Enhancements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
1.7.1.9 Fine-grained numpy errstate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
1.7.1.10 get_dummies now returns integer dtypes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
1.7.1.11 Downcast values to smallest possible dtype in to_numeric . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
1.7.1.12 pandas development API . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
1.7.1.13 Other enhancements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
1.7.2 API changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
1.7.2.1 Series.tolist() will now return Python types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
1.7.2.2 Series operators for different indexes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
1.7.2.3 Series type promotion on assignment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

iii
 1.7.2.4 .to_datetime() changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
1.7.2.5 Merging changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
1.7.2.6 .describe() changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
1.7.2.7 Period changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
1.7.2.8 Index + / - no longer used for set operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
1.7.2.9 Index.difference and .symmetric_difference changes . . . . . . . . 101
1.7.2.10 Index.unique consistently returns Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
1.7.2.11 MultiIndex constructors, groupby and set_index preserve categorical dtypes102
1.7.2.12 read_csv will progressively enumerate chunks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
1.7.2.13 Sparse Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
1.7.2.14 Indexer dtype changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
1.7.2.15 Other API Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
1.7.3 Deprecations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
1.7.4 Removal of prior version deprecations/changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
1.7.5 Performance Improvements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
1.7.6 Bug Fixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
1.8 v0.18.1 (May 3, 2016) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
1.8.1 New features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
1.8.1.1 Custom Business Hour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
1.8.1.2 .groupby(..) syntax with window and resample operations . . . . . . . . . . . 118
1.8.1.3 Method chaininng improvements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
1.8.1.4 Partial string indexing on DateTimeIndex when part of a MultiIndex . . . . 122
1.8.1.5 Assembling Datetimes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
1.8.1.6 Other Enhancements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
1.8.2 Sparse changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
1.8.3 API changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
1.8.3.1 .groupby(..).nth() changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
1.8.3.2 numpy function compatibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
1.8.3.3 Using .apply on groupby resampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
1.8.3.4 Changes in read_csv exceptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
1.8.3.5 to_datetime error changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
1.8.3.6 Other API changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
1.8.3.7 Deprecations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
1.8.4 Performance Improvements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
1.8.5 Bug Fixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
1.9 v0.18.0 (March 13, 2016) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
1.9.1 New features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
1.9.1.1 Window functions are now methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
1.9.1.2 Changes to rename . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
1.9.1.3 Range Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
1.9.1.4 Changes to str.extract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
1.9.1.5 Addition of str.extractall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
1.9.1.6 Changes to str.cat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
1.9.1.7 Datetimelike rounding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
1.9.1.8 Formatting of Integers in FloatIndex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
1.9.1.9 Changes to dtype assignment behaviors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
1.9.1.10 to_xarray . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
1.9.1.11 Latex Representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
1.9.1.12 pd.read_sas() changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
1.9.1.13 Other enhancements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
1.9.2 Backwards incompatible API changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
1.9.2.1 NaT and Timedelta operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
1.9.2.2 Changes to msgpack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
1.9.2.3 Signature change for .rank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149

iv
 1.9.2.4 Bug in QuarterBegin with n=0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
1.9.2.5 Resample API . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
1.9.2.6 Changes to eval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
1.9.2.7 Other API Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
1.9.2.8 Deprecations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
1.9.2.9 Removal of deprecated float indexers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
1.9.2.10 Removal of prior version deprecations/changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
1.9.3 Performance Improvements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
1.9.4 Bug Fixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
1.10 v0.17.1 (November 21, 2015) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
1.10.1 New features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
1.10.1.1 Conditional HTML Formatting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
1.10.2 Enhancements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
1.10.3 API changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
1.10.3.1 Deprecations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
1.10.4 Performance Improvements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
1.10.5 Bug Fixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
1.11 v0.17.0 (October 9, 2015) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
1.11.1 New features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
1.11.1.1 Datetime with TZ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
1.11.1.2 Releasing the GIL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
1.11.1.3 Plot submethods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
1.11.1.4 Additional methods for dt accessor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
1.11.1.5 Period Frequency Enhancement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
1.11.1.6 Support for SAS XPORT files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
1.11.1.7 Support for Math Functions in .eval() . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
1.11.1.8 Changes to Excel with MultiIndex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
1.11.1.9 Google BigQuery Enhancements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
1.11.1.10 Display Alignment with Unicode East Asian Width . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
1.11.1.11 Other enhancements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
1.11.2 Backwards incompatible API changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
1.11.2.1 Changes to sorting API . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
1.11.2.2 Changes to to_datetime and to_timedelta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
1.11.2.3 Changes to Index Comparisons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
1.11.2.4 Changes to Boolean Comparisons vs. None . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
1.11.2.5 HDFStore dropna behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
1.11.2.6 Changes to display.precision option . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
1.11.2.7 Changes to Categorical.unique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
1.11.2.8 Changes to bool passed as header in Parsers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
1.11.2.9 Other API Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
1.11.2.10 Deprecations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
1.11.2.11 Removal of prior version deprecations/changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
1.11.3 Performance Improvements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
1.11.4 Bug Fixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
1.12 v0.16.2 (June 12, 2015) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
1.12.1 New features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
1.12.1.1 Pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
1.12.1.2 Other Enhancements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
1.12.2 API Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
1.12.3 Performance Improvements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
1.12.4 Bug Fixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
1.13 v0.16.1 (May 11, 2015) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
1.13.1 Enhancements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
1.13.1.1 CategoricalIndex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199

v
 1.13.1.2 Sample . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
1.13.1.3 String Methods Enhancements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
1.13.1.4 Other Enhancements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
1.13.2 API changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
1.13.2.1 Deprecations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
1.13.3 Index Representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
1.13.4 Performance Improvements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
1.13.5 Bug Fixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
1.14 v0.16.0 (March 22, 2015) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
1.14.1 New features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
1.14.1.1 DataFrame Assign . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
1.14.1.2 Interaction with scipy.sparse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
1.14.1.3 String Methods Enhancements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
1.14.1.4 Other enhancements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
1.14.2 Backwards incompatible API changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
1.14.2.1 Changes in Timedelta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
1.14.2.2 Indexing Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
1.14.2.3 Categorical Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
1.14.2.4 Other API Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
1.14.2.5 Deprecations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
1.14.2.6 Removal of prior version deprecations/changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
1.14.3 Performance Improvements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
1.14.4 Bug Fixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
1.15 v0.15.2 (December 12, 2014) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
1.15.1 API changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
1.15.2 Enhancements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
1.15.3 Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
1.15.4 Bug Fixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
1.16 v0.15.1 (November 9, 2014) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
1.16.1 API changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
1.16.2 Enhancements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
1.16.3 Bug Fixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
1.17 v0.15.0 (October 18, 2014) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
1.17.1 New features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
1.17.1.1 Categoricals in Series/DataFrame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
1.17.1.2 TimedeltaIndex/Scalar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
1.17.1.3 Memory Usage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
1.17.1.4 .dt accessor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
1.17.1.5 Timezone handling improvements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
1.17.1.6 Rolling/Expanding Moments improvements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
1.17.1.7 Improvements in the sql io module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
1.17.2 Backwards incompatible API changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
1.17.2.1 Breaking changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
1.17.2.2 Internal Refactoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
1.17.2.3 Deprecations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
1.17.2.4 Removal of prior version deprecations/changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
1.17.3 Enhancements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
1.17.4 Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
1.17.5 Bug Fixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
1.18 v0.14.1 (July 11, 2014) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
1.18.1 API changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
1.18.2 Enhancements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
1.18.3 Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
1.18.4 Experimental . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269

vi
 1.18.5 Bug Fixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
1.19 v0.14.0 (May 31 , 2014) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
1.19.1 API changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
1.19.2 Display Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
1.19.3 Text Parsing API Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
1.19.4 Groupby API Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
1.19.5 SQL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
1.19.6 MultiIndexing Using Slicers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
1.19.7 Plotting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
1.19.8 Prior Version Deprecations/Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
1.19.9 Deprecations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
1.19.10 Known Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
1.19.11 Enhancements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
1.19.12 Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
1.19.13 Experimental . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
1.19.14 Bug Fixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
1.20 v0.13.1 (February 3, 2014) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
1.20.1 Output Formatting Enhancements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
1.20.2 API changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
1.20.3 Prior Version Deprecations/Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
1.20.4 Deprecations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
1.20.5 Enhancements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
1.20.6 Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
1.20.7 Experimental . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
1.20.8 Bug Fixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
1.21 v0.13.0 (January 3, 2014) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
1.21.1 API changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
1.21.2 Prior Version Deprecations/Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
1.21.3 Deprecations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
1.21.4 Indexing API Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
1.21.5 Float64Index API Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
1.21.6 HDFStore API Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
1.21.7 DataFrame repr Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
1.21.8 Enhancements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
1.21.9 Experimental . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
1.21.10 Internal Refactoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
1.21.11 Bug Fixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
1.22 v0.12.0 (July 24, 2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
1.22.1 API changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
1.22.2 I/O Enhancements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
1.22.3 Other Enhancements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
1.22.4 Experimental Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
1.22.5 Bug Fixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
1.23 v0.11.0 (April 22, 2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
1.23.1 Selection Choices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
1.23.2 Selection Deprecations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
1.23.3 Dtypes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
1.23.4 Dtype Conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
1.23.5 Dtype Gotchas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
1.23.6 Datetimes Conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
1.23.7 API changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
1.23.8 Enhancements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
1.24 v0.10.1 (January 22, 2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
1.24.1 API changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350

vii
 1.24.2 New features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
1.24.3 HDFStore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
1.25 v0.10.0 (December 17, 2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
1.25.1 File parsing new features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
1.25.2 API changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
1.25.3 New features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362
1.25.4 Wide DataFrame Printing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362
1.25.5 Updated PyTables Support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
1.25.6 N Dimensional Panels (Experimental) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
1.26 v0.9.1 (November 14, 2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
1.26.1 New features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
1.26.2 API changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
1.27 v0.9.0 (October 7, 2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
1.27.1 New features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
1.27.2 API changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
1.28 v0.8.1 (July 22, 2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
1.28.1 New features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
1.28.2 Performance improvements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
1.29 v0.8.0 (June 29, 2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
1.29.1 Support for non-unique indexes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
1.29.2 NumPy datetime64 dtype and 1.6 dependency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
1.29.3 Time series changes and improvements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
1.29.4 Other new features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
1.29.5 New plotting methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
1.29.6 Other API changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
1.29.7 Potential porting issues for pandas <= 0.7.3 users . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
1.30 v.0.7.3 (April 12, 2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
1.30.1 New features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
1.30.2 NA Boolean Comparison API Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
1.30.3 Other API Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
1.31 v.0.7.2 (March 16, 2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
1.31.1 New features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
1.31.2 Performance improvements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
1.32 v.0.7.1 (February 29, 2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
1.32.1 New features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
1.32.2 Performance improvements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
1.33 v.0.7.0 (February 9, 2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384
1.33.1 New features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384
1.33.2 API Changes to integer indexing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
1.33.3 API tweaks regarding label-based slicing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386
1.33.4 Changes to Series [] operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
1.33.5 Other API Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388
1.33.6 Performance improvements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388
1.34 v.0.6.1 (December 13, 2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
1.34.1 New features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
1.34.2 Performance improvements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
1.35 v.0.6.0 (November 25, 2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
1.35.1 New Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
1.35.2 Performance Enhancements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
1.36 v.0.5.0 (October 24, 2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
1.36.1 New Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
1.36.2 Performance Enhancements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392
1.37 v.0.4.3 through v0.4.1 (September 25 - October 9, 2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392
1.37.1 New Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392

viii
 1.37.2 Performance Enhancements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393

2 Installation 395
2.1 Python version support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
2.2 Installing pandas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
2.2.1 Installing pandas with Anaconda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
2.2.2 Installing pandas with Miniconda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
2.2.3 Installing from PyPI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396
2.2.4 Installing using your Linux distribution’s package manager. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396
2.2.5 Installing from source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
2.2.6 Running the test suite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
2.3 Dependencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
2.3.1 Recommended Dependencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398
2.3.2 Optional Dependencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398

3 Contributing to pandas 401

3.1 Where to start? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402
3.2 Bug reports and enhancement requests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402
3.3 Working with the code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
3.3.1 Version control, Git, and GitHub . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
3.3.2 Getting started with Git . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
3.3.3 Forking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
3.3.4 Creating a branch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
3.3.5 Creating a development environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
3.3.6 Creating a Windows development environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
3.3.7 Making changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
3.4 Contributing to the documentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
3.4.1 About the pandas documentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
3.4.2 How to build the pandas documentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
3.4.2.1 Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
3.4.2.2 Building the documentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
3.4.2.3 Building master branch documentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
3.5 Contributing to the code base . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
3.5.1 Code standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
3.5.1.1 C (cpplint) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
3.5.1.2 Python (PEP8) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410
3.5.1.3 Backwards Compatibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410
3.5.2 Testing With Continuous Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410
3.5.3 Test-driven development/code writing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
3.5.3.1 Writing tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
3.5.3.2 Transitioning to pytest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
3.5.3.3 Using pytest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
3.5.4 Running the test suite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414
3.5.5 Running the performance test suite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414
3.5.6 Documenting your code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
3.6 Contributing your changes to pandas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416
3.6.1 Committing your code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416
3.6.2 Combining commits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
3.6.3 Pushing your changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
3.6.4 Review your code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
3.6.5 Finally, make the pull request . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418
3.6.6 Delete your merged branch (optional) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418

4 Package overview 419

ix
 4.1 Data Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
4.1.1 Why more than one data structure? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
4.2 Mutability and copying of data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
4.3 Getting Support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
4.4 Community . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
4.5 Project Governance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
4.6 Development Team . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
4.7 Institutional Partners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
4.8 License . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421

5 10 Minutes to pandas 423

5.1 Object Creation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423
5.2 Viewing Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
5.3 Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426
5.3.1 Getting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426
5.3.2 Selection by Label . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427
5.3.3 Selection by Position . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 428
5.3.4 Boolean Indexing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
5.3.5 Setting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430
5.4 Missing Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
5.5 Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432
5.5.1 Stats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432
5.5.2 Apply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433
5.5.3 Histogramming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433
5.5.4 String Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 434
5.6 Merge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 434
5.6.1 Concat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 434
5.6.2 Join . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435
5.6.3 Append . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436
5.7 Grouping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436
5.8 Reshaping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437
5.8.1 Stack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437
5.8.2 Pivot Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439
5.9 Time Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439
5.10 Categoricals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441
5.11 Plotting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443
5.12 Getting Data In/Out . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444
5.12.1 CSV . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444
5.12.2 HDF5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445
5.12.3 Excel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445
5.13 Gotchas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446

6 Tutorials 447
6.1 Internal Guides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447
6.2 pandas Cookbook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447
6.3 Lessons for New pandas Users . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448
6.4 Practical data analysis with Python . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448
6.5 Exercises for New Users . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448
6.6 Modern Pandas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449
6.7 Excel charts with pandas, vincent and xlsxwriter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449
6.8 Various Tutorials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449

7 Cookbook 451
7.1 Idioms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451

x
 7.1.1 if-then... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451
7.1.2 Splitting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452
7.1.3 Building Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453
7.2 Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455
7.2.1 DataFrames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455
7.2.2 Panels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456
7.2.3 New Columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457
7.3 MultiIndexing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458
7.3.1 Arithmetic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
7.3.2 Slicing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460
7.3.3 Sorting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462
7.3.4 Levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462
7.3.5 panelnd . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462
7.4 Missing Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462
7.4.1 Replace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463
7.5 Grouping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463
7.5.1 Expanding Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468
7.5.2 Splitting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468
7.5.3 Pivot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469
7.5.4 Apply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470
7.6 Timeseries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472
7.6.1 Resampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473
7.7 Merge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473
7.8 Plotting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474
7.9 Data In/Out . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476
7.9.1 CSV . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476
7.9.1.1 Reading multiple files to create a single DataFrame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476
7.9.1.2 Parsing date components in multi-columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477
7.9.1.3 Skip row between header and data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477
7.9.2 SQL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478
7.9.3 Excel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478
7.9.4 HTML . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479
7.9.5 HDFStore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479
7.9.6 Binary Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479
7.10 Computation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480
7.11 Timedeltas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481
7.12 Aliasing Axis Names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482
7.13 Creating Example Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483

8 Intro to Data Structures 485

8.1 Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485
8.1.1 Series is ndarray-like . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487
8.1.2 Series is dict-like . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487
8.1.3 Vectorized operations and label alignment with Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 488
8.1.4 Name attribute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489
8.2 DataFrame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490
8.2.1 From dict of Series or dicts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490
8.2.2 From dict of ndarrays / lists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 491
8.2.3 From structured or record array . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 491
8.2.4 From a list of dicts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492
8.2.5 From a dict of tuples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492
8.2.6 From a Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493
8.2.7 Alternate Constructors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493
8.2.8 Column selection, addition, deletion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494

xi
 8.2.9 Assigning New Columns in Method Chains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495
8.2.10 Indexing / Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497
8.2.11 Data alignment and arithmetic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 498
8.2.12 Transposing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501
8.2.13 DataFrame interoperability with NumPy functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501
8.2.14 Console display . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 502
8.2.15 DataFrame column attribute access and IPython completion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505
8.3 Panel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505
8.3.1 From 3D ndarray with optional axis labels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 506
8.3.2 From dict of DataFrame objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 506
8.3.3 From DataFrame using to_panel method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507
8.3.4 Item selection / addition / deletion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 508
8.3.5 Transposing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 508
8.3.6 Indexing / Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 508
8.3.7 Squeezing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509
8.3.8 Conversion to DataFrame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510
8.4 Deprecate Panel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510
8.5 Panel4D and PanelND (Deprecated) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 512

9 Essential Basic Functionality 513

9.1 Head and Tail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513
9.2 Attributes and the raw ndarray(s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 514
9.3 Accelerated operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 515
9.4 Flexible binary operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 515
9.4.1 Matching / broadcasting behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 516
9.4.2 Missing data / operations with fill values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519
9.4.3 Flexible Comparisons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520
9.4.4 Boolean Reductions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520
9.4.5 Comparing if objects are equivalent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521
9.4.6 Comparing array-like objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 522
9.4.7 Combining overlapping data sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523
9.4.8 General DataFrame Combine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 524
9.5 Descriptive statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 524
9.5.1 Summarizing data: describe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 527
9.5.2 Index of Min/Max Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529
9.5.3 Value counts (histogramming) / Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 530
9.5.4 Discretization and quantiling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 531
9.6 Function application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 532
9.6.1 Tablewise Function Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533
9.6.2 Row or Column-wise Function Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 534
9.6.3 Aggregation API . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 536
9.6.3.1 Aggregating with multiple functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 537
9.6.3.2 Aggregating with a dict . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 538
9.6.3.3 Mixed Dtypes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 538
9.6.3.4 Custom describe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539
9.6.4 Transform API . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539
9.6.4.1 Transform with multiple functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 541
9.6.4.2 Transforming with a dict . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 542
9.6.5 Applying Elementwise Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 542
9.6.6 Applying with a Panel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543
9.7 Reindexing and altering labels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 546
9.7.1 Reindexing to align with another object . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 548
9.7.2 Aligning objects with each other with align . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 549
9.7.3 Filling while reindexing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 550

xii
 9.7.4 Limits on filling while reindexing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 552
9.7.5 Dropping labels from an axis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 553
9.7.6 Renaming / mapping labels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 553
9.8 Iteration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 555
9.8.1 iteritems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 556
9.8.2 iterrows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 557
9.8.3 itertuples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 558
9.9 .dt accessor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 558
9.10 Vectorized string methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 562
9.11 Sorting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 562
9.11.1 By Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 562
9.11.2 By Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 563
9.11.3 searchsorted . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 564
9.11.4 smallest / largest values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 565
9.11.5 Sorting by a multi-index column . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 566
9.12 Copying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 567
9.13 dtypes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 567
9.13.1 defaults . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 569
9.13.2 upcasting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 570
9.13.3 astype . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 570
9.13.4 object conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 572
9.13.5 gotchas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575
9.14 Selecting columns based on dtype . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 577

10 Working with Text Data 581

10.1 Splitting and Replacing Strings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 583
10.2 Indexing with .str . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 586
10.3 Extracting Substrings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 587
10.3.1 Extract first match in each subject (extract) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 587
10.3.2 Extract all matches in each subject (extractall) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 588
10.4 Testing for Strings that Match or Contain a Pattern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 590
10.5 Creating Indicator Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 591
10.6 Method Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 592

11 Options and Settings 595

11.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 595
11.2 Getting and Setting Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 596
11.3 Setting Startup Options in python/ipython Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 597
11.4 Frequently Used Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 597
11.5 Available Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 603
11.6 Number Formatting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 604
11.7 Unicode Formatting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 605
11.8 Table Schema Display . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 606

12 Indexing and Selecting Data 607

12.1 Different Choices for Indexing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 607
12.2 Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 608
12.3 Attribute Access . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 611
12.4 Slicing ranges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 613
12.5 Selection By Label . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 614
12.5.1 Slicing with labels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 617
12.6 Selection By Position . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 618
12.7 Selection By Callable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 622
12.8 IX Indexer is Deprecated . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 624

xiii
 12.9 Indexing with list with missing labels is Deprecated . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 625
12.9.1 Reindexing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 626
12.10 Selecting Random Samples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 626
12.11 Setting With Enlargement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 629
12.12 Fast scalar value getting and setting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 630
12.13 Boolean indexing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 630
12.14 Indexing with isin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 632
12.15 The where() Method and Masking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 634
12.16 The query() Method (Experimental) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 638
12.16.1 MultiIndex query() Syntax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 640
12.16.2 query() Use Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 642
12.16.3 query() Python versus pandas Syntax Comparison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 642
12.16.4 The in and not in operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 643
12.16.5 Special use of the == operator with list objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 645
12.16.6 Boolean Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 647
12.16.7 Performance of query() . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 648
12.17 Duplicate Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 649
12.18 Dictionary-like get() method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 652
12.19 The lookup() Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 652
12.20 Index objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 652
12.20.1 Setting metadata . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 653
12.20.2 Set operations on Index objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 654
12.20.3 Missing values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 655
12.21 Set / Reset Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 655
12.21.1 Set an index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 656
12.21.2 Reset the index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 657
12.21.3 Adding an ad hoc index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 658
12.22 Returning a view versus a copy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 658
12.22.1 Why does assignment fail when using chained indexing? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 659
12.22.2 Evaluation order matters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 660

13 MultiIndex / Advanced Indexing 663

13.1 Hierarchical indexing (MultiIndex) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 663
13.1.1 Creating a MultiIndex (hierarchical index) object . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 663
13.1.2 Reconstructing the level labels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 666
13.1.3 Basic indexing on axis with MultiIndex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 667
13.1.4 Defined Levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 667
13.1.5 Data alignment and using reindex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 668
13.2 Advanced indexing with hierarchical index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 669
13.2.1 Using slicers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 670
13.2.2 Cross-section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 675
13.2.3 Advanced reindexing and alignment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 676
13.2.4 Swapping levels with swaplevel() . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 677
13.2.5 Reordering levels with reorder_levels() . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 678
13.3 Sorting a MultiIndex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 678
13.4 Take Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 681
13.5 Index Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 683
13.5.1 CategoricalIndex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 683
13.5.2 Int64Index and RangeIndex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 685
13.5.3 Float64Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 685
13.5.4 IntervalIndex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 688
13.6 Miscellaneous indexing FAQ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 690
13.6.1 Integer indexing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 690
13.6.2 Non-monotonic indexes require exact matches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 690

xiv
 13.6.3 Endpoints are inclusive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 691
13.6.4 Indexing potentially changes underlying Series dtype . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 692

14 Computational tools 695

14.1 Statistical Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 695
14.1.1 Percent Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 695
14.1.2 Covariance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 695
14.1.3 Correlation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 697
14.1.4 Data ranking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 698
14.2 Window Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 699
14.2.1 Method Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 703
14.2.2 Rolling Windows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 704
14.2.3 Time-aware Rolling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 706
14.2.4 Rolling Window Endpoints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 708
14.2.5 Time-aware Rolling vs. Resampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 709
14.2.6 Centering Windows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 709
14.2.7 Binary Window Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 710
14.2.8 Computing rolling pairwise covariances and correlations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 711
14.3 Aggregation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 712
14.3.1 Applying multiple functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 714
14.3.2 Applying different functions to DataFrame columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 715
14.4 Expanding Windows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 716
14.4.1 Method Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 717
14.5 Exponentially Weighted Windows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 719

15 Working with missing data 723

15.1 Missing data basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 723
15.1.1 When / why does data become missing? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 723
15.1.2 Values considered “missing” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 724
15.2 Datetimes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 725
15.3 Inserting missing data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 726
15.4 Calculations with missing data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 727
15.4.1 Sum/Prod of Empties/Nans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 728
15.4.2 NA values in GroupBy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 729
15.5 Cleaning / filling missing data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 729
15.5.1 Filling missing values: fillna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 729
15.5.2 Filling with a PandasObject . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 731
15.5.3 Dropping axis labels with missing data: dropna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 732
15.5.4 Interpolation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 733
15.5.4.1 Interpolation Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 738
15.5.5 Replacing Generic Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 739
15.5.6 String/Regular Expression Replacement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 740
15.5.7 Numeric Replacement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 742
15.6 Missing data casting rules and indexing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 744

16 Group By: split-apply-combine 747

16.1 Splitting an object into groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 748
16.1.1 GroupBy sorting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 749
16.1.2 GroupBy object attributes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 750
16.1.3 GroupBy with MultiIndex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 751
16.1.4 Grouping DataFrame with Index Levels and Columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 753
16.1.5 DataFrame column selection in GroupBy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 754
16.2 Iterating through groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 755
16.3 Selecting a group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 756

xv
 16.4 Aggregation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 756
16.4.1 Applying multiple functions at once . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 758
16.4.2 Applying different functions to DataFrame columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 759
16.4.3 Cython-optimized aggregation functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 760
16.5 Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 760
16.5.1 New syntax to window and resample operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 765
16.6 Filtration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 767
16.7 Dispatching to instance methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 769
16.8 Flexible apply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 770
16.9 Other useful features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 772
16.9.1 Automatic exclusion of “nuisance” columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 772
16.9.2 NA and NaT group handling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 773
16.9.3 Grouping with ordered factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 773
16.9.4 Grouping with a Grouper specification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 773
16.9.5 Taking the first rows of each group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 775
16.9.6 Taking the nth row of each group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 775
16.9.7 Enumerate group items . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 777
16.9.8 Enumerate groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 778
16.9.9 Plotting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 779
16.9.10 Piping function calls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 780
16.10 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 780
16.10.1 Regrouping by factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 780
16.10.2 Multi-column factorization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 781
16.10.3 Groupby by Indexer to ‘resample’ data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 782
16.10.4 Returning a Series to propagate names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 782

17 Merge, join, and concatenate 785

17.1 Concatenating objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 785
17.1.1 Set logic on the other axes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 788
17.1.2 Concatenating using append . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 789
17.1.3 Ignoring indexes on the concatenation axis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 791
17.1.4 Concatenating with mixed ndims . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 792
17.1.5 More concatenating with group keys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 793
17.1.6 Appending rows to a DataFrame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 796
17.2 Database-style DataFrame joining/merging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 797
17.2.1 Brief primer on merge methods (relational algebra) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 799
17.2.2 Checking for duplicate keys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 802
17.2.3 The merge indicator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 802
17.2.4 Merge Dtypes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 803
17.2.5 Joining on index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 806
17.2.6 Joining key columns on an index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 807
17.2.7 Joining a single Index to a Multi-index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 809
17.2.8 Joining with two multi-indexes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 810
17.2.9 Overlapping value columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 811
17.2.10 Joining multiple DataFrame or Panel objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 812
17.2.11 Merging together values within Series or DataFrame columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 812
17.3 Timeseries friendly merging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 813
17.3.1 Merging Ordered Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 813
17.3.2 Merging AsOf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 814

18 Reshaping and Pivot Tables 817

18.1 Reshaping by pivoting DataFrame objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 817
18.2 Reshaping by stacking and unstacking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 818
18.2.1 Multiple Levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 820

xvi
 18.2.2 Missing Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 821
18.2.3 With a MultiIndex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 823
18.3 Reshaping by Melt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 824
18.4 Combining with stats and GroupBy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 825
18.5 Pivot tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 827
18.5.1 Adding margins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 829
18.6 Cross tabulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 830
18.6.1 Normalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 831
18.6.2 Adding Margins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 832
18.7 Tiling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 832
18.8 Computing indicator / dummy variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 833
18.9 Factorizing values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 836

19 Time Series / Date functionality 837

19.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 838
19.2 Timestamps vs. Time Spans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 838
19.3 Converting to Timestamps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 840
19.3.1 Providing a Format Argument . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 840
19.3.2 Assembling Datetime from Multiple DataFrame Columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 841
19.3.3 Invalid Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 841
19.3.4 Epoch Timestamps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 842
19.3.5 From Timestamps to Epoch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 842
19.3.6 Using the origin Parameter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 843
19.4 Generating Ranges of Timestamps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 843
19.4.1 Custom Frequency Ranges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 845
19.5 Timestamp Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 846
19.6 Indexing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 846
19.6.1 Partial String Indexing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 847
19.6.2 Slice vs. Exact Match . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 852
19.6.3 Exact Indexing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 853
19.6.4 Truncating & Fancy Indexing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 854
19.7 Time/Date Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 855
19.8 DateOffset Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 856
19.8.1 Parametric Offsets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 858
19.8.2 Using Offsets with Series / DatetimeIndex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 858
19.8.3 Custom Business Days . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 860
19.8.4 Business Hour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 861
19.8.5 Custom Business Hour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 863
19.8.6 Offset Aliases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 864
19.8.7 Combining Aliases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 864
19.8.8 Anchored Offsets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 865
19.8.9 Anchored Offset Semantics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 866
19.8.10 Holidays / Holiday Calendars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 867
19.9 Time Series-Related Instance Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 870
19.9.1 Shifting / Lagging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 870
19.9.2 Frequency Conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 871
19.9.3 Filling Forward / Backward . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 871
19.9.4 Converting to Python Datetimes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 871
19.10 Resampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 872
19.10.1 Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 872
19.10.2 Upsampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 874
19.10.3 Sparse Resampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 875
19.10.4 Aggregation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 876
19.11 Time Span Representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 879

xvii
 19.11.1 Period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 879
19.11.2 PeriodIndex and period_range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 880
19.11.3 Period Dtypes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 882
19.11.4 PeriodIndex Partial String Indexing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 882
19.11.5 Frequency Conversion and Resampling with PeriodIndex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 884
19.12 Converting Between Representations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 886
19.13 Representing Out-of-Bounds Spans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 887
19.14 Time Zone Handling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 888
19.14.1 Working with Time Zones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 888
19.14.2 Ambiguous Times when Localizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 892
19.14.3 TZ Aware Dtypes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 894

20 Time Deltas 897

20.1 Parsing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 897
20.1.1 to_timedelta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 898
20.1.2 Timedelta limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 899
20.2 Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 899
20.3 Reductions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 903
20.4 Frequency Conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 903
20.5 Attributes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 905
20.6 TimedeltaIndex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 906
20.6.1 Using the TimedeltaIndex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 907
20.6.2 Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 908
20.6.3 Conversions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 909
20.7 Resampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 910

21 Categorical Data 911

21.1 Object Creation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 911
21.2 CategoricalDtype . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 914
21.2.1 Equality Semantics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 915
21.3 Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 915
21.4 Working with categories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 916
21.4.1 Renaming categories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 917
21.4.2 Appending new categories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 919
21.4.3 Removing categories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 919
21.4.4 Removing unused categories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 919
21.4.5 Setting categories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 920
21.5 Sorting and Order . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 920
21.5.1 Reordering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 922
21.5.2 Multi Column Sorting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 923
21.6 Comparisons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 923
21.7 Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 926
21.8 Data munging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 927
21.8.1 Getting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 927
21.8.2 String and datetime accessors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 928
21.8.3 Setting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 930
21.8.4 Merging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 931
21.8.5 Unioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 932
21.8.6 Concatenation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 934
21.9 Getting Data In/Out . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 935
21.10 Missing Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 936
21.11 Differences to R’s factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 937
21.12 Gotchas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 938
21.12.1 Memory Usage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 938

xviii
 21.12.2 Categorical is not a numpy array . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 938
21.12.3 dtype in apply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 939
21.12.4 Categorical Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 940
21.12.5 Side Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 940

22 Visualization 943
22.1 Basic Plotting: plot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 943
22.2 Other Plots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 946
22.2.1 Bar plots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 948
22.2.2 Histograms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 950
22.2.3 Box Plots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 956
22.2.4 Area Plot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 964
22.2.5 Scatter Plot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 966
22.2.6 Hexagonal Bin Plot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 970
22.2.7 Pie plot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 972
22.3 Plotting with Missing Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 976
22.4 Plotting Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 977
22.4.1 Scatter Matrix Plot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 977
22.4.2 Density Plot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 978
22.4.3 Andrews Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 979
22.4.4 Parallel Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 980
22.4.5 Lag Plot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 981
22.4.6 Autocorrelation Plot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 982
22.4.7 Bootstrap Plot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 983
22.4.8 RadViz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 984
22.5 Plot Formatting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 985
22.5.1 Setting the plot style . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 985
22.5.2 General plot style arguments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 985
22.5.3 Controlling the Legend . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 986
22.5.4 Scales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 987
22.5.5 Plotting on a Secondary Y-axis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 988
22.5.6 Suppressing Tick Resolution Adjustment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 991
22.5.7 Automatic Date Tick Adjustment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 994
22.5.8 Subplots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 994
22.5.9 Using Layout and Targeting Multiple Axes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 995
22.5.10 Plotting With Error Bars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 998
22.5.11 Plotting Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1000
22.5.12 Colormaps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1003
22.6 Plotting directly with matplotlib . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1008
22.7 Trellis plotting interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1009

23 Styling 1011
23.1 Building Styles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1011
23.1.1 Building Styles Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1013
23.2 Finer Control: Slicing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1014
23.3 Finer Control: Display Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1014
23.4 Builtin Styles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1015
23.4.1 Bar charts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1015
23.5 Sharing Styles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1017
23.6 Other Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1017
23.6.1 Precision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1017
23.6.2 Captions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1018
23.6.3 Table Styles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1018
23.6.4 CSS Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1018

xix
 23.6.5 Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1019
23.6.6 Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1019
23.7 Fun stuff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1019
23.8 Export to Excel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1020
23.9 Extensibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1021
23.9.1 Subclassing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1021

24 IO Tools (Text, CSV, HDF5, ...) 1023

24.1 CSV & Text files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1023
24.1.1 Parsing options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1023
24.1.1.1 Basic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1024
24.1.1.2 Column and Index Locations and Names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1024
24.1.1.3 General Parsing Configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1025
24.1.1.4 NA and Missing Data Handling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1026
24.1.1.5 Datetime Handling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1026
24.1.1.6 Iteration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1027
24.1.1.7 Quoting, Compression, and File Format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1027
24.1.1.8 Error Handling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1028
24.1.2 Specifying column data types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1028
24.1.3 Specifying Categorical dtype . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1030
24.1.4 Naming and Using Columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1032
24.1.4.1 Handling column names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1032
24.1.5 Duplicate names parsing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1033
24.1.5.1 Filtering columns (usecols) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1033
24.1.6 Comments and Empty Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1034
24.1.6.1 Ignoring line comments and empty lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1034
24.1.6.2 Comments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1036
24.1.7 Dealing with Unicode Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1036
24.1.8 Index columns and trailing delimiters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1037
24.1.9 Date Handling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1038
24.1.9.1 Specifying Date Columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1038
24.1.9.2 Date Parsing Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1040
24.1.9.3 Inferring Datetime Format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1041
24.1.9.4 International Date Formats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1042
24.1.10 Specifying method for floating-point conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1042
24.1.11 Thousand Separators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1043
24.1.12 NA Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1043
24.1.13 Infinity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1044
24.1.14 Returning Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1044
24.1.15 Boolean values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1044
24.1.16 Handling “bad” lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1045
24.1.17 Dialect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1045
24.1.18 Quoting and Escape Characters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1046
24.1.19 Files with Fixed Width Columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1047
24.1.20 Indexes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1049
24.1.20.1 Files with an “implicit” index column . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1049
24.1.20.2 Reading an index with a MultiIndex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1049
24.1.20.3 Reading columns with a MultiIndex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1050
24.1.21 Automatically “sniffing” the delimiter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1051
24.1.22 Reading multiple files to create a single DataFrame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1052
24.1.23 Iterating through files chunk by chunk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1052
24.1.24 Specifying the parser engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1053
24.1.25 Reading remote files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1053
24.1.26 Writing out Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1054

xx
 24.1.26.1 Writing to CSV format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1054
24.1.26.2 Writing a formatted string . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1054
24.2 JSON . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1055
24.2.1 Writing JSON . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1055
24.2.1.1 Orient Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1056
24.2.1.2 Date Handling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1057
24.2.1.3 Fallback Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1058
24.2.2 Reading JSON . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1059
24.2.2.1 Data Conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1060
24.2.2.2 The Numpy Parameter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1063
24.2.3 Normalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1063
24.2.4 Line delimited json . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1064
24.2.5 Table Schema . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1065
24.3 HTML . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1068
24.3.1 Reading HTML Content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1068
24.3.2 Writing to HTML files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1072
24.3.3 HTML Table Parsing Gotchas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1076
24.4 Excel files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1076
24.4.1 Reading Excel Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1077
24.4.1.1 ExcelFile class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1077
24.4.1.2 Specifying Sheets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1077
24.4.1.3 Reading a MultiIndex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1078
24.4.1.4 Parsing Specific Columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1079
24.4.1.5 Parsing Dates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1080
24.4.1.6 Cell Converters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1080
24.4.1.7 dtype Specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1080
24.4.2 Writing Excel Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1080
24.4.2.1 Writing Excel Files to Disk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1080
24.4.2.2 Writing Excel Files to Memory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1081
24.4.3 Excel writer engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1081
24.4.4 Style and Formatting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1082
24.5 Clipboard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1082
24.6 Pickling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1083
24.6.1 Compressed pickle files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1084
24.7 msgpack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1087
24.7.1 Read/Write API . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1089
24.8 HDF5 (PyTables) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1089
24.8.1 Read/Write API . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1091
24.8.2 Fixed Format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1093
24.8.3 Table Format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1093
24.8.4 Hierarchical Keys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1094
24.8.5 Storing Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1095
24.8.5.1 Storing Mixed Types in a Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1095
24.8.5.2 Storing Multi-Index DataFrames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1096
24.8.6 Querying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1097
24.8.6.1 Querying a Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1097
24.8.6.2 Using timedelta64[ns] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1101
24.8.6.3 Indexing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1102
24.8.6.4 Query via Data Columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1103
24.8.6.5 Iterator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1104
24.8.6.6 Advanced Queries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1106
24.8.6.7 Multiple Table Queries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1108
24.8.7 Delete from a Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1109
24.8.8 Notes & Caveats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1110

xxi
 24.8.8.1 Compression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1110
24.8.8.2 ptrepack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1111
24.8.8.3 Caveats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1111
24.8.9 DataTypes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1111
24.8.9.1 Categorical Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1112
24.8.9.2 String Columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1112
24.8.10 External Compatibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1114
24.8.11 Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1116
24.9 Feather . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1116
24.10 Parquet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1117
24.11 SQL Queries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1119
24.11.1 pandas.read_sql_table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1119
24.11.2 pandas.read_sql_query . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1120
24.11.3 pandas.read_sql . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1121
24.11.4 pandas.DataFrame.to_sql . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1122
24.11.5 Writing DataFrames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1124
24.11.5.1 SQL data types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1124
24.11.6 Reading Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1124
24.11.7 Schema support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1125
24.11.8 Querying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1125
24.11.9 Engine connection examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1127
24.11.10Advanced SQLAlchemy queries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1127
24.11.11Sqlite fallback . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1128
24.12 Google BigQuery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1128
24.13 Stata Format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1129
24.13.1 Writing to Stata format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1129
24.13.2 Reading from Stata format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1129
24.13.2.1 Categorical Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1130
24.14 SAS Formats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1131
24.15 Other file formats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1131
24.15.1 netCDF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1132
24.16 Performance Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1132

25 Remote Data Access 1135

25.1 DataReader . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1135

26 Enhancing Performance 1137

26.1 Cython (Writing C extensions for pandas) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1137
26.1.1 Pure python . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1137
26.1.2 Plain cython . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1138
26.1.3 Adding type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1139
26.1.4 Using ndarray . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1140
26.1.5 More advanced techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1141
26.2 Using numba . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1142
26.2.1 Jit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1142
26.2.2 Vectorize . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1143
26.2.3 Caveats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1143
26.3 Expression Evaluation via eval() . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1143
26.3.1 Supported Syntax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1144
26.3.2 eval() Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1145
26.3.3 The DataFrame.eval method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1146
26.3.4 Local Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1148
26.3.5 pandas.eval() Parsers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1149
26.3.6 pandas.eval() Backends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1150

xxii
 26.3.7 pandas.eval() Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1150
26.3.8 Technical Minutia Regarding Expression Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1151

27 Sparse data structures 1153

27.1 SparseArray . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1155
27.2 SparseList . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1155
27.3 SparseIndex objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1155
27.4 Sparse Dtypes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1155
27.5 Sparse Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1158
27.6 Interaction with scipy.sparse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1158
27.6.1 SparseDataFrame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1158
27.6.2 SparseSeries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1159

28 Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ) 1163

28.1 DataFrame memory usage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1163
28.2 Using If/Truth Statements with pandas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1165
28.2.1 Bitwise boolean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1166
28.2.2 Using the in operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1166
28.3 NaN, Integer NA values and NA type promotions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1166
28.3.1 Choice of NA representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1166
28.3.2 Support for integer NA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1166
28.3.3 NA type promotions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1167
28.3.4 Why not make NumPy like R? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1167
28.4 Differences with NumPy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1168
28.5 Thread-safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1168
28.6 Byte-Ordering Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1168

29 rpy2 / R interface 1169

29.1 Transferring R data sets into Python . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1169
29.2 Converting DataFrames into R objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1170

30 pandas Ecosystem 1171

30.1 Statistics and Machine Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1171
30.1.1 Statsmodels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1171
30.1.2 sklearn-pandas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1171
30.2 Visualization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1171
30.2.1 Bokeh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1171
30.2.2 yhat/ggplot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1171
30.2.3 Seaborn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1172
30.2.4 Vincent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1172
30.2.5 IPython Vega . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1172
30.2.6 Plotly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1172
30.2.7 QtPandas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1172
30.3 IDE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1172
30.3.1 IPython . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1172
30.3.2 quantopian/qgrid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1173
30.3.3 Spyder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1173
30.4 API . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1173
30.4.1 pandas-datareader . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1173
30.4.2 quandl/Python . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1173
30.4.3 pydatastream . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1173
30.4.4 pandaSDMX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1173
30.4.5 fredapi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1174
30.5 Domain Specific . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1174
30.5.1 Geopandas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1174

xxiii
 30.5.2 xarray . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1174
30.6 Out-of-core . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1174
30.6.1 Dask . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1174
30.6.2 Blaze . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1174
30.6.3 Odo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1174
30.7 Data validation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1174
30.7.1 Engarde . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1174

31 Comparison with R / R libraries 1175

31.1 Quick Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1175
31.1.1 Querying, Filtering, Sampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1175
31.1.2 Sorting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1176
31.1.3 Transforming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1176
31.1.4 Grouping and Summarizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1176
31.2 Base R . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1176
31.2.1 Slicing with R’s c . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1176
31.2.2 aggregate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1178
31.2.3 match / %in% . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1179
31.2.4 tapply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1179
31.2.5 subset . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1180
31.2.6 with . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1181
31.3 plyr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1181
31.3.1 ddply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1182
31.4 reshape / reshape2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1183
31.4.1 melt.array . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1183
31.4.2 melt.list . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1183
31.4.3 melt.data.frame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1184
31.4.4 cast . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1184
31.4.5 factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1186

32 Comparison with SQL 1187

32.1 SELECT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1187
32.2 WHERE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1188
32.3 GROUP BY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1190
32.4 JOIN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1192
32.4.1 INNER JOIN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1192
32.4.2 LEFT OUTER JOIN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1193
32.4.3 RIGHT JOIN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1193
32.4.4 FULL JOIN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1193
32.5 UNION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1194
32.6 Pandas equivalents for some SQL analytic and aggregate functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1195
32.6.1 Top N rows with offset . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1195
32.6.2 Top N rows per group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1195
32.7 UPDATE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1197
32.8 DELETE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1197

33 Comparison with SAS 1199

33.1 Data Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1199
33.1.1 General Terminology Translation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1199
33.1.2 DataFrame / Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1199
33.1.3 Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1200
33.2 Data Input / Output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1200
33.2.1 Constructing a DataFrame from Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1200
33.2.2 Reading External Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1200

xxiv
 33.2.3 Exporting Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1201
33.3 Data Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1201
33.3.1 Operations on Columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1201
33.3.2 Filtering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1202
33.3.3 If/Then Logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1202
33.3.4 Date Functionality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1203
33.3.5 Selection of Columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1204
33.3.6 Sorting by Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1205
33.4 String Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1205
33.4.1 Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1205
33.4.2 Find . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1206
33.4.3 Substring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1206
33.4.4 Scan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1206
33.4.5 Upcase, Lowcase, and Propcase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1207
33.5 Merging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1207
33.6 Missing Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1209
33.7 GroupBy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1211
33.7.1 Aggregation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1211
33.7.2 Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1211
33.7.3 By Group Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1212
33.8 Other Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1213
33.8.1 Disk vs Memory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1213
33.8.2 Data Interop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1213

34 API Reference 1215

34.1 Input/Output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1215
34.1.1 Pickling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1215
34.1.1.1 pandas.read_pickle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1215
34.1.2 Flat File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1216
34.1.2.1 pandas.read_table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1216
34.1.2.2 pandas.read_csv . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1221
34.1.2.3 pandas.read_fwf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1227
34.1.2.4 pandas.read_msgpack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1232
34.1.3 Clipboard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1232
34.1.3.1 pandas.read_clipboard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1232
34.1.4 Excel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1232
34.1.4.1 pandas.read_excel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1232
34.1.4.2 pandas.ExcelFile.parse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1235
34.1.5 JSON . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1235
34.1.5.1 pandas.read_json . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1235
34.1.5.2 pandas.io.json.json_normalize . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1238
34.1.5.3 pandas.io.json.build_table_schema . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1239
34.1.6 HTML . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1240
34.1.6.1 pandas.read_html . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1240
34.1.7 HDFStore: PyTables (HDF5) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1242
34.1.7.1 pandas.read_hdf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1243
34.1.7.2 pandas.HDFStore.put . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1243
34.1.7.3 pandas.HDFStore.append . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1244
34.1.7.4 pandas.HDFStore.get . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1244
34.1.7.5 pandas.HDFStore.select . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1245
34.1.7.6 pandas.HDFStore.info . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1245
34.1.8 Feather . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1245
34.1.8.1 pandas.read_feather . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1245
34.1.9 Parquet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1245

xxv
 34.1.9.1 pandas.read_parquet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1246
34.1.10 SAS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1246
34.1.10.1 pandas.read_sas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1246
34.1.11 SQL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1246
34.1.12 Google BigQuery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1247
34.1.12.1 pandas.read_gbq . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1247
34.1.13 STATA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1248
34.1.13.1 pandas.read_stata . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1248
34.1.13.2 pandas.io.stata.StataReader.data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1249
34.1.13.3 pandas.io.stata.StataReader.data_label . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1250
34.1.13.4 pandas.io.stata.StataReader.value_labels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1250
34.1.13.5 pandas.io.stata.StataReader.variable_labels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1250
34.1.13.6 pandas.io.stata.StataWriter.write_file . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1250
34.2 General functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1250
34.2.1 Data manipulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1250
34.2.1.1 pandas.melt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1251
34.2.1.2 pandas.pivot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1253
34.2.1.3 pandas.pivot_table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1253
34.2.1.4 pandas.crosstab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1254
34.2.1.5 pandas.cut . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1256
34.2.1.6 pandas.qcut . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1257
34.2.1.7 pandas.merge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1258
34.2.1.8 pandas.merge_ordered . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1260
34.2.1.9 pandas.merge_asof . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1262
34.2.1.10 pandas.concat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1265
34.2.1.11 pandas.get_dummies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1268
34.2.1.12 pandas.factorize . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1270
34.2.1.13 pandas.unique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1271
34.2.1.14 pandas.wide_to_long . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1272
34.2.2 Top-level missing data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1275
34.2.2.1 pandas.isna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1275
34.2.2.2 pandas.isnull . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1276
34.2.2.3 pandas.notna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1276
34.2.2.4 pandas.notnull . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1276
34.2.3 Top-level conversions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1277
34.2.3.1 pandas.to_numeric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1277
34.2.4 Top-level dealing with datetimelike . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1278
34.2.4.1 pandas.to_datetime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1278
34.2.4.2 pandas.to_timedelta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1281
34.2.4.3 pandas.date_range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1282
34.2.4.4 pandas.bdate_range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1283
34.2.4.5 pandas.period_range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1284
34.2.4.6 pandas.timedelta_range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1285
34.2.4.7 pandas.infer_freq . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1286
34.2.5 Top-level dealing with intervals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1286
34.2.5.1 pandas.interval_range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1286
34.2.6 Top-level evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1287
34.2.6.1 pandas.eval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1287
34.2.7 Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1289
34.2.7.1 pandas.test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1289
34.3 Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1289
34.3.1 Constructor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1289
34.3.1.1 pandas.Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1289
34.3.2 Attributes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1417

xxvi
34.3.3 Conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1418
34.3.4 Indexing, iteration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1418
34.3.4.1 pandas.Series.__iter__ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1418
34.3.5 Binary operator functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1418
34.3.6 Function application, GroupBy & Window . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1419
34.3.7 Computations / Descriptive Stats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1420
34.3.8 Reindexing / Selection / Label manipulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1421
34.3.9 Missing data handling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1422
34.3.10 Reshaping, sorting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1422
34.3.11 Combining / joining / merging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1422
34.3.12 Time series-related . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1422
34.3.13 Datetimelike Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1422
34.3.13.1 pandas.Series.dt.date . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1423
34.3.13.2 pandas.Series.dt.time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1423
34.3.13.3 pandas.Series.dt.year . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1424
34.3.13.4 pandas.Series.dt.month . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1424
34.3.13.5 pandas.Series.dt.day . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1424
34.3.13.6 pandas.Series.dt.hour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1424
34.3.13.7 pandas.Series.dt.minute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1424
34.3.13.8 pandas.Series.dt.second . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1424
34.3.13.9 pandas.Series.dt.microsecond . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1424
34.3.13.10pandas.Series.dt.nanosecond . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1424
34.3.13.11pandas.Series.dt.week . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1424
34.3.13.12pandas.Series.dt.weekofyear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1425
34.3.13.13pandas.Series.dt.dayofweek . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1425
34.3.13.14pandas.Series.dt.weekday . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1425
34.3.13.15pandas.Series.dt.weekday_name . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1425
34.3.13.16pandas.Series.dt.dayofyear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1425
34.3.13.17pandas.Series.dt.quarter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1425
34.3.13.18pandas.Series.dt.is_month_start . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1425
34.3.13.19pandas.Series.dt.is_month_end . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1425
34.3.13.20pandas.Series.dt.is_quarter_start . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1425
34.3.13.21pandas.Series.dt.is_quarter_end . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1426
34.3.13.22pandas.Series.dt.is_year_start . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1426
34.3.13.23pandas.Series.dt.is_year_end . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1426
34.3.13.24pandas.Series.dt.is_leap_year . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1426
34.3.13.25pandas.Series.dt.daysinmonth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1426
34.3.13.26pandas.Series.dt.days_in_month . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1426
34.3.13.27pandas.Series.dt.tz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1426
34.3.13.28pandas.Series.dt.freq . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1426
34.3.13.29pandas.Series.dt.to_period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1427
34.3.13.30pandas.Series.dt.to_pydatetime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1427
34.3.13.31pandas.Series.dt.tz_localize . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1427
34.3.13.32pandas.Series.dt.tz_convert . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1428
34.3.13.33pandas.Series.dt.normalize . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1428
34.3.13.34pandas.Series.dt.strftime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1428
34.3.13.35pandas.Series.dt.round . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1428
34.3.13.36pandas.Series.dt.floor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1428
34.3.13.37pandas.Series.dt.ceil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1429
34.3.13.38pandas.Series.dt.days . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1429
34.3.13.39pandas.Series.dt.seconds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1429
34.3.13.40pandas.Series.dt.microseconds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1429
34.3.13.41pandas.Series.dt.nanoseconds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1429
34.3.13.42pandas.Series.dt.components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1429

xxvii
 34.3.13.43pandas.Series.dt.to_pytimedelta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1430
34.3.13.44pandas.Series.dt.total_seconds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1430
34.3.14 String handling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1430
34.3.14.1 pandas.Series.str.capitalize . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1432
34.3.14.2 pandas.Series.str.cat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1432
34.3.14.3 pandas.Series.str.center . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1433
34.3.14.4 pandas.Series.str.contains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1433
34.3.14.5 pandas.Series.str.count . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1434
34.3.14.6 pandas.Series.str.decode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1434
34.3.14.7 pandas.Series.str.encode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1434
34.3.14.8 pandas.Series.str.endswith . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1434
34.3.14.9 pandas.Series.str.extract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1435
34.3.14.10pandas.Series.str.extractall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1436
34.3.14.11pandas.Series.str.find . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1437
34.3.14.12pandas.Series.str.findall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1438
34.3.14.13pandas.Series.str.get . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1438
34.3.14.14pandas.Series.str.index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1438
34.3.14.15pandas.Series.str.join . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1438
34.3.14.16pandas.Series.str.len . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1439
34.3.14.17pandas.Series.str.ljust . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1439
34.3.14.18pandas.Series.str.lower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1439
34.3.14.19pandas.Series.str.lstrip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1439
34.3.14.20pandas.Series.str.match . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1439
34.3.14.21pandas.Series.str.normalize . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1440
34.3.14.22pandas.Series.str.pad . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1440
34.3.14.23pandas.Series.str.partition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1440
34.3.14.24pandas.Series.str.repeat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1441
34.3.14.25pandas.Series.str.replace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1441
34.3.14.26pandas.Series.str.rfind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1443
34.3.14.27pandas.Series.str.rindex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1443
34.3.14.28pandas.Series.str.rjust . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1444
34.3.14.29pandas.Series.str.rpartition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1444
34.3.14.30pandas.Series.str.rstrip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1445
34.3.14.31pandas.Series.str.slice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1445
34.3.14.32pandas.Series.str.slice_replace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1445
34.3.14.33pandas.Series.str.split . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1445
34.3.14.34pandas.Series.str.rsplit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1446
34.3.14.35pandas.Series.str.startswith . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1446
34.3.14.36pandas.Series.str.strip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1446
34.3.14.37pandas.Series.str.swapcase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1446
34.3.14.38pandas.Series.str.title . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1446
34.3.14.39pandas.Series.str.translate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1447
34.3.14.40pandas.Series.str.upper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1447
34.3.14.41pandas.Series.str.wrap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1447
34.3.14.42pandas.Series.str.zfill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1448
34.3.14.43pandas.Series.str.isalnum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1448
34.3.14.44pandas.Series.str.isalpha . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1448
34.3.14.45pandas.Series.str.isdigit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1449
34.3.14.46pandas.Series.str.isspace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1449
34.3.14.47pandas.Series.str.islower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1449
34.3.14.48pandas.Series.str.isupper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1449
34.3.14.49pandas.Series.str.istitle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1449
34.3.14.50pandas.Series.str.isnumeric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1449
34.3.14.51pandas.Series.str.isdecimal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1449

xxviii
 34.3.14.52pandas.Series.str.get_dummies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1450
34.3.15 Categorical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1450
34.3.15.1 pandas.api.types.CategoricalDtype . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1450
34.3.15.2 pandas.Series.cat.categories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1451
34.3.15.3 pandas.Series.cat.ordered . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1451
34.3.15.4 pandas.Series.cat.codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1451
34.3.15.5 pandas.Series.cat.rename_categories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1452
34.3.15.6 pandas.Series.cat.reorder_categories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1453
34.3.15.7 pandas.Series.cat.add_categories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1453
34.3.15.8 pandas.Series.cat.remove_categories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1454
34.3.15.9 pandas.Series.cat.remove_unused_categories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1454
34.3.15.10pandas.Series.cat.set_categories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1454
34.3.15.11pandas.Series.cat.as_ordered . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1455
34.3.15.12pandas.Series.cat.as_unordered . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1455
34.3.15.13pandas.Categorical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1456
34.3.15.14pandas.Categorical.from_codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1457
34.3.15.15pandas.Categorical.__array__ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1457
34.3.16 Plotting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1458
34.3.16.1 pandas.Series.plot.area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1458
34.3.16.2 pandas.Series.plot.bar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1458
34.3.16.3 pandas.Series.plot.barh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1458
34.3.16.4 pandas.Series.plot.box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1459
34.3.16.5 pandas.Series.plot.density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1459
34.3.16.6 pandas.Series.plot.hist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1459
34.3.16.7 pandas.Series.plot.kde . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1459
34.3.16.8 pandas.Series.plot.line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1460
34.3.16.9 pandas.Series.plot.pie . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1460
34.3.17 Serialization / IO / Conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1460
34.3.18 Sparse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1460
34.3.18.1 pandas.SparseSeries.to_coo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1461
34.3.18.2 pandas.SparseSeries.from_coo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1462
34.4 DataFrame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1462
34.4.1 Constructor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1462
34.4.1.1 pandas.DataFrame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1462
34.4.2 Attributes and underlying data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1616
34.4.3 Conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1616
34.4.4 Indexing, iteration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1616
34.4.4.1 pandas.DataFrame.__iter__ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1617
34.4.5 Binary operator functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1617
34.4.6 Function application, GroupBy & Window . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1618
34.4.7 Computations / Descriptive Stats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1618
34.4.8 Reindexing / Selection / Label manipulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1619
34.4.9 Missing data handling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1620
34.4.10 Reshaping, sorting, transposing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1621
34.4.11 Combining / joining / merging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1621
34.4.12 Time series-related . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1621
34.4.13 Plotting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1622
34.4.13.1 pandas.DataFrame.plot.area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1622
34.4.13.2 pandas.DataFrame.plot.bar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1622
34.4.13.3 pandas.DataFrame.plot.barh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1623
34.4.13.4 pandas.DataFrame.plot.box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1623
34.4.13.5 pandas.DataFrame.plot.density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1623
34.4.13.6 pandas.DataFrame.plot.hexbin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1624
34.4.13.7 pandas.DataFrame.plot.hist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1624

xxix
 34.4.13.8 pandas.DataFrame.plot.kde . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1624
34.4.13.9 pandas.DataFrame.plot.line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1625
34.4.13.10pandas.DataFrame.plot.pie . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1625
34.4.13.11pandas.DataFrame.plot.scatter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1625
34.4.14 Serialization / IO / Conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1626
34.4.15 Sparse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1626
34.4.15.1 pandas.SparseDataFrame.to_coo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1626
34.5 Panel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1627
34.5.1 Constructor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1627
34.5.1.1 pandas.Panel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1627
34.5.2 Attributes and underlying data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1713
34.5.3 Conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1713
34.5.4 Getting and setting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1714
34.5.5 Indexing, iteration, slicing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1714
34.5.5.1 pandas.Panel.__iter__ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1714
34.5.6 Binary operator functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1714
34.5.7 Function application, GroupBy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1715
34.5.8 Computations / Descriptive Stats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1715
34.5.9 Reindexing / Selection / Label manipulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1716
34.5.10 Missing data handling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1716
34.5.11 Reshaping, sorting, transposing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1716
34.5.12 Combining / joining / merging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1717
34.5.13 Time series-related . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1717
34.5.14 Serialization / IO / Conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1717
34.6 Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1717
34.6.1 pandas.Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1718
34.6.1.1 pandas.Index.T . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1719
34.6.1.2 pandas.Index.asi8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1719
34.6.1.3 pandas.Index.base . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1719
34.6.1.4 pandas.Index.data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1719
34.6.1.5 pandas.Index.dtype . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1719
34.6.1.6 pandas.Index.dtype_str . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1720
34.6.1.7 pandas.Index.empty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1720
34.6.1.8 pandas.Index.flags . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1720
34.6.1.9 pandas.Index.has_duplicates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1720
34.6.1.10 pandas.Index.hasnans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1720
34.6.1.11 pandas.Index.inferred_type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1720
34.6.1.12 pandas.Index.is_all_dates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1720
34.6.1.13 pandas.Index.is_monotonic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1720
34.6.1.14 pandas.Index.is_monotonic_decreasing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1720
34.6.1.15 pandas.Index.is_monotonic_increasing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1721
34.6.1.16 pandas.Index.is_unique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1721
34.6.1.17 pandas.Index.itemsize . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1721
34.6.1.18 pandas.Index.name . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1721
34.6.1.19 pandas.Index.names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1721
34.6.1.20 pandas.Index.nbytes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1721
34.6.1.21 pandas.Index.ndim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1721
34.6.1.22 pandas.Index.nlevels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1721
34.6.1.23 pandas.Index.shape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1722
34.6.1.24 pandas.Index.size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1722
34.6.1.25 pandas.Index.strides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1722
34.6.1.26 pandas.Index.values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1722
34.6.1.27 pandas.Index.all . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1724
34.6.1.28 pandas.Index.any . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1724

xxx
34.6.1.29 pandas.Index.append . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1725
34.6.1.30 pandas.Index.argmax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1725
34.6.1.31 pandas.Index.argmin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1725
34.6.1.32 pandas.Index.argsort . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1725
34.6.1.33 pandas.Index.asof . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1725
34.6.1.34 pandas.Index.asof_locs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1726
34.6.1.35 pandas.Index.astype . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1726
34.6.1.36 pandas.Index.contains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1726
34.6.1.37 pandas.Index.copy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1726
34.6.1.38 pandas.Index.delete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1726
34.6.1.39 pandas.Index.difference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1727
34.6.1.40 pandas.Index.drop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1727
34.6.1.41 pandas.Index.drop_duplicates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1727
34.6.1.42 pandas.Index.dropna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1727
34.6.1.43 pandas.Index.duplicated . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1728
34.6.1.44 pandas.Index.equals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1728
34.6.1.45 pandas.Index.factorize . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1728
34.6.1.46 pandas.Index.fillna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1728
34.6.1.47 pandas.Index.format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1728
34.6.1.48 pandas.Index.get_duplicates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1729
34.6.1.49 pandas.Index.get_indexer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1729
34.6.1.50 pandas.Index.get_indexer_for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1729
34.6.1.51 pandas.Index.get_indexer_non_unique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1730
34.6.1.52 pandas.Index.get_level_values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1730
34.6.1.53 pandas.Index.get_loc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1730
34.6.1.54 pandas.Index.get_slice_bound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1731
34.6.1.55 pandas.Index.get_value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1731
34.6.1.56 pandas.Index.get_values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1731
34.6.1.57 pandas.Index.groupby . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1731
34.6.1.58 pandas.Index.holds_integer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1732
34.6.1.59 pandas.Index.identical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1732
34.6.1.60 pandas.Index.insert . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1732
34.6.1.61 pandas.Index.intersection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1732
34.6.1.62 pandas.Index.is_ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1732
34.6.1.63 pandas.Index.is_boolean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1733
34.6.1.64 pandas.Index.is_categorical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1733
34.6.1.65 pandas.Index.is_floating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1733
34.6.1.66 pandas.Index.is_integer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1733
34.6.1.67 pandas.Index.is_interval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1733
34.6.1.68 pandas.Index.is_lexsorted_for_tuple . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1733
34.6.1.69 pandas.Index.is_mixed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1733
34.6.1.70 pandas.Index.is_numeric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1733
34.6.1.71 pandas.Index.is_object . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1733
34.6.1.72 pandas.Index.is_type_compatible . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1733
34.6.1.73 pandas.Index.isin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1734
34.6.1.74 pandas.Index.isna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1734
34.6.1.75 pandas.Index.isnull . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1734
34.6.1.76 pandas.Index.item . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1735
34.6.1.77 pandas.Index.join . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1735
34.6.1.78 pandas.Index.map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1735
34.6.1.79 pandas.Index.max . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1735
34.6.1.80 pandas.Index.memory_usage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1735
34.6.1.81 pandas.Index.min . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1736
34.6.1.82 pandas.Index.notna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1736

xxxi
 34.6.1.83 pandas.Index.notnull . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1736
34.6.1.84 pandas.Index.nunique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1736
34.6.1.85 pandas.Index.putmask . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1737
34.6.1.86 pandas.Index.ravel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1737
34.6.1.87 pandas.Index.reindex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1737
34.6.1.88 pandas.Index.rename . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1737
34.6.1.89 pandas.Index.repeat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1737
34.6.1.90 pandas.Index.reshape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1738
34.6.1.91 pandas.Index.searchsorted . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1738
34.6.1.92 pandas.Index.set_names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1739
34.6.1.93 pandas.Index.set_value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1740
34.6.1.94 pandas.Index.shift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1740
34.6.1.95 pandas.Index.slice_indexer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1740
34.6.1.96 pandas.Index.slice_locs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1740
34.6.1.97 pandas.Index.sort . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1741
34.6.1.98 pandas.Index.sort_values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1741
34.6.1.99 pandas.Index.sortlevel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1741
34.6.1.100pandas.Index.str . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1741
34.6.1.101pandas.Index.summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1742
34.6.1.102pandas.Index.symmetric_difference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1742
34.6.1.103pandas.Index.take . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1742
34.6.1.104pandas.Index.to_datetime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1743
34.6.1.105pandas.Index.to_frame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1743
34.6.1.106pandas.Index.to_native_types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1743
34.6.1.107pandas.Index.to_series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1743
34.6.1.108pandas.Index.tolist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1744
34.6.1.109pandas.Index.transpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1744
34.6.1.110pandas.Index.union . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1744
34.6.1.111pandas.Index.unique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1744
34.6.1.112pandas.Index.value_counts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1745
34.6.1.113pandas.Index.view . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1745
34.6.1.114pandas.Index.where . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1745
34.6.2 Attributes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1745
34.6.3 Modifying and Computations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1746
34.6.4 Missing Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1746
34.6.5 Conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1747
34.6.6 Sorting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1747
34.6.7 Time-specific operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1747
34.6.8 Combining / joining / set operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1747
34.6.9 Selecting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1747
34.7 Numeric Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1748
34.7.1 pandas.RangeIndex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1748
34.7.2 pandas.Int64Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1748
34.7.3 pandas.UInt64Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1749
34.7.4 pandas.Float64Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1749
34.8 CategoricalIndex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1750
34.8.1 pandas.CategoricalIndex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1750
34.8.2 Categorical Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1750
34.8.2.1 pandas.CategoricalIndex.codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1751
34.8.2.2 pandas.CategoricalIndex.categories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1751
34.8.2.3 pandas.CategoricalIndex.ordered . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1751
34.8.2.4 pandas.CategoricalIndex.rename_categories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1751
34.8.2.5 pandas.CategoricalIndex.reorder_categories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1752
34.8.2.6 pandas.CategoricalIndex.add_categories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1752

xxxii
 34.8.2.7 pandas.CategoricalIndex.remove_categories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1753
34.8.2.8 pandas.CategoricalIndex.remove_unused_categories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1753
34.8.2.9 pandas.CategoricalIndex.set_categories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1754
34.8.2.10 pandas.CategoricalIndex.as_ordered . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1754
34.8.2.11 pandas.CategoricalIndex.as_unordered . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1755
34.9 IntervalIndex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1755
34.9.1 pandas.IntervalIndex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1755
34.9.2 IntervalIndex Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1756
34.9.2.1 pandas.IntervalIndex.from_arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1756
34.9.2.2 pandas.IntervalIndex.from_tuples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1757
34.9.2.3 pandas.IntervalIndex.from_breaks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1757
34.9.2.4 pandas.IntervalIndex.from_intervals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1758
34.10 MultiIndex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1759
34.10.1 pandas.MultiIndex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1759
34.10.1.1 pandas.MultiIndex.T . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1760
34.10.1.2 pandas.MultiIndex.asi8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1761
34.10.1.3 pandas.MultiIndex.base . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1761
34.10.1.4 pandas.MultiIndex.data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1761
34.10.1.5 pandas.MultiIndex.dtype . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1761
34.10.1.6 pandas.MultiIndex.dtype_str . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1761
34.10.1.7 pandas.MultiIndex.empty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1761
34.10.1.8 pandas.MultiIndex.flags . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1761
34.10.1.9 pandas.MultiIndex.has_duplicates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1761
34.10.1.10pandas.MultiIndex.hasnans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1761
34.10.1.11pandas.MultiIndex.inferred_type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1761
34.10.1.12pandas.MultiIndex.is_all_dates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1761
34.10.1.13pandas.MultiIndex.is_monotonic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1762
34.10.1.14pandas.MultiIndex.is_monotonic_decreasing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1762
34.10.1.15pandas.MultiIndex.is_monotonic_increasing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1762
34.10.1.16pandas.MultiIndex.is_unique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1762
34.10.1.17pandas.MultiIndex.itemsize . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1762
34.10.1.18pandas.MultiIndex.labels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1762
34.10.1.19pandas.MultiIndex.levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1762
34.10.1.20pandas.MultiIndex.levshape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1762
34.10.1.21pandas.MultiIndex.lexsort_depth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1762
34.10.1.22pandas.MultiIndex.name . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1762
34.10.1.23pandas.MultiIndex.names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1762
34.10.1.24pandas.MultiIndex.nbytes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1763
34.10.1.25pandas.MultiIndex.ndim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1763
34.10.1.26pandas.MultiIndex.nlevels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1763
34.10.1.27pandas.MultiIndex.shape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1763
34.10.1.28pandas.MultiIndex.size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1763
34.10.1.29pandas.MultiIndex.strides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1763
34.10.1.30pandas.MultiIndex.values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1763
34.10.1.31pandas.MultiIndex.all . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1766
34.10.1.32pandas.MultiIndex.any . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1766
34.10.1.33pandas.MultiIndex.append . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1766
34.10.1.34pandas.MultiIndex.argmax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1766
34.10.1.35pandas.MultiIndex.argmin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1767
34.10.1.36pandas.MultiIndex.argsort . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1767
34.10.1.37pandas.MultiIndex.asof . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1767
34.10.1.38pandas.MultiIndex.asof_locs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1767
34.10.1.39pandas.MultiIndex.astype . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1767
34.10.1.40pandas.MultiIndex.contains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1767

xxxiii
 34.10.1.41pandas.MultiIndex.copy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1768
34.10.1.42pandas.MultiIndex.delete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1768
34.10.1.43pandas.MultiIndex.difference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1768
34.10.1.44pandas.MultiIndex.drop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1768
34.10.1.45pandas.MultiIndex.drop_duplicates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1768
34.10.1.46pandas.MultiIndex.droplevel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1769
34.10.1.47pandas.MultiIndex.dropna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1769
34.10.1.48pandas.MultiIndex.duplicated . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1769
34.10.1.49pandas.MultiIndex.equal_levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1769
34.10.1.50pandas.MultiIndex.equals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1770
34.10.1.51pandas.MultiIndex.factorize . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1770
34.10.1.52pandas.MultiIndex.fillna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1770
34.10.1.53pandas.MultiIndex.format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1770
34.10.1.54pandas.MultiIndex.from_arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1770
34.10.1.55pandas.MultiIndex.from_product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1771
34.10.1.56pandas.MultiIndex.from_tuples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1771
34.10.1.57pandas.MultiIndex.get_duplicates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1772
34.10.1.58pandas.MultiIndex.get_indexer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1772
34.10.1.59pandas.MultiIndex.get_indexer_for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1773
34.10.1.60pandas.MultiIndex.get_indexer_non_unique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1773
34.10.1.61pandas.MultiIndex.get_level_values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1773
34.10.1.62pandas.MultiIndex.get_loc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1774
34.10.1.63pandas.MultiIndex.get_loc_level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1775
34.10.1.64pandas.MultiIndex.get_locs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1775
34.10.1.65pandas.MultiIndex.get_major_bounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1776
34.10.1.66pandas.MultiIndex.get_slice_bound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1777
34.10.1.67pandas.MultiIndex.get_value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1777
34.10.1.68pandas.MultiIndex.get_values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1777
34.10.1.69pandas.MultiIndex.groupby . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1777
34.10.1.70pandas.MultiIndex.holds_integer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1777
34.10.1.71pandas.MultiIndex.identical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1777
34.10.1.72pandas.MultiIndex.insert . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1777
34.10.1.73pandas.MultiIndex.intersection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1778
34.10.1.74pandas.MultiIndex.is_ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1778
34.10.1.75pandas.MultiIndex.is_boolean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1778
34.10.1.76pandas.MultiIndex.is_categorical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1778
34.10.1.77pandas.MultiIndex.is_floating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1778
34.10.1.78pandas.MultiIndex.is_integer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1778
34.10.1.79pandas.MultiIndex.is_interval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1778
34.10.1.80pandas.MultiIndex.is_lexsorted . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1778
34.10.1.81pandas.MultiIndex.is_lexsorted_for_tuple . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1779
34.10.1.82pandas.MultiIndex.is_mixed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1779
34.10.1.83pandas.MultiIndex.is_numeric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1779
34.10.1.84pandas.MultiIndex.is_object . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1779
34.10.1.85pandas.MultiIndex.is_type_compatible . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1779
34.10.1.86pandas.MultiIndex.isin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1779
34.10.1.87pandas.MultiIndex.isna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1780
34.10.1.88pandas.MultiIndex.isnull . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1780
34.10.1.89pandas.MultiIndex.item . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1780
34.10.1.90pandas.MultiIndex.join . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1780
34.10.1.91pandas.MultiIndex.map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1781
34.10.1.92pandas.MultiIndex.max . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1781
34.10.1.93pandas.MultiIndex.memory_usage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1781
34.10.1.94pandas.MultiIndex.min . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1781

xxxiv
 34.10.1.95pandas.MultiIndex.notna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1781
34.10.1.96pandas.MultiIndex.notnull . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1782
34.10.1.97pandas.MultiIndex.nunique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1782
34.10.1.98pandas.MultiIndex.putmask . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1782
34.10.1.99pandas.MultiIndex.ravel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1782
34.10.1.100
pandas.MultiIndex.reindex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1782
34.10.1.101
pandas.MultiIndex.remove_unused_levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1783
34.10.1.102
pandas.MultiIndex.rename . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1783
34.10.1.103
pandas.MultiIndex.reorder_levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1784
34.10.1.104
pandas.MultiIndex.repeat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1784
34.10.1.105
pandas.MultiIndex.reshape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1784
34.10.1.106
pandas.MultiIndex.searchsorted . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1784
34.10.1.107
pandas.MultiIndex.set_labels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1786
34.10.1.108
pandas.MultiIndex.set_levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1786
34.10.1.109
pandas.MultiIndex.set_names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1787
34.10.1.110
pandas.MultiIndex.set_value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1788
34.10.1.111
pandas.MultiIndex.shift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1788
34.10.1.112
pandas.MultiIndex.slice_indexer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1788
34.10.1.113
pandas.MultiIndex.slice_locs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1788
34.10.1.114
pandas.MultiIndex.sort . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1789
34.10.1.115
pandas.MultiIndex.sort_values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1789
34.10.1.116
pandas.MultiIndex.sortlevel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1789
34.10.1.117
pandas.MultiIndex.str . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1790
34.10.1.118
pandas.MultiIndex.summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1790
34.10.1.119
pandas.MultiIndex.swaplevel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1790
34.10.1.120
pandas.MultiIndex.symmetric_difference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1790
34.10.1.121
pandas.MultiIndex.take . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1791
34.10.1.122
pandas.MultiIndex.to_datetime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1791
34.10.1.123
pandas.MultiIndex.to_frame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1792
34.10.1.124
pandas.MultiIndex.to_hierarchical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1792
34.10.1.125
pandas.MultiIndex.to_native_types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1792
34.10.1.126
pandas.MultiIndex.to_series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1793
34.10.1.127
pandas.MultiIndex.tolist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1793
34.10.1.128
pandas.MultiIndex.transpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1793
34.10.1.129
pandas.MultiIndex.truncate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1793
34.10.1.130
pandas.MultiIndex.union . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1793
34.10.1.131
pandas.MultiIndex.unique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1794
34.10.1.132
pandas.MultiIndex.value_counts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1794
34.10.1.133
pandas.MultiIndex.view . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1794
34.10.1.134
pandas.MultiIndex.where . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1794
34.10.2 pandas.IndexSlice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1795
34.10.3 MultiIndex Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1795
34.11 DatetimeIndex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1795
34.11.1 pandas.DatetimeIndex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1796
34.11.1.1 pandas.DatetimeIndex.T . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1798
34.11.1.2 pandas.DatetimeIndex.asi8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1798
34.11.1.3 pandas.DatetimeIndex.asobject . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1798
34.11.1.4 pandas.DatetimeIndex.base . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1799
34.11.1.5 pandas.DatetimeIndex.data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1799
34.11.1.6 pandas.DatetimeIndex.date . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1799
34.11.1.7 pandas.DatetimeIndex.day . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1799
34.11.1.8 pandas.DatetimeIndex.dayofweek . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1799
34.11.1.9 pandas.DatetimeIndex.dayofyear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1799
34.11.1.10pandas.DatetimeIndex.days_in_month . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1799

xxxv
 34.11.1.11pandas.DatetimeIndex.daysinmonth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1799
34.11.1.12pandas.DatetimeIndex.dtype . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1799
34.11.1.13pandas.DatetimeIndex.dtype_str . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1800
34.11.1.14pandas.DatetimeIndex.empty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1800
34.11.1.15pandas.DatetimeIndex.flags . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1800
34.11.1.16pandas.DatetimeIndex.freq . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1800
34.11.1.17pandas.DatetimeIndex.freqstr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1800
34.11.1.18pandas.DatetimeIndex.has_duplicates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1800
34.11.1.19pandas.DatetimeIndex.hasnans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1800
34.11.1.20pandas.DatetimeIndex.hour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1800
34.11.1.21pandas.DatetimeIndex.inferred_freq . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1800
34.11.1.22pandas.DatetimeIndex.inferred_type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1800
34.11.1.23pandas.DatetimeIndex.is_all_dates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1800
34.11.1.24pandas.DatetimeIndex.is_leap_year . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1801
34.11.1.25pandas.DatetimeIndex.is_monotonic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1801
34.11.1.26pandas.DatetimeIndex.is_monotonic_decreasing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1801
34.11.1.27pandas.DatetimeIndex.is_monotonic_increasing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1801
34.11.1.28pandas.DatetimeIndex.is_month_end . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1801
34.11.1.29pandas.DatetimeIndex.is_month_start . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1801
34.11.1.30pandas.DatetimeIndex.is_normalized . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1802
34.11.1.31pandas.DatetimeIndex.is_quarter_end . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1802
34.11.1.32pandas.DatetimeIndex.is_quarter_start . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1802
34.11.1.33pandas.DatetimeIndex.is_unique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1802
34.11.1.34pandas.DatetimeIndex.is_year_end . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1802
34.11.1.35pandas.DatetimeIndex.is_year_start . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1802
34.11.1.36pandas.DatetimeIndex.itemsize . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1802
34.11.1.37pandas.DatetimeIndex.microsecond . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1802
34.11.1.38pandas.DatetimeIndex.minute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1802
34.11.1.39pandas.DatetimeIndex.month . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1802
34.11.1.40pandas.DatetimeIndex.name . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1803
34.11.1.41pandas.DatetimeIndex.names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1803
34.11.1.42pandas.DatetimeIndex.nanosecond . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1803
34.11.1.43pandas.DatetimeIndex.nbytes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1803
34.11.1.44pandas.DatetimeIndex.ndim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1803
34.11.1.45pandas.DatetimeIndex.nlevels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1803
34.11.1.46pandas.DatetimeIndex.offset . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1803
34.11.1.47pandas.DatetimeIndex.quarter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1803
34.11.1.48pandas.DatetimeIndex.resolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1803
34.11.1.49pandas.DatetimeIndex.second . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1803
34.11.1.50pandas.DatetimeIndex.shape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1804
34.11.1.51pandas.DatetimeIndex.size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1804
34.11.1.52pandas.DatetimeIndex.strides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1804
34.11.1.53pandas.DatetimeIndex.time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1804
34.11.1.54pandas.DatetimeIndex.tz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1804
34.11.1.55pandas.DatetimeIndex.tzinfo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1804
34.11.1.56pandas.DatetimeIndex.values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1804
34.11.1.57pandas.DatetimeIndex.week . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1804
34.11.1.58pandas.DatetimeIndex.weekday . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1804
34.11.1.59pandas.DatetimeIndex.weekday_name . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1805
34.11.1.60pandas.DatetimeIndex.weekofyear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1805
34.11.1.61pandas.DatetimeIndex.year . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1805
34.11.1.62pandas.DatetimeIndex.all . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1808
34.11.1.63pandas.DatetimeIndex.any . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1808
34.11.1.64pandas.DatetimeIndex.append . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1808

xxxvi
34.11.1.65pandas.DatetimeIndex.argmax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1808
34.11.1.66pandas.DatetimeIndex.argmin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1808
34.11.1.67pandas.DatetimeIndex.argsort . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1808
34.11.1.68pandas.DatetimeIndex.asof . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1809
34.11.1.69pandas.DatetimeIndex.asof_locs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1809
34.11.1.70pandas.DatetimeIndex.astype . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1809
34.11.1.71pandas.DatetimeIndex.ceil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1809
34.11.1.72pandas.DatetimeIndex.contains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1809
34.11.1.73pandas.DatetimeIndex.copy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1810
34.11.1.74pandas.DatetimeIndex.delete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1810
34.11.1.75pandas.DatetimeIndex.difference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1810
34.11.1.76pandas.DatetimeIndex.drop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1810
34.11.1.77pandas.DatetimeIndex.drop_duplicates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1811
34.11.1.78pandas.DatetimeIndex.dropna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1811
34.11.1.79pandas.DatetimeIndex.duplicated . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1811
34.11.1.80pandas.DatetimeIndex.equals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1811
34.11.1.81pandas.DatetimeIndex.factorize . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1811
34.11.1.82pandas.DatetimeIndex.fillna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1812
34.11.1.83pandas.DatetimeIndex.floor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1812
34.11.1.84pandas.DatetimeIndex.format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1812
34.11.1.85pandas.DatetimeIndex.get_duplicates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1812
34.11.1.86pandas.DatetimeIndex.get_indexer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1812
34.11.1.87pandas.DatetimeIndex.get_indexer_for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1813
34.11.1.88pandas.DatetimeIndex.get_indexer_non_unique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1813
34.11.1.89pandas.DatetimeIndex.get_level_values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1814
34.11.1.90pandas.DatetimeIndex.get_loc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1814
34.11.1.91pandas.DatetimeIndex.get_slice_bound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1814
34.11.1.92pandas.DatetimeIndex.get_value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1814
34.11.1.93pandas.DatetimeIndex.get_value_maybe_box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1814
34.11.1.94pandas.DatetimeIndex.get_values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1814
34.11.1.95pandas.DatetimeIndex.groupby . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1815
34.11.1.96pandas.DatetimeIndex.holds_integer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1815
34.11.1.97pandas.DatetimeIndex.identical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1815
34.11.1.98pandas.DatetimeIndex.indexer_at_time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1815
34.11.1.99pandas.DatetimeIndex.indexer_between_time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1815
34.11.1.100
pandas.DatetimeIndex.insert . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1816
34.11.1.101
pandas.DatetimeIndex.intersection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1816
34.11.1.102
pandas.DatetimeIndex.is_ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1816
34.11.1.103
pandas.DatetimeIndex.is_boolean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1816
34.11.1.104
pandas.DatetimeIndex.is_categorical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1816
34.11.1.105
pandas.DatetimeIndex.is_floating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1816
34.11.1.106
pandas.DatetimeIndex.is_integer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1816
34.11.1.107
pandas.DatetimeIndex.is_interval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1817
34.11.1.108
pandas.DatetimeIndex.is_lexsorted_for_tuple . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1817
34.11.1.109
pandas.DatetimeIndex.is_mixed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1817
34.11.1.110
pandas.DatetimeIndex.is_numeric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1817
34.11.1.111
pandas.DatetimeIndex.is_object . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1817
34.11.1.112
pandas.DatetimeIndex.is_type_compatible . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1817
34.11.1.113
pandas.DatetimeIndex.isin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1817
34.11.1.114
pandas.DatetimeIndex.isna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1817
34.11.1.115
pandas.DatetimeIndex.isnull . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1818
34.11.1.116
pandas.DatetimeIndex.item . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1818
34.11.1.117
pandas.DatetimeIndex.join . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1818
34.11.1.118
pandas.DatetimeIndex.map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1818

xxxvii
 34.11.1.119
pandas.DatetimeIndex.max . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1818
34.11.1.120
pandas.DatetimeIndex.memory_usage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1818
34.11.1.121
pandas.DatetimeIndex.min . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1819
34.11.1.122
pandas.DatetimeIndex.normalize . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1819
34.11.1.123
pandas.DatetimeIndex.notna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1819
34.11.1.124
pandas.DatetimeIndex.notnull . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1819
34.11.1.125
pandas.DatetimeIndex.nunique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1820
34.11.1.126
pandas.DatetimeIndex.putmask . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1820
34.11.1.127
pandas.DatetimeIndex.ravel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1820
34.11.1.128
pandas.DatetimeIndex.reindex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1820
34.11.1.129
pandas.DatetimeIndex.rename . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1820
34.11.1.130
pandas.DatetimeIndex.repeat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1821
34.11.1.131
pandas.DatetimeIndex.reshape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1821
34.11.1.132
pandas.DatetimeIndex.round . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1821
34.11.1.133
pandas.DatetimeIndex.searchsorted . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1821
34.11.1.134
pandas.DatetimeIndex.set_names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1822
34.11.1.135
pandas.DatetimeIndex.set_value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1823
34.11.1.136
pandas.DatetimeIndex.shift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1823
34.11.1.137
pandas.DatetimeIndex.slice_indexer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1823
34.11.1.138
pandas.DatetimeIndex.slice_locs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1823
34.11.1.139
pandas.DatetimeIndex.snap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1824
34.11.1.140
pandas.DatetimeIndex.sort . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1824
34.11.1.141
pandas.DatetimeIndex.sort_values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1824
34.11.1.142
pandas.DatetimeIndex.sortlevel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1824
34.11.1.143
pandas.DatetimeIndex.str . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1825
34.11.1.144
pandas.DatetimeIndex.strftime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1825
34.11.1.145
pandas.DatetimeIndex.summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1825
34.11.1.146
pandas.DatetimeIndex.symmetric_difference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1825
34.11.1.147
pandas.DatetimeIndex.take . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1826
34.11.1.148
pandas.DatetimeIndex.to_datetime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1826
34.11.1.149
pandas.DatetimeIndex.to_frame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1826
34.11.1.150
pandas.DatetimeIndex.to_julian_date . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1827
34.11.1.151
pandas.DatetimeIndex.to_native_types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1827
34.11.1.152
pandas.DatetimeIndex.to_period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1827
34.11.1.153
pandas.DatetimeIndex.to_perioddelta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1827
34.11.1.154
pandas.DatetimeIndex.to_pydatetime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1827
34.11.1.155
pandas.DatetimeIndex.to_series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1827
34.11.1.156
pandas.DatetimeIndex.tolist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1828
34.11.1.157
pandas.DatetimeIndex.transpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1828
34.11.1.158
pandas.DatetimeIndex.tz_convert . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1828
34.11.1.159
pandas.DatetimeIndex.tz_localize . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1828
34.11.1.160
pandas.DatetimeIndex.union . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1829
34.11.1.161
pandas.DatetimeIndex.union_many . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1829
34.11.1.162
pandas.DatetimeIndex.unique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1829
34.11.1.163
pandas.DatetimeIndex.value_counts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1830
34.11.1.164
pandas.DatetimeIndex.view . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1830
34.11.1.165
pandas.DatetimeIndex.where . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1830
34.11.2 Time/Date Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1830
34.11.3 Selecting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1831
34.11.4 Time-specific operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1831
34.11.5 Conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1832
34.12 TimedeltaIndex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1832
34.12.1 pandas.TimedeltaIndex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1832
34.12.1.1 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.T . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1834

xxxviii
34.12.1.2 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.asi8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1834
34.12.1.3 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.asobject . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1834
34.12.1.4 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.base . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1834
34.12.1.5 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1834
34.12.1.6 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1835
34.12.1.7 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.days . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1835
34.12.1.8 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.dtype . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1835
34.12.1.9 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.dtype_str . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1835
34.12.1.10pandas.TimedeltaIndex.empty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1835
34.12.1.11pandas.TimedeltaIndex.flags . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1835
34.12.1.12pandas.TimedeltaIndex.freq . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1835
34.12.1.13pandas.TimedeltaIndex.freqstr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1835
34.12.1.14pandas.TimedeltaIndex.has_duplicates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1835
34.12.1.15pandas.TimedeltaIndex.hasnans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1835
34.12.1.16pandas.TimedeltaIndex.inferred_freq . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1835
34.12.1.17pandas.TimedeltaIndex.inferred_type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1836
34.12.1.18pandas.TimedeltaIndex.is_all_dates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1836
34.12.1.19pandas.TimedeltaIndex.is_monotonic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1836
34.12.1.20pandas.TimedeltaIndex.is_monotonic_decreasing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1836
34.12.1.21pandas.TimedeltaIndex.is_monotonic_increasing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1836
34.12.1.22pandas.TimedeltaIndex.is_unique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1836
34.12.1.23pandas.TimedeltaIndex.itemsize . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1837
34.12.1.24pandas.TimedeltaIndex.microseconds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1837
34.12.1.25pandas.TimedeltaIndex.name . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1837
34.12.1.26pandas.TimedeltaIndex.names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1837
34.12.1.27pandas.TimedeltaIndex.nanoseconds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1837
34.12.1.28pandas.TimedeltaIndex.nbytes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1837
34.12.1.29pandas.TimedeltaIndex.ndim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1837
34.12.1.30pandas.TimedeltaIndex.nlevels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1837
34.12.1.31pandas.TimedeltaIndex.resolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1837
34.12.1.32pandas.TimedeltaIndex.seconds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1837
34.12.1.33pandas.TimedeltaIndex.shape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1838
34.12.1.34pandas.TimedeltaIndex.size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1838
34.12.1.35pandas.TimedeltaIndex.strides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1838
34.12.1.36pandas.TimedeltaIndex.values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1838
34.12.1.37pandas.TimedeltaIndex.all . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1840
34.12.1.38pandas.TimedeltaIndex.any . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1841
34.12.1.39pandas.TimedeltaIndex.append . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1841
34.12.1.40pandas.TimedeltaIndex.argmax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1841
34.12.1.41pandas.TimedeltaIndex.argmin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1841
34.12.1.42pandas.TimedeltaIndex.argsort . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1841
34.12.1.43pandas.TimedeltaIndex.asof . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1841
34.12.1.44pandas.TimedeltaIndex.asof_locs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1842
34.12.1.45pandas.TimedeltaIndex.astype . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1842
34.12.1.46pandas.TimedeltaIndex.ceil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1842
34.12.1.47pandas.TimedeltaIndex.contains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1842
34.12.1.48pandas.TimedeltaIndex.copy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1842
34.12.1.49pandas.TimedeltaIndex.delete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1843
34.12.1.50pandas.TimedeltaIndex.difference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1843
34.12.1.51pandas.TimedeltaIndex.drop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1843
34.12.1.52pandas.TimedeltaIndex.drop_duplicates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1843
34.12.1.53pandas.TimedeltaIndex.dropna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1844
34.12.1.54pandas.TimedeltaIndex.duplicated . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1844
34.12.1.55pandas.TimedeltaIndex.equals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1844

xxxix
 34.12.1.56pandas.TimedeltaIndex.factorize . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1844
34.12.1.57pandas.TimedeltaIndex.fillna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1845
34.12.1.58pandas.TimedeltaIndex.floor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1845
34.12.1.59pandas.TimedeltaIndex.format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1845
34.12.1.60pandas.TimedeltaIndex.get_duplicates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1845
34.12.1.61pandas.TimedeltaIndex.get_indexer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1845
34.12.1.62pandas.TimedeltaIndex.get_indexer_for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1846
34.12.1.63pandas.TimedeltaIndex.get_indexer_non_unique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1846
34.12.1.64pandas.TimedeltaIndex.get_level_values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1846
34.12.1.65pandas.TimedeltaIndex.get_loc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1847
34.12.1.66pandas.TimedeltaIndex.get_slice_bound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1847
34.12.1.67pandas.TimedeltaIndex.get_value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1847
34.12.1.68pandas.TimedeltaIndex.get_value_maybe_box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1847
34.12.1.69pandas.TimedeltaIndex.get_values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1847
34.12.1.70pandas.TimedeltaIndex.groupby . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1847
34.12.1.71pandas.TimedeltaIndex.holds_integer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1848
34.12.1.72pandas.TimedeltaIndex.identical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1848
34.12.1.73pandas.TimedeltaIndex.insert . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1848
34.12.1.74pandas.TimedeltaIndex.intersection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1848
34.12.1.75pandas.TimedeltaIndex.is_ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1848
34.12.1.76pandas.TimedeltaIndex.is_boolean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1848
34.12.1.77pandas.TimedeltaIndex.is_categorical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1848
34.12.1.78pandas.TimedeltaIndex.is_floating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1849
34.12.1.79pandas.TimedeltaIndex.is_integer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1849
34.12.1.80pandas.TimedeltaIndex.is_interval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1849
34.12.1.81pandas.TimedeltaIndex.is_lexsorted_for_tuple . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1849
34.12.1.82pandas.TimedeltaIndex.is_mixed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1849
34.12.1.83pandas.TimedeltaIndex.is_numeric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1849
34.12.1.84pandas.TimedeltaIndex.is_object . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1849
34.12.1.85pandas.TimedeltaIndex.is_type_compatible . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1849
34.12.1.86pandas.TimedeltaIndex.isin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1849
34.12.1.87pandas.TimedeltaIndex.isna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1849
34.12.1.88pandas.TimedeltaIndex.isnull . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1850
34.12.1.89pandas.TimedeltaIndex.item . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1850
34.12.1.90pandas.TimedeltaIndex.join . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1850
34.12.1.91pandas.TimedeltaIndex.map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1850
34.12.1.92pandas.TimedeltaIndex.max . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1850
34.12.1.93pandas.TimedeltaIndex.memory_usage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1850
34.12.1.94pandas.TimedeltaIndex.min . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1851
34.12.1.95pandas.TimedeltaIndex.notna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1851
34.12.1.96pandas.TimedeltaIndex.notnull . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1851
34.12.1.97pandas.TimedeltaIndex.nunique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1851
34.12.1.98pandas.TimedeltaIndex.putmask . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1852
34.12.1.99pandas.TimedeltaIndex.ravel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1852
34.12.1.100
pandas.TimedeltaIndex.reindex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1852
34.12.1.101
pandas.TimedeltaIndex.rename . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1852
34.12.1.102
pandas.TimedeltaIndex.repeat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1852
34.12.1.103
pandas.TimedeltaIndex.reshape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1853
34.12.1.104
pandas.TimedeltaIndex.round . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1853
34.12.1.105
pandas.TimedeltaIndex.searchsorted . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1853
34.12.1.106
pandas.TimedeltaIndex.set_names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1854
34.12.1.107
pandas.TimedeltaIndex.set_value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1855
34.12.1.108
pandas.TimedeltaIndex.shift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1855
34.12.1.109
pandas.TimedeltaIndex.slice_indexer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1855

xl
 34.12.1.110
pandas.TimedeltaIndex.slice_locs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1856
34.12.1.111
pandas.TimedeltaIndex.sort . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1856
34.12.1.112
pandas.TimedeltaIndex.sort_values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1856
34.12.1.113
pandas.TimedeltaIndex.sortlevel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1857
34.12.1.114
pandas.TimedeltaIndex.str . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1857
34.12.1.115
pandas.TimedeltaIndex.summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1857
34.12.1.116
pandas.TimedeltaIndex.symmetric_difference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1857
34.12.1.117
pandas.TimedeltaIndex.take . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1858
34.12.1.118
pandas.TimedeltaIndex.to_datetime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1858
34.12.1.119
pandas.TimedeltaIndex.to_frame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1858
34.12.1.120
pandas.TimedeltaIndex.to_native_types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1859
34.12.1.121
pandas.TimedeltaIndex.to_pytimedelta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1859
34.12.1.122
pandas.TimedeltaIndex.to_series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1859
34.12.1.123
pandas.TimedeltaIndex.tolist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1859
34.12.1.124
pandas.TimedeltaIndex.total_seconds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1859
34.12.1.125
pandas.TimedeltaIndex.transpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1859
34.12.1.126
pandas.TimedeltaIndex.union . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1860
34.12.1.127
pandas.TimedeltaIndex.unique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1860
34.12.1.128
pandas.TimedeltaIndex.value_counts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1860
34.12.1.129
pandas.TimedeltaIndex.view . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1861
34.12.1.130
pandas.TimedeltaIndex.where . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1861
34.12.2 Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1861
34.12.3 Conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1861
34.13 PeriodIndex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1861
34.13.1 pandas.PeriodIndex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1862
34.13.2 Attributes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1863
34.13.2.1 pandas.PeriodIndex.day . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1863
34.13.2.2 pandas.PeriodIndex.dayofweek . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1863
34.13.2.3 pandas.PeriodIndex.dayofyear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1863
34.13.2.4 pandas.PeriodIndex.days_in_month . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1864
34.13.2.5 pandas.PeriodIndex.daysinmonth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1864
34.13.2.6 pandas.PeriodIndex.end_time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1864
34.13.2.7 pandas.PeriodIndex.freq . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1864
34.13.2.8 pandas.PeriodIndex.freqstr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1864
34.13.2.9 pandas.PeriodIndex.hour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1864
34.13.2.10pandas.PeriodIndex.is_leap_year . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1864
34.13.2.11pandas.PeriodIndex.minute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1864
34.13.2.12pandas.PeriodIndex.month . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1864
34.13.2.13pandas.PeriodIndex.quarter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1864
34.13.2.14pandas.PeriodIndex.qyear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1865
34.13.2.15pandas.PeriodIndex.second . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1865
34.13.2.16pandas.PeriodIndex.start_time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1865
34.13.2.17pandas.PeriodIndex.week . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1865
34.13.2.18pandas.PeriodIndex.weekday . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1865
34.13.2.19pandas.PeriodIndex.weekofyear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1865
34.13.2.20pandas.PeriodIndex.year . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1865
34.13.3 Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1865
34.13.3.1 pandas.PeriodIndex.asfreq . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1866
34.13.3.2 pandas.PeriodIndex.strftime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1866
34.13.3.3 pandas.PeriodIndex.to_timestamp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1866
34.13.3.4 pandas.PeriodIndex.tz_convert . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1867
34.13.3.5 pandas.PeriodIndex.tz_localize . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1867
34.14 Scalars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1867
34.14.1 Period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1867

xli
 34.14.1.1 pandas.Period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1867
34.14.2 Attributes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1872
34.14.3 Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1873
34.14.4 Timestamp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1873
34.14.4.1 pandas.Timestamp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1873
34.14.5 Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1884
34.14.5.1 pandas.Timestamp.max . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1885
34.14.5.2 pandas.Timestamp.min . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1885
34.14.5.3 pandas.Timestamp.resolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1885
34.14.6 Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1885
34.14.7 Interval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1886
34.14.7.1 pandas.Interval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1886
34.14.8 Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1888
34.14.9 Timedelta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1889
34.14.9.1 pandas.Timedelta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1889
34.14.10Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1893
34.14.11Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1893
34.15 Window . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1894
34.15.1 Standard moving window functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1894
34.15.1.1 pandas.core.window.Rolling.count . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1894
34.15.1.2 pandas.core.window.Rolling.sum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1894
34.15.1.3 pandas.core.window.Rolling.mean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1895
34.15.1.4 pandas.core.window.Rolling.median . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1895
34.15.1.5 pandas.core.window.Rolling.var . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1895
34.15.1.6 pandas.core.window.Rolling.std . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1895
34.15.1.7 pandas.core.window.Rolling.min . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1896
34.15.1.8 pandas.core.window.Rolling.max . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1896
34.15.1.9 pandas.core.window.Rolling.corr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1896
34.15.1.10pandas.core.window.Rolling.cov . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1896
34.15.1.11pandas.core.window.Rolling.skew . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1897
34.15.1.12pandas.core.window.Rolling.kurt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1897
34.15.1.13pandas.core.window.Rolling.apply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1897
34.15.1.14pandas.core.window.Rolling.quantile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1897
34.15.1.15pandas.core.window.Window.mean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1898
34.15.1.16pandas.core.window.Window.sum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1898
34.15.2 Standard expanding window functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1898
34.15.2.1 pandas.core.window.Expanding.count . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1899
34.15.2.2 pandas.core.window.Expanding.sum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1899
34.15.2.3 pandas.core.window.Expanding.mean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1899
34.15.2.4 pandas.core.window.Expanding.median . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1899
34.15.2.5 pandas.core.window.Expanding.var . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1900
34.15.2.6 pandas.core.window.Expanding.std . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1900
34.15.2.7 pandas.core.window.Expanding.min . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1900
34.15.2.8 pandas.core.window.Expanding.max . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1900
34.15.2.9 pandas.core.window.Expanding.corr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1901
34.15.2.10pandas.core.window.Expanding.cov . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1901
34.15.2.11pandas.core.window.Expanding.skew . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1901
34.15.2.12pandas.core.window.Expanding.kurt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1902
34.15.2.13pandas.core.window.Expanding.apply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1902
34.15.2.14pandas.core.window.Expanding.quantile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1902
34.15.3 Exponentially-weighted moving window functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1902
34.15.3.1 pandas.core.window.EWM.mean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1902
34.15.3.2 pandas.core.window.EWM.std . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1903
34.15.3.3 pandas.core.window.EWM.var . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1903

xlii
 34.15.3.4 pandas.core.window.EWM.corr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1903
34.15.3.5 pandas.core.window.EWM.cov . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1904
34.16 GroupBy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1904
34.16.1 Indexing, iteration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1904
34.16.1.1 pandas.core.groupby.GroupBy.__iter__ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1904
34.16.1.2 pandas.core.groupby.GroupBy.groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1904
34.16.1.3 pandas.core.groupby.GroupBy.indices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1905
34.16.1.4 pandas.core.groupby.GroupBy.get_group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1905
34.16.1.5 pandas.Grouper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1905
34.16.2 Function application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1906
34.16.2.1 pandas.core.groupby.GroupBy.apply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1906
34.16.2.2 pandas.core.groupby.GroupBy.aggregate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1907
34.16.2.3 pandas.core.groupby.GroupBy.transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1907
34.16.2.4 pandas.core.groupby.GroupBy.pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1907
34.16.3 Computations / Descriptive Stats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1908
34.16.3.1 pandas.core.groupby.GroupBy.count . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1908
34.16.3.2 pandas.core.groupby.GroupBy.cumcount . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1909
34.16.3.3 pandas.core.groupby.GroupBy.first . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1909
34.16.3.4 pandas.core.groupby.GroupBy.head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1910
34.16.3.5 pandas.core.groupby.GroupBy.last . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1910
34.16.3.6 pandas.core.groupby.GroupBy.max . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1910
34.16.3.7 pandas.core.groupby.GroupBy.mean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1910
34.16.3.8 pandas.core.groupby.GroupBy.median . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1911
34.16.3.9 pandas.core.groupby.GroupBy.min . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1911
34.16.3.10pandas.core.groupby.GroupBy.ngroup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1911
34.16.3.11pandas.core.groupby.GroupBy.nth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1912
34.16.3.12pandas.core.groupby.GroupBy.ohlc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1913
34.16.3.13pandas.core.groupby.GroupBy.prod . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1913
34.16.3.14pandas.core.groupby.GroupBy.size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1913
34.16.3.15pandas.core.groupby.GroupBy.sem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1914
34.16.3.16pandas.core.groupby.GroupBy.std . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1914
34.16.3.17pandas.core.groupby.GroupBy.sum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1914
34.16.3.18pandas.core.groupby.GroupBy.var . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1914
34.16.3.19pandas.core.groupby.GroupBy.tail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1915
34.16.3.20pandas.core.groupby.DataFrameGroupBy.agg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1916
34.16.3.21pandas.core.groupby.DataFrameGroupBy.all . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1917
34.16.3.22pandas.core.groupby.DataFrameGroupBy.any . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1918
34.16.3.23pandas.core.groupby.DataFrameGroupBy.bfill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1918
34.16.3.24pandas.core.groupby.DataFrameGroupBy.corr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1918
34.16.3.25pandas.core.groupby.DataFrameGroupBy.count . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1919
34.16.3.26pandas.core.groupby.DataFrameGroupBy.cov . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1919
34.16.3.27pandas.core.groupby.DataFrameGroupBy.cummax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1919
34.16.3.28pandas.core.groupby.DataFrameGroupBy.cummin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1919
34.16.3.29pandas.core.groupby.DataFrameGroupBy.cumprod . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1919
34.16.3.30pandas.core.groupby.DataFrameGroupBy.cumsum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1920
34.16.3.31pandas.core.groupby.DataFrameGroupBy.describe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1920
34.16.3.32pandas.core.groupby.DataFrameGroupBy.diff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1923
34.16.3.33pandas.core.groupby.DataFrameGroupBy.ffill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1924
34.16.3.34pandas.core.groupby.DataFrameGroupBy.fillna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1924
34.16.3.35pandas.core.groupby.DataFrameGroupBy.filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1925
34.16.3.36pandas.core.groupby.DataFrameGroupBy.hist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1926
34.16.3.37pandas.core.groupby.DataFrameGroupBy.idxmax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1927
34.16.3.38pandas.core.groupby.DataFrameGroupBy.idxmin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1927
34.16.3.39pandas.core.groupby.DataFrameGroupBy.mad . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1928

xliii
 34.16.3.40pandas.core.groupby.DataFrameGroupBy.pct_change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1928
34.16.3.41pandas.core.groupby.DataFrameGroupBy.plot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1929
34.16.3.42pandas.core.groupby.DataFrameGroupBy.quantile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1929
34.16.3.43pandas.core.groupby.DataFrameGroupBy.rank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1930
34.16.3.44pandas.core.groupby.DataFrameGroupBy.resample . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1930
34.16.3.45pandas.core.groupby.DataFrameGroupBy.shift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1930
34.16.3.46pandas.core.groupby.DataFrameGroupBy.size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1931
34.16.3.47pandas.core.groupby.DataFrameGroupBy.skew . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1931
34.16.3.48pandas.core.groupby.DataFrameGroupBy.take . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1931
34.16.3.49pandas.core.groupby.DataFrameGroupBy.tshift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1933
34.16.3.50pandas.core.groupby.SeriesGroupBy.nlargest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1933
34.16.3.51pandas.core.groupby.SeriesGroupBy.nsmallest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1934
34.16.3.52pandas.core.groupby.SeriesGroupBy.nunique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1935
34.16.3.53pandas.core.groupby.SeriesGroupBy.unique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1935
34.16.3.54pandas.core.groupby.SeriesGroupBy.value_counts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1935
34.16.3.55pandas.core.groupby.DataFrameGroupBy.corrwith . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1935
34.16.3.56pandas.core.groupby.DataFrameGroupBy.boxplot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1936
34.17 Resampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1937
34.17.1 Indexing, iteration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1937
34.17.1.1 pandas.core.resample.Resampler.__iter__ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1937
34.17.1.2 pandas.core.resample.Resampler.groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1937
34.17.1.3 pandas.core.resample.Resampler.indices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1937
34.17.1.4 pandas.core.resample.Resampler.get_group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1937
34.17.2 Function application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1937
34.17.2.1 pandas.core.resample.Resampler.apply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1938
34.17.2.2 pandas.core.resample.Resampler.aggregate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1939
34.17.2.3 pandas.core.resample.Resampler.transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1940
34.17.3 Upsampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1940
34.17.3.1 pandas.core.resample.Resampler.ffill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1941
34.17.3.2 pandas.core.resample.Resampler.backfill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1941
34.17.3.3 pandas.core.resample.Resampler.bfill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1941
34.17.3.4 pandas.core.resample.Resampler.pad . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1942
34.17.3.5 pandas.core.resample.Resampler.nearest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1942
34.17.3.6 pandas.core.resample.Resampler.fillna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1942
34.17.3.7 pandas.core.resample.Resampler.asfreq . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1942
34.17.3.8 pandas.core.resample.Resampler.interpolate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1943
34.17.4 Computations / Descriptive Stats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1944
34.17.4.1 pandas.core.resample.Resampler.count . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1944
34.17.4.2 pandas.core.resample.Resampler.nunique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1945
34.17.4.3 pandas.core.resample.Resampler.first . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1945
34.17.4.4 pandas.core.resample.Resampler.last . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1945
34.17.4.5 pandas.core.resample.Resampler.max . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1945
34.17.4.6 pandas.core.resample.Resampler.mean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1945
34.17.4.7 pandas.core.resample.Resampler.median . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1945
34.17.4.8 pandas.core.resample.Resampler.min . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1946
34.17.4.9 pandas.core.resample.Resampler.ohlc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1946
34.17.4.10pandas.core.resample.Resampler.prod . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1946
34.17.4.11pandas.core.resample.Resampler.size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1946
34.17.4.12pandas.core.resample.Resampler.sem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1946
34.17.4.13pandas.core.resample.Resampler.std . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1946
34.17.4.14pandas.core.resample.Resampler.sum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1947
34.17.4.15pandas.core.resample.Resampler.var . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1947
34.18 Style . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1947
34.18.1 Constructor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1947

xliv
 34.18.1.1 pandas.io.formats.style.Styler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1947
34.18.2 Style Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1959
34.18.3 Builtin Styles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1960
34.18.4 Style Export and Import . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1960
34.19 General utility functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1960
34.19.1 Working with options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1960
34.19.1.1 pandas.describe_option . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1961
34.19.1.2 pandas.reset_option . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1964
34.19.1.3 pandas.get_option . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1968
34.19.1.4 pandas.set_option . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1971
34.19.1.5 pandas.option_context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1975
34.19.2 Testing functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1975
34.19.2.1 pandas.testing.assert_frame_equal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1975
34.19.2.2 pandas.testing.assert_series_equal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1976
34.19.2.3 pandas.testing.assert_index_equal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1977
34.19.3 Exceptions and warnings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1978
34.19.3.1 pandas.errors.DtypeWarning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1978
34.19.3.2 pandas.errors.EmptyDataError . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1978
34.19.3.3 pandas.errors.OutOfBoundsDatetime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1978
34.19.3.4 pandas.errors.ParserError . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1978
34.19.3.5 pandas.errors.ParserWarning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1978
34.19.3.6 pandas.errors.PerformanceWarning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1979
34.19.3.7 pandas.errors.UnsortedIndexError . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1979
34.19.3.8 pandas.errors.UnsupportedFunctionCall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1979
34.19.4 Data types related functionality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1979
34.19.4.1 pandas.api.types.union_categoricals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1979
34.19.4.2 pandas.api.types.infer_dtype . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1981
34.19.4.3 pandas.api.types.pandas_dtype . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1983
34.19.4.4 pandas.api.types.is_bool_dtype . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1984
34.19.4.5 pandas.api.types.is_categorical_dtype . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1984
34.19.4.6 pandas.api.types.is_complex_dtype . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1985
34.19.4.7 pandas.api.types.is_datetime64_any_dtype . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1985
34.19.4.8 pandas.api.types.is_datetime64_dtype . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1986
34.19.4.9 pandas.api.types.is_datetime64_ns_dtype . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1986
34.19.4.10pandas.api.types.is_datetime64tz_dtype . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1987
34.19.4.11pandas.api.types.is_extension_type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1988
34.19.4.12pandas.api.types.is_float_dtype . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1988
34.19.4.13pandas.api.types.is_int64_dtype . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1989
34.19.4.14pandas.api.types.is_integer_dtype . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1990
34.19.4.15pandas.api.types.is_interval_dtype . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1990
34.19.4.16pandas.api.types.is_numeric_dtype . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1991
34.19.4.17pandas.api.types.is_object_dtype . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1991
34.19.4.18pandas.api.types.is_period_dtype . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1992
34.19.4.19pandas.api.types.is_signed_integer_dtype . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1992
34.19.4.20pandas.api.types.is_string_dtype . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1993
34.19.4.21pandas.api.types.is_timedelta64_dtype . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1993
34.19.4.22pandas.api.types.is_timedelta64_ns_dtype . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1994
34.19.4.23pandas.api.types.is_unsigned_integer_dtype . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1994
34.19.4.24pandas.api.types.is_sparse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1995
34.19.4.25pandas.api.types.is_dict_like . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1996
34.19.4.26pandas.api.types.is_file_like . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1996
34.19.4.27pandas.api.types.is_list_like . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1997
34.19.4.28pandas.api.types.is_named_tuple . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1997
34.19.4.29pandas.api.types.is_iterator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1997

xlv
 34.19.4.30pandas.api.types.is_bool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1998
34.19.4.31pandas.api.types.is_categorical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1998
34.19.4.32pandas.api.types.is_complex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1999
34.19.4.33pandas.api.types.is_datetimetz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1999
34.19.4.34pandas.api.types.is_float . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2000
34.19.4.35pandas.api.types.is_hashable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2000
34.19.4.36pandas.api.types.is_integer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2000
34.19.4.37pandas.api.types.is_interval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2000
34.19.4.38pandas.api.types.is_number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2000
34.19.4.39pandas.api.types.is_period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2001
34.19.4.40pandas.api.types.is_re . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2001
34.19.4.41pandas.api.types.is_re_compilable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2001
34.19.4.42pandas.api.types.is_scalar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2002

35 Developer 2003
35.1 Storing pandas DataFrame objects in Apache Parquet format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2003

36 Internals 2007
36.1 Indexing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2007
36.1.1 MultiIndex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2008
36.2 Subclassing pandas Data Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2008
36.2.1 Override Constructor Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2009
36.2.2 Define Original Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2010

37 Release Notes 2013

37.1 pandas 0.21.0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2013
37.1.1 Thanks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2014
37.1.1.1 Contributors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2014
37.2 pandas 0.20.0 / 0.20.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2019
37.2.1 Thanks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2020
37.3 pandas 0.19.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2026
37.3.1 Thanks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2026
37.4 pandas 0.19.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2027
37.4.1 Thanks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2027
37.5 pandas 0.19.0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2028
37.5.1 Thanks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2029
37.6 pandas 0.18.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2032
37.6.1 Thanks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2032
37.7 pandas 0.18.0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2034
37.7.1 Thanks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2035
37.8 pandas 0.17.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2037
37.8.1 Thanks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2038
37.9 pandas 0.17.0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2039
37.9.1 Thanks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2040
37.10 pandas 0.16.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2043
37.10.1 Thanks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2044
37.11 pandas 0.16.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2045
37.11.1 Thanks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2045
37.12 pandas 0.16.0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2046
37.12.1 Thanks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2047
37.13 pandas 0.15.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2049
37.13.1 Thanks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2049
37.14 pandas 0.15.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2050
37.14.1 Thanks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2050

xlvi
37.15 pandas 0.15.0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2051
37.15.1 Thanks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2052
37.16 pandas 0.14.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2054
37.16.1 Thanks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2054
37.17 pandas 0.14.0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2056
37.17.1 Thanks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2056
37.18 pandas 0.13.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2059
37.18.1 New Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2059
37.18.2 API Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2059
37.18.3 Experimental Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2059
37.18.4 Improvements to existing features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2059
37.18.5 Bug Fixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2060
37.19 pandas 0.13.0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2062
37.19.1 New Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2062
37.19.2 Experimental Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2062
37.19.3 Improvements to existing features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2063
37.19.4 API Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2065
37.19.5 Internal Refactoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2068
37.19.6 Bug Fixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2070
37.20 pandas 0.12.0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2076
37.20.1 New Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2076
37.20.2 Improvements to existing features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2076
37.20.3 API Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2077
37.20.4 Experimental Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2079
37.20.5 Bug Fixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2079
37.21 pandas 0.11.0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2082
37.21.1 New Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2082
37.21.2 Improvements to existing features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2083
37.21.3 API Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2085
37.21.4 Bug Fixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2086
37.22 pandas 0.10.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2088
37.22.1 New Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2089
37.22.2 API Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2089
37.22.3 Improvements to existing features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2089
37.22.4 Bug Fixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2090
37.23 pandas 0.10.0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2091
37.23.1 New Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2091
37.23.2 Experimental Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2092
37.23.3 API Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2092
37.23.4 Improvements to existing features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2093
37.23.5 Bug Fixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2094
37.24 pandas 0.9.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2095
37.24.1 New Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2096
37.24.2 API Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2096
37.24.3 Improvements to existing features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2096
37.24.4 Bug Fixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2096
37.25 pandas 0.9.0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2098
37.25.1 New Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2098
37.25.2 Improvements to existing features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2098
37.25.3 API Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2099
37.25.4 Bug Fixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2099
37.26 pandas 0.8.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2103
37.26.1 New Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2103
37.26.2 Improvements to existing features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2103

xlvii
 37.26.3 Bug Fixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2104
37.27 pandas 0.8.0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2105
37.27.1 New Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2105
37.27.2 Improvements to existing features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2106
37.27.3 API Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2107
37.27.4 Bug Fixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2108
37.28 pandas 0.7.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2109
37.28.1 New Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2109
37.28.2 API Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2110
37.28.3 Bug Fixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2110
37.29 pandas 0.7.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2111
37.29.1 New Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2111
37.29.2 API Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2111
37.29.3 Improvements to existing features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2111
37.29.4 Bug Fixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2111
37.30 pandas 0.7.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2112
37.30.1 New Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2112
37.30.2 Improvements to existing features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2112
37.30.3 Bug Fixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2113
37.31 pandas 0.7.0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2113
37.31.1 New Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2113
37.31.2 API Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2115
37.31.3 Improvements to existing features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2115
37.31.4 Bug Fixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2116
37.31.5 Thanks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2119
37.32 pandas 0.6.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2120
37.32.1 API Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2120
37.32.2 New Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2120
37.32.3 Improvements to existing features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2120
37.32.4 Bug Fixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2121
37.32.5 Thanks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2122
37.33 pandas 0.6.0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2122
37.33.1 API Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2122
37.33.2 New Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2122
37.33.3 Improvements to existing features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2123
37.33.4 Bug Fixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2124
37.33.5 Thanks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2125
37.34 pandas 0.5.0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2126
37.34.1 API Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2126
37.34.2 Deprecations Removed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2127
37.34.3 New Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2127
37.34.4 Improvements to existing features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2128
37.34.5 Bug Fixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2129
37.34.6 Thanks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2130
37.35 pandas 0.4.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2130
37.35.1 New Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2130
37.35.2 Improvements to existing features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2130
37.35.3 API Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2130
37.35.4 Bug Fixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2130
37.35.5 Thanks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2131
37.36 pandas 0.4.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2131
37.36.1 New Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2131
37.36.2 Improvements to existing features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2131
37.36.3 API Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2132

xlviii
 37.36.4 Bug Fixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2132
37.36.5 Thanks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2132
37.37 pandas 0.4.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2132
37.37.1 New Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2132
37.37.2 Improvements to existing features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2133
37.37.3 API Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2133
37.37.4 Bug Fixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2133
37.37.5 Thanks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2133
37.38 pandas 0.4.0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2134
37.38.1 New Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2134
37.38.2 Improvements to existing features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2135
37.38.3 API Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2136
37.38.4 Bug Fixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2137
37.38.5 Thanks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2138
37.39 pandas 0.3.0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2138
37.39.1 New features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2139
37.39.2 Improvements to existing features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2139
37.39.3 API Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2139
37.39.4 Bug Fixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2139

Bibliography 2141

Python Module Index 2143

xlix
l
 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

PDF Version
Zipped HTML Date: Oct 27, 2017 Version: 0.21.0
Binary Installers: http://pypi.python.org/pypi/pandas
Source Repository: http://github.com/pandas-dev/pandas
Issues & Ideas: https://github.com/pandas-dev/pandas/issues
Q&A Support: http://stackoverflow.com/questions/tagged/pandas
Developer Mailing List: http://groups.google.com/group/pydata
pandas is a Python package providing fast, flexible, and expressive data structures designed to make working with
“relational” or “labeled” data both easy and intuitive. It aims to be the fundamental high-level building block for doing
practical, real world data analysis in Python. Additionally, it has the broader goal of becoming the most powerful
and flexible open source data analysis / manipulation tool available in any language. It is already well on its way
toward this goal.
pandas is well suited for many different kinds of data:
• Tabular data with heterogeneously-typed columns, as in an SQL table or Excel spreadsheet
• Ordered and unordered (not necessarily fixed-frequency) time series data.
• Arbitrary matrix data (homogeneously typed or heterogeneous) with row and column labels
• Any other form of observational / statistical data sets. The data actually need not be labeled at all to be placed
into a pandas data structure
The two primary data structures of pandas, Series (1-dimensional) and DataFrame (2-dimensional), handle the
vast majority of typical use cases in finance, statistics, social science, and many areas of engineering. For R users,
DataFrame provides everything that R’s data.frame provides and much more. pandas is built on top of NumPy
and is intended to integrate well within a scientific computing environment with many other 3rd party libraries.
Here are just a few of the things that pandas does well:
• Easy handling of missing data (represented as NaN) in floating point as well as non-floating point data
• Size mutability: columns can be inserted and deleted from DataFrame and higher dimensional objects
• Automatic and explicit data alignment: objects can be explicitly aligned to a set of labels, or the user can
simply ignore the labels and let Series, DataFrame, etc. automatically align the data for you in computations
• Powerful, flexible group by functionality to perform split-apply-combine operations on data sets, for both ag-
gregating and transforming data
• Make it easy to convert ragged, differently-indexed data in other Python and NumPy data structures into
DataFrame objects
• Intelligent label-based slicing, fancy indexing, and subsetting of large data sets
• Intuitive merging and joining data sets
• Flexible reshaping and pivoting of data sets
• Hierarchical labeling of axes (possible to have multiple labels per tick)
• Robust IO tools for loading data from flat files (CSV and delimited), Excel files, databases, and saving / loading
data from the ultrafast HDF5 format
• Time series-specific functionality: date range generation and frequency conversion, moving window statistics,
moving window linear regressions, date shifting and lagging, etc.

CONTENTS 1
pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Many of these principles are here to address the shortcomings frequently experienced using other languages / scientific
research environments. For data scientists, working with data is typically divided into multiple stages: munging and
cleaning data, analyzing / modeling it, then organizing the results of the analysis into a form suitable for plotting or
tabular display. pandas is the ideal tool for all of these tasks.
Some other notes
• pandas is fast. Many of the low-level algorithmic bits have been extensively tweaked in Cython code. However,
as with anything else generalization usually sacrifices performance. So if you focus on one feature for your
application you may be able to create a faster specialized tool.
• pandas is a dependency of statsmodels, making it an important part of the statistical computing ecosystem in
Python.
• pandas has been used extensively in production in financial applications.

Note: This documentation assumes general familiarity with NumPy. If you haven’t used NumPy much or at all, do
invest some time in learning about NumPy first.

See the package overview for more detail about what’s in the library.

2 CONTENTS
 CHAPTER

ONE

WHAT’S NEW

These are new features and improvements of note in each release.

1.1 v0.21.0 (October 27, 2017)

This is a major release from 0.20.3 and includes a number of API changes, deprecations, new features, enhancements,
and performance improvements along with a large number of bug fixes. We recommend that all users upgrade to this
version.
Highlights include:
• Integration with Apache Parquet, including a new top-level read_parquet() function and DataFrame.
to_parquet() method, see here.
• New user-facing pandas.api.types.CategoricalDtype for specifying categoricals independent of
the data, see here.
• The behavior of sum and prod on all-NaN Series/DataFrames is now consistent and no longer depends on
whether bottleneck is installed, see here.
• Compatibility fixes for pypy, see here.
• Additions to the drop, reindex and rename API to make them more consistent, see here.
• Addition of the new methods DataFrame.infer_objects (see here) and GroupBy.pipe (see here).
• Indexing with a list of labels, where one or more of the labels is missing, is deprecated and will raise a KeyError
in a future version, see here.
Check the API Changes and deprecations before updating.

What’s new in v0.21.0

• New features
– Integration with Apache Parquet file format
– infer_objects type conversion
– Improved warnings when attempting to create columns
– drop now also accepts index/columns keywords
– rename, reindex now also accept axis keyword
– CategoricalDtype for specifying categoricals

3
pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

– GroupBy objects now have a pipe method

– Categorical.rename_categories accepts a dict-like
– Other Enhancements
• Backwards incompatible API changes
– Dependencies have increased minimum versions
– Sum/Prod of all-NaN Series/DataFrames is now consistently NaN
– Indexing with a list with missing labels is Deprecated
– NA naming Changes
– Iteration of Series/Index will now return Python scalars
– Indexing with a Boolean Index
– PeriodIndex resampling
– Improved error handling during item assignment in pd.eval
– Dtype Conversions
– MultiIndex Constructor with a Single Level
– UTC Localization with Series
– Consistency of Range Functions
– Other API Changes
• Deprecations
– Series.select and DataFrame.select
– Series.argmax and Series.argmin
• Removal of prior version deprecations/changes
• Performance Improvements
• Documentation Changes
• Bug Fixes
– Conversion
– Indexing
– I/O
– Plotting
– Groupby/Resample/Rolling
– Sparse
– Reshaping
– Numeric
– Categorical
– PyPy
– Other

4 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

1.1.1 New features

1.1.1.1 Integration with Apache Parquet file format

Integration with Apache Parquet, including a new top-level read_parquet() and DataFrame.to_parquet()
method, see here (GH15838, GH17438).
Apache Parquet provides a cross-language, binary file format for reading and writing data frames efficiently. Parquet is
designed to faithfully serialize and de-serialize DataFrame s, supporting all of the pandas dtypes, including extension
dtypes such as datetime with timezones.
This functionality depends on either the pyarrow or fastparquet library. For more details, see see the IO docs on
Parquet.

1.1.1.2 infer_objects type conversion

The DataFrame.infer_objects() and Series.infer_objects() methods have been added to perform

dtype inference on object columns, replacing some of the functionality of the deprecated convert_objects
method. See the documentation here for more details. (GH11221)
This method only performs soft conversions on object columns, converting Python objects to native types, but not any
coercive conversions. For example:

In [1]: df = pd.DataFrame({'A': [1, 2, 3],

...: 'B': np.array([1, 2, 3], dtype='object'),
...: 'C': ['1', '2', '3']})
...:

In [2]: df.dtypes
Out[2]:
A int64
B object
C object
dtype: object

In [3]: df.infer_objects().dtypes
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[3]:
A int64
B int64
C object
dtype: object

Note that column 'C' was not converted - only scalar numeric types will be converted to a new type.
Other types of conversion should be accomplished using the to_numeric() function (or to_datetime(),
to_timedelta()).

In [4]: df = df.infer_objects()

In [5]: df['C'] = pd.to_numeric(df['C'], errors='coerce')

In [6]: df.dtypes
Out[6]:
A int64
B int64
C int64
dtype: object

1.1. v0.21.0 (October 27, 2017) 5

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

1.1.1.3 Improved warnings when attempting to create columns

New users are often puzzled by the relationship between column operations and attribute access on DataFrame
instances (GH7175). One specific instance of this confusion is attempting to create a new column by setting an
attribute on the DataFrame:

In[1]: df = pd.DataFrame({'one': [1., 2., 3.]})

In[2]: df.two = [4, 5, 6]

This does not raise any obvious exceptions, but also does not create a new column:

In[3]: df
Out[3]:
one
0 1.0
1 2.0
2 3.0

Setting a list-like data structure into a new attribute now raises a UserWarning about the potential for unexpected
behavior. See Attribute Access.

1.1.1.4 drop now also accepts index/columns keywords

The drop() method has gained index/columns keywords as an alternative to specifying the axis. This is similar
to the behavior of reindex (GH12392).
For example:

In [7]: df = pd.DataFrame(np.arange(8).reshape(2,4),
...: columns=['A', 'B', 'C', 'D'])
...:

In [8]: df
Out[8]:
A B C D
0 0 1 2 3
1 4 5 6 7

In [9]: df.drop(['B', 'C'], axis=1)

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[9]:
A D
0 0 3
1 4 7

# the following is now equivalent

In [10]: df.drop(columns=['B', 'C'])
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[10]:
˓→

A D
0 0 3
1 4 7

1.1.1.5 rename, reindex now also accept axis keyword

The DataFrame.rename() and DataFrame.reindex() methods have gained the axis keyword to specify
the axis to target with the operation (GH12392).

6 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Here’s rename:

In [11]: df = pd.DataFrame({"A": [1, 2, 3], "B": [4, 5, 6]})

In [12]: df.rename(str.lower, axis='columns')

Out[12]:
a b
0 1 4
1 2 5
2 3 6

In [13]: df.rename(id, axis='index')

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[13]:
A B
4453153456 1 4
4453153488 2 5
4453153520 3 6

And reindex:

In [14]: df.reindex(['A', 'B', 'C'], axis='columns')

Out[14]:
A B C
0 1 4 NaN
1 2 5 NaN
2 3 6 NaN

In [15]: df.reindex([0, 1, 3], axis='index')

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[15]:
A B
0 1.0 4.0
1 2.0 5.0
3 NaN NaN

The “index, columns” style continues to work as before.

In [16]: df.rename(index=id, columns=str.lower)

Out[16]:
a b
4453153456 1 4
4453153488 2 5
4453153520 3 6

In [17]: df.reindex(index=[0, 1, 3], columns=['A', 'B', 'C'])

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[17]:
˓→

A B C
0 1.0 4.0 NaN
1 2.0 5.0 NaN
3 NaN NaN NaN

We highly encourage using named arguments to avoid confusion when using either style.

1.1.1.6 CategoricalDtype for specifying categoricals

pandas.api.types.CategoricalDtype has been added to the public API and expanded to include the
categories and ordered attributes. A CategoricalDtype can be used to specify the set of categories and

1.1. v0.21.0 (October 27, 2017) 7

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

orderedness of an array, independent of the data. This can be useful for example, when converting string data to a
Categorical (GH14711, GH15078, GH16015, GH17643):

In [18]: from pandas.api.types import CategoricalDtype

In [19]: s = pd.Series(['a', 'b', 'c', 'a']) # strings

In [20]: dtype = CategoricalDtype(categories=['a', 'b', 'c', 'd'], ordered=True)

In [21]: s.astype(dtype)
Out[21]:
0 a
1 b
2 c
3 a
dtype: category
Categories (4, object): [a < b < c < d]

One place that deserves special mention is in read_csv(). Previously, with dtype={'col': 'category'},
the returned values and categories would always be strings.

In [22]: data = 'A,B\na,1\nb,2\nc,3'

In [23]: pd.read_csv(StringIO(data), dtype={'B': 'category'}).B.cat.categories

Out[23]: Index(['1', '2', '3'], dtype='object')

Notice the “object” dtype.

With a CategoricalDtype of all numerics, datetimes, or timedeltas, we can automatically convert to the correct
type

In [24]: dtype = {'B': CategoricalDtype([1, 2, 3])}

In [25]: pd.read_csv(StringIO(data), dtype=dtype).B.cat.categories

Out[25]: Int64Index([1, 2, 3], dtype='int64')

The values have been correctly interpreted as integers.

The .dtype property of a Categorical, CategoricalIndex or a Series with categorical type will now
return an instance of CategoricalDtype. While the repr has changed, str(CategoricalDtype()) is still
the string 'category'. We’ll take this moment to remind users that the preferred way to detect categorical data is
to use pandas.api.types.is_categorical_dtype(), and not str(dtype) == 'category'.
See the CategoricalDtype docs for more.

1.1.1.7 GroupBy objects now have a pipe method

GroupBy objects now have a pipe method, similar to the one on DataFrame and Series, that allow for functions
that take a GroupBy to be composed in a clean, readable syntax. (GH17871)
For a concrete example on combining .groupby and .pipe , imagine having a DataFrame with columns for stores,
products, revenue and sold quantity. We’d like to do a groupwise calculation of prices (i.e. revenue/quantity) per store
and per product. We could do this in a multi-step operation, but expressing it in terms of piping can make the code
more readable.
First we set the data:

8 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [26]: import numpy as np

In [27]: n = 1000

In [28]: df = pd.DataFrame({'Store': np.random.choice(['Store_1', 'Store_2'], n),

....: 'Product': np.random.choice(['Product_1', 'Product_2',
˓→'Product_3'], n),

....: 'Revenue': (np.random.random(n)*50+10).round(2),

....: 'Quantity': np.random.randint(1, 10, size=n)})
....:

In [29]: df.head(2)
Out[29]:
Product Quantity Revenue Store
0 Product_3 1 14.23 Store_2
1 Product_2 8 46.07 Store_1

Now, to find prices per store/product, we can simply do:

In [30]: (df.groupby(['Store', 'Product'])
....: .pipe(lambda grp: grp.Revenue.sum()/grp.Quantity.sum())
....: .unstack().round(2))
....:
Out[30]:
Product Product_1 Product_2 Product_3
Store
Store_1 7.26 7.00 7.22
Store_2 7.10 6.35 7.45

See the documentation for more.

1.1.1.8 Categorical.rename_categories accepts a dict-like

rename_categories() now accepts a dict-like argument for new_categories. The previous categories are
looked up in the dictionary’s keys and replaced if found. The behavior of missing and extra keys is the same as in
DataFrame.rename().
In [31]: c = pd.Categorical(['a', 'a', 'b'])

In [32]: c.rename_categories({"a": "eh", "b": "bee"})

Out[32]:
[eh, eh, bee]
Categories (2, object): [eh, bee]

Warning: To assist with upgrading pandas, rename_categories treats Series as list-like. Typically, Series
are considered to be dict-like (e.g. in .rename, .map). In a future version of pandas rename_categories
will change to treat them as dict-like. Follow the warning message’s recommendations for writing future-proof
code.
In [33]: c.rename_categories(pd.Series([0, 1], index=['a', 'c']))
FutureWarning: Treating Series 'new_categories' as a list-like and using the values.
In a future version, 'rename_categories' will treat Series like a dictionary.
For dict-like, use 'new_categories.to_dict()'
For list-like, use 'new_categories.values'.
Out[33]:
[0, 0, 1]
Categories (2, int64): [0, 1]

1.1. v0.21.0 (October 27, 2017) 9

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

1.1.1.9 Other Enhancements

New functions or methods

• nearest() is added to support nearest-neighbor upsampling (GH17496).

• Index has added support for a to_frame method (GH15230).

New keywords

• Added a skipna parameter to infer_dtype() to support type inference in the presence of missing values
(GH17059).
• Series.to_dict() and DataFrame.to_dict() now support an into keyword which allows you to
specify the collections.Mapping subclass that you would like returned. The default is dict, which is
backwards compatible. (GH16122)
• Series.set_axis() and DataFrame.set_axis() now support the inplace parameter. (GH14636)
• Series.to_pickle() and DataFrame.to_pickle() have gained a protocol parameter
(GH16252). By default, this parameter is set to HIGHEST_PROTOCOL
• read_feather() has gained the nthreads parameter for multi-threaded operations (GH16359)
• DataFrame.clip() and Series.clip() have gained an inplace argument. (GH15388)
• crosstab() has gained a margins_name parameter to define the name of the row / column that will contain
the totals when margins=True. (GH15972)
• read_json() now accepts a chunksize parameter that can be used when lines=True. If chunksize
is passed, read_json now returns an iterator which reads in chunksize lines with each iteration. (GH17048)
• read_json() and to_json() now accept a compression argument which allows them to transparently
handle compressed files. (GH17798)

Various enhancements

• Improved the import time of pandas by about 2.25x. (GH16764)

• Support for PEP 519 – Adding a file system path protocol on most readers (e.g. read_csv()) and writers
(e.g. DataFrame.to_csv()) (GH13823).
• Added a __fspath__ method to pd.HDFStore, pd.ExcelFile, and pd.ExcelWriter to work prop-
erly with the file system path protocol (GH13823).
• The validate argument for merge() now checks whether a merge is one-to-one, one-to-many, many-to-
one, or many-to-many. If a merge is found to not be an example of specified merge type, an exception of type
MergeError will be raised. For more, see here (GH16270)
• Added support for PEP 518 (pyproject.toml) to the build system (GH16745)
• RangeIndex.append() now returns a RangeIndex object when possible (GH16212)
• Series.rename_axis() and DataFrame.rename_axis() with inplace=True now return None
while renaming the axis inplace. (GH15704)

10 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• api.types.infer_dtype() now infers decimals. (GH15690)

• DataFrame.select_dtypes() now accepts scalar values for include/exclude as well as list-like.
(GH16855)
• date_range() now accepts ‘YS’ in addition to ‘AS’ as an alias for start of year. (GH9313)
• date_range() now accepts ‘Y’ in addition to ‘A’ as an alias for end of year. (GH9313)
• DataFrame.add_prefix() and DataFrame.add_suffix() now accept strings containing the ‘%’
character. (GH17151)
• Read/write methods that infer compression (read_csv(), read_table(), read_pickle(), and
to_pickle()) can now infer from path-like objects, such as pathlib.Path. (GH17206)
• read_sas() now recognizes much more of the most frequently used date (datetime) formats in SAS7BDAT
files. (GH15871)
• DataFrame.items() and Series.items() are now present in both Python 2 and 3 and is lazy in all
cases. (GH13918, GH17213)
• pandas.io.formats.style.Styler.where() has been implemented as a convenience for pandas.
io.formats.style.Styler.applymap(). (GH17474)
• MultiIndex.is_monotonic_decreasing() has been implemented. Previously returned False in all
cases. (GH16554)
• read_excel() raises ImportError with a better message if xlrd is not installed. (GH17613)
• DataFrame.assign() will preserve the original order of **kwargs for Python 3.6+ users instead of
sorting the column names. (GH14207)
• Series.reindex(), DataFrame.reindex(), Index.get_indexer() now support list-like argu-
ment for tolerance. (GH17367)

1.1.2 Backwards incompatible API changes

1.1.2.1 Dependencies have increased minimum versions

We have updated our minimum supported versions of dependencies (GH15206, GH15543, GH15214). If installed, we
now require:
Package Minimum Version Required
Numpy 1.9.0 X
Matplotlib 1.4.3
Scipy 0.14.0
Bottleneck 1.0.0
Additionally, support has been dropped for Python 3.4 (GH15251).

1.1.2.2 Sum/Prod of all-NaN Series/DataFrames is now consistently NaN

The behavior of sum and prod on all-NaN Series/DataFrames no longer depends on whether bottleneck is installed.
(GH9422, GH15507).
Calling sum or prod on an empty or all-NaN Series, or columns of a DataFrame, will result in NaN. See the
docs.

In [33]: s = Series([np.nan])

1.1. v0.21.0 (October 27, 2017) 11

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Previously NO bottleneck
In [2]: s.sum()
Out[2]: np.nan

Previously WITH bottleneck

In [2]: s.sum()
Out[2]: 0.0

New Behavior, without regard to the bottleneck installation.

In [34]: s.sum()
Out[34]: nan

Note that this also changes the sum of an empty Series

Previously regardless of bottlenck
In [1]: pd.Series([]).sum()
Out[1]: 0

In [35]: pd.Series([]).sum()
Out[35]: nan

1.1.2.3 Indexing with a list with missing labels is Deprecated

Previously, selecting with a list of labels, where one or more labels were missing would always succeed, returning NaN
for missing labels. This will now show a FutureWarning. In the future this will raise a KeyError (GH15747).
This warning will trigger on a DataFrame or a Series for using .loc[] or [[]] when passing a list-of-labels
with at least 1 missing label. See the deprecation docs.
In [36]: s = pd.Series([1, 2, 3])

In [37]: s
Out[37]:
0 1
1 2
2 3
dtype: int64

Previous Behavior
In [4]: s.loc[[1, 2, 3]]
Out[4]:
1 2.0
2 3.0
3 NaN
dtype: float64

Current Behavior
In [4]: s.loc[[1, 2, 3]]
Passing list-likes to .loc or [] with any missing label will raise
KeyError in the future, you can use .reindex() as an alternative.

See the documentation here:

12 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

http://pandas.pydata.org/pandas-docs/stable/indexing.html#deprecate-loc-reindex-
˓→listlike

Out[4]:
1 2.0
2 3.0
3 NaN
dtype: float64

The idiomatic way to achieve selecting potentially not-found elements is via .reindex()

In [38]: s.reindex([1, 2, 3])

Out[38]:
1 2.0
2 3.0
3 NaN
dtype: float64

Selection with all keys found is unchanged.

In [39]: s.loc[[1, 2]]

Out[39]:
1 2
2 3
dtype: int64

1.1.2.4 NA naming Changes

In order to promote more consistency among the pandas API, we have added additional top-level functions isna()
and notna() that are aliases for isnull() and notnull(). The naming scheme is now more consistent with
methods like .dropna() and .fillna(). Furthermore in all cases where .isnull() and .notnull() meth-
ods are defined, these have additional methods named .isna() and .notna(), these are included for classes
Categorical, Index, Series, and DataFrame. (GH15001).
The configuration option pd.options.mode.use_inf_as_null is deprecated, and pd.options.mode.
use_inf_as_na is added as a replacement.

1.1.2.5 Iteration of Series/Index will now return Python scalars

Previously, when using certain iteration methods for a Series with dtype int or float, you would receive a
numpy scalar, e.g. a np.int64, rather than a Python int. Issue (GH10904) corrected this for Series.tolist()
and list(Series). This change makes all iteration methods consistent, in particular, for __iter__() and .
map(); note that this only affects int/float dtypes. (GH13236, GH13258, GH14216).

In [40]: s = pd.Series([1, 2, 3])

In [41]: s
Out[41]:
0 1
1 2
2 3
dtype: int64

Previously:

1.1. v0.21.0 (October 27, 2017) 13

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [2]: type(list(s)[0])
Out[2]: numpy.int64

New Behaviour:

In [42]: type(list(s)[0])
Out[42]: int

Furthermore this will now correctly box the results of iteration for DataFrame.to_dict() as well.

In [43]: d = {'a':[1], 'b':['b']}

In [44]: df = pd.DataFrame(d)

Previously:

In [8]: type(df.to_dict()['a'][0])
Out[8]: numpy.int64

New Behaviour:

In [45]: type(df.to_dict()['a'][0])
Out[45]: int

1.1.2.6 Indexing with a Boolean Index

Previously when passing a boolean Index to .loc, if the index of the Series/DataFrame had boolean labels,
you would get a label based selection, potentially duplicating result labels, rather than a boolean indexing selection
(where True selects elements), this was inconsistent how a boolean numpy array indexed. The new behavior is to act
like a boolean numpy array indexer. (GH17738)
Previous Behavior:

In [46]: s = pd.Series([1, 2, 3], index=[False, True, False])

In [47]: s
Out[47]:
False 1
True 2
False 3
dtype: int64

In [59]: s.loc[pd.Index([True, False, True])]

Out[59]:
True 2
False 1
False 3
True 2
dtype: int64

Current Behavior

In [48]: s.loc[pd.Index([True, False, True])]

Out[48]:
False 1

14 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

False 3
dtype: int64

Furthermore, previously if you had an index that was non-numeric (e.g. strings), then a boolean Index would raise a
KeyError. This will now be treated as a boolean indexer.
Previously Behavior:

In [49]: s = pd.Series([1,2,3], index=['a', 'b', 'c'])

In [50]: s
Out[50]:
a 1
b 2
c 3
dtype: int64

In [39]: s.loc[pd.Index([True, False, True])]

KeyError: "None of [Index([True, False, True], dtype='object')] are in the [index]"

Current Behavior

In [51]: s.loc[pd.Index([True, False, True])]

Out[51]:
a 1
c 3
dtype: int64

1.1.2.7 PeriodIndex resampling

In previous versions of pandas, resampling a Series/DataFrame indexed by a PeriodIndex returned a

DatetimeIndex in some cases (GH12884). Resampling to a multiplied frequency now returns a PeriodIndex
(GH15944). As a minor enhancement, resampling a PeriodIndex can now handle NaT values (GH13224)
Previous Behavior:

In [1]: pi = pd.period_range('2017-01', periods=12, freq='M')

In [2]: s = pd.Series(np.arange(12), index=pi)

In [3]: resampled = s.resample('2Q').mean()

In [4]: resampled
Out[4]:
2017-03-31 1.0
2017-09-30 5.5
2018-03-31 10.0
Freq: 2Q-DEC, dtype: float64

In [5]: resampled.index
Out[5]: DatetimeIndex(['2017-03-31', '2017-09-30', '2018-03-31'], dtype=
˓→'datetime64[ns]', freq='2Q-DEC')

New Behavior:

1.1. v0.21.0 (October 27, 2017) 15

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [52]: pi = pd.period_range('2017-01', periods=12, freq='M')

In [53]: s = pd.Series(np.arange(12), index=pi)

In [54]: resampled = s.resample('2Q').mean()

In [55]: resampled
Out[55]:
2017Q1 2.5
2017Q3 8.5
Freq: 2Q-DEC, dtype: float64

In [56]: resampled.index
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[56]:
˓→PeriodIndex(['2017Q1', '2017Q3'], dtype='period[2Q-DEC]', freq='2Q-DEC')

Upsampling and calling .ohlc() previously returned a Series, basically identical to calling .asfreq(). OHLC
upsampling now returns a DataFrame with columns open, high, low and close (GH13083). This is consistent
with downsampling and DatetimeIndex behavior.
Previous Behavior:

In [1]: pi = pd.PeriodIndex(start='2000-01-01', freq='D', periods=10)

In [2]: s = pd.Series(np.arange(10), index=pi)

In [3]: s.resample('H').ohlc()
Out[3]:
2000-01-01 00:00 0.0
...
2000-01-10 23:00 NaN
Freq: H, Length: 240, dtype: float64

In [4]: s.resample('M').ohlc()
Out[4]:
open high low close
2000-01 0 9 0 9

New Behavior:

In [57]: pi = pd.PeriodIndex(start='2000-01-01', freq='D', periods=10)

In [58]: s = pd.Series(np.arange(10), index=pi)

In [59]: s.resample('H').ohlc()
Out[59]:
open high low close
2000-01-01 00:00 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
2000-01-01 01:00 NaN NaN NaN NaN
2000-01-01 02:00 NaN NaN NaN NaN
2000-01-01 03:00 NaN NaN NaN NaN
2000-01-01 04:00 NaN NaN NaN NaN
2000-01-01 05:00 NaN NaN NaN NaN
2000-01-01 06:00 NaN NaN NaN NaN
... ... ... ... ...
2000-01-10 17:00 NaN NaN NaN NaN
2000-01-10 18:00 NaN NaN NaN NaN
2000-01-10 19:00 NaN NaN NaN NaN

16 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

2000-01-10 20:00 NaN NaN NaN NaN

2000-01-10 21:00 NaN NaN NaN NaN
2000-01-10 22:00 NaN NaN NaN NaN
2000-01-10 23:00 NaN NaN NaN NaN

[240 rows x 4 columns]

In [60]: s.resample('M').ohlc()
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

open high low close

2000-01 0 9 0 9

1.1.2.8 Improved error handling during item assignment in pd.eval

eval() will now raise a ValueError when item assignment malfunctions, or inplace operations are specified, but
there is no item assignment in the expression (GH16732)

In [61]: arr = np.array([1, 2, 3])

Previously, if you attempted the following expression, you would get a not very helpful error message:

In [3]: pd.eval("a = 1 + 2", target=arr, inplace=True)

...
IndexError: only integers, slices (`:`), ellipsis (`...`), numpy.newaxis (`None`)
and integer or boolean arrays are valid indices

This is a very long way of saying numpy arrays don’t support string-item indexing. With this change, the error message
is now this:

In [3]: pd.eval("a = 1 + 2", target=arr, inplace=True)

...
ValueError: Cannot assign expression output to target

It also used to be possible to evaluate expressions inplace, even if there was no item assignment:

In [4]: pd.eval("1 + 2", target=arr, inplace=True)

Out[4]: 3

However, this input does not make much sense because the output is not being assigned to the target. Now, a
ValueError will be raised when such an input is passed in:

In [4]: pd.eval("1 + 2", target=arr, inplace=True)

...
ValueError: Cannot operate inplace if there is no assignment

1.1.2.9 Dtype Conversions

Previously assignments, .where() and .fillna() with a bool assignment, would coerce to same the type (e.g.
int / float), or raise for datetimelikes. These will now preserve the bools with object dtypes. (GH16821).

In [62]: s = Series([1, 2, 3])

1.1. v0.21.0 (October 27, 2017) 17

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [5]: s[1] = True

In [6]: s
Out[6]:
0 1
1 1
2 3
dtype: int64

New Behavior

In [63]: s[1] = True

In [64]: s
Out[64]:
0 1
1 True
2 3
dtype: object

Previously, as assignment to a datetimelike with a non-datetimelike would coerce the non-datetime-like item being
assigned (GH14145).

In [65]: s = pd.Series([pd.Timestamp('2011-01-01'), pd.Timestamp('2012-01-01')])

In [1]: s[1] = 1

In [2]: s
Out[2]:
0 2011-01-01 00:00:00.000000000
1 1970-01-01 00:00:00.000000001
dtype: datetime64[ns]

These now coerce to object dtype.

In [66]: s[1] = 1

In [67]: s
Out[67]:
0 2011-01-01 00:00:00
1 1
dtype: object

• Inconsistent behavior in .where() with datetimelikes which would raise rather than coerce to object
(GH16402)
• Bug in assignment against int64 data with np.ndarray with float64 dtype may keep int64 dtype
(GH14001)

1.1.2.10 MultiIndex Constructor with a Single Level

The MultiIndex constructors no longer squeezes a MultiIndex with all length-one levels down to a regular Index.
This affects all the MultiIndex constructors. (GH17178)
Previous behavior:

18 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [2]: pd.MultiIndex.from_tuples([('a',), ('b',)])

Out[2]: Index(['a', 'b'], dtype='object')

Length 1 levels are no longer special-cased. They behave exactly as if you had length 2+ levels, so a MultiIndex
is always returned from all of the MultiIndex constructors:

In [68]: pd.MultiIndex.from_tuples([('a',), ('b',)])

Out[68]:
MultiIndex(levels=[['a', 'b']],
labels=[[0, 1]])

1.1.2.11 UTC Localization with Series

Previously, to_datetime() did not localize datetime Series data when utc=True was passed. Now,
to_datetime() will correctly localize Series with a datetime64[ns, UTC] dtype to be consistent with
how list-like and Index data are handled. (GH6415).
Previous Behavior

In [69]: s = Series(['20130101 00:00:00'] * 3)

In [12]: pd.to_datetime(s, utc=True)

Out[12]:
0 2013-01-01
1 2013-01-01
2 2013-01-01
dtype: datetime64[ns]

New Behavior

In [70]: pd.to_datetime(s, utc=True)

Out[70]:
0 2013-01-01 00:00:00+00:00
1 2013-01-01 00:00:00+00:00
2 2013-01-01 00:00:00+00:00
dtype: datetime64[ns, UTC]

Additionally, DataFrames with datetime columns that were parsed by read_sql_table() and
read_sql_query() will also be localized to UTC only if the original SQL columns were timezone aware
datetime columns.

1.1.2.12 Consistency of Range Functions

In previous versions, there were some inconsistencies between the various range functions: date_range(),
bdate_range(), period_range(), timedelta_range(), and interval_range(). (GH17471).
One of the inconsistent behaviors occurred when the start, end and period parameters were all specified, poten-
tially leading to ambiguous ranges. When all three parameters were passed, interval_range ignored the period
parameter, period_range ignored the end parameter, and the other range functions raised. To promote consistency
among the range functions, and avoid potentially ambiguous ranges, interval_range and period_range will
now raise when all three parameters are passed.
Previous Behavior:

1.1. v0.21.0 (October 27, 2017) 19

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [2]: pd.interval_range(start=0, end=4, periods=6)

Out[2]:
IntervalIndex([(0, 1], (1, 2], (2, 3]]
closed='right',
dtype='interval[int64]')

In [3]: pd.period_range(start='2017Q1', end='2017Q4', periods=6, freq='Q')

Out[3]: PeriodIndex(['2017Q1', '2017Q2', '2017Q3', '2017Q4', '2018Q1', '2018Q2'],
˓→dtype='period[Q-DEC]', freq='Q-DEC')

New Behavior:

In [2]: pd.interval_range(start=0, end=4, periods=6)

---------------------------------------------------------------------------
ValueError: Of the three parameters: start, end, and periods, exactly two must be
˓→specified

In [3]: pd.period_range(start='2017Q1', end='2017Q4', periods=6, freq='Q')

---------------------------------------------------------------------------
ValueError: Of the three parameters: start, end, and periods, exactly two must be
˓→specified

Additionally, the endpoint parameter end was not included in the intervals produced by interval_range. How-
ever, all other range functions include end in their output. To promote consistency among the range functions,
interval_range will now include end as the right endpoint of the final interval, except if freq is specified in a
way which skips end.
Previous Behavior:

In [4]: pd.interval_range(start=0, end=4)

Out[4]:
IntervalIndex([(0, 1], (1, 2], (2, 3]]
closed='right',
dtype='interval[int64]')

New Behavior:

In [71]: pd.interval_range(start=0, end=4)

Out[71]:
IntervalIndex([(0, 1], (1, 2], (2, 3], (3, 4]]
closed='right',
dtype='interval[int64]')

1.1.2.13 Other API Changes

• The Categorical constructor no longer accepts a scalar for the categories keyword. (GH16022)
• Accessing a non-existent attribute on a closed HDFStore will now raise an AttributeError rather than a
ClosedFileError (GH16301)
• read_csv() now issues a UserWarning if the names parameter contains duplicates (GH17095)
• read_csv() now treats 'null' and 'n/a' strings as missing values by default (GH16471, GH16078)
• pandas.HDFStore‘s string representation is now faster and less detailed. For the previous behavior, use
pandas.HDFStore.info(). (GH16503).

20 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Compression defaults in HDF stores now follow pytables standards. Default is no compression and if complib
is missing and complevel > 0 zlib is used (GH15943)
• Index.get_indexer_non_unique() now returns a ndarray indexer rather than an Index; this is con-
sistent with Index.get_indexer() (GH16819)
• Removed the @slow decorator from pandas.util.testing, which caused issues for some downstream
packages’ test suites. Use @pytest.mark.slow instead, which achieves the same thing (GH16850)
• Moved definition of MergeError to the pandas.errors module.
• The signature of Series.set_axis() and DataFrame.set_axis() has been changed from
set_axis(axis, labels) to set_axis(labels, axis=0), for consistency with the rest of the
API. The old signature is deprecated and will show a FutureWarning (GH14636)
• Series.argmin() and Series.argmax() will now raise a TypeError when used with object
dtypes, instead of a ValueError (GH13595)
• Period is now immutable, and will now raise an AttributeError when a user tries to assign a new value
to the ordinal or freq attributes (GH17116).
• to_datetime() when passed a tz-aware origin= kwarg will now raise a more informative ValueError
rather than a TypeError (GH16842)
• to_datetime() now raises a ValueError when format includes %W or %U without also including day of
the week and calendar year (GH16774)
• Renamed non-functional index to index_col in read_stata() to improve API consistency (GH16342)
• Bug in DataFrame.drop() caused boolean labels False and True to be treated as labels 0 and 1 respec-
tively when dropping indices from a numeric index. This will now raise a ValueError (GH16877)
• Restricted DateOffset keyword arguments. Previously, DateOffset subclasses allowed arbitrary keyword
arguments which could lead to unexpected behavior. Now, only valid arguments will be accepted. (GH17176).
• Pandas no longer registers matplotlib converters on import. The converters will be registered and used when the
first plot is draw (GH17710)

1.1.3 Deprecations

• DataFrame.from_csv() and Series.from_csv() have been deprecated in favor of read_csv()

(GH4191)
• read_excel() has deprecated sheetname in favor of sheet_name for consistency with .to_excel()
(GH10559).
• read_excel() has deprecated parse_cols in favor of usecols for consistency with read_csv()
(GH4988)
• read_csv() has deprecated the tupleize_cols argument. Column tuples will always be converted to a
MultiIndex (GH17060)
• DataFrame.to_csv() has deprecated the tupleize_cols argument. Multi-index columns will be al-
ways written as rows in the CSV file (GH17060)
• The convert parameter has been deprecated in the .take() method, as it was not being respected
(GH16948)
• pd.options.html.border has been deprecated in favor of pd.options.display.html.border
(GH15793).
• SeriesGroupBy.nth() has deprecated True in favor of 'all' for its kwarg dropna (GH11038).

1.1. v0.21.0 (October 27, 2017) 21

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• DataFrame.as_blocks() is deprecated, as this is exposing the internal implementation (GH17302)

• pd.TimeGrouper is deprecated in favor of pandas.Grouper (GH16747)
• cdate_range has been deprecated in favor of bdate_range(), which has gained weekmask and
holidays parameters for building custom frequency date ranges. See the documentation for more details
(GH17596)
• passing categories or ordered kwargs to Series.astype() is deprecated, in favor of passing a Cat-
egoricalDtype (GH17636)
• .get_value and .set_value on Series, DataFrame, Panel, SparseSeries, and
SparseDataFrame are deprecated in favor of using .iat[] or .at[] accessors (GH15269)
• Passing a non-existent column in .to_excel(..., columns=) is deprecated and will raise a KeyError
in the future (GH17295)
• raise_on_error parameter to Series.where(), Series.mask(), DataFrame.where(),
DataFrame.mask() is deprecated, in favor of errors= (GH14968)
• Using DataFrame.rename_axis() and Series.rename_axis() to alter index or column labels is
now deprecated in favor of using .rename. rename_axis may still be used to alter the name of the index or
columns (GH17833).
• reindex_axis() has been deprecated in favor of reindex(). See here for more (GH17833).

1.1.3.1 Series.select and DataFrame.select

The Series.select() and DataFrame.select() methods are deprecated in favor of using df.
loc[labels.map(crit)] (GH12401)

In [72]: df = DataFrame({'A': [1, 2, 3]}, index=['foo', 'bar', 'baz'])

In [3]: df.select(lambda x: x in ['bar', 'baz'])

FutureWarning: select is deprecated and will be removed in a future release. You can
˓→use .loc[crit] as a replacement

Out[3]:
A
bar 2
baz 3

In [73]: df.loc[df.index.map(lambda x: x in ['bar', 'baz'])]

Out[73]:
A
bar 2
baz 3

1.1.3.2 Series.argmax and Series.argmin

The behavior of Series.argmax() and Series.argmin() have been deprecated in favor of Series.
idxmax() and Series.idxmin(), respectively (GH16830).
For compatibility with NumPy arrays, pd.Series implements argmax and argmin. Since pandas 0.13.0,
argmax has been an alias for pandas.Series.idxmax(), and argmin has been an alias for pandas.
Series.idxmin(). They return the label of the maximum or minimum, rather than the position.

22 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

We’ve deprecated the current behavior of Series.argmax and Series.argmin. Using either of these will emit
a FutureWarning. Use Series.idxmax() if you want the label of the maximum. Use Series.values.
argmax() if you want the position of the maximum. Likewise for the minimum. In a future release Series.
argmax and Series.argmin will return the position of the maximum or minimum.

1.1.4 Removal of prior version deprecations/changes

• read_excel() has dropped the has_index_names parameter (GH10967)

• The pd.options.display.height configuration has been dropped (GH3663)
• The pd.options.display.line_width configuration has been dropped (GH2881)
• The pd.options.display.mpl_style configuration has been dropped (GH12190)
• Index has dropped the .sym_diff() method in favor of .symmetric_difference() (GH12591)
• Categorical has dropped the .order() and .sort() methods in favor of .sort_values()
(GH12882)
• eval() and DataFrame.eval() have changed the default of inplace from None to False (GH11149)
• The function get_offset_name has been dropped in favor of the .freqstr attribute for an offset
(GH11834)
• pandas no longer tests for compatibility with hdf5-files created with pandas < 0.11 (GH17404).

1.1.5 Performance Improvements

• Improved performance of instantiating SparseDataFrame (GH16773)

• Series.dt no longer performs frequency inference, yielding a large speedup when accessing the attribute
(GH17210)
• Improved performance of set_categories() by not materializing the values (GH17508)
• Timestamp.microsecond no longer re-computes on attribute access (GH17331)
• Improved performance of the CategoricalIndex for data that is already categorical dtype (GH17513)
• Improved performance of RangeIndex.min() and RangeIndex.max() by using RangeIndex prop-
erties to perform the computations (GH17607)

1.1.6 Documentation Changes

• Several NaT method docstrings (e.g. NaT.ctime()) were incorrect (GH17327)

• The documentation has had references to versions < v0.17 removed and cleaned up (GH17442, GH17442,
GH17404 & GH17504)

1.1.7 Bug Fixes

1.1.7.1 Conversion

• Bug in assignment against datetime-like data with int may incorrectly convert to datetime-like (GH14145)
• Bug in assignment against int64 data with np.ndarray with float64 dtype may keep int64 dtype
(GH14001)

1.1. v0.21.0 (October 27, 2017) 23

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Fixed the return type of IntervalIndex.is_non_overlapping_monotonic to be a Python bool

for consistency with similar attributes/methods. Previously returned a numpy.bool_. (GH17237)
• Bug in IntervalIndex.is_non_overlapping_monotonic when intervals are closed on both sides
and overlap at a point (GH16560)
• Bug in Series.fillna() returns frame when inplace=True and value is dict (GH16156)
• Bug in Timestamp.weekday_name returning a UTC-based weekday name when localized to a timezone
(GH17354)
• Bug in Timestamp.replace when replacing tzinfo around DST changes (GH15683)
• Bug in Timedelta construction and arithmetic that would not propagate the Overflow exception (GH17367)
• Bug in astype() converting to object dtype when passed extension type classes (DatetimeTZDtype‘,
CategoricalDtype) rather than instances. Now a TypeError is raised when a class is passed (GH17780).
• Bug in to_numeric() in which elements were not always being coerced to numeric when
errors='coerce' (GH17007, GH17125)
• Bug in DataFrame and Series constructors where range objects are converted to int32 dtype on Win-
dows instead of int64 (GH16804)

1.1.7.2 Indexing

• When called with a null slice (e.g. df.iloc[:]), the .iloc and .loc indexers return a shallow copy of the
original object. Previously they returned the original object. (GH13873).
• When called on an unsorted MultiIndex, the loc indexer now will raise UnsortedIndexError only if
proper slicing is used on non-sorted levels (GH16734).
• Fixes regression in 0.20.3 when indexing with a string on a TimedeltaIndex (GH16896).
• Fixed TimedeltaIndex.get_loc() handling of np.timedelta64 inputs (GH16909).
• Fix MultiIndex.sort_index() ordering when ascending argument is a list, but not all levels are
specified, or are in a different order (GH16934).
• Fixes bug where indexing with np.inf caused an OverflowError to be raised (GH16957)
• Bug in reindexing on an empty CategoricalIndex (GH16770)
• Fixes DataFrame.loc for setting with alignment and tz-aware DatetimeIndex (GH16889)
• Avoids IndexError when passing an Index or Series to .iloc with older numpy (GH17193)
• Allow unicode empty strings as placeholders in multilevel columns in Python 2 (GH17099)
• Bug in .iloc when used with inplace addition or assignment and an int indexer on a MultiIndex causing
the wrong indexes to be read from and written to (GH17148)
• Bug in .isin() in which checking membership in empty Series objects raised an error (GH16991)
• Bug in CategoricalIndex reindexing in which specified indices containing duplicates were not being re-
spected (GH17323)
• Bug in intersection of RangeIndex with negative step (GH17296)
• Bug in IntervalIndex where performing a scalar lookup fails for included right endpoints of non-
overlapping monotonic decreasing indexes (GH16417, GH17271)
• Bug in DataFrame.first_valid_index() and DataFrame.last_valid_index() when no
valid entry (GH17400)

24 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Bug in Series.rename() when called with a callable, incorrectly alters the name of the Series, rather
than the name of the Index. (GH17407)
• Bug in String.str_get() raises IndexError instead of inserting NaNs when using a negative index.
(GH17704)

1.1.7.3 I/O

• Bug in read_hdf() when reading a timezone aware index from fixed format HDFStore (GH17618)
• Bug in read_csv() in which columns were not being thoroughly de-duplicated (GH17060)
• Bug in read_csv() in which specified column names were not being thoroughly de-duplicated (GH17095)
• Bug in read_csv() in which non integer values for the header argument generated an unhelpful / unrelated
error message (GH16338)
• Bug in read_csv() in which memory management issues in exception handling, under certain conditions,
would cause the interpreter to segfault (GH14696, GH16798).
• Bug in read_csv() when called with low_memory=False in which a CSV with at least one column >
2GB in size would incorrectly raise a MemoryError (GH16798).
• Bug in read_csv() when called with a single-element list header would return a DataFrame of all NaN
values (GH7757)
• Bug in DataFrame.to_csv() defaulting to ‘ascii’ encoding in Python 3, instead of ‘utf-8’ (GH17097)
• Bug in read_stata() where value labels could not be read when using an iterator (GH16923)
• Bug in read_stata() where the index was not set (GH16342)
• Bug in read_html() where import check fails when run in multiple threads (GH16928)
• Bug in read_csv() where automatic delimiter detection caused a TypeError to be thrown when a bad line
was encountered rather than the correct error message (GH13374)
• Bug in DataFrame.to_html() with notebook=True where DataFrames with named indices or non-
MultiIndex indices had undesired horizontal or vertical alignment for column or row labels, respectively
(GH16792)
• Bug in DataFrame.to_html() in which there was no validation of the justify parameter (GH17527)
• Bug in HDFStore.select() when reading a contiguous mixed-data table featuring VLArray (GH17021)
• Bug in to_json() where several conditions (including objects with unprintable symbols, objects with deep
recursion, overlong labels) caused segfaults instead of raising the appropriate exception (GH14256)

1.1.7.4 Plotting

• Bug in plotting methods using secondary_y and fontsize not setting secondary axis font size (GH12565)
• Bug when plotting timedelta and datetime dtypes on y-axis (GH16953)
• Line plots no longer assume monotonic x data when calculating xlims, they show the entire lines now even for
unsorted x data. (GH11310, GH11471)
• With matplotlib 2.0.0 and above, calculation of x limits for line plots is left to matplotlib, so that its new default
settings are applied. (GH15495)
• Bug in Series.plot.bar or DataFrame.plot.bar with y not respecting user-passed color
(GH16822)

1.1. v0.21.0 (October 27, 2017) 25

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Bug causing plotting.parallel_coordinates to reset the random seed when using random colors
(GH17525)

1.1.7.5 Groupby/Resample/Rolling

• Bug in DataFrame.resample(...).size() where an empty DataFrame did not return a Series

(GH14962)
• Bug in infer_freq() causing indices with 2-day gaps during the working week to be wrongly inferred as
business daily (GH16624)
• Bug in .rolling(...).quantile() which incorrectly used different defaults than Series.
quantile() and DataFrame.quantile() (GH9413, GH16211)
• Bug in groupby.transform() that would coerce boolean dtypes back to float (GH16875)
• Bug in Series.resample(...).apply() where an empty Series modified the source index and did
not return the name of a Series (GH14313)
• Bug in .rolling(...).apply(...) with a DataFrame with a DatetimeIndex, a window of a
timedelta-convertible and min_periods >= 1 (GH15305)
• Bug in DataFrame.groupby where index and column keys were not recognized correctly when the number
of keys equaled the number of elements on the groupby axis (GH16859)
• Bug in groupby.nunique() with TimeGrouper which cannot handle NaT correctly (GH17575)
• Bug in DataFrame.groupby where a single level selection from a MultiIndex unexpectedly sorts
(GH17537)
• Bug in DataFrame.groupby where spurious warning is raised when Grouper object is used to override
ambiguous column name (GH17383)
• Bug in TimeGrouper differs when passes as a list and as a scalar (GH17530)

1.1.7.6 Sparse

• Bug in SparseSeries raises AttributeError when a dictionary is passed in as data (GH16905)

• Bug in SparseDataFrame.fillna() not filling all NaNs when frame was instantiated from SciPy sparse
matrix (GH16112)
• Bug in SparseSeries.unstack() and SparseDataFrame.stack() (GH16614, GH15045)
• Bug in make_sparse() treating two numeric/boolean data, which have same bits, as same when array dtype
is object (GH17574)
• SparseArray.all() and SparseArray.any() are now implemented to handle SparseArray, these
were used but not implemented (GH17570)

1.1.7.7 Reshaping

• Joining/Merging with a non unique PeriodIndex raised a TypeError (GH16871)

• Bug in crosstab() where non-aligned series of integers were casted to float (GH17005)
• Bug in merging with categorical dtypes with datetimelikes incorrectly raised a TypeError (GH16900)
• Bug when using isin() on a large object series and large comparison array (GH16012)

26 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Fixes regression from 0.20, Series.aggregate() and DataFrame.aggregate() allow dictionaries

as return values again (GH16741)
• Fixes dtype of result with integer dtype input, from pivot_table() when called with margins=True
(GH17013)
• Bug in crosstab() where passing two Series with the same name raised a KeyError (GH13279)
• Series.argmin(), Series.argmax(), and their counterparts on DataFrame and groupby objects
work correctly with floating point data that contains infinite values (GH13595).
• Bug in unique() where checking a tuple of strings raised a TypeError (GH17108)
• Bug in concat() where order of result index was unpredictable if it contained non-comparable elements
(GH17344)
• Fixes regression when sorting by multiple columns on a datetime64 dtype Series with NaT values
(GH16836)
• Bug in pivot_table() where the result’s columns did not preserve the categorical dtype of columns when
dropna was False (GH17842)
• Bug in DataFrame.drop_duplicates where dropping with non-unique column names raised a
ValueError (GH17836)
• Bug in unstack() which, when called on a list of levels, would discard the fillna argument (GH13971)
• Bug in the alignment of range objects and other list-likes with DataFrame leading to operations being
performed row-wise instead of column-wise (GH17901)

1.1.7.8 Numeric

• Bug in .clip() with axis=1 and a list-like for threshold is passed; previously this raised ValueError
(GH15390)
• Series.clip() and DataFrame.clip() now treat NA values for upper and lower arguments as None
instead of raising ValueError (GH17276).

1.1.7.9 Categorical

• Bug in Series.isin() when called with a categorical (GH16639)

• Bug in the categorical constructor with empty values and categories causing the .categories to be an empty
Float64Index rather than an empty Index with object dtype (GH17248)
• Bug in categorical operations with Series.cat not preserving the original Series’ name (GH17509)
• Bug in DataFrame.merge() failing for categorical columns with boolean/int data types (GH17187)
• Bug in constructing a Categorical/CategoricalDtype when the specified categories are of cate-
gorical type (GH17884).

1.1.7.10 PyPy

• Compatibility with PyPy in read_csv() with usecols=[<unsorted ints>] and read_json()

(GH17351)
• Split tests into cases for CPython and PyPy where needed, which highlights the fragility of index matching with
float('nan'), np.nan and NAT (GH17351)

1.1. v0.21.0 (October 27, 2017) 27

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Fix DataFrame.memory_usage() to support PyPy. Objects on PyPy do not have a fixed size, so an
approximation is used instead (GH17228)

1.1.7.11 Other

• Bug where some inplace operators were not being wrapped and produced a copy when invoked (GH12962)
• Bug in eval() where the inplace parameter was being incorrectly handled (GH16732)

1.2 v0.20.3 (July 7, 2017)

This is a minor bug-fix release in the 0.20.x series and includes some small regression fixes and bug fixes. We
recommend that all users upgrade to this version.

What’s new in v0.20.3

• Bug Fixes
– Conversion
– Indexing
– I/O
– Plotting
– Reshaping
– Categorical

1.2.1 Bug Fixes

• Fixed a bug in failing to compute rolling computations of a column-MultiIndexed DataFrame (GH16789,

GH16825)
• Fixed a pytest marker failing downstream packages’ tests suites (GH16680)

1.2.1.1 Conversion

• Bug in pickle compat prior to the v0.20.x series, when UTC is a timezone in a Series/DataFrame/Index
(GH16608)
• Bug in Series construction when passing a Series with dtype='category' (GH16524).
• Bug in DataFrame.astype() when passing a Series as the dtype kwarg. (GH16717).

1.2.1.2 Indexing

• Bug in Float64Index causing an empty array instead of None to be returned from .get(np.nan) on a
Series whose index did not contain any NaN s (GH8569)
• Bug in MultiIndex.isin causing an error when passing an empty iterable (GH16777)
• Fixed a bug in a slicing DataFrame/Series that have a TimedeltaIndex (GH16637)

28 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

1.2.1.3 I/O

• Bug in read_csv() in which files weren’t opened as binary files by the C engine on Windows, causing EOF
characters mid-field, which would fail (GH16039, GH16559, GH16675)
• Bug in read_hdf() in which reading a Series saved to an HDF file in ‘fixed’ format fails when an explicit
mode='r' argument is supplied (GH16583)
• Bug in DataFrame.to_latex() where bold_rows was wrongly specified to be True by default,
whereas in reality row labels remained non-bold whatever parameter provided. (GH16707)
• Fixed an issue with DataFrame.style() where generated element ids were not unique (GH16780)
• Fixed loading a DataFrame with a PeriodIndex, from a format='fixed' HDFStore, in Python 3, that
was written in Python 2 (GH16781)

1.2.1.4 Plotting

• Fixed regression that prevented RGB and RGBA tuples from being used as color arguments (GH16233)
• Fixed an issue with DataFrame.plot.scatter() that incorrectly raised a KeyError when categorical
data is used for plotting (GH16199)

1.2.1.5 Reshaping

• PeriodIndex / TimedeltaIndex.join was missing the sort= kwarg (GH16541)

• Bug in joining on a MultiIndex with a category dtype for a level (GH16627).
• Bug in merge() when merging/joining with multiple categorical columns (GH16767)

1.2.1.6 Categorical

• Bug in DataFrame.sort_values not respecting the kind parameter with categorical data (GH16793)

1.3 v0.20.2 (June 4, 2017)

This is a minor bug-fix release in the 0.20.x series and includes some small regression fixes, bug fixes and performance
improvements. We recommend that all users upgrade to this version.

What’s new in v0.20.2

• Enhancements
• Performance Improvements
• Bug Fixes
– Conversion
– Indexing
– I/O
– Plotting

1.3. v0.20.2 (June 4, 2017) 29

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

– Groupby/Resample/Rolling
– Sparse
– Reshaping
– Numeric
– Categorical
– Other

1.3.1 Enhancements

• Unblocked access to additional compression types supported in pytables: ‘blosc:blosclz, ‘blosc:lz4’,

‘blosc:lz4hc’, ‘blosc:snappy’, ‘blosc:zlib’, ‘blosc:zstd’ (GH14478)
• Series provides a to_latex method (GH16180)
• A new groupby method ngroup(), parallel to the existing cumcount(), has been added to return the group
order (GH11642); see here.

1.3.2 Performance Improvements

• Performance regression fix when indexing with a list-like (GH16285)

• Performance regression fix for MultiIndexes (GH16319, GH16346)
• Improved performance of .clip() with scalar arguments (GH15400)
• Improved performance of groupby with categorical groupers (GH16413)
• Improved performance of MultiIndex.remove_unused_levels() (GH16556)

1.3.3 Bug Fixes

• Silenced a warning on some Windows environments about “tput: terminal attributes: No such device or address”
when detecting the terminal size. This fix only applies to python 3 (GH16496)
• Bug in using pathlib.Path or py.path.local objects with io functions (GH16291)
• Bug in Index.symmetric_difference() on two equal MultiIndex’s, results in a TypeError (:issue
13490)
• Bug in DataFrame.update() with overwrite=False and NaN values (GH15593)
• Passing an invalid engine to read_csv() now raises an informative ValueError rather than
UnboundLocalError. (GH16511)
• Bug in unique() on an array of tuples (GH16519)
• Bug in cut() when labels are set, resulting in incorrect label ordering (GH16459)
• Fixed a compatibility issue with IPython 6.0’s tab completion showing deprecation warnings on
Categoricals (GH16409)

30 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

1.3.3.1 Conversion

• Bug in to_numeric() in which empty data inputs were causing a segfault of the interpreter (GH16302)
• Silence numpy warnings when broadcasting DataFrame to Series with comparison ops (GH16378,
GH16306)

1.3.3.2 Indexing

• Bug in DataFrame.reset_index(level=) with single level index (GH16263)

• Bug in partial string indexing with a monotonic, but not strictly-monotonic, index incorrectly reversing the slice
bounds (GH16515)
• Bug in MultiIndex.remove_unused_levels() that would not return a MultiIndex equal to the
original. (GH16556)

1.3.3.3 I/O

• Bug in read_csv() when comment is passed in a space delimited text file (GH16472)
• Bug in read_csv() not raising an exception with nonexistent columns in usecols when it had the correct
length (GH14671)
• Bug that would force importing of the clipboard routines unnecessarily, potentially causing an import error on
startup (GH16288)
• Bug that raised IndexError when HTML-rendering an empty DataFrame (GH15953)
• Bug in read_csv() in which tarfile object inputs were raising an error in Python 2.x for the C engine
(GH16530)
• Bug where DataFrame.to_html() ignored the index_names parameter (GH16493)
• Bug where pd.read_hdf() returns numpy strings for index names (GH13492)
• Bug in HDFStore.select_as_multiple() where start/stop arguments were not respected (GH16209)

1.3.3.4 Plotting

• Bug in DataFrame.plot with a single column and a list-like color (GH3486)

• Bug in plot where NaT in DatetimeIndex results in Timestamp.min (:issue: 12405)
• Bug in DataFrame.boxplot where figsize keyword was not respected for non-grouped boxplots
(GH11959)

1.3.3.5 Groupby/Resample/Rolling

• Bug in creating a time-based rolling window on an empty DataFrame (GH15819)

• Bug in rolling.cov() with offset window (GH16058)
• Bug in .resample() and .groupby() when aggregating on integers (GH16361)

1.3. v0.20.2 (June 4, 2017) 31

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

1.3.3.6 Sparse

• Bug in construction of SparseDataFrame from scipy.sparse.dok_matrix (GH16179)

1.3.3.7 Reshaping

• Bug in DataFrame.stack with unsorted levels in MultiIndex columns (GH16323)

• Bug in pd.wide_to_long() where no error was raised when i was not a unique identifier (GH16382)
• Bug in Series.isin(..) with a list of tuples (GH16394)
• Bug in construction of a DataFrame with mixed dtypes including an all-NaT column. (GH16395)
• Bug in DataFrame.agg() and Series.agg() with aggregating on non-callable attributes (GH16405)

1.3.3.8 Numeric

• Bug in .interpolate(), where limit_direction was not respected when limit=None (default)
was passed (GH16282)

1.3.3.9 Categorical

• Fixed comparison operations considering the order of the categories when both categoricals are unordered
(GH16014)

1.3.3.10 Other

• Bug in DataFrame.drop() with an empty-list with non-unique indices (GH16270)

1.4 v0.20.1 (May 5, 2017)

This is a major release from 0.19.2 and includes a number of API changes, deprecations, new features, enhancements,
and performance improvements along with a large number of bug fixes. We recommend that all users upgrade to this
version.
Highlights include:
• New .agg() API for Series/DataFrame similar to the groupby-rolling-resample API’s, see here
• Integration with the feather-format, including a new top-level pd.read_feather() and
DataFrame.to_feather() method, see here.
• The .ix indexer has been deprecated, see here
• Panel has been deprecated, see here
• Addition of an IntervalIndex and Interval scalar type, see here
• Improved user API when grouping by index levels in .groupby(), see here
• Improved support for UInt64 dtypes, see here
• A new orient for JSON serialization, orient='table', that uses the Table Schema spec and that gives the
possibility for a more interactive repr in the Jupyter Notebook, see here

32 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Experimental support for exporting styled DataFrames (DataFrame.style) to Excel, see here
• Window binary corr/cov operations now return a MultiIndexed DataFrame rather than a Panel, as Panel is
now deprecated, see here
• Support for S3 handling now uses s3fs, see here
• Google BigQuery support now uses the pandas-gbq library, see here

Warning: Pandas has changed the internal structure and layout of the codebase. This can affect imports that are
not from the top-level pandas.* namespace, please see the changes here.

Check the API Changes and deprecations before updating.

Note: This is a combined release for 0.20.0 and and 0.20.1. Version 0.20.1 contains one additional change for
backwards-compatibility with downstream projects using pandas’ utils routines. (GH16250)

What’s new in v0.20.0

• New features
– agg API for DataFrame/Series
– dtype keyword for data IO
– .to_datetime() has gained an origin parameter
– Groupby Enhancements
– Better support for compressed URLs in read_csv
– Pickle file I/O now supports compression
– UInt64 Support Improved
– GroupBy on Categoricals
– Table Schema Output
– SciPy sparse matrix from/to SparseDataFrame
– Excel output for styled DataFrames
– IntervalIndex
– Other Enhancements
• Backwards incompatible API changes
– Possible incompatibility for HDF5 formats created with pandas < 0.13.0
– Map on Index types now return other Index types
– Accessing datetime fields of Index now return Index
– pd.unique will now be consistent with extension types
– S3 File Handling
– Partial String Indexing Changes
– Concat of different float dtypes will not automatically upcast

1.4. v0.20.1 (May 5, 2017) 33

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

– Pandas Google BigQuery support has moved

– Memory Usage for Index is more Accurate
– DataFrame.sort_index changes
– Groupby Describe Formatting
– Window Binary Corr/Cov operations return a MultiIndex DataFrame
– HDFStore where string comparison
– Index.intersection and inner join now preserve the order of the left Index
– Pivot Table always returns a DataFrame
– Other API Changes
• Reorganization of the library: Privacy Changes
– Modules Privacy Has Changed
– pandas.errors
– pandas.testing
– pandas.plotting
– Other Development Changes
• Deprecations
– Deprecate .ix
– Deprecate Panel
– Deprecate groupby.agg() with a dictionary when renaming
– Deprecate .plotting
– Other Deprecations
• Removal of prior version deprecations/changes
• Performance Improvements
• Bug Fixes
– Conversion
– Indexing
– I/O
– Plotting
– Groupby/Resample/Rolling
– Sparse
– Reshaping
– Numeric
– Other

34 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

1.4.1 New features

1.4.1.1 agg API for DataFrame/Series

Series & DataFrame have been enhanced to support the aggregation API. This is a familiar API from groupby,
window operations, and resampling. This allows aggregation operations in a concise way by using agg() and
transform(). The full documentation is here (GH1623).
Here is a sample

In [1]: df = pd.DataFrame(np.random.randn(10, 3), columns=['A', 'B', 'C'],

...: index=pd.date_range('1/1/2000', periods=10))
...:

In [2]: df.iloc[3:7] = np.nan

In [3]: df
Out[3]:
A B C
2000-01-01 0.665719 0.234544 -0.497107
2000-01-02 0.603650 0.567011 -0.994009
2000-01-03 -2.230893 -1.635263 0.357573
2000-01-04 NaN NaN NaN
2000-01-05 NaN NaN NaN
2000-01-06 NaN NaN NaN
2000-01-07 NaN NaN NaN
2000-01-08 1.667624 1.619575 -0.948507
2000-01-09 -0.360596 1.412609 -0.398833
2000-01-10 -2.429301 -0.645124 -0.102111

One can operate using string function names, callables, lists, or dictionaries of these.
Using a single function is equivalent to .apply.

In [4]: df.agg('sum')
Out[4]:
A -2.083797
B 1.553352
C -2.582995
dtype: float64

Multiple aggregations with a list of functions.

In [5]: df.agg(['sum', 'min'])

Out[5]:
A B C
sum -2.083797 1.553352 -2.582995
min -2.429301 -1.635263 -0.994009

Using a dict provides the ability to apply specific aggregations per column. You will get a matrix-like output of all of
the aggregators. The output has one column per unique function. Those functions applied to a particular column will
be NaN:

In [6]: df.agg({'A' : ['sum', 'min'], 'B' : ['min', 'max']})

Out[6]:
A B
max NaN 1.619575

1.4. v0.20.1 (May 5, 2017) 35

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

min -2.429301 -1.635263

sum -2.083797 NaN

The API also supports a .transform() function for broadcasting results.

In [7]: df.transform(['abs', lambda x: x - x.min()])
Out[7]:
A B C
abs <lambda> abs <lambda> abs <lambda>
2000-01-01 0.665719 3.095020 0.234544 1.869807 0.497107 0.496902
2000-01-02 0.603650 3.032952 0.567011 2.202274 0.994009 0.000000
2000-01-03 2.230893 0.198409 1.635263 0.000000 0.357573 1.351583
2000-01-04 NaN NaN NaN NaN NaN NaN
2000-01-05 NaN NaN NaN NaN NaN NaN
2000-01-06 NaN NaN NaN NaN NaN NaN
2000-01-07 NaN NaN NaN NaN NaN NaN
2000-01-08 1.667624 4.096925 1.619575 3.254838 0.948507 0.045502
2000-01-09 0.360596 2.068705 1.412609 3.047871 0.398833 0.595176
2000-01-10 2.429301 0.000000 0.645124 0.990138 0.102111 0.891898

When presented with mixed dtypes that cannot be aggregated, .agg() will only take the valid aggregations. This is
similiar to how groupby .agg() works. (GH15015)
In [8]: df = pd.DataFrame({'A': [1, 2, 3],
...: 'B': [1., 2., 3.],
...: 'C': ['foo', 'bar', 'baz'],
...: 'D': pd.date_range('20130101', periods=3)})
...:

In [9]: df.dtypes
Out[9]:
A int64
B float64
C object
D datetime64[ns]
dtype: object

In [10]: df.agg(['min', 'sum'])

Out[10]:
A B C D
min 1 1.0 bar 2013-01-01
sum 6 6.0 foobarbaz NaT

1.4.1.2 dtype keyword for data IO

The 'python' engine for read_csv(), as well as the read_fwf() function for parsing fixed-width text files
and read_excel() for parsing Excel files, now accept the dtype keyword argument for specifying the types of
specific columns (GH14295). See the io docs for more information.
In [11]: data = "a b\n1 2\n3 4"

In [12]: pd.read_fwf(StringIO(data)).dtypes
Out[12]:
a int64
b int64
dtype: object

36 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [13]: pd.read_fwf(StringIO(data), dtype={'a':'float64', 'b':'object'}).dtypes

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[13]:
a float64
b object
dtype: object

1.4.1.3 .to_datetime() has gained an origin parameter

to_datetime() has gained a new parameter, origin, to define a reference date from where to compute the
resulting timestamps when parsing numerical values with a specific unit specified. (GH11276, GH11745)
For example, with 1960-01-01 as the starting date:
In [14]: pd.to_datetime([1, 2, 3], unit='D', origin=pd.Timestamp('1960-01-01'))
Out[14]: DatetimeIndex(['1960-01-02', '1960-01-03', '1960-01-04'], dtype=
˓→'datetime64[ns]', freq=None)

The default is set at origin='unix', which defaults to 1970-01-01 00:00:00, which is commonly called
‘unix epoch’ or POSIX time. This was the previous default, so this is a backward compatible change.
In [15]: pd.to_datetime([1, 2, 3], unit='D')
Out[15]: DatetimeIndex(['1970-01-02', '1970-01-03', '1970-01-04'], dtype=
˓→'datetime64[ns]', freq=None)

1.4.1.4 Groupby Enhancements

Strings passed to DataFrame.groupby() as the by parameter may now reference either column names or index
level names. Previously, only column names could be referenced. This allows to easily group by a column and index
level at the same time. (GH5677)
In [16]: arrays = [['bar', 'bar', 'baz', 'baz', 'foo', 'foo', 'qux', 'qux'],
....: ['one', 'two', 'one', 'two', 'one', 'two', 'one', 'two']]
....:

In [17]: index = pd.MultiIndex.from_arrays(arrays, names=['first', 'second'])

In [18]: df = pd.DataFrame({'A': [1, 1, 1, 1, 2, 2, 3, 3],

....: 'B': np.arange(8)},
....: index=index)
....:

In [19]: df
Out[19]:
A B
first second
bar one 1 0
two 1 1
baz one 1 2
two 1 3
foo one 2 4
two 2 5
qux one 3 6
two 3 7

1.4. v0.20.1 (May 5, 2017) 37

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [20]: df.groupby(['second', 'A']).sum()

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

B
second A
one 1 2
2 4
3 6
two 1 4
2 5
3 7

1.4.1.5 Better support for compressed URLs in read_csv

The compression code was refactored (GH12688). As a result, reading dataframes from URLs in read_csv() or
read_table() now supports additional compression methods: xz, bz2, and zip (GH14570). Previously, only
gzip compression was supported. By default, compression of URLs and paths are now inferred using their file
extensions. Additionally, support for bz2 compression in the python 2 C-engine improved (GH14874).

In [21]: url = 'https://github.com/{repo}/raw/{branch}/{path}'.format(

....: repo = 'pandas-dev/pandas',
....: branch = 'master',
....: path = 'pandas/tests/io/parser/data/salaries.csv.bz2',
....: )
....:

In [22]: df = pd.read_table(url, compression='infer') # default, infer compression

In [23]: df = pd.read_table(url, compression='bz2') # explicitly specify compression

In [24]: df.head(2)
Out[24]:
S X E M
0 13876 1 1 1
1 11608 1 3 0

1.4.1.6 Pickle file I/O now supports compression

read_pickle(), DataFrame.to_pickle() and Series.to_pickle() can now read from and write to
compressed pickle files. Compression methods can be an explicit parameter or be inferred from the file extension. See
the docs here.

In [25]: df = pd.DataFrame({
....: 'A': np.random.randn(1000),
....: 'B': 'foo',
....: 'C': pd.date_range('20130101', periods=1000, freq='s')})
....:

Using an explicit compression type

In [26]: df.to_pickle("data.pkl.compress", compression="gzip")

In [27]: rt = pd.read_pickle("data.pkl.compress", compression="gzip")

38 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [28]: rt.head()
Out[28]:
A B C
0 0.804438 foo 2013-01-01 00:00:00
1 -0.000818 foo 2013-01-01 00:00:01
2 -1.084383 foo 2013-01-01 00:00:02
3 1.776343 foo 2013-01-01 00:00:03
4 0.884521 foo 2013-01-01 00:00:04

The default is to infer the compression type from the extension (compression='infer'):

In [29]: df.to_pickle("data.pkl.gz")

In [30]: rt = pd.read_pickle("data.pkl.gz")

In [31]: rt.head()
Out[31]:
A B C
0 0.804438 foo 2013-01-01 00:00:00
1 -0.000818 foo 2013-01-01 00:00:01
2 -1.084383 foo 2013-01-01 00:00:02
3 1.776343 foo 2013-01-01 00:00:03
4 0.884521 foo 2013-01-01 00:00:04

In [32]: df["A"].to_pickle("s1.pkl.bz2")

In [33]: rt = pd.read_pickle("s1.pkl.bz2")

In [34]: rt.head()
Out[34]:
0 0.804438
1 -0.000818
2 -1.084383
3 1.776343
4 0.884521
Name: A, dtype: float64

1.4.1.7 UInt64 Support Improved

Pandas has significantly improved support for operations involving unsigned, or purely non-negative, integers. Pre-
viously, handling these integers would result in improper rounding or data-type casting, leading to incorrect results.
Notably, a new numerical index, UInt64Index, has been created (GH14937)

In [35]: idx = pd.UInt64Index([1, 2, 3])

In [36]: df = pd.DataFrame({'A': ['a', 'b', 'c']}, index=idx)

In [37]: df.index
Out[37]: UInt64Index([1, 2, 3], dtype='uint64')

• Bug in converting object elements of array-like objects to unsigned 64-bit integers (GH4471, GH14982)
• Bug in Series.unique() in which unsigned 64-bit integers were causing overflow (GH14721)
• Bug in DataFrame construction in which unsigned 64-bit integer elements were being converted to objects
(GH14881)

1.4. v0.20.1 (May 5, 2017) 39

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Bug in pd.read_csv() in which unsigned 64-bit integer elements were being improperly converted to the
wrong data types (GH14983)
• Bug in pd.unique() in which unsigned 64-bit integers were causing overflow (GH14915)
• Bug in pd.value_counts() in which unsigned 64-bit integers were being erroneously truncated in the
output (GH14934)

1.4.1.8 GroupBy on Categoricals

In previous versions, .groupby(..., sort=False) would fail with a ValueError when grouping on a cat-
egorical series with some categories not appearing in the data. (GH13179)
In [38]: chromosomes = np.r_[np.arange(1, 23).astype(str), ['X', 'Y']]

In [39]: df = pd.DataFrame({
....: 'A': np.random.randint(100),
....: 'B': np.random.randint(100),
....: 'C': np.random.randint(100),
....: 'chromosomes': pd.Categorical(np.random.choice(chromosomes, 100),
....: categories=chromosomes,
....: ordered=True)})
....:

In [40]: df
Out[40]:
A B C chromosomes
0 61 79 43 17
1 61 79 43 11
2 61 79 43 8
3 61 79 43 17
4 61 79 43 14
5 61 79 43 14
6 61 79 43 X
.. .. .. .. ...
93 61 79 43 1
94 61 79 43 1
95 61 79 43 6
96 61 79 43 11
97 61 79 43 13
98 61 79 43 3
99 61 79 43 8

[100 rows x 4 columns]

Previous Behavior:
In [3]: df[df.chromosomes != '1'].groupby('chromosomes', sort=False).sum()
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
ValueError: items in new_categories are not the same as in old categories

New Behavior:
In [41]: df[df.chromosomes != '1'].groupby('chromosomes', sort=False).sum()
Out[41]:
A B C
chromosomes
2 305.0 395.0 215.0

40 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

3 61.0 79.0 43.0

4 244.0 316.0 172.0
5 366.0 474.0 258.0
6 305.0 395.0 215.0
7 244.0 316.0 172.0
8 305.0 395.0 215.0
... ... ... ...
19 305.0 395.0 215.0
20 122.0 158.0 86.0
22 366.0 474.0 258.0
X 244.0 316.0 172.0
Y 183.0 237.0 129.0
1 NaN NaN NaN
21 NaN NaN NaN

[24 rows x 3 columns]

1.4.1.9 Table Schema Output

The new orient 'table' for DataFrame.to_json() will generate a Table Schema compatible string represen-
tation of the data.

In [42]: df = pd.DataFrame(
....: {'A': [1, 2, 3],
....: 'B': ['a', 'b', 'c'],
....: 'C': pd.date_range('2016-01-01', freq='d', periods=3),
....: }, index=pd.Index(range(3), name='idx'))
....:

In [43]: df
Out[43]:
A B C
idx
0 1 a 2016-01-01
1 2 b 2016-01-02
2 3 c 2016-01-03

In [44]: df.to_json(orient='table')
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→'{"schema": {"fields":[{"name":"idx","type":"integer"},{"name":"A","type":"integer"}

˓→,{"name":"B","type":"string"},{"name":"C","type":"datetime"}],"primaryKey":["idx"],

˓→"pandas_version":"0.20.0"}, "data": [{"idx":0,"A":1,"B":"a","C":"2016-01-

˓→01T00:00:00.000Z"},{"idx":1,"A":2,"B":"b","C":"2016-01-02T00:00:00.000Z"},{"idx":2,

˓→"A":3,"B":"c","C":"2016-01-03T00:00:00.000Z"}]}'

See IO: Table Schema for more information.

Additionally, the repr for DataFrame and Series can now publish this JSON Table schema representation of the
Series or DataFrame if you are using IPython (or another frontend like nteract using the Jupyter messaging protocol).
This gives frontends like the Jupyter notebook and nteract more flexiblity in how they display pandas objects, since
they have more information about the data. You must enable this by setting the display.html.table_schema
option to True.

1.4. v0.20.1 (May 5, 2017) 41

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

1.4.1.10 SciPy sparse matrix from/to SparseDataFrame

Pandas now supports creating sparse dataframes directly from scipy.sparse.spmatrix instances. See the doc-
umentation for more information. (GH4343)
All sparse formats are supported, but matrices that are not in COOrdinate format will be converted, copying data as
needed.

In [45]: from scipy.sparse import csr_matrix

In [46]: arr = np.random.random(size=(1000, 5))

In [47]: arr[arr < .9] = 0

In [48]: sp_arr = csr_matrix(arr)

In [49]: sp_arr
Out[49]:
<1000x5 sparse matrix of type '<class 'numpy.float64'>'
with 521 stored elements in Compressed Sparse Row format>

In [50]: sdf = pd.SparseDataFrame(sp_arr)

In [51]: sdf
Out[51]:
0 1 2 3 4
0 NaN NaN NaN NaN NaN
1 NaN NaN NaN 0.999681 NaN
2 0.989621 NaN NaN NaN NaN
3 NaN 0.986495 NaN NaN NaN
4 NaN NaN NaN NaN 0.990083
5 NaN NaN 0.987794 NaN NaN
6 NaN NaN NaN NaN NaN
.. ... ... ... ... ...
993 0.936109 NaN NaN NaN NaN
994 NaN NaN NaN NaN NaN
995 NaN NaN NaN NaN 0.981932
996 NaN 0.985932 NaN 0.967058 NaN
997 NaN NaN NaN NaN NaN
998 NaN NaN NaN NaN NaN
999 NaN NaN NaN NaN NaN

[1000 rows x 5 columns]

To convert a SparseDataFrame back to sparse SciPy matrix in COO format, you can use:

In [52]: sdf.to_coo()
Out[52]:
<1000x5 sparse matrix of type '<class 'numpy.float64'>'
with 521 stored elements in COOrdinate format>

1.4.1.11 Excel output for styled DataFrames

Experimental support has been added to export DataFrame.style formats to Excel using the openpyxl engine.
(GH15530)
For example, after running the following, styled.xlsx renders as below:

42 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [53]: np.random.seed(24)

In [54]: df = pd.DataFrame({'A': np.linspace(1, 10, 10)})

In [55]: df = pd.concat([df, pd.DataFrame(np.random.RandomState(24).randn(10, 4),

....: columns=list('BCDE'))],
....: axis=1)
....:

In [56]: df.iloc[0, 2] = np.nan

In [57]: df
Out[57]:
A B C D E
0 1.0 1.329212 NaN -0.316280 -0.990810
1 2.0 -1.070816 -1.438713 0.564417 0.295722
2 3.0 -1.626404 0.219565 0.678805 1.889273
3 4.0 0.961538 0.104011 -0.481165 0.850229
4 5.0 1.453425 1.057737 0.165562 0.515018
5 6.0 -1.336936 0.562861 1.392855 -0.063328
6 7.0 0.121668 1.207603 -0.002040 1.627796
7 8.0 0.354493 1.037528 -0.385684 0.519818
8 9.0 1.686583 -1.325963 1.428984 -2.089354
9 10.0 -0.129820 0.631523 -0.586538 0.290720

In [58]: styled = df.style.\

....: applymap(lambda val: 'color: %s' % 'red' if val < 0 else 'black').\
....: highlight_max()
....:

In [59]: styled.to_excel('styled.xlsx', engine='openpyxl')

See the Style documentation for more detail.

1.4. v0.20.1 (May 5, 2017) 43

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

1.4.1.12 IntervalIndex

pandas has gained an IntervalIndex with its own dtype, interval as well as the Interval scalar type. These
allow first-class support for interval notation, specifically as a return type for the categories in cut() and qcut().
The IntervalIndex allows some unique indexing, see the docs. (GH7640, GH8625)

Warning: These indexing behaviors of the IntervalIndex are provisional and may change in a future version of
pandas. Feedback on usage is welcome.

Previous behavior:
The returned categories were strings, representing Intervals

In [1]: c = pd.cut(range(4), bins=2)

In [2]: c
Out[2]:
[(-0.003, 1.5], (-0.003, 1.5], (1.5, 3], (1.5, 3]]
Categories (2, object): [(-0.003, 1.5] < (1.5, 3]]

In [3]: c.categories
Out[3]: Index(['(-0.003, 1.5]', '(1.5, 3]'], dtype='object')

New behavior:

In [60]: c = pd.cut(range(4), bins=2)

In [61]: c
Out[61]:
[(-0.003, 1.5], (-0.003, 1.5], (1.5, 3.0], (1.5, 3.0]]
Categories (2, interval[float64]): [(-0.003, 1.5] < (1.5, 3.0]]

In [62]: c.categories
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

IntervalIndex([(-0.003, 1.5], (1.5, 3.0]]

closed='right',
dtype='interval[float64]')

Furthermore, this allows one to bin other data with these same bins, with NaN representing a missing value similar to
other dtypes.

In [63]: pd.cut([0, 3, 5, 1], bins=c.categories)

Out[63]:
[(-0.003, 1.5], (1.5, 3.0], NaN, (-0.003, 1.5]]
Categories (2, interval[float64]): [(-0.003, 1.5] < (1.5, 3.0]]

An IntervalIndex can also be used in Series and DataFrame as the index.

In [64]: df = pd.DataFrame({'A': range(4),

....: 'B': pd.cut([0, 3, 1, 1], bins=c.categories)}
....: ).set_index('B')
....:

In [65]: df
Out[65]:

44 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

A
B
(-0.003, 1.5] 0
(1.5, 3.0] 1
(-0.003, 1.5] 2
(-0.003, 1.5] 3

Selecting via a specific interval:

In [66]: df.loc[pd.Interval(1.5, 3.0)]
Out[66]:
A 1
Name: (1.5, 3.0], dtype: int64

Selecting via a scalar value that is contained in the intervals.

In [67]: df.loc[0]
Out[67]:
A
B
(-0.003, 1.5] 0
(-0.003, 1.5] 2
(-0.003, 1.5] 3

1.4.1.13 Other Enhancements

• DataFrame.rolling() now accepts the parameter closed='right'|'left'|'both'|'neither'

to choose the rolling window-endpoint closedness. See the documentation (GH13965)
• Integration with the feather-format, including a new top-level pd.read_feather() and
DataFrame.to_feather() method, see here.
• Series.str.replace() now accepts a callable, as replacement, which is passed to re.sub (GH15055)
• Series.str.replace() now accepts a compiled regular expression as a pattern (GH15446)
• Series.sort_index accepts parameters kind and na_position (GH13589, GH14444)
• DataFrame and DataFrame.groupby() have gained a nunique() method to count the distinct values
over an axis (GH14336, GH15197).
• DataFrame has gained a melt() method, equivalent to pd.melt(), for unpivoting from a wide to long
format (GH12640).
• pd.read_excel() now preserves sheet order when using sheetname=None (GH9930)
• Multiple offset aliases with decimal points are now supported (e.g. 0.5min is parsed as 30s) (GH8419)
• .isnull() and .notnull() have been added to Index object to make them more consistent with the
Series API (GH15300)
• New UnsortedIndexError (subclass of KeyError) raised when indexing/slicing into an unsorted Mul-
tiIndex (GH11897). This allows differentiation between errors due to lack of sorting or an incorrect key. See
here
• MultiIndex has gained a .to_frame() method to convert to a DataFrame (GH12397)
• pd.cut and pd.qcut now support datetime64 and timedelta64 dtypes (GH14714, GH14798)
• pd.qcut has gained the duplicates='raise'|'drop' option to control whether to raise on duplicated
edges (GH7751)

1.4. v0.20.1 (May 5, 2017) 45

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Series provides a to_excel method to output Excel files (GH8825)

• The usecols argument in pd.read_csv() now accepts a callable function as a value (GH14154)
• The skiprows argument in pd.read_csv() now accepts a callable function as a value (GH10882)
• The nrows and chunksize arguments in pd.read_csv() are supported if both are passed (GH6774,
GH15755)
• DataFrame.plot now prints a title above each subplot if suplots=True and title is a list of strings
(GH14753)
• DataFrame.plot can pass the matplotlib 2.0 default color cycle as a single string as color parameter, see
here. (GH15516)
• Series.interpolate() now supports timedelta as an index type with method='time' (GH6424)
• Addition of a level keyword to DataFrame/Series.rename to rename labels in the specified level of a
MultiIndex (GH4160).
• DataFrame.reset_index() will now interpret a tuple index.name as a key spanning across levels of
columns, if this is a MultiIndex (GH16164)
• Timedelta.isoformat method added for formatting Timedeltas as an ISO 8601 duration. See the
Timedelta docs (GH15136)
• .select_dtypes() now allows the string datetimetz to generically select datetimes with tz (GH14910)
• The .to_latex() method will now accept multicolumn and multirow arguments to use the accompa-
nying LaTeX enhancements
• pd.merge_asof() gained the option direction='backward'|'forward'|'nearest'
(GH14887)
• Series/DataFrame.asfreq() have gained a fill_value parameter, to fill missing values (GH3715).
• Series/DataFrame.resample.asfreq have gained a fill_value parameter, to fill missing values
during resampling (GH3715).
• pandas.util.hash_pandas_object() has gained the ability to hash a MultiIndex (GH15224)
• Series/DataFrame.squeeze() have gained the axis parameter. (GH15339)
• DataFrame.to_excel() has a new freeze_panes parameter to turn on Freeze Panes when exporting
to Excel (GH15160)
• pd.read_html() will parse multiple header rows, creating a MutliIndex header. (GH13434).
• HTML table output skips colspan or rowspan attribute if equal to 1. (GH15403)
• pandas.io.formats.style.Styler template now has blocks for easier extension, see the example
notebook (GH15649)
• Styler.render() now accepts **kwargs to allow user-defined variables in the template (GH15649)
• Compatibility with Jupyter notebook 5.0; MultiIndex column labels are left-aligned and MultiIndex row-labels
are top-aligned (GH15379)
• TimedeltaIndex now has a custom date-tick formatter specifically designed for nanosecond level precision
(GH8711)
• pd.api.types.union_categoricals gained the ignore_ordered argument to allow ignoring the
ordered attribute of unioned categoricals (GH13410). See the categorical union docs for more information.
• DataFrame.to_latex() and DataFrame.to_string() now allow optional header aliases.
(GH15536)

46 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Re-enable the parse_dates keyword of pd.read_excel() to parse string columns as dates (GH14326)
• Added .empty property to subclasses of Index. (GH15270)
• Enabled floor division for Timedelta and TimedeltaIndex (GH15828)
• pandas.io.json.json_normalize() gained the option errors='ignore'|'raise'; the default
is errors='raise' which is backward compatible. (GH14583)
• pandas.io.json.json_normalize() with an empty list will return an empty DataFrame
(GH15534)
• pandas.io.json.json_normalize() has gained a sep option that accepts str to separate joined
fields; the default is ”.”, which is backward compatible. (GH14883)
• MultiIndex.remove_unused_levels() has been added to facilitate removing unused levels.
(GH15694)
• pd.read_csv() will now raise a ParserError error whenever any parsing error occurs (GH15913,
GH15925)
• pd.read_csv() now supports the error_bad_lines and warn_bad_lines arguments for the Python
parser (GH15925)
• The display.show_dimensions option can now also be used to specify whether the length of a Series
should be shown in its repr (GH7117).
• parallel_coordinates() has gained a sort_labels keyword argument that sorts class labels and the
colors assigned to them (GH15908)
• Options added to allow one to turn on/off using bottleneck and numexpr, see here (GH16157)
• DataFrame.style.bar() now accepts two more options to further customize the bar chart. Bar alignment
is set with align='left'|'mid'|'zero', the default is “left”, which is backward compatible; You can
now pass a list of color=[color_negative, color_positive]. (GH14757)

1.4.2 Backwards incompatible API changes

1.4.2.1 Possible incompatibility for HDF5 formats created with pandas < 0.13.0

pd.TimeSeries was deprecated officially in 0.17.0, though has already been an alias since 0.13.0. It has been
dropped in favor of pd.Series. (GH15098).
This may cause HDF5 files that were created in prior versions to become unreadable if pd.TimeSeries was used.
This is most likely to be for pandas < 0.13.0. If you find yourself in this situation. You can use a recent prior version
of pandas to read in your HDF5 files, then write them out again after applying the procedure below.

In [2]: s = pd.TimeSeries([1,2,3], index=pd.date_range('20130101', periods=3))

In [3]: s
Out[3]:
2013-01-01 1
2013-01-02 2
2013-01-03 3
Freq: D, dtype: int64

In [4]: type(s)
Out[4]: pandas.core.series.TimeSeries

In [5]: s = pd.Series(s)

1.4. v0.20.1 (May 5, 2017) 47

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [6]: s
Out[6]:
2013-01-01 1
2013-01-02 2
2013-01-03 3
Freq: D, dtype: int64

In [7]: type(s)
Out[7]: pandas.core.series.Series

1.4.2.2 Map on Index types now return other Index types

map on an Index now returns an Index, not a numpy array (GH12766)

In [68]: idx = Index([1, 2])

In [69]: idx
Out[69]: Int64Index([1, 2], dtype='int64')

In [70]: mi = MultiIndex.from_tuples([(1, 2), (2, 4)])

In [71]: mi
Out[71]:
MultiIndex(levels=[[1, 2], [2, 4]],
labels=[[0, 1], [0, 1]])

Previous Behavior:

In [5]: idx.map(lambda x: x * 2)
Out[5]: array([2, 4])

In [6]: idx.map(lambda x: (x, x * 2))

Out[6]: array([(1, 2), (2, 4)], dtype=object)

In [7]: mi.map(lambda x: x)
Out[7]: array([(1, 2), (2, 4)], dtype=object)

In [8]: mi.map(lambda x: x[0])

Out[8]: array([1, 2])

New Behavior:

In [72]: idx.map(lambda x: x * 2)
Out[72]: Int64Index([2, 4], dtype='int64')

In [73]: idx.map(lambda x: (x, x * 2))

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[73]:
MultiIndex(levels=[[1, 2], [2, 4]],
labels=[[0, 1], [0, 1]])

In [74]: mi.map(lambda x: x)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

MultiIndex(levels=[[1, 2], [2, 4]],

labels=[[0, 1], [0, 1]])

48 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [75]: mi.map(lambda x: x[0])

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→Int64Index([1, 2], dtype='int64')

map on a Series with datetime64 values may return int64 dtypes rather than int32

In [76]: s = Series(date_range('2011-01-02T00:00', '2011-01-02T02:00', freq='H').tz_

˓→localize('Asia/Tokyo'))

In [77]: s
Out[77]:
0 2011-01-02 00:00:00+09:00
1 2011-01-02 01:00:00+09:00
2 2011-01-02 02:00:00+09:00
dtype: datetime64[ns, Asia/Tokyo]

Previous Behavior:

In [9]: s.map(lambda x: x.hour)

Out[9]:
0 0
1 1
2 2
dtype: int32

New Behavior:

In [78]: s.map(lambda x: x.hour)

Out[78]:
0 0
1 1
2 2
dtype: int64

1.4.2.3 Accessing datetime fields of Index now return Index

The datetime-related attributes (see here for an overview) of DatetimeIndex, PeriodIndex and
TimedeltaIndex previously returned numpy arrays. They will now return a new Index object, except in the
case of a boolean field, where the result will still be a boolean ndarray. (GH15022)
Previous behaviour:

In [1]: idx = pd.date_range("2015-01-01", periods=5, freq='10H')

In [2]: idx.hour
Out[2]: array([ 0, 10, 20, 6, 16], dtype=int32)

New Behavior:

In [79]: idx = pd.date_range("2015-01-01", periods=5, freq='10H')

In [80]: idx.hour
Out[80]: Int64Index([0, 10, 20, 6, 16], dtype='int64')

1.4. v0.20.1 (May 5, 2017) 49

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

This has the advantage that specific Index methods are still available on the result. On the other hand, this might
have backward incompatibilities: e.g. compared to numpy arrays, Index objects are not mutable. To get the original
ndarray, you can always convert explicitly using np.asarray(idx.hour).

1.4.2.4 pd.unique will now be consistent with extension types

In prior versions, using Series.unique() and pandas.unique() on Categorical and tz-aware data-types
would yield different return types. These are now made consistent. (GH15903)
• Datetime tz-aware
Previous behaviour:

# Series
In [5]: pd.Series([pd.Timestamp('20160101', tz='US/Eastern'),
pd.Timestamp('20160101', tz='US/Eastern')]).unique()
Out[5]: array([Timestamp('2016-01-01 00:00:00-0500', tz='US/Eastern')],
˓→dtype=object)

In [6]: pd.unique(pd.Series([pd.Timestamp('20160101', tz='US/Eastern'),

pd.Timestamp('20160101', tz='US/Eastern')]))
Out[6]: array(['2016-01-01T05:00:00.000000000'], dtype='datetime64[ns]')

# Index
In [7]: pd.Index([pd.Timestamp('20160101', tz='US/Eastern'),
pd.Timestamp('20160101', tz='US/Eastern')]).unique()
Out[7]: DatetimeIndex(['2016-01-01 00:00:00-05:00'], dtype='datetime64[ns, US/
˓→Eastern]', freq=None)

In [8]: pd.unique([pd.Timestamp('20160101', tz='US/Eastern'),

pd.Timestamp('20160101', tz='US/Eastern')])
Out[8]: array(['2016-01-01T05:00:00.000000000'], dtype='datetime64[ns]')

New Behavior:

# Series, returns an array of Timestamp tz-aware

In [81]: pd.Series([pd.Timestamp('20160101', tz='US/Eastern'),
....: pd.Timestamp('20160101', tz='US/Eastern')]).unique()
....:
Out[81]: array([Timestamp('2016-01-01 00:00:00-0500', tz='US/Eastern')],
˓→dtype=object)

In [82]: pd.unique(pd.Series([pd.Timestamp('20160101', tz='US/Eastern'),

....: pd.Timestamp('20160101', tz='US/Eastern')]))
....:
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[82]:
˓→array([Timestamp('2016-01-01 00:00:00-0500', tz='US/Eastern')], dtype=object)

# Index, returns a DatetimeIndex

In [83]: pd.Index([pd.Timestamp('20160101', tz='US/Eastern'),
....: pd.Timestamp('20160101', tz='US/Eastern')]).unique()
....:
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→DatetimeIndex(['2016-01-01 00:00:00-05:00'], dtype='datetime64[ns, US/Eastern]',

˓→ freq=None)

In [84]: pd.unique(pd.Index([pd.Timestamp('20160101', tz='US/Eastern'),

....: pd.Timestamp('20160101', tz='US/Eastern')]))

50 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

....:
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→DatetimeIndex(['2016-01-01 00:00:00-05:00'], dtype='datetime64[ns, US/Eastern]',

˓→ freq=None)

• Categoricals
Previous behaviour:
In [1]: pd.Series(list('baabc'), dtype='category').unique()
Out[1]:
[b, a, c]
Categories (3, object): [b, a, c]

In [2]: pd.unique(pd.Series(list('baabc'), dtype='category'))

Out[2]: array(['b', 'a', 'c'], dtype=object)

New Behavior:
# returns a Categorical
In [85]: pd.Series(list('baabc'), dtype='category').unique()
Out[85]:
[b, a, c]
Categories (3, object): [b, a, c]

In [86]: pd.unique(pd.Series(list('baabc'), dtype='category'))

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[86]:
[b, a, c]
Categories (3, object): [b, a, c]

1.4.2.5 S3 File Handling

pandas now uses s3fs for handling S3 connections. This shouldn’t break any code. However, since s3fs is not a
required dependency, you will need to install it separately, like boto in prior versions of pandas. (GH11915).

1.4.2.6 Partial String Indexing Changes

DatetimeIndex Partial String Indexing now works as an exact match, provided that string resolution coincides with
index resolution, including a case when both are seconds (GH14826). See Slice vs. Exact Match for details.
In [87]: df = DataFrame({'a': [1, 2, 3]}, DatetimeIndex(['2011-12-31 23:59:59',
....: '2012-01-01 00:00:00',
....: '2012-01-01 00:00:01']))
....:

Previous Behavior:
In [4]: df['2011-12-31 23:59:59']
Out[4]:
a
2011-12-31 23:59:59 1

In [5]: df['a']['2011-12-31 23:59:59']

Out[5]:
2011-12-31 23:59:59 1
Name: a, dtype: int64

1.4. v0.20.1 (May 5, 2017) 51

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

New Behavior:
In [4]: df['2011-12-31 23:59:59']
KeyError: '2011-12-31 23:59:59'

In [5]: df['a']['2011-12-31 23:59:59']

Out[5]: 1

1.4.2.7 Concat of different float dtypes will not automatically upcast

Previously, concat of multiple objects with different float dtypes would automatically upcast results to a dtype of
float64. Now the smallest acceptable dtype will be used (GH13247)
In [88]: df1 = pd.DataFrame(np.array([1.0], dtype=np.float32, ndmin=2))

In [89]: df1.dtypes
Out[89]:
0 float32
dtype: object

In [90]: df2 = pd.DataFrame(np.array([np.nan], dtype=np.float32, ndmin=2))

In [91]: df2.dtypes
Out[91]:
0 float32
dtype: object

Previous Behavior:
In [7]: pd.concat([df1, df2]).dtypes
Out[7]:
0 float64
dtype: object

New Behavior:
In [92]: pd.concat([df1, df2]).dtypes
Out[92]:
0 float32
dtype: object

1.4.2.8 Pandas Google BigQuery support has moved

pandas has split off Google BigQuery support into a separate package pandas-gbq. You can conda
install pandas-gbq -c conda-forge or pip install pandas-gbq to get it. The functional-
ity of read_gbq() and DataFrame.to_gbq() remain the same with the currently released version of
pandas-gbq=0.1.4. Documentation is now hosted here (GH15347)

1.4.2.9 Memory Usage for Index is more Accurate

In previous versions, showing .memory_usage() on a pandas structure that has an index, would only include
actual index values and not include structures that facilitated fast indexing. This will generally be different for Index
and MultiIndex and less-so for other index types. (GH15237)

52 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Previous Behavior:
In [8]: index = Index(['foo', 'bar', 'baz'])

In [9]: index.memory_usage(deep=True)
Out[9]: 180

In [10]: index.get_loc('foo')
Out[10]: 0

In [11]: index.memory_usage(deep=True)
Out[11]: 180

New Behavior:
In [8]: index = Index(['foo', 'bar', 'baz'])

In [9]: index.memory_usage(deep=True)
Out[9]: 180

In [10]: index.get_loc('foo')
Out[10]: 0

In [11]: index.memory_usage(deep=True)
Out[11]: 260

1.4.2.10 DataFrame.sort_index changes

In certain cases, calling .sort_index() on a MultiIndexed DataFrame would return the same DataFrame without
seeming to sort. This would happen with a lexsorted, but non-monotonic levels. (GH15622, GH15687, GH14015,
GH13431, GH15797)
This is unchanged from prior versions, but shown for illustration purposes:
In [93]: df = DataFrame(np.arange(6), columns=['value'], index=MultiIndex.from_
˓→product([list('BA'), range(3)]))

In [94]: df
Out[94]:
value
B 0 0
1 1
2 2
A 0 3
1 4
2 5

In [95]: df.index.is_lexsorted()
Out[95]: False

In [96]: df.index.is_monotonic
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[96]: False

Sorting works as expected

In [97]: df.sort_index()
Out[97]:

1.4. v0.20.1 (May 5, 2017) 53

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

value
A 0 3
1 4
2 5
B 0 0
1 1
2 2

In [98]: df.sort_index().index.is_lexsorted()
Out[98]: True

In [99]: df.sort_index().index.is_monotonic
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[99]: True

However, this example, which has a non-monotonic 2nd level, doesn’t behave as desired.
In [100]: df = pd.DataFrame(
.....: {'value': [1, 2, 3, 4]},
.....: index=pd.MultiIndex(levels=[['a', 'b'], ['bb', 'aa']],
.....: labels=[[0, 0, 1, 1], [0, 1, 0, 1]]))
.....:

In [101]: df
Out[101]:
value
a bb 1
aa 2
b bb 3
aa 4

Previous Behavior:
In [11]: df.sort_index()
Out[11]:
value
a bb 1
aa 2
b bb 3
aa 4

In [14]: df.sort_index().index.is_lexsorted()
Out[14]: True

In [15]: df.sort_index().index.is_monotonic
Out[15]: False

New Behavior:
In [102]: df.sort_index()
Out[102]:
value
a aa 2
bb 1
b aa 4
bb 3

In [103]: df.sort_index().index.is_lexsorted()
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[103]: True

54 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [104]: df.sort_index().index.is_monotonic
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[104]:
˓→True

1.4.2.11 Groupby Describe Formatting

The output formatting of groupby.describe() now labels the describe() metrics in the columns instead of
the index. This format is consistent with groupby.agg() when applying multiple functions at once. (GH4792)
Previous Behavior:
In [1]: df = pd.DataFrame({'A': [1, 1, 2, 2], 'B': [1, 2, 3, 4]})

In [2]: df.groupby('A').describe()
Out[2]:
B
A
1 count 2.000000
mean 1.500000
std 0.707107
min 1.000000
25% 1.250000
50% 1.500000
75% 1.750000
max 2.000000
2 count 2.000000
mean 3.500000
std 0.707107
min 3.000000
25% 3.250000
50% 3.500000
75% 3.750000
max 4.000000

In [3]: df.groupby('A').agg([np.mean, np.std, np.min, np.max])

Out[3]:
B
mean std amin amax
A
1 1.5 0.707107 1 2
2 3.5 0.707107 3 4

New Behavior:
In [105]: df = pd.DataFrame({'A': [1, 1, 2, 2], 'B': [1, 2, 3, 4]})

In [106]: df.groupby('A').describe()
Out[106]:
B
count mean std min 25% 50% 75% max
A
1 2.0 1.5 0.707107 1.0 1.25 1.5 1.75 2.0
2 2.0 3.5 0.707107 3.0 3.25 3.5 3.75 4.0

In [107]: df.groupby('A').agg([np.mean, np.std, np.min, np.max])

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

1.4. v0.20.1 (May 5, 2017) 55

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

B
mean std amin amax
A
1 1.5 0.707107 1 2
2 3.5 0.707107 3 4

1.4.2.12 Window Binary Corr/Cov operations return a MultiIndex DataFrame

A binary window operation, like .corr() or .cov(), when operating on a .rolling(..), .expanding(..
), or .ewm(..) object, will now return a 2-level MultiIndexed DataFrame rather than a Panel, as Panel
is now deprecated, see here. These are equivalent in function, but a MultiIndexed DataFrame enjoys more support
in pandas. See the section on Windowed Binary Operations for more information. (GH15677)

In [108]: np.random.seed(1234)

In [109]: df = pd.DataFrame(np.random.rand(100, 2),

.....: columns=pd.Index(['A', 'B'], name='bar'),
.....: index=pd.date_range('20160101',
.....: periods=100, freq='D', name='foo'))
.....:

In [110]: df.tail()
Out[110]:
bar A B
foo
2016-04-05 0.640880 0.126205
2016-04-06 0.171465 0.737086
2016-04-07 0.127029 0.369650
2016-04-08 0.604334 0.103104
2016-04-09 0.802374 0.945553

Previous Behavior:

In [2]: df.rolling(12).corr()
Out[2]:
<class 'pandas.core.panel.Panel'>
Dimensions: 100 (items) x 2 (major_axis) x 2 (minor_axis)
Items axis: 2016-01-01 00:00:00 to 2016-04-09 00:00:00
Major_axis axis: A to B
Minor_axis axis: A to B

New Behavior:

In [111]: res = df.rolling(12).corr()

In [112]: res.tail()
Out[112]:
bar A B
foo bar
2016-04-07 B -0.132090 1.000000
2016-04-08 A 1.000000 -0.145775
B -0.145775 1.000000
2016-04-09 A 1.000000 0.119645
B 0.119645 1.000000

Retrieving a correlation matrix for a cross-section

56 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [113]: df.rolling(12).corr().loc['2016-04-07']
Out[113]:
bar A B
foo bar
2016-04-07 A 1.00000 -0.13209
B -0.13209 1.00000

1.4.2.13 HDFStore where string comparison

In previous versions most types could be compared to string column in a HDFStore usually resulting in an invalid
comparison, returning an empty result frame. These comparisons will now raise a TypeError (GH15492)

In [114]: df = pd.DataFrame({'unparsed_date': ['2014-01-01', '2014-01-01']})

In [115]: df.to_hdf('store.h5', 'key', format='table', data_columns=True)

In [116]: df.dtypes
Out[116]:
unparsed_date object
dtype: object

Previous Behavior:

In [4]: pd.read_hdf('store.h5', 'key', where='unparsed_date > ts')

File "<string>", line 1
(unparsed_date > 1970-01-01 00:00:01.388552400)
^
SyntaxError: invalid token

New Behavior:

In [18]: ts = pd.Timestamp('2014-01-01')

In [19]: pd.read_hdf('store.h5', 'key', where='unparsed_date > ts')

TypeError: Cannot compare 2014-01-01 00:00:00 of
type <class 'pandas.tslib.Timestamp'> to string column

1.4.2.14 Index.intersection and inner join now preserve the order of the left Index

Index.intersection() now preserves the order of the calling Index (left) instead of the other Index (right)
(GH15582). This affects inner joins, DataFrame.join() and merge(), and the .align method.
• Index.intersection

In [117]: left = pd.Index([2, 1, 0])

In [118]: left
Out[118]: Int64Index([2, 1, 0], dtype='int64')

In [119]: right = pd.Index([1, 2, 3])

In [120]: right
Out[120]: Int64Index([1, 2, 3], dtype='int64')

Previous Behavior:

1.4. v0.20.1 (May 5, 2017) 57

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [4]: left.intersection(right)
Out[4]: Int64Index([1, 2], dtype='int64')

New Behavior:

In [121]: left.intersection(right)
Out[121]: Int64Index([2, 1], dtype='int64')

• DataFrame.join and pd.merge

In [122]: left = pd.DataFrame({'a': [20, 10, 0]}, index=[2, 1, 0])

In [123]: left
Out[123]:
a
2 20
1 10
0 0

In [124]: right = pd.DataFrame({'b': [100, 200, 300]}, index=[1, 2, 3])

In [125]: right
Out[125]:
b
1 100
2 200
3 300

Previous Behavior:

In [4]: left.join(right, how='inner')

Out[4]:
a b
1 10 100
2 20 200

New Behavior:

In [126]: left.join(right, how='inner')

Out[126]:
a b
2 20 200
1 10 100

1.4.2.15 Pivot Table always returns a DataFrame

The documentation for pivot_table() states that a DataFrame is always returned. Here a bug is fixed that
allowed this to return a Series under certain circumstance. (GH4386)

In [127]: df = DataFrame({'col1': [3, 4, 5],

.....: 'col2': ['C', 'D', 'E'],
.....: 'col3': [1, 3, 9]})
.....:

In [128]: df
Out[128]:

58 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

col1 col2 col3

0 3 C 1
1 4 D 3
2 5 E 9

Previous Behavior:
In [2]: df.pivot_table('col1', index=['col3', 'col2'], aggfunc=np.sum)
Out[2]:
col3 col2
1 C 3
3 D 4
9 E 5
Name: col1, dtype: int64

New Behavior:
In [129]: df.pivot_table('col1', index=['col3', 'col2'], aggfunc=np.sum)
Out[129]:
col1
col3 col2
1 C 3
3 D 4
9 E 5

1.4.2.16 Other API Changes

• numexpr version is now required to be >= 2.4.6 and it will not be used at all if this requisite is not fulfilled
(GH15213).
• CParserError has been renamed to ParserError in pd.read_csv() and will be removed in the future
(GH12665)
• SparseArray.cumsum() and SparseSeries.cumsum() will now always return SparseArray and
SparseSeries respectively (GH12855)
• DataFrame.applymap() with an empty DataFrame will return a copy of the empty DataFrame instead
of a Series (GH8222)
• Series.map() now respects default values of dictionary subclasses with a __missing__ method, such as
collections.Counter (GH15999)
• .loc has compat with .ix for accepting iterators, and NamedTuples (GH15120)
• interpolate() and fillna() will raise a ValueError if the limit keyword argument is not greater
than 0. (GH9217)
• pd.read_csv() will now issue a ParserWarning whenever there are conflicting values provided by the
dialect parameter and the user (GH14898)
• pd.read_csv() will now raise a ValueError for the C engine if the quote character is larger than than
one byte (GH11592)
• inplace arguments now require a boolean value, else a ValueError is thrown (GH14189)
• pandas.api.types.is_datetime64_ns_dtype will now report True on a tz-aware dtype, similar
to pandas.api.types.is_datetime64_any_dtype
• DataFrame.asof() will return a null filled Series instead the scalar NaN if a match is not found
(GH15118)

1.4. v0.20.1 (May 5, 2017) 59

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Specific support for copy.copy() and copy.deepcopy() functions on NDFrame objects (GH15444)
• Series.sort_values() accepts a one element list of bool for consistency with the behavior of
DataFrame.sort_values() (GH15604)
• .merge() and .join() on category dtype columns will now preserve the category dtype when possible
(GH10409)
• SparseDataFrame.default_fill_value will be 0, previously was nan in the return from pd.
get_dummies(..., sparse=True) (GH15594)
• The default behaviour of Series.str.match has changed from extracting groups to matching the pattern.
The extracting behaviour was deprecated since pandas version 0.13.0 and can be done with the Series.str.
extract method (GH5224). As a consequence, the as_indexer keyword is ignored (no longer needed to
specify the new behaviour) and is deprecated.
• NaT will now correctly report False for datetimelike boolean operations such as is_month_start
(GH15781)
• NaT will now correctly return np.nan for Timedelta and Period accessors such as days and quarter
(GH15782)
• NaT will now returns NaT for tz_localize and tz_convert methods (GH15830)
• DataFrame and Panel constructors with invalid input will now raise ValueError rather than
PandasError, if called with scalar inputs and not axes (GH15541)
• DataFrame and Panel constructors with invalid input will now raise ValueError rather than pandas.
core.common.PandasError, if called with scalar inputs and not axes; The exception PandasError is
removed as well. (GH15541)
• The exception pandas.core.common.AmbiguousIndexError is removed as it is not referenced
(GH15541)

1.4.3 Reorganization of the library: Privacy Changes

1.4.3.1 Modules Privacy Has Changed

Some formerly public python/c/c++/cython extension modules have been moved and/or renamed. These are all re-
moved from the public API. Furthermore, the pandas.core, pandas.compat, and pandas.util top-level
modules are now considered to be PRIVATE. If indicated, a deprecation warning will be issued if you reference theses
modules. (GH12588)

60 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Previous Location New Location Deprecated

pandas.lib pandas._libs.lib X
pandas.tslib pandas._libs.tslib X
pandas.computation pandas.core.computation X
pandas.msgpack pandas.io.msgpack
pandas.index pandas._libs.index
pandas.algos pandas._libs.algos
pandas.hashtable pandas._libs.hashtable
pandas.indexes pandas.core.indexes
pandas.json pandas._libs.json / pandas.io.json X
pandas.parser pandas._libs.parsers X
pandas.formats pandas.io.formats
pandas.sparse pandas.core.sparse
pandas.tools pandas.core.reshape X
pandas.types pandas.core.dtypes X
pandas.io.sas.saslib pandas.io.sas._sas
pandas._join pandas._libs.join
pandas._hash pandas._libs.hashing
pandas._period pandas._libs.period
pandas._sparse pandas._libs.sparse
pandas._testing pandas._libs.testing
pandas._window pandas._libs.window
Some new subpackages are created with public functionality that is not directly exposed in the top-level namespace:
pandas.errors, pandas.plotting and pandas.testing (more details below). Together with pandas.
api.types and certain functions in the pandas.io and pandas.tseries submodules, these are now the public
subpackages.
Further changes:
• The function union_categoricals() is now importable from pandas.api.types, formerly from
pandas.types.concat (GH15998)
• The type import pandas.tslib.NaTType is deprecated and can be replaced by using type(pandas.
NaT) (GH16146)
• The public functions in pandas.tools.hashing deprecated from that locations, but are now importable
from pandas.util (GH16223)
• The modules in pandas.util: decorators, print_versions, doctools, validators,
depr_module are now private. Only the functions exposed in pandas.util itself are public (GH16223)

1.4.3.2 pandas.errors

We are adding a standard public module for all pandas exceptions & warnings pandas.errors. (GH14800). Pre-
viously these exceptions & warnings could be imported from pandas.core.common or pandas.io.common.
These exceptions and warnings will be removed from the *.common locations in a future release. (GH15541)
The following are now part of this API:

['DtypeWarning',
'EmptyDataError',
'OutOfBoundsDatetime',
'ParserError',
'ParserWarning',
'PerformanceWarning',

1.4. v0.20.1 (May 5, 2017) 61

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

'UnsortedIndexError',
'UnsupportedFunctionCall']

1.4.3.3 pandas.testing

We are adding a standard module that exposes the public testing functions in pandas.testing (GH9895). Those
functions can be used when writing tests for functionality using pandas objects.
The following testing functions are now part of this API:
• testing.assert_frame_equal()
• testing.assert_series_equal()
• testing.assert_index_equal()

1.4.3.4 pandas.plotting

A new public pandas.plotting module has been added that holds plotting functionality that was previously in
either pandas.tools.plotting or in the top-level namespace. See the deprecations sections for more details.

1.4.3.5 Other Development Changes

• Building pandas for development now requires cython >= 0.23 (GH14831)
• Require at least 0.23 version of cython to avoid problems with character encodings (GH14699)
• Switched the test framework to use pytest (GH13097)
• Reorganization of tests directory layout (GH14854, GH15707).

1.4.4 Deprecations

1.4.4.1 Deprecate .ix

The .ix indexer is deprecated, in favor of the more strict .iloc and .loc indexers. .ix offers a lot of magic on the
inference of what the user wants to do. To wit, .ix can decide to index positionally OR via labels, depending on the
data type of the index. This has caused quite a bit of user confusion over the years. The full indexing documentation
is here. (GH14218)
The recommended methods of indexing are:
• .loc if you want to label index
• .iloc if you want to positionally index.
Using .ix will now show a DeprecationWarning with a link to some examples of how to convert code here.

In [130]: df = pd.DataFrame({'A': [1, 2, 3],

.....: 'B': [4, 5, 6]},
.....: index=list('abc'))
.....:

In [131]: df
Out[131]:
A B

62 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

a 1 4
b 2 5
c 3 6

Previous Behavior, where you wish to get the 0th and the 2nd elements from the index in the ‘A’ column.

In [3]: df.ix[[0, 2], 'A']

Out[3]:
a 1
c 3
Name: A, dtype: int64

Using .loc. Here we will select the appropriate indexes from the index, then use label indexing.

In [132]: df.loc[df.index[[0, 2]], 'A']

Out[132]:
a 1
c 3
Name: A, dtype: int64

Using .iloc. Here we will get the location of the ‘A’ column, then use positional indexing to select things.

In [133]: df.iloc[[0, 2], df.columns.get_loc('A')]

Out[133]:
a 1
c 3
Name: A, dtype: int64

1.4.4.2 Deprecate Panel

Panel is deprecated and will be removed in a future version. The recommended way to represent 3-D data
are with a MultiIndex on a DataFrame via the to_frame() or with the xarray package. Pandas pro-
vides a to_xarray() method to automate this conversion. For more details see Deprecate Panel documentation.
(GH13563).

In [134]: p = tm.makePanel()

In [135]: p
Out[135]:
<class 'pandas.core.panel.Panel'>
Dimensions: 3 (items) x 3 (major_axis) x 4 (minor_axis)
Items axis: ItemA to ItemC
Major_axis axis: 2000-01-03 00:00:00 to 2000-01-05 00:00:00
Minor_axis axis: A to D

Convert to a MultiIndex DataFrame

In [136]: p.to_frame()
Out[136]:
ItemA ItemB ItemC
major minor
2000-01-03 A 0.628776 -1.409432 0.209395
B 0.988138 -1.347533 -0.896581
C -0.938153 1.272395 -0.161137
D -0.223019 -0.591863 -1.051539
2000-01-04 A 0.186494 1.422986 -0.592886

1.4. v0.20.1 (May 5, 2017) 63

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

B -0.072608 0.363565 1.104352

C -1.239072 -1.449567 0.889157
D 2.123692 -0.414505 -0.319561
2000-01-05 A 0.952478 -2.147855 -1.473116
B -0.550603 -0.014752 -0.431550
C 0.139683 -1.195524 0.288377
D 0.122273 -1.425795 -0.619993

Convert to an xarray DataArray

In [137]: p.to_xarray()
Out[137]:
<xarray.DataArray (items: 3, major_axis: 3, minor_axis: 4)>
array([[[ 0.628776, 0.988138, -0.938153, -0.223019],
[ 0.186494, -0.072608, -1.239072, 2.123692],
[ 0.952478, -0.550603, 0.139683, 0.122273]],

[[-1.409432, -1.347533, 1.272395, -0.591863],

[ 1.422986, 0.363565, -1.449567, -0.414505],
[-2.147855, -0.014752, -1.195524, -1.425795]],

[[ 0.209395, -0.896581, -0.161137, -1.051539],

[-0.592886, 1.104352, 0.889157, -0.319561],
[-1.473116, -0.43155 , 0.288377, -0.619993]]])
Coordinates:
* items (items) object 'ItemA' 'ItemB' 'ItemC'
* major_axis (major_axis) datetime64[ns] 2000-01-03 2000-01-04 2000-01-05
* minor_axis (minor_axis) object 'A' 'B' 'C' 'D'

1.4.4.3 Deprecate groupby.agg() with a dictionary when renaming

The .groupby(..).agg(..), .rolling(..).agg(..), and .resample(..).agg(..) syntax can ac-

cept a variable of inputs, including scalars, list, and a dict of column names to scalars or lists. This provides a useful
syntax for constructing multiple (potentially different) aggregations.
However, .agg(..) can also accept a dict that allows ‘renaming’ of the result columns. This is a complicated and
confusing syntax, as well as not consistent between Series and DataFrame. We are deprecating this ‘renaming’
functionaility.
• We are deprecating passing a dict to a grouped/rolled/resampled Series. This allowed one to rename
the resulting aggregation, but this had a completely different meaning than passing a dictionary to a grouped
DataFrame, which accepts column-to-aggregations.
• We are deprecating passing a dict-of-dicts to a grouped/rolled/resampled DataFrame in a similar manner.
This is an illustrative example:

In [138]: df = pd.DataFrame({'A': [1, 1, 1, 2, 2],

.....: 'B': range(5),
.....: 'C': range(5)})
.....:

In [139]: df
Out[139]:
A B C
0 1 0 0
1 1 1 1

64 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

2 1 2 2
3 2 3 3
4 2 4 4

Here is a typical useful syntax for computing different aggregations for different columns. This is a natural, and useful
syntax. We aggregate from the dict-to-list by taking the specified columns and applying the list of functions. This
returns a MultiIndex for the columns (this is not deprecated).
In [140]: df.groupby('A').agg({'B': 'sum', 'C': 'min'})
Out[140]:
B C
A
1 3 0
2 7 3

Here’s an example of the first deprecation, passing a dict to a grouped Series. This is a combination aggregation &
renaming:
In [6]: df.groupby('A').B.agg({'foo': 'count'})
FutureWarning: using a dict on a Series for aggregation
is deprecated and will be removed in a future version

Out[6]:
foo
A
1 3
2 2

You can accomplish the same operation, more idiomatically by:

In [141]: df.groupby('A').B.agg(['count']).rename(columns={'count': 'foo'})
Out[141]:
foo
A
1 3
2 2

Here’s an example of the second deprecation, passing a dict-of-dict to a grouped DataFrame:

In [23]: (df.groupby('A')
.agg({'B': {'foo': 'sum'}, 'C': {'bar': 'min'}})
)
FutureWarning: using a dict with renaming is deprecated and
will be removed in a future version

Out[23]:
B C
foo bar
A
1 3 0
2 7 3

You can accomplish nearly the same by:

In [142]: (df.groupby('A')
.....: .agg({'B': 'sum', 'C': 'min'})
.....: .rename(columns={'B': 'foo', 'C': 'bar'})
.....: )

1.4. v0.20.1 (May 5, 2017) 65

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

.....:
Out[142]:
foo bar
A
1 3 0
2 7 3

1.4.4.4 Deprecate .plotting

The pandas.tools.plotting module has been deprecated, in favor of the top level pandas.plotting mod-
ule. All the public plotting functions are now available from pandas.plotting (GH12548).
Furthermore, the top-level pandas.scatter_matrix and pandas.plot_params are deprecated. Users can
import these from pandas.plotting as well.
Previous script:

pd.tools.plotting.scatter_matrix(df)
pd.scatter_matrix(df)

Should be changed to:

pd.plotting.scatter_matrix(df)

1.4.4.5 Other Deprecations

• SparseArray.to_dense() has deprecated the fill parameter, as that parameter was not being respected
(GH14647)
• SparseSeries.to_dense() has deprecated the sparse_only parameter (GH14647)
• Series.repeat() has deprecated the reps parameter in favor of repeats (GH12662)
• The Series constructor and .astype method have deprecated accepting timestamp dtypes without a fre-
quency (e.g. np.datetime64) for the dtype parameter (GH15524)
• Index.repeat() and MultiIndex.repeat() have deprecated the n parameter in favor of repeats
(GH12662)
• Categorical.searchsorted() and Series.searchsorted() have deprecated the v parameter in
favor of value (GH12662)
• TimedeltaIndex.searchsorted(), DatetimeIndex.searchsorted(), and PeriodIndex.
searchsorted() have deprecated the key parameter in favor of value (GH12662)
• DataFrame.astype() has deprecated the raise_on_error parameter in favor of errors (GH14878)
• Series.sortlevel and DataFrame.sortlevel have been deprecated in favor of Series.
sort_index and DataFrame.sort_index (GH15099)
• importing concat from pandas.tools.merge has been deprecated in favor of imports from the pandas
namespace. This should only affect explict imports (GH15358)
• Series/DataFrame/Panel.consolidate() been deprecated as a public method. (GH15483)
• The as_indexer keyword of Series.str.match() has been deprecated (ignored keyword) (GH15257).
• The following top-level pandas functions have been deprecated and will be removed in a future version
(GH13790, GH15940)

66 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

– pd.pnow(), replaced by Period.now()

– pd.Term, is removed, as it is not applicable to user code. Instead use in-line string expressions in the
where clause when searching in HDFStore
– pd.Expr, is removed, as it is not applicable to user code.
– pd.match(), is removed.
– pd.groupby(), replaced by using the .groupby() method directly on a Series/DataFrame
– pd.get_store(), replaced by a direct call to pd.HDFStore(...)
• is_any_int_dtype, is_floating_dtype, and is_sequence are deprecated from pandas.api.
types (GH16042)

1.4.5 Removal of prior version deprecations/changes

• The pandas.rpy module is removed. Similar functionality can be accessed through the rpy2 project. See the
R interfacing docs for more details.
• The pandas.io.ga module with a google-analytics interface is removed (GH11308). Similar func-
tionality can be found in the Google2Pandas package.
• pd.to_datetime and pd.to_timedelta have dropped the coerce parameter in favor of errors
(GH13602)
• pandas.stats.fama_macbeth, pandas.stats.ols, pandas.stats.plm and pandas.
stats.var, as well as the top-level pandas.fama_macbeth and pandas.ols routines are removed.
Similar functionaility can be found in the statsmodels package. (GH11898)
• The TimeSeries and SparseTimeSeries classes, aliases of Series and SparseSeries, are removed
(GH10890, GH15098).
• Series.is_time_series is dropped in favor of Series.index.is_all_dates (GH15098)
• The deprecated irow, icol, iget and iget_value methods are removed in favor of iloc and iat as
explained here (GH10711).
• The deprecated DataFrame.iterkv() has been removed in favor of DataFrame.iteritems()
(GH10711)
• The Categorical constructor has dropped the name parameter (GH10632)
• Categorical has dropped support for NaN categories (GH10748)
• The take_last parameter has been dropped from duplicated(), drop_duplicates(),
nlargest(), and nsmallest() methods (GH10236, GH10792, GH10920)
• Series, Index, and DataFrame have dropped the sort and order methods (GH10726)
• Where clauses in pytables are only accepted as strings and expressions types and not other data-types
(GH12027)
• DataFrame has dropped the combineAdd and combineMult methods in favor of add and mul respec-
tively (GH10735)

1.4.6 Performance Improvements

• Improved performance of pd.wide_to_long() (GH14779)

1.4. v0.20.1 (May 5, 2017) 67

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Improved performance of pd.factorize() by releasing the GIL with object dtype when inferred as
strings (GH14859, GH16057)
• Improved performance of timeseries plotting with an irregular DatetimeIndex (or with compat_x=True)
(GH15073).
• Improved performance of groupby().cummin() and groupby().cummax() (GH15048, GH15109,
GH15561, GH15635)
• Improved performance and reduced memory when indexing with a MultiIndex (GH15245)
• When reading buffer object in read_sas() method without specified format, filepath string is inferred rather
than buffer object. (GH14947)
• Improved performance of .rank() for categorical data (GH15498)
• Improved performance when using .unstack() (GH15503)
• Improved performance of merge/join on category columns (GH10409)
• Improved performance of drop_duplicates() on bool columns (GH12963)
• Improve performance of pd.core.groupby.GroupBy.apply when the applied function used the .name
attribute of the group DataFrame (GH15062).
• Improved performance of iloc indexing with a list or array (GH15504).
• Improved performance of Series.sort_index() with a monotonic index (GH15694)
• Improved performance in pd.read_csv() on some platforms with buffered reads (GH16039)

1.4.7 Bug Fixes

1.4.7.1 Conversion

• Bug in Timestamp.replace now raises TypeError when incorrect argument names are given; previously
this raised ValueError (GH15240)
• Bug in Timestamp.replace with compat for passing long integers (GH15030)
• Bug in Timestamp returning UTC based time/date attributes when a timezone was provided (GH13303,
GH6538)
• Bug in Timestamp incorrectly localizing timezones during construction (GH11481, GH15777)
• Bug in TimedeltaIndex addition where overflow was being allowed without error (GH14816)
• Bug in TimedeltaIndex raising a ValueError when boolean indexing with loc (GH14946)
• Bug in catching an overflow in Timestamp + Timedelta/Offset operations (GH15126)
• Bug in DatetimeIndex.round() and Timestamp.round() floating point accuracy when rounding by
milliseconds or less (GH14440, GH15578)
• Bug in astype() where inf values were incorrectly converted to integers. Now raises error now with
astype() for Series and DataFrames (GH14265)
• Bug in DataFrame(..).apply(to_numeric) when values are of type decimal.Decimal. (GH14827)
• Bug in describe() when passing a numpy array which does not contain the median to the percentiles
keyword argument (GH14908)
• Cleaned up PeriodIndex constructor, including raising on floats more consistently (GH13277)
• Bug in using __deepcopy__ on empty NDFrame objects (GH15370)

68 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Bug in .replace() may result in incorrect dtypes. (GH12747, GH15765)

• Bug in Series.replace and DataFrame.replace which failed on empty replacement dicts (GH15289)
• Bug in Series.replace which replaced a numeric by string (GH15743)
• Bug in Index construction with NaN elements and integer dtype specified (GH15187)
• Bug in Series construction with a datetimetz (GH14928)
• Bug in Series.dt.round() inconsistent behaviour on NaT ‘s with different arguments (GH14940)
• Bug in Series constructor when both copy=True and dtype arguments are provided (GH15125)
• Incorrect dtyped Series was returned by comparison methods (e.g., lt, gt, ...) against a constant for an
empty DataFrame (GH15077)
• Bug in Series.ffill() with mixed dtypes containing tz-aware datetimes. (GH14956)
• Bug in DataFrame.fillna() where the argument downcast was ignored when fillna value was of type
dict (GH15277)
• Bug in .asfreq(), where frequency was not set for empty Series (GH14320)
• Bug in DataFrame construction with nulls and datetimes in a list-like (GH15869)
• Bug in DataFrame.fillna() with tz-aware datetimes (GH15855)
• Bug in is_string_dtype, is_timedelta64_ns_dtype, and is_string_like_dtype in which
an error was raised when None was passed in (GH15941)
• Bug in the return type of pd.unique on a Categorical, which was returning an ndarray and not a
Categorical (GH15903)
• Bug in Index.to_series() where the index was not copied (and so mutating later would change the
original), (GH15949)
• Bug in indexing with partial string indexing with a len-1 DataFrame (GH16071)
• Bug in Series construction where passing invalid dtype didn’t raise an error. (GH15520)

1.4.7.2 Indexing

• Bug in Index power operations with reversed operands (GH14973)

• Bug in DataFrame.sort_values() when sorting by multiple columns where one column is of type
int64 and contains NaT (GH14922)
• Bug in DataFrame.reindex() in which method was ignored when passing columns (GH14992)
• Bug in DataFrame.loc with indexing a MultiIndex with a Series indexer (GH14730, GH15424)
• Bug in DataFrame.loc with indexing a MultiIndex with a numpy array (GH15434)
• Bug in Series.asof which raised if the series contained all np.nan (GH15713)
• Bug in .at when selecting from a tz-aware column (GH15822)
• Bug in Series.where() and DataFrame.where() where array-like conditionals were being rejected
(GH15414)
• Bug in Series.where() where TZ-aware data was converted to float representation (GH15701)
• Bug in .loc that would not return the correct dtype for scalar access for a DataFrame (GH11617)
• Bug in output formatting of a MultiIndex when names are integers (GH12223, GH15262)

1.4. v0.20.1 (May 5, 2017) 69

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Bug in Categorical.searchsorted() where alphabetical instead of the provided categorical order was
used (GH14522)
• Bug in Series.iloc where a Categorical object for list-like indexes input was returned, where a
Series was expected. (GH14580)
• Bug in DataFrame.isin comparing datetimelike to empty frame (GH15473)
• Bug in .reset_index() when an all NaN level of a MultiIndex would fail (GH6322)
• Bug in .reset_index() when raising error for index name already present in MultiIndex columns
(GH16120)
• Bug in creating a MultiIndex with tuples and not passing a list of names; this will now raise ValueError
(GH15110)
• Bug in the HTML display with with a MultiIndex and truncation (GH14882)
• Bug in the display of .info() where a qualifier (+) would always be displayed with a MultiIndex that
contains only non-strings (GH15245)
• Bug in pd.concat() where the names of MultiIndex of resulting DataFrame are not handled correctly
when None is presented in the names of MultiIndex of input DataFrame (GH15787)
• Bug in DataFrame.sort_index() and Series.sort_index() where na_position doesn’t work
with a MultiIndex (GH14784, GH16604)
• Bug in in pd.concat() when combining objects with a CategoricalIndex (GH16111)
• Bug in indexing with a scalar and a CategoricalIndex (GH16123)

1.4.7.3 I/O

• Bug in pd.to_numeric() in which float and unsigned integer elements were being improperly casted
(GH14941, GH15005)
• Bug in pd.read_fwf() where the skiprows parameter was not being respected during column width infer-
ence (GH11256)
• Bug in pd.read_csv() in which the dialect parameter was not being verified before processing
(GH14898)
• Bug in pd.read_csv() in which missing data was being improperly handled with usecols (GH6710)
• Bug in pd.read_csv() in which a file containing a row with many columns followed by rows with fewer
columns would cause a crash (GH14125)
• Bug in pd.read_csv() for the C engine where usecols were being indexed incorrectly with
parse_dates (GH14792)
• Bug in pd.read_csv() with parse_dates when multiline headers are specified (GH15376)
• Bug in pd.read_csv() with float_precision='round_trip' which caused a segfault when a text
entry is parsed (GH15140)
• Bug in pd.read_csv() when an index was specified and no values were specified as null values (GH15835)
• Bug in pd.read_csv() in which certain invalid file objects caused the Python interpreter to crash (GH15337)
• Bug in pd.read_csv() in which invalid values for nrows and chunksize were allowed (GH15767)
• Bug in pd.read_csv() for the Python engine in which unhelpful error messages were being raised when
parsing errors occurred (GH15910)
• Bug in pd.read_csv() in which the skipfooter parameter was not being properly validated (GH15925)

70 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Bug in pd.to_csv() in which there was numeric overflow when a timestamp index was being written
(GH15982)
• Bug in pd.util.hashing.hash_pandas_object() in which hashing of categoricals depended on the
ordering of categories, instead of just their values. (GH15143)
• Bug in .to_json() where lines=True and contents (keys or values) contain escaped characters
(GH15096)
• Bug in .to_json() causing single byte ascii characters to be expanded to four byte unicode (GH15344)
• Bug in .to_json() for the C engine where rollover was not correctly handled for case where frac is odd and
diff is exactly 0.5 (GH15716, GH15864)
• Bug in pd.read_json() for Python 2 where lines=True and contents contain non-ascii unicode charac-
ters (GH15132)
• Bug in pd.read_msgpack() in which Series categoricals were being improperly processed (GH14901)
• Bug in pd.read_msgpack() which did not allow loading of a dataframe with an index of type
CategoricalIndex (GH15487)
• Bug in pd.read_msgpack() when deserializing a CategoricalIndex (GH15487)
• Bug in DataFrame.to_records() with converting a DatetimeIndex with a timezone (GH13937)
• Bug in DataFrame.to_records() which failed with unicode characters in column names (GH11879)
• Bug in .to_sql() when writing a DataFrame with numeric index names (GH15404).
• Bug in DataFrame.to_html() with index=False and max_rows raising in IndexError
(GH14998)
• Bug in pd.read_hdf() passing a Timestamp to the where parameter with a non date column (GH15492)
• Bug in DataFrame.to_stata() and StataWriter which produces incorrectly formatted files to be
produced for some locales (GH13856)
• Bug in StataReader and StataWriter which allows invalid encodings (GH15723)
• Bug in the Series repr not showing the length when the output was truncated (GH15962).

1.4.7.4 Plotting

• Bug in DataFrame.hist where plt.tight_layout caused an AttributeError (use matplotlib

>= 2.0.1) (GH9351)
• Bug in DataFrame.boxplot where fontsize was not applied to the tick labels on both axes (GH15108)
• Bug in the date and time converters pandas registers with matplotlib not handling multiple dimensions
(GH16026)
• Bug in pd.scatter_matrix() could accept either color or c, but not both (GH14855)

1.4.7.5 Groupby/Resample/Rolling

• Bug in .groupby(..).resample() when passed the on= kwarg. (GH15021)

• Properly set __name__ and __qualname__ for Groupby.* functions (GH14620)
• Bug in GroupBy.get_group() failing with a categorical grouper (GH15155)
• Bug in .groupby(...).rolling(...) when on is specified and using a DatetimeIndex (GH15130,
GH13966)

1.4. v0.20.1 (May 5, 2017) 71

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Bug in groupby operations with timedelta64 when passing numeric_only=False (GH5724)

• Bug in groupby.apply() coercing object dtypes to numeric types, when not all values were numeric
(GH14423, GH15421, GH15670)
• Bug in resample, where a non-string loffset argument would not be applied when resampling a timeseries
(GH13218)
• Bug in DataFrame.groupby().describe() when grouping on Index containing tuples (GH14848)
• Bug in groupby().nunique() with a datetimelike-grouper where bins counts were incorrect (GH13453)
• Bug in groupby.transform() that would coerce the resultant dtypes back to the original (GH10972,
GH11444)
• Bug in groupby.agg() incorrectly localizing timezone on datetime (GH15426, GH10668, GH13046)
• Bug in .rolling/expanding() functions where count() was not counting np.Inf, nor handling
object dtypes (GH12541)
• Bug in .rolling() where pd.Timedelta or datetime.timedelta was not accepted as a window
argument (GH15440)
• Bug in Rolling.quantile function that caused a segmentation fault when called with a quantile value
outside of the range [0, 1] (GH15463)
• Bug in DataFrame.resample().median() if duplicate column names are present (GH14233)

1.4.7.6 Sparse

• Bug in SparseSeries.reindex on single level with list of length 1 (GH15447)

• Bug in repr-formatting a SparseDataFrame after a value was set on (a copy of) one of its series (GH15488)
• Bug in SparseDataFrame construction with lists not coercing to dtype (GH15682)
• Bug in sparse array indexing in which indices were not being validated (GH15863)

1.4.7.7 Reshaping

• Bug in pd.merge_asof() where left_index or right_index caused a failure when multiple by was
specified (GH15676)
• Bug in pd.merge_asof() where left_index/right_index together caused a failure when
tolerance was specified (GH15135)
• Bug in DataFrame.pivot_table() where dropna=True would not drop all-NaN columns when the
columns was a category dtype (GH15193)
• Bug in pd.melt() where passing a tuple value for value_vars caused a TypeError (GH15348)
• Bug in pd.pivot_table() where no error was raised when values argument was not in the columns
(GH14938)
• Bug in pd.concat() in which concatenating with an empty dataframe with join='inner' was being
improperly handled (GH15328)
• Bug with sort=True in DataFrame.join and pd.merge when joining on indexes (GH15582)
• Bug in DataFrame.nsmallest and DataFrame.nlargest where identical values resulted in dupli-
cated rows (GH15297)

72 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Bug in pandas.pivot_table() incorrectly raising UnicodeError when passing unicode input for
`margins keyword (GH13292)

1.4.7.8 Numeric

• Bug in .rank() which incorrectly ranks ordered categories (GH15420)

• Bug in .corr() and .cov() where the column and index were the same object (GH14617)
• Bug in .mode() where mode was not returned if was only a single value (GH15714)
• Bug in pd.cut() with a single bin on an all 0s array (GH15428)
• Bug in pd.qcut() with a single quantile and an array with identical values (GH15431)
• Bug in pandas.tools.utils.cartesian_product() with large input can cause overflow on win-
dows (GH15265)
• Bug in .eval() which caused multiline evals to fail with local variables not on the first line (GH15342)

1.4.7.9 Other

• Compat with SciPy 0.19.0 for testing on .interpolate() (GH15662)

• Compat for 32-bit platforms for .qcut/cut; bins will now be int64 dtype (GH14866)
• Bug in interactions with Qt when a QtApplication already exists (GH14372)
• Avoid use of np.finfo() during import pandas removed to mitigate deadlock on Python GIL misuse
(GH14641)

1.5 v0.19.2 (December 24, 2016)

This is a minor bug-fix release in the 0.19.x series and includes some small regression fixes, bug fixes and performance
improvements. We recommend that all users upgrade to this version.
Highlights include:
• Compatibility with Python 3.6
• Added a Pandas Cheat Sheet. (GH13202).

What’s new in v0.19.2

• Enhancements
• Performance Improvements
• Bug Fixes

1.5.1 Enhancements

The pd.merge_asof(), added in 0.19.0, gained some improvements:

• pd.merge_asof() gained left_index/right_index and left_by/right_by arguments
(GH14253)

1.5. v0.19.2 (December 24, 2016) 73

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• pd.merge_asof() can take multiple columns in by parameter and has specialized dtypes for better perfor-
mace (GH13936)

1.5.2 Performance Improvements

• Performance regression with PeriodIndex (GH14822)

• Performance regression in indexing with getitem (GH14930)
• Improved performance of .replace() (GH12745)
• Improved performance Series creation with a datetime index and dictionary data (GH14894)

1.5.3 Bug Fixes

• Compat with python 3.6 for pickling of some offsets (GH14685)

• Compat with python 3.6 for some indexing exception types (GH14684, GH14689)
• Compat with python 3.6 for deprecation warnings in the test suite (GH14681)
• Compat with python 3.6 for Timestamp pickles (GH14689)
• Compat with dateutil==2.6.0; segfault reported in the testing suite (GH14621)
• Allow nanoseconds in Timestamp.replace as a kwarg (GH14621)
• Bug in pd.read_csv in which aliasing was being done for na_values when passed in as a dictionary
(GH14203)
• Bug in pd.read_csv in which column indices for a dict-like na_values were not being respected
(GH14203)
• Bug in pd.read_csv where reading files fails, if the number of headers is equal to the number of lines in the
file (GH14515)
• Bug in pd.read_csv for the Python engine in which an unhelpful error message was being raised when
multi-char delimiters were not being respected with quotes (GH14582)
• Fix bugs (GH14734, GH13654) in pd.read_sas and pandas.io.sas.sas7bdat.SAS7BDATReader
that caused problems when reading a SAS file incrementally.
• Bug in pd.read_csv for the Python engine in which an unhelpful error message was being raised when
skipfooter was not being respected by Python’s CSV library (GH13879)
• Bug in .fillna() in which timezone aware datetime64 values were incorrectly rounded (GH14872)
• Bug in .groupby(..., sort=True) of a non-lexsorted MultiIndex when grouping with multiple levels
(GH14776)
• Bug in pd.cut with negative values and a single bin (GH14652)
• Bug in pd.to_numeric where a 0 was not unsigned on a downcast='unsigned' argument (GH14401)
• Bug in plotting regular and irregular timeseries using shared axes (sharex=True or ax.twinx())
(GH13341, GH14322).
• Bug in not propogating exceptions in parsing invalid datetimes, noted in python 3.6 (GH14561)
• Bug in resampling a DatetimeIndex in local TZ, covering a DST change, which would raise
AmbiguousTimeError (GH14682)
• Bug in indexing that transformed RecursionError into KeyError or IndexingError (GH14554)

74 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Bug in HDFStore when writing a MultiIndex when using data_columns=True (GH14435)

• Bug in HDFStore.append() when writing a Series and passing a min_itemsize argument containing
a value for the index (GH11412)
• Bug when writing to a HDFStore in table format with a min_itemsize value for the index and without
asking to append (GH10381)
• Bug in Series.groupby.nunique() raising an IndexError for an empty Series (GH12553)
• Bug in DataFrame.nlargest and DataFrame.nsmallest when the index had duplicate values
(GH13412)
• Bug in clipboard functions on linux with python2 with unicode and separators (GH13747)
• Bug in clipboard functions on Windows 10 and python 3 (GH14362, GH12807)
• Bug in .to_clipboard() and Excel compat (GH12529)
• Bug in DataFrame.combine_first() for integer columns (GH14687).
• Bug in pd.read_csv() in which the dtype parameter was not being respected for empty data (GH14712)
• Bug in pd.read_csv() in which the nrows parameter was not being respected for large input when using
the C engine for parsing (GH7626)
• Bug in pd.merge_asof() could not handle timezone-aware DatetimeIndex when a tolerance was specified
(GH14844)
• Explicit check in to_stata and StataWriter for out-of-range values when writing doubles (GH14618)
• Bug in .plot(kind='kde') which did not drop missing values to generate the KDE Plot, instead generating
an empty plot. (GH14821)
• Bug in unstack() if called with a list of column(s) as an argument, regardless of the dtypes of all columns,
they get coerced to object (GH11847)

1.6 v0.19.1 (November 3, 2016)

This is a minor bug-fix release from 0.19.0 and includes some small regression fixes, bug fixes and performance
improvements. We recommend that all users upgrade to this version.

What’s new in v0.19.1

• Performance Improvements
• Bug Fixes

1.6.1 Performance Improvements

• Fixed performance regression in factorization of Period data (GH14338)

• Fixed performance regression in Series.asof(where) when where is a scalar (GH14461)
• Improved performance in DataFrame.asof(where) when where is a scalar (GH14461)
• Improved performance in .to_json() when lines=True (GH14408)
• Improved performance in certain types of loc indexing with a MultiIndex (GH14551).

1.6. v0.19.1 (November 3, 2016) 75

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

1.6.2 Bug Fixes

• Source installs from PyPI will now again work without cython installed, as in previous versions (GH14204)
• Compat with Cython 0.25 for building (GH14496)
• Fixed regression where user-provided file handles were closed in read_csv (c engine) (GH14418).
• Fixed regression in DataFrame.quantile when missing values where present in some columns
(GH14357).
• Fixed regression in Index.difference where the freq of a DatetimeIndex was incorrectly set
(GH14323)
• Added back pandas.core.common.array_equivalent with a deprecation warning (GH14555).
• Bug in pd.read_csv for the C engine in which quotation marks were improperly parsed in skipped rows
(GH14459)
• Bug in pd.read_csv for Python 2.x in which Unicode quote characters were no longer being respected
(GH14477)
• Fixed regression in Index.append when categorical indices were appended (GH14545).
• Fixed regression in pd.DataFrame where constructor fails when given dict with None value (GH14381)
• Fixed regression in DatetimeIndex._maybe_cast_slice_bound when index is empty (GH14354).
• Bug in localizing an ambiguous timezone when a boolean is passed (GH14402)
• Bug in TimedeltaIndex addition with a Datetime-like object where addition overflow in the negative direc-
tion was not being caught (GH14068, GH14453)
• Bug in string indexing against data with object Index may raise AttributeError (GH14424)
• Corrrecly raise ValueError on empty input to pd.eval() and df.query() (GH13139)
• Bug in RangeIndex.intersection when result is a empty set (GH14364).
• Bug in groupby-transform broadcasting that could cause incorrect dtype coercion (GH14457)
• Bug in Series.__setitem__ which allowed mutating read-only arrays (GH14359).
• Bug in DataFrame.insert where multiple calls with duplicate columns can fail (GH14291)
• pd.merge() will raise ValueError with non-boolean parameters in passed boolean type arguments
(GH14434)
• Bug in Timestamp where dates very near the minimum (1677-09) could underflow on creation (GH14415)
• Bug in pd.concat where names of the keys were not propagated to the resulting MultiIndex (GH14252)
• Bug in pd.concat where axis cannot take string parameters 'rows' or 'columns' (GH14369)
• Bug in pd.concat with dataframes heterogeneous in length and tuple keys (GH14438)
• Bug in MultiIndex.set_levels where illegal level values were still set after raising an error (GH13754)
• Bug in DataFrame.to_json where lines=True and a value contained a } character (GH14391)
• Bug in df.groupby causing an AttributeError when grouping a single index frame by a column and
the index level (:issue‘14327‘)
• Bug in df.groupby where TypeError raised when pd.Grouper(key=...) is passed in a list
(GH14334)
• Bug in pd.pivot_table may raise TypeError or ValueError when index or columns is not scalar
and values is not specified (GH14380)

76 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

1.7 v0.19.0 (October 2, 2016)

This is a major release from 0.18.1 and includes number of API changes, several new features, enhancements, and
performance improvements along with a large number of bug fixes. We recommend that all users upgrade to this
version.
Highlights include:
• merge_asof() for asof-style time-series joining, see here
• .rolling() is now time-series aware, see here
• read_csv() now supports parsing Categorical data, see here
• A function union_categorical() has been added for combining categoricals, see here
• PeriodIndex now has its own period dtype, and changed to be more consistent with other Index classes.
See here
• Sparse data structures gained enhanced support of int and bool dtypes, see here
• Comparison operations with Series no longer ignores the index, see here for an overview of the API changes.
• Introduction of a pandas development API for utility functions, see here.
• Deprecation of Panel4D and PanelND. We recommend to represent these types of n-dimensional data with
the xarray package.
• Removal of the previously deprecated modules pandas.io.data, pandas.io.wb, pandas.tools.
rplot.

Warning: pandas >= 0.19.0 will no longer silence numpy ufunc warnings upon import, see here.

What’s new in v0.19.0

• New features
– merge_asof for asof-style time-series joining
– .rolling() is now time-series aware
– read_csv has improved support for duplicate column names
– read_csv supports parsing Categorical directly
– Categorical Concatenation
– Semi-Month Offsets
– New Index methods
– Google BigQuery Enhancements
– Fine-grained numpy errstate
– get_dummies now returns integer dtypes
– Downcast values to smallest possible dtype in to_numeric
– pandas development API
– Other enhancements

1.7. v0.19.0 (October 2, 2016) 77

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• API changes
– Series.tolist() will now return Python types
– Series operators for different indexes

* Arithmetic operators
* Comparison operators
* Logical operators
* Flexible comparison methods
– Series type promotion on assignment
– .to_datetime() changes
– Merging changes
– .describe() changes
– Period changes

* PeriodIndex now has period dtype

* Period('NaT') now returns pd.NaT
* PeriodIndex.values now returns array of Period object
– Index + / - no longer used for set operations
– Index.difference and .symmetric_difference changes
– Index.unique consistently returns Index
– MultiIndex constructors, groupby and set_index preserve categorical dtypes
– read_csv will progressively enumerate chunks
– Sparse Changes

* int64 and bool support enhancements

* Operators now preserve dtypes
* Other sparse fixes
– Indexer dtype changes
– Other API Changes
• Deprecations
• Removal of prior version deprecations/changes
• Performance Improvements
• Bug Fixes

1.7.1 New features

1.7.1.1 merge_asof for asof-style time-series joining

A long-time requested feature has been added through the merge_asof() function, to support asof style joining of
time-series (GH1870, GH13695, GH13709, GH13902). Full documentation is here.

78 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

The merge_asof() performs an asof merge, which is similar to a left-join except that we match on nearest key
rather than equal keys.

In [1]: left = pd.DataFrame({'a': [1, 5, 10],

...: 'left_val': ['a', 'b', 'c']})
...:

In [2]: right = pd.DataFrame({'a': [1, 2, 3, 6, 7],

...: 'right_val': [1, 2, 3, 6, 7]})
...:

In [3]: left
Out[3]:
a left_val
0 1 a
1 5 b
2 10 c

In [4]: right
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[4]:
a right_val
0 1 1
1 2 2
2 3 3
3 6 6
4 7 7

We typically want to match exactly when possible, and use the most recent value otherwise.

In [5]: pd.merge_asof(left, right, on='a')

Out[5]:
a left_val right_val
0 1 a 1
1 5 b 3
2 10 c 7

We can also match rows ONLY with prior data, and not an exact match.

In [6]: pd.merge_asof(left, right, on='a', allow_exact_matches=False)

Out[6]:
a left_val right_val
0 1 a NaN
1 5 b 3.0
2 10 c 7.0

In a typical time-series example, we have trades and quotes and we want to asof-join them. This also
illustrates using the by parameter to group data before merging.

In [7]: trades = pd.DataFrame({

...: 'time': pd.to_datetime(['20160525 13:30:00.023',
...: '20160525 13:30:00.038',
...: '20160525 13:30:00.048',
...: '20160525 13:30:00.048',
...: '20160525 13:30:00.048']),
...: 'ticker': ['MSFT', 'MSFT',
...: 'GOOG', 'GOOG', 'AAPL'],
...: 'price': [51.95, 51.95,
...: 720.77, 720.92, 98.00],

1.7. v0.19.0 (October 2, 2016) 79

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

...: 'quantity': [75, 155,

...: 100, 100, 100]},
...: columns=['time', 'ticker', 'price', 'quantity'])
...:

In [8]: quotes = pd.DataFrame({

...: 'time': pd.to_datetime(['20160525 13:30:00.023',
...: '20160525 13:30:00.023',
...: '20160525 13:30:00.030',
...: '20160525 13:30:00.041',
...: '20160525 13:30:00.048',
...: '20160525 13:30:00.049',
...: '20160525 13:30:00.072',
...: '20160525 13:30:00.075']),
...: 'ticker': ['GOOG', 'MSFT', 'MSFT',
...: 'MSFT', 'GOOG', 'AAPL', 'GOOG',
...: 'MSFT'],
...: 'bid': [720.50, 51.95, 51.97, 51.99,
...: 720.50, 97.99, 720.50, 52.01],
...: 'ask': [720.93, 51.96, 51.98, 52.00,
...: 720.93, 98.01, 720.88, 52.03]},
...: columns=['time', 'ticker', 'bid', 'ask'])
...:

In [9]: trades
Out[9]:
time ticker price quantity
0 2016-05-25 13:30:00.023 MSFT 51.95 75
1 2016-05-25 13:30:00.038 MSFT 51.95 155
2 2016-05-25 13:30:00.048 GOOG 720.77 100
3 2016-05-25 13:30:00.048 GOOG 720.92 100
4 2016-05-25 13:30:00.048 AAPL 98.00 100

In [10]: quotes
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

time ticker bid ask

0 2016-05-25 13:30:00.023 GOOG 720.50 720.93
1 2016-05-25 13:30:00.023 MSFT 51.95 51.96
2 2016-05-25 13:30:00.030 MSFT 51.97 51.98
3 2016-05-25 13:30:00.041 MSFT 51.99 52.00
4 2016-05-25 13:30:00.048 GOOG 720.50 720.93
5 2016-05-25 13:30:00.049 AAPL 97.99 98.01
6 2016-05-25 13:30:00.072 GOOG 720.50 720.88
7 2016-05-25 13:30:00.075 MSFT 52.01 52.03

An asof merge joins on the on, typically a datetimelike field, which is ordered, and in this case we are using a grouper
in the by field. This is like a left-outer join, except that forward filling happens automatically taking the most recent
non-NaN value.

In [11]: pd.merge_asof(trades, quotes,

....: on='time',
....: by='ticker')
....:
Out[11]:
time ticker price quantity bid ask
0 2016-05-25 13:30:00.023 MSFT 51.95 75 51.95 51.96

80 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

1 2016-05-25 13:30:00.038 MSFT 51.95 155 51.97 51.98

2 2016-05-25 13:30:00.048 GOOG 720.77 100 720.50 720.93
3 2016-05-25 13:30:00.048 GOOG 720.92 100 720.50 720.93
4 2016-05-25 13:30:00.048 AAPL 98.00 100 NaN NaN

This returns a merged DataFrame with the entries in the same order as the original left passed DataFrame (trades
in this case), with the fields of the quotes merged.

1.7.1.2 .rolling() is now time-series aware

.rolling() objects are now time-series aware and can accept a time-series offset (or convertible) for the window
argument (GH13327, GH12995). See the full documentation here.

In [12]: dft = pd.DataFrame({'B': [0, 1, 2, np.nan, 4]},

....: index=pd.date_range('20130101 09:00:00', periods=5, freq=
˓→'s'))

....:

In [13]: dft
Out[13]:
B
2013-01-01 09:00:00 0.0
2013-01-01 09:00:01 1.0
2013-01-01 09:00:02 2.0
2013-01-01 09:00:03 NaN
2013-01-01 09:00:04 4.0

This is a regular frequency index. Using an integer window parameter works to roll along the window frequency.

In [14]: dft.rolling(2).sum()
Out[14]:
B
2013-01-01 09:00:00 NaN
2013-01-01 09:00:01 1.0
2013-01-01 09:00:02 3.0
2013-01-01 09:00:03 NaN
2013-01-01 09:00:04 NaN

In [15]: dft.rolling(2, min_periods=1).sum()

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

B
2013-01-01 09:00:00 0.0
2013-01-01 09:00:01 1.0
2013-01-01 09:00:02 3.0
2013-01-01 09:00:03 2.0
2013-01-01 09:00:04 4.0

Specifying an offset allows a more intuitive specification of the rolling frequency.

In [16]: dft.rolling('2s').sum()
Out[16]:
B
2013-01-01 09:00:00 0.0
2013-01-01 09:00:01 1.0
2013-01-01 09:00:02 3.0

1.7. v0.19.0 (October 2, 2016) 81

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

2013-01-01 09:00:03 2.0

2013-01-01 09:00:04 4.0

Using a non-regular, but still monotonic index, rolling with an integer window does not impart any special calculation.
In [17]: dft = DataFrame({'B': [0, 1, 2, np.nan, 4]},
....: index = pd.Index([pd.Timestamp('20130101 09:00:00'),
....: pd.Timestamp('20130101 09:00:02'),
....: pd.Timestamp('20130101 09:00:03'),
....: pd.Timestamp('20130101 09:00:05'),
....: pd.Timestamp('20130101 09:00:06')],
....: name='foo'))
....:

In [18]: dft
Out[18]:
B
foo
2013-01-01 09:00:00 0.0
2013-01-01 09:00:02 1.0
2013-01-01 09:00:03 2.0
2013-01-01 09:00:05 NaN
2013-01-01 09:00:06 4.0

In [19]: dft.rolling(2).sum()
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

B
foo
2013-01-01 09:00:00 NaN
2013-01-01 09:00:02 1.0
2013-01-01 09:00:03 3.0
2013-01-01 09:00:05 NaN
2013-01-01 09:00:06 NaN

Using the time-specification generates variable windows for this sparse data.
In [20]: dft.rolling('2s').sum()
Out[20]:
B
foo
2013-01-01 09:00:00 0.0
2013-01-01 09:00:02 1.0
2013-01-01 09:00:03 3.0
2013-01-01 09:00:05 NaN
2013-01-01 09:00:06 4.0

Furthermore, we now allow an optional on parameter to specify a column (rather than the default of the index) in a
DataFrame.
In [21]: dft = dft.reset_index()

In [22]: dft
Out[22]:
foo B
0 2013-01-01 09:00:00 0.0
1 2013-01-01 09:00:02 1.0
2 2013-01-01 09:00:03 2.0

82 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

3 2013-01-01 09:00:05 NaN

4 2013-01-01 09:00:06 4.0

In [23]: dft.rolling('2s', on='foo').sum()

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

foo B
0 2013-01-01 09:00:00 0.0
1 2013-01-01 09:00:02 1.0
2 2013-01-01 09:00:03 3.0
3 2013-01-01 09:00:05 NaN
4 2013-01-01 09:00:06 4.0

1.7.1.3 read_csv has improved support for duplicate column names

Duplicate column names are now supported in read_csv() whether they are in the file or passed in as the names
parameter (GH7160, GH9424)
In [24]: data = '0,1,2\n3,4,5'

In [25]: names = ['a', 'b', 'a']

Previous behavior:
In [2]: pd.read_csv(StringIO(data), names=names)
Out[2]:
a b a
0 2 1 2
1 5 4 5

The first a column contained the same data as the second a column, when it should have contained the values [0,
3].
New behavior:
In [26]: pd.read_csv(StringIO(data), names=names)
Out[26]:
a b a.1
0 0 1 2
1 3 4 5

1.7.1.4 read_csv supports parsing Categorical directly

The read_csv() function now supports parsing a Categorical column when specified as a dtype (GH10153).
Depending on the structure of the data, this can result in a faster parse time and lower memory usage compared to
converting to Categorical after parsing. See the io docs here.
In [27]: data = 'col1,col2,col3\na,b,1\na,b,2\nc,d,3'

In [28]: pd.read_csv(StringIO(data))
Out[28]:
col1 col2 col3
0 a b 1
1 a b 2
2 c d 3

1.7. v0.19.0 (October 2, 2016) 83

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [29]: pd.read_csv(StringIO(data)).dtypes
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[29]:
˓→

col1 object
col2 object
col3 int64
dtype: object

In [30]: pd.read_csv(StringIO(data), dtype='category').dtypes

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

col1 category
col2 category
col3 category
dtype: object

Individual columns can be parsed as a Categorical using a dict specification

In [31]: pd.read_csv(StringIO(data), dtype={'col1': 'category'}).dtypes

Out[31]:
col1 category
col2 object
col3 int64
dtype: object

Note: The resulting categories will always be parsed as strings (object dtype). If the categories are numeric they can
be converted using the to_numeric() function, or as appropriate, another converter such as to_datetime().

In [32]: df = pd.read_csv(StringIO(data), dtype='category')

In [33]: df.dtypes
Out[33]:
col1 category
col2 category
col3 category
dtype: object

In [34]: df['col3']
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[34]:
0 1
1 2
2 3
Name: col3, dtype: category
Categories (3, object): [1, 2, 3]

In [35]: df['col3'].cat.categories = pd.to_numeric(df['col3'].cat.categories)

In [36]: df['col3']
Out[36]:
0 1
1 2
2 3
Name: col3, dtype: category
Categories (3, int64): [1, 2, 3]

84 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

1.7.1.5 Categorical Concatenation

• A function union_categoricals() has been added for combining categoricals, see Unioning Categoricals
(GH13361, GH:13763, issue:13846, GH14173)

In [37]: from pandas.api.types import union_categoricals

In [38]: a = pd.Categorical(["b", "c"])

In [39]: b = pd.Categorical(["a", "b"])

In [40]: union_categoricals([a, b])

Out[40]:
[b, c, a, b]
Categories (3, object): [b, c, a]

• concat and append now can concat category dtypes with different categories as object dtype
(GH13524)

In [41]: s1 = pd.Series(['a', 'b'], dtype='category')

In [42]: s2 = pd.Series(['b', 'c'], dtype='category')

Previous behavior:

In [1]: pd.concat([s1, s2])

ValueError: incompatible categories in categorical concat

New behavior:

In [43]: pd.concat([s1, s2])

Out[43]:
0 a
1 b
0 b
1 c
dtype: object

1.7.1.6 Semi-Month Offsets

Pandas has gained new frequency offsets, SemiMonthEnd (‘SM’) and SemiMonthBegin (‘SMS’). These provide
date offsets anchored (by default) to the 15th and end of month, and 15th and 1st of month respectively. (GH1543)

In [44]: from pandas.tseries.offsets import SemiMonthEnd, SemiMonthBegin

SemiMonthEnd:

In [45]: Timestamp('2016-01-01') + SemiMonthEnd()

Out[45]: Timestamp('2016-01-15 00:00:00')

In [46]: pd.date_range('2015-01-01', freq='SM', periods=4)

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[46]: DatetimeIndex(['2015-01-15', '2015-
˓→01-31', '2015-02-15', '2015-02-28'], dtype='datetime64[ns]', freq='SM-15')

SemiMonthBegin:

1.7. v0.19.0 (October 2, 2016) 85

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [47]: Timestamp('2016-01-01') + SemiMonthBegin()

Out[47]: Timestamp('2016-01-15 00:00:00')

In [48]: pd.date_range('2015-01-01', freq='SMS', periods=4)

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[48]: DatetimeIndex(['2015-01-01', '2015-
˓→01-15', '2015-02-01', '2015-02-15'], dtype='datetime64[ns]', freq='SMS-15')

Using the anchoring suffix, you can also specify the day of month to use instead of the 15th.

In [49]: pd.date_range('2015-01-01', freq='SMS-16', periods=4)

Out[49]: DatetimeIndex(['2015-01-01', '2015-01-16', '2015-02-01', '2015-02-16'],
˓→dtype='datetime64[ns]', freq='SMS-16')

In [50]: pd.date_range('2015-01-01', freq='SM-14', periods=4)

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→DatetimeIndex(['2015-01-14', '2015-01-31', '2015-02-14', '2015-02-28'], dtype=

˓→'datetime64[ns]', freq='SM-14')

1.7.1.7 New Index methods

The following methods and options are added to Index, to be more consistent with the Series and DataFrame
API.
Index now supports the .where() function for same shape indexing (GH13170)

In [51]: idx = pd.Index(['a', 'b', 'c'])

In [52]: idx.where([True, False, True])

Out[52]: Index(['a', nan, 'c'], dtype='object')

Index now supports .dropna() to exclude missing values (GH6194)

In [53]: idx = pd.Index([1, 2, np.nan, 4])

In [54]: idx.dropna()
Out[54]: Float64Index([1.0, 2.0, 4.0], dtype='float64')

For MultiIndex, values are dropped if any level is missing by default. Specifying how='all' only drops values
where all levels are missing.

In [55]: midx = pd.MultiIndex.from_arrays([[1, 2, np.nan, 4],

....: [1, 2, np.nan, np.nan]])
....:

In [56]: midx
Out[56]:
MultiIndex(levels=[[1, 2, 4], [1, 2]],
labels=[[0, 1, -1, 2], [0, 1, -1, -1]])

In [57]: midx.dropna()
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\O
˓→

MultiIndex(levels=[[1, 2, 4], [1, 2]],

labels=[[0, 1], [0, 1]])

In [58]: midx.dropna(how='all')

86 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

MultiIndex(levels=[[1, 2, 4], [1, 2]],

labels=[[0, 1, 2], [0, 1, -1]])

Index now supports .str.extractall() which returns a DataFrame, see the docs here (GH10008, GH13156)

In [59]: idx = pd.Index(["a1a2", "b1", "c1"])

In [60]: idx.str.extractall("[ab](?P<digit>\d)")
Out[60]:
digit
match
0 0 1
1 2
1 0 1

Index.astype() now accepts an optional boolean argument copy, which allows optional copying if the require-
ments on dtype are satisfied (GH13209)

1.7.1.8 Google BigQuery Enhancements

• The read_gbq() method has gained the dialect argument to allow users to specify whether to use Big-
Query’s legacy SQL or BigQuery’s standard SQL. See the docs for more details (GH13615).
• The to_gbq() method now allows the DataFrame column order to differ from the destination table schema
(GH11359).

1.7.1.9 Fine-grained numpy errstate

Previous versions of pandas would permanently silence numpy’s ufunc error handling when pandas was imported.
Pandas did this in order to silence the warnings that would arise from using numpy ufuncs on missing data, which are
usually represented as NaN s. Unfortunately, this silenced legitimate warnings arising in non-pandas code in the ap-
plication. Starting with 0.19.0, pandas will use the numpy.errstate context manager to silence these warnings in
a more fine-grained manner, only around where these operations are actually used in the pandas codebase. (GH13109,
GH13145)
After upgrading pandas, you may see new RuntimeWarnings being issued from your code. These are likely legiti-
mate, and the underlying cause likely existed in the code when using previous versions of pandas that simply silenced
the warning. Use numpy.errstate around the source of the RuntimeWarning to control how these conditions are
handled.

1.7.1.10 get_dummies now returns integer dtypes

The pd.get_dummies function now returns dummy-encoded columns as small integers, rather than floats
(GH8725). This should provide an improved memory footprint.
Previous behavior:

In [1]: pd.get_dummies(['a', 'b', 'a', 'c']).dtypes

Out[1]:
a float64
b float64

1.7. v0.19.0 (October 2, 2016) 87

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

c float64
dtype: object

New behavior:
In [61]: pd.get_dummies(['a', 'b', 'a', 'c']).dtypes
Out[61]:
a uint8
b uint8
c uint8
dtype: object

1.7.1.11 Downcast values to smallest possible dtype in to_numeric

pd.to_numeric() now accepts a downcast parameter, which will downcast the data if possible to smallest
specified numerical dtype (GH13352)
In [62]: s = ['1', 2, 3]

In [63]: pd.to_numeric(s, downcast='unsigned')

Out[63]: array([1, 2, 3], dtype=uint8)

In [64]: pd.to_numeric(s, downcast='integer')

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[64]: array([1, 2, 3], dtype=int8)

1.7.1.12 pandas development API

As part of making pandas API more uniform and accessible in the future, we have created a standard sub-package of
pandas, pandas.api to hold public API’s. We are starting by exposing type introspection functions in pandas.
api.types. More sub-packages and officially sanctioned API’s will be published in future versions of pandas
(GH13147, GH13634)
The following are now part of this API:
In [65]: import pprint

In [66]: from pandas.api import types

In [67]: funcs = [ f for f in dir(types) if not f.startswith('_') ]

In [68]: pprint.pprint(funcs)
['CategoricalDtype',
'DatetimeTZDtype',
'IntervalDtype',
'PeriodDtype',
'infer_dtype',
'is_any_int_dtype',
'is_bool',
'is_bool_dtype',
'is_categorical',
'is_categorical_dtype',
'is_complex',
'is_complex_dtype',
'is_datetime64_any_dtype',
'is_datetime64_dtype',

88 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

'is_datetime64_ns_dtype',
'is_datetime64tz_dtype',
'is_datetimetz',
'is_dict_like',
'is_dtype_equal',
'is_extension_type',
'is_file_like',
'is_float',
'is_float_dtype',
'is_floating_dtype',
'is_hashable',
'is_int64_dtype',
'is_integer',
'is_integer_dtype',
'is_interval',
'is_interval_dtype',
'is_iterator',
'is_list_like',
'is_named_tuple',
'is_number',
'is_numeric_dtype',
'is_object_dtype',
'is_period',
'is_period_dtype',
'is_re',
'is_re_compilable',
'is_scalar',
'is_sequence',
'is_signed_integer_dtype',
'is_sparse',
'is_string_dtype',
'is_timedelta64_dtype',
'is_timedelta64_ns_dtype',
'is_unsigned_integer_dtype',
'pandas_dtype',
'union_categoricals']

Note: Calling these functions from the internal module pandas.core.common will now show a
DeprecationWarning (GH13990)

1.7.1.13 Other enhancements

• Timestamp can now accept positional and keyword parameters similar to datetime.datetime()
(GH10758, GH11630)

In [69]: pd.Timestamp(2012, 1, 1)
Out[69]: Timestamp('2012-01-01 00:00:00')

In [70]: pd.Timestamp(year=2012, month=1, day=1, hour=8, minute=30)

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[70]: Timestamp('2012-01-01 08:30:00
˓→')

• The .resample() function now accepts a on= or level= parameter for resampling on a datetimelike col-
umn or MultiIndex level (GH13500)

1.7. v0.19.0 (October 2, 2016) 89

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [71]: df = pd.DataFrame({'date': pd.date_range('2015-01-01', freq='W',

˓→periods=5),

....: 'a': np.arange(5)},

....: index=pd.MultiIndex.from_arrays([
....: [1,2,3,4,5],
....: pd.date_range('2015-01-01', freq='W',
˓→periods=5)],

....: names=['v','d']))
....:

In [72]: df
Out[72]:
a date
v d
1 2015-01-04 0 2015-01-04
2 2015-01-11 1 2015-01-11
3 2015-01-18 2 2015-01-18
4 2015-01-25 3 2015-01-25
5 2015-02-01 4 2015-02-01

In [73]: df.resample('M', on='date').sum()

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

a
date
2015-01-31 6
2015-02-28 4

In [74]: df.resample('M', level='d').sum()

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

a
d
2015-01-31 6
2015-02-28 4

• The .get_credentials() method of GbqConnector can now first try to fetch the application default
credentials. See the docs for more details (GH13577).
• The .tz_localize() method of DatetimeIndex and Timestamp has gained the errors keyword,
so you can potentially coerce nonexistent timestamps to NaT. The default behavior remains to raising a
NonExistentTimeError (GH13057)
• .to_hdf/read_hdf() now accept path objects (e.g. pathlib.Path, py.path.local) for the file
path (GH11773)
• The pd.read_csv() with engine='python' has gained support for the decimal (GH12933),
na_filter (GH13321) and the memory_map option (GH13381).
• Consistent with the Python API, pd.read_csv() will now interpret +inf as positive infinity (GH13274)
• The pd.read_html() has gained support for the na_values, converters, keep_default_na op-
tions (GH13461)
• Categorical.astype() now accepts an optional boolean argument copy, effective when dtype is cate-
gorical (GH13209)
• DataFrame has gained the .asof() method to return the last non-NaN values according to the selected
subset (GH13358)

90 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• The DataFrame constructor will now respect key ordering if a list of OrderedDict objects are passed in
(GH13304)
• pd.read_html() has gained support for the decimal option (GH12907)
• Series has gained the properties .is_monotonic, .is_monotonic_increasing, .
is_monotonic_decreasing, similar to Index (GH13336)
• DataFrame.to_sql() now allows a single value as the SQL type for all columns (GH11886).
• Series.append now supports the ignore_index option (GH13677)
• .to_stata() and StataWriter can now write variable labels to Stata dta files using a dictionary to make
column names to labels (GH13535, GH13536)
• .to_stata() and StataWriter will automatically convert datetime64[ns] columns to Stata format
%tc, rather than raising a ValueError (GH12259)
• read_stata() and StataReader raise with a more explicit error message when reading Stata files with
repeated value labels when convert_categoricals=True (GH13923)
• DataFrame.style will now render sparsified MultiIndexes (GH11655)
• DataFrame.style will now show column level names (e.g. DataFrame.columns.names) (GH13775)
• DataFrame has gained support to re-order the columns based on the values in a row using df.
sort_values(by='...', axis=1) (GH10806)

In [75]: df = pd.DataFrame({'A': [2, 7], 'B': [3, 5], 'C': [4, 8]},
....: index=['row1', 'row2'])
....:

In [76]: df
Out[76]:
A B C
row1 2 3 4
row2 7 5 8

In [77]: df.sort_values(by='row2', axis=1)

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[77]:
B A C
row1 3 2 4
row2 5 7 8

• Added documentation to I/O regarding the perils of reading in columns with mixed dtypes and how to handle it
(GH13746)
• to_html() now has a border argument to control the value in the opening <table> tag. The default is the
value of the html.border option, which defaults to 1. This also affects the notebook HTML repr, but since
Jupyter’s CSS includes a border-width attribute, the visual effect is the same. (GH11563).
• Raise ImportError in the sql functions when sqlalchemy is not installed and a connection string is used
(GH11920).
• Compatibility with matplotlib 2.0. Older versions of pandas should also work with matplotlib 2.0 (GH13333)
• Timestamp, Period, DatetimeIndex, PeriodIndex and .dt accessor have gained a .
is_leap_year property to check whether the date belongs to a leap year. (GH13727)
• astype() will now accept a dict of column name to data types mapping as the dtype argument. (GH12086)
• The pd.read_json and DataFrame.to_json has gained support for reading and writing json lines with
lines option see Line delimited json (GH9180)

1.7. v0.19.0 (October 2, 2016) 91

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• read_excel() now supports the true_values and false_values keyword arguments (GH13347)
• groupby() will now accept a scalar and a single-element list for specifying level on a non-MultiIndex
grouper. (GH13907)
• Non-convertible dates in an excel date column will be returned without conversion and the column will be
object dtype, rather than raising an exception (GH10001).
• pd.Timedelta(None) is now accepted and will return NaT, mirroring pd.Timestamp (GH13687)
• pd.read_stata() can now handle some format 111 files, which are produced by SAS when generating
Stata dta files (GH11526)
• Series and Index now support divmod which will return a tuple of series or indices. This behaves like a
standard binary operator with regards to broadcasting rules (GH14208).

1.7.2 API changes

1.7.2.1 Series.tolist() will now return Python types

Series.tolist() will now return Python types in the output, mimicking NumPy .tolist() behavior
(GH10904)

In [78]: s = pd.Series([1,2,3])

Previous behavior:

In [7]: type(s.tolist()[0])
Out[7]:
<class 'numpy.int64'>

New behavior:

In [79]: type(s.tolist()[0])
Out[79]: int

1.7.2.2 Series operators for different indexes

Following Series operators have been changed to make all operators consistent, including DataFrame (GH1134,
GH4581, GH13538)
• Series comparison operators now raise ValueError when index are different.
• Series logical operators align both index of left and right hand side.

Warning: Until 0.18.1, comparing Series with the same length, would succeed even if the .index are
different (the result ignores .index). As of 0.19.0, this will raises ValueError to be more strict. This section
also describes how to keep previous behavior or align different indexes, using the flexible comparison methods like
.eq.

As a result, Series and DataFrame operators behave as below:

92 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Arithmetic operators

Arithmetic operators align both index (no changes).

In [80]: s1 = pd.Series([1, 2, 3], index=list('ABC'))

In [81]: s2 = pd.Series([2, 2, 2], index=list('ABD'))

In [82]: s1 + s2
Out[82]:
A 3.0
B 4.0
C NaN
D NaN
dtype: float64

In [83]: df1 = pd.DataFrame([1, 2, 3], index=list('ABC'))

In [84]: df2 = pd.DataFrame([2, 2, 2], index=list('ABD'))

In [85]: df1 + df2

Out[85]:
0
A 3.0
B 4.0
C NaN
D NaN

Comparison operators

Comparison operators raise ValueError when .index are different.

Previous Behavior (Series):
Series compared values ignoring the .index as long as both had the same length:
In [1]: s1 == s2
Out[1]:
A False
B True
C False
dtype: bool

New behavior (Series):

In [2]: s1 == s2
Out[2]:
ValueError: Can only compare identically-labeled Series objects

Note: To achieve the same result as previous versions (compare values based on locations ignoring .index),
compare both .values.
In [86]: s1.values == s2.values
Out[86]: array([False, True, False], dtype=bool)

If you want to compare Series aligning its .index, see flexible comparison methods section below:

1.7. v0.19.0 (October 2, 2016) 93

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [87]: s1.eq(s2)
Out[87]:
A False
B True
C False
D False
dtype: bool

Current Behavior (DataFrame, no change):

In [3]: df1 == df2

Out[3]:
ValueError: Can only compare identically-labeled DataFrame objects

Logical operators

Logical operators align both .index of left and right hand side.
Previous behavior (Series), only left hand side index was kept:

In [4]: s1 = pd.Series([True, False, True], index=list('ABC'))

In [5]: s2 = pd.Series([True, True, True], index=list('ABD'))
In [6]: s1 & s2
Out[6]:
A True
B False
C False
dtype: bool

New behavior (Series):

In [88]: s1 = pd.Series([True, False, True], index=list('ABC'))

In [89]: s2 = pd.Series([True, True, True], index=list('ABD'))

In [90]: s1 & s2
Out[90]:
A True
B False
C False
D False
dtype: bool

Note: Series logical operators fill a NaN result with False.

Note: To achieve the same result as previous versions (compare values based on only left hand side index), you can
use reindex_like:

In [91]: s1 & s2.reindex_like(s1)

Out[91]:
A True
B False

94 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

C False
dtype: bool

Current Behavior (DataFrame, no change):

In [92]: df1 = pd.DataFrame([True, False, True], index=list('ABC'))

In [93]: df2 = pd.DataFrame([True, True, True], index=list('ABD'))

In [94]: df1 & df2

Out[94]:
0
A True
B False
C NaN
D NaN

Flexible comparison methods

Series flexible comparison methods like eq, ne, le, lt, ge and gt now align both index. Use these operators
if you want to compare two Series which has the different index.
In [95]: s1 = pd.Series([1, 2, 3], index=['a', 'b', 'c'])

In [96]: s2 = pd.Series([2, 2, 2], index=['b', 'c', 'd'])

In [97]: s1.eq(s2)
Out[97]:
a False
b True
c False
d False
dtype: bool

In [98]: s1.ge(s2)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[98]:
a False
b True
c True
d False
dtype: bool

Previously, this worked the same as comparison operators (see above).

1.7.2.3 Series type promotion on assignment

A Series will now correctly promote its dtype for assignment with incompat values to the current dtype (GH13234)
In [99]: s = pd.Series()

Previous behavior:
In [2]: s["a"] = pd.Timestamp("2016-01-01")

1.7. v0.19.0 (October 2, 2016) 95

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [3]: s["b"] = 3.0

TypeError: invalid type promotion

New behavior:

In [100]: s["a"] = pd.Timestamp("2016-01-01")

In [101]: s["b"] = 3.0

In [102]: s
Out[102]:
a 2016-01-01 00:00:00
b 3
dtype: object

In [103]: s.dtype
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[103]:
˓→dtype('O')

1.7.2.4 .to_datetime() changes

Previously if .to_datetime() encountered mixed integers/floats and strings, but no datetimes with
errors='coerce' it would convert all to NaT.
Previous behavior:

In [2]: pd.to_datetime([1, 'foo'], errors='coerce')

Out[2]: DatetimeIndex(['NaT', 'NaT'], dtype='datetime64[ns]', freq=None)

Current behavior:
This will now convert integers/floats with the default unit of ns.

In [104]: pd.to_datetime([1, 'foo'], errors='coerce')

Out[104]: DatetimeIndex(['1970-01-01 00:00:00.000000001', 'NaT'], dtype=
˓→'datetime64[ns]', freq=None)

Bug fixes related to .to_datetime():

• Bug in pd.to_datetime() when passing integers or floats, and no unit and errors='coerce'
(GH13180).
• Bug in pd.to_datetime() when passing invalid datatypes (e.g. bool); will now respect the errors key-
word (GH13176)
• Bug in pd.to_datetime() which overflowed on int8, and int16 dtypes (GH13451)
• Bug in pd.to_datetime() raise AttributeError with NaN and the other string is not valid when
errors='ignore' (GH12424)
• Bug in pd.to_datetime() did not cast floats correctly when unit was specified, resulting in truncated
datetime (GH13834)

1.7.2.5 Merging changes

Merging will now preserve the dtype of the join keys (GH8596)

96 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [105]: df1 = pd.DataFrame({'key': [1], 'v1': [10]})

In [106]: df1
Out[106]:
key v1
0 1 10

In [107]: df2 = pd.DataFrame({'key': [1, 2], 'v1': [20, 30]})

In [108]: df2
Out[108]:
key v1
0 1 20
1 2 30

Previous behavior:

In [5]: pd.merge(df1, df2, how='outer')

Out[5]:
key v1
0 1.0 10.0
1 1.0 20.0
2 2.0 30.0

In [6]: pd.merge(df1, df2, how='outer').dtypes

Out[6]:
key float64
v1 float64
dtype: object

New behavior:
We are able to preserve the join keys

In [109]: pd.merge(df1, df2, how='outer')

Out[109]:
key v1
0 1 10
1 1 20
2 2 30

In [110]: pd.merge(df1, df2, how='outer').dtypes

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[110]:
key int64
v1 int64
dtype: object

Of course if you have missing values that are introduced, then the resulting dtype will be upcast, which is unchanged
from previous.

In [111]: pd.merge(df1, df2, how='outer', on='key')

Out[111]:
key v1_x v1_y
0 1 10.0 20
1 2 NaN 30

In [112]: pd.merge(df1, df2, how='outer', on='key').dtypes

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[112]:

1.7. v0.19.0 (October 2, 2016) 97

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

key int64
v1_x float64
v1_y int64
dtype: object

1.7.2.6 .describe() changes

Percentile identifiers in the index of a .describe() output will now be rounded to the least precision that keeps
them distinct (GH13104)
In [113]: s = pd.Series([0, 1, 2, 3, 4])

In [114]: df = pd.DataFrame([0, 1, 2, 3, 4])

Previous behavior:
The percentiles were rounded to at most one decimal place, which could raise ValueError for a data frame if the
percentiles were duplicated.
In [3]: s.describe(percentiles=[0.0001, 0.0005, 0.001, 0.999, 0.9995, 0.9999])
Out[3]:
count 5.000000
mean 2.000000
std 1.581139
min 0.000000
0.0% 0.000400
0.1% 0.002000
0.1% 0.004000
50% 2.000000
99.9% 3.996000
100.0% 3.998000
100.0% 3.999600
max 4.000000
dtype: float64

In [4]: df.describe(percentiles=[0.0001, 0.0005, 0.001, 0.999, 0.9995, 0.9999])

Out[4]:
...
ValueError: cannot reindex from a duplicate axis

New behavior:
In [115]: s.describe(percentiles=[0.0001, 0.0005, 0.001, 0.999, 0.9995, 0.9999])
Out[115]:
count 5.000000
mean 2.000000
std 1.581139
min 0.000000
0.01% 0.000400
0.05% 0.002000
0.1% 0.004000
50% 2.000000
99.9% 3.996000
99.95% 3.998000
99.99% 3.999600
max 4.000000
dtype: float64

98 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [116]: df.describe(percentiles=[0.0001, 0.0005, 0.001, 0.999, 0.9995, 0.9999])

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

0
count 5.000000
mean 2.000000
std 1.581139
min 0.000000
0.01% 0.000400
0.05% 0.002000
0.1% 0.004000
50% 2.000000
99.9% 3.996000
99.95% 3.998000
99.99% 3.999600
max 4.000000

Furthermore:
• Passing duplicated percentiles will now raise a ValueError.
• Bug in .describe() on a DataFrame with a mixed-dtype column index, which would previously raise a
TypeError (GH13288)

1.7.2.7 Period changes

PeriodIndex now has period dtype

PeriodIndex now has its own period dtype. The period dtype is a pandas extension dtype like category or
the timezone aware dtype (datetime64[ns, tz]) (GH13941). As a consequence of this change, PeriodIndex
no longer has an integer dtype:
Previous behavior:

In [1]: pi = pd.PeriodIndex(['2016-08-01'], freq='D')

In [2]: pi
Out[2]: PeriodIndex(['2016-08-01'], dtype='int64', freq='D')

In [3]: pd.api.types.is_integer_dtype(pi)
Out[3]: True

In [4]: pi.dtype
Out[4]: dtype('int64')

New behavior:

In [117]: pi = pd.PeriodIndex(['2016-08-01'], freq='D')

In [118]: pi
Out[118]: PeriodIndex(['2016-08-01'], dtype='period[D]', freq='D')

In [119]: pd.api.types.is_integer_dtype(pi)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[119]: False

In [120]: pd.api.types.is_period_dtype(pi)

1.7. v0.19.0 (October 2, 2016) 99

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[120]:
˓→True

In [121]: pi.dtype
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out
˓→period[D]

In [122]: type(pi.dtype)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→pandas.core.dtypes.dtypes.PeriodDtype

Period('NaT') now returns pd.NaT

Previously, Period has its own Period('NaT') representation different from pd.NaT. Now Period('NaT')
has been changed to return pd.NaT. (GH12759, GH13582)
Previous behavior:

In [5]: pd.Period('NaT', freq='D')

Out[5]: Period('NaT', 'D')

New behavior:
These result in pd.NaT without providing freq option.

In [123]: pd.Period('NaT')
Out[123]: NaT

In [124]: pd.Period(None)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[124]: NaT

To be compatible with Period addition and subtraction, pd.NaT now supports addition and subtraction with int.
Previously it raised ValueError.
Previous behavior:

In [5]: pd.NaT + 1
...
ValueError: Cannot add integral value to Timestamp without freq.

New behavior:

In [125]: pd.NaT + 1
Out[125]: NaT

In [126]: pd.NaT - 1
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[126]: NaT

PeriodIndex.values now returns array of Period object

.values is changed to return an array of Period objects, rather than an array of integers (GH13988).
Previous behavior:

100 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [6]: pi = pd.PeriodIndex(['2011-01', '2011-02'], freq='M')

In [7]: pi.values
array([492, 493])

New behavior:
In [127]: pi = pd.PeriodIndex(['2011-01', '2011-02'], freq='M')

In [128]: pi.values
Out[128]: array([Period('2011-01', 'M'), Period('2011-02', 'M')], dtype=object)

1.7.2.8 Index + / - no longer used for set operations

Addition and subtraction of the base Index type and of DatetimeIndex (not the numeric index types) previously per-
formed set operations (set union and difference). This behavior was already deprecated since 0.15.0 (in favor using
the specific .union() and .difference() methods), and is now disabled. When possible, + and - are now used
for element-wise operations, for example for concatenating strings or subtracting datetimes (GH8227, GH14127).
Previous behavior:
In [1]: pd.Index(['a', 'b']) + pd.Index(['a', 'c'])
FutureWarning: using '+' to provide set union with Indexes is deprecated, use '|' or .
˓→union()

Out[1]: Index(['a', 'b', 'c'], dtype='object')

New behavior: the same operation will now perform element-wise addition:
In [129]: pd.Index(['a', 'b']) + pd.Index(['a', 'c'])
Out[129]: Index(['aa', 'bc'], dtype='object')

Note that numeric Index objects already performed element-wise operations. For example, the behavior of adding two
integer Indexes is unchanged. The base Index is now made consistent with this behavior.
In [130]: pd.Index([1, 2, 3]) + pd.Index([2, 3, 4])
Out[130]: Int64Index([3, 5, 7], dtype='int64')

Further, because of this change, it is now possible to subtract two DatetimeIndex objects resulting in a TimedeltaIndex:
Previous behavior:
In [1]: pd.DatetimeIndex(['2016-01-01', '2016-01-02']) - pd.DatetimeIndex(['2016-01-02
˓→', '2016-01-03'])

FutureWarning: using '-' to provide set differences with datetimelike Indexes is

˓→deprecated, use .difference()

Out[1]: DatetimeIndex(['2016-01-01'], dtype='datetime64[ns]', freq=None)

New behavior:
In [131]: pd.DatetimeIndex(['2016-01-01', '2016-01-02']) - pd.DatetimeIndex(['2016-01-
˓→02', '2016-01-03'])

Out[131]: TimedeltaIndex(['-1 days', '-1 days'], dtype='timedelta64[ns]', freq=None)

1.7.2.9 Index.difference and .symmetric_difference changes

Index.difference and Index.symmetric_difference will now, more consistently, treat NaN values as
any other values. (GH13514)

1.7. v0.19.0 (October 2, 2016) 101

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [132]: idx1 = pd.Index([1, 2, 3, np.nan])

In [133]: idx2 = pd.Index([0, 1, np.nan])

Previous behavior:
In [3]: idx1.difference(idx2)
Out[3]: Float64Index([nan, 2.0, 3.0], dtype='float64')

In [4]: idx1.symmetric_difference(idx2)
Out[4]: Float64Index([0.0, nan, 2.0, 3.0], dtype='float64')

New behavior:
In [134]: idx1.difference(idx2)
Out[134]: Float64Index([2.0, 3.0], dtype='float64')

In [135]: idx1.symmetric_difference(idx2)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[135]: Float64Index([0.0, 2.0,
˓→3.0], dtype='float64')

1.7.2.10 Index.unique consistently returns Index

Index.unique() now returns unique values as an Index of the appropriate dtype. (GH13395). Previously, most
Index classes returned np.ndarray, and DatetimeIndex, TimedeltaIndex and PeriodIndex returned
Index to keep metadata like timezone.
Previous behavior:
In [1]: pd.Index([1, 2, 3]).unique()
Out[1]: array([1, 2, 3])

In [2]: pd.DatetimeIndex(['2011-01-01', '2011-01-02', '2011-01-03'], tz='Asia/Tokyo').

˓→unique()

Out[2]:
DatetimeIndex(['2011-01-01 00:00:00+09:00', '2011-01-02 00:00:00+09:00',
'2011-01-03 00:00:00+09:00'],
dtype='datetime64[ns, Asia/Tokyo]', freq=None)

New behavior:
In [136]: pd.Index([1, 2, 3]).unique()
Out[136]: Int64Index([1, 2, 3], dtype='int64')

In [137]: pd.DatetimeIndex(['2011-01-01', '2011-01-02', '2011-01-03'], tz='Asia/Tokyo

˓→').unique()

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[137]:
DatetimeIndex(['2011-01-01 00:00:00+09:00', '2011-01-02 00:00:00+09:00',
'2011-01-03 00:00:00+09:00'],
dtype='datetime64[ns, Asia/Tokyo]', freq=None)

1.7.2.11 MultiIndex constructors, groupby and set_index preserve categorical dtypes

MultiIndex.from_arrays and MultiIndex.from_product will now preserve categorical dtype in

MultiIndex levels (GH13743, GH13854).

102 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [138]: cat = pd.Categorical(['a', 'b'], categories=list("bac"))

In [139]: lvl1 = ['foo', 'bar']

In [140]: midx = pd.MultiIndex.from_arrays([cat, lvl1])

In [141]: midx
Out[141]:
MultiIndex(levels=[['b', 'a', 'c'], ['bar', 'foo']],
labels=[[1, 0], [1, 0]])

Previous behavior:
In [4]: midx.levels[0]
Out[4]: Index(['b', 'a', 'c'], dtype='object')

In [5]: midx.get_level_values[0]
Out[5]: Index(['a', 'b'], dtype='object')

New behavior: the single level is now a CategoricalIndex:

In [142]: midx.levels[0]
Out[142]: CategoricalIndex(['b', 'a', 'c'], categories=['b', 'a', 'c'], ordered=False,
˓→ dtype='category')

In [143]: midx.get_level_values(0)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→CategoricalIndex(['a', 'b'], categories=['b', 'a', 'c'], ordered=False, dtype=

˓→'category')

An analogous change has been made to MultiIndex.from_product. As a consequence, groupby and

set_index also preserve categorical dtypes in indexes
In [144]: df = pd.DataFrame({'A': [0, 1], 'B': [10, 11], 'C': cat})

In [145]: df_grouped = df.groupby(by=['A', 'C']).first()

In [146]: df_set_idx = df.set_index(['A', 'C'])

Previous behavior:
In [11]: df_grouped.index.levels[1]
Out[11]: Index(['b', 'a', 'c'], dtype='object', name='C')
In [12]: df_grouped.reset_index().dtypes
Out[12]:
A int64
C object
B float64
dtype: object

In [13]: df_set_idx.index.levels[1]
Out[13]: Index(['b', 'a', 'c'], dtype='object', name='C')
In [14]: df_set_idx.reset_index().dtypes
Out[14]:
A int64
C object
B int64
dtype: object

1.7. v0.19.0 (October 2, 2016) 103

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

New behavior:

In [147]: df_grouped.index.levels[1]
Out[147]: CategoricalIndex(['b', 'a', 'c'], categories=['b', 'a', 'c'], ordered=False,
˓→ name='C', dtype='category')

In [148]: df_grouped.reset_index().dtypes
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

A int64
C category
B float64
dtype: object

In [149]: df_set_idx.index.levels[1]
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→CategoricalIndex(['b', 'a', 'c'], categories=['b', 'a', 'c'], ordered=False, name='C

˓→', dtype='category')

In [150]: df_set_idx.reset_index().dtypes
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

A int64
C category
B int64
dtype: object

1.7.2.12 read_csv will progressively enumerate chunks

When read_csv() is called with chunksize=n and without specifying an index, each chunk used to have an
independently generated index from 0 to n-1. They are now given instead a progressive index, starting from 0 for
the first chunk, from n for the second, and so on, so that, when concatenated, they are identical to the result of calling
read_csv() without the chunksize= argument (GH12185).

In [151]: data = 'A,B\n0,1\n2,3\n4,5\n6,7'

Previous behavior:

In [2]: pd.concat(pd.read_csv(StringIO(data), chunksize=2))

Out[2]:
A B
0 0 1
1 2 3
0 4 5
1 6 7

New behavior:

In [152]: pd.concat(pd.read_csv(StringIO(data), chunksize=2))

Out[152]:
A B
0 0 1
1 2 3
2 4 5
3 6 7

104 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

1.7.2.13 Sparse Changes

These changes allow pandas to handle sparse data with more dtypes, and for work to make a smoother experience with
data handling.

int64 and bool support enhancements

Sparse data structures now gained enhanced support of int64 and bool dtype (GH667, GH13849).
Previously, sparse data were float64 dtype by default, even if all inputs were of int or bool dtype. You had to
specify dtype explicitly to create sparse data with int64 dtype. Also, fill_value had to be specified explicitly
because the default was np.nan which doesn’t appear in int64 or bool data.

In [1]: pd.SparseArray([1, 2, 0, 0])

Out[1]:
[1.0, 2.0, 0.0, 0.0]
Fill: nan
IntIndex
Indices: array([0, 1, 2, 3], dtype=int32)

# specifying int64 dtype, but all values are stored in sp_values because
# fill_value default is np.nan
In [2]: pd.SparseArray([1, 2, 0, 0], dtype=np.int64)
Out[2]:
[1, 2, 0, 0]
Fill: nan
IntIndex
Indices: array([0, 1, 2, 3], dtype=int32)

In [3]: pd.SparseArray([1, 2, 0, 0], dtype=np.int64, fill_value=0)

Out[3]:
[1, 2, 0, 0]
Fill: 0
IntIndex
Indices: array([0, 1], dtype=int32)

As of v0.19.0, sparse data keeps the input dtype, and uses more appropriate fill_value defaults (0 for int64
dtype, False for bool dtype).

In [153]: pd.SparseArray([1, 2, 0, 0], dtype=np.int64)

Out[153]:
[1, 2, 0, 0]
Fill: 0
IntIndex
Indices: array([0, 1], dtype=int32)

In [154]: pd.SparseArray([True, False, False, False])

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[154]:
˓→

[True, False, False, False]

Fill: False
IntIndex
Indices: array([0], dtype=int32)

See the docs for more details.

1.7. v0.19.0 (October 2, 2016) 105

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Operators now preserve dtypes

• Sparse data structure now can preserve dtype after arithmetic ops (GH13848)

In [155]: s = pd.SparseSeries([0, 2, 0, 1], fill_value=0, dtype=np.int64)

In [156]: s.dtype
Out[156]: dtype('int64')

In [157]: s + 1
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[157]:
0 1
1 3
2 1
3 2
dtype: int64
BlockIndex
Block locations: array([1, 3], dtype=int32)
Block lengths: array([1, 1], dtype=int32)

• Sparse data structure now support astype to convert internal dtype (GH13900)

In [158]: s = pd.SparseSeries([1., 0., 2., 0.], fill_value=0)

In [159]: s
Out[159]:
0 1.0
1 0.0
2 2.0
3 0.0
dtype: float64
BlockIndex
Block locations: array([0, 2], dtype=int32)
Block lengths: array([1, 1], dtype=int32)

In [160]: s.astype(np.int64)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

0 1
1 0
2 2
3 0
dtype: int64
BlockIndex
Block locations: array([0, 2], dtype=int32)
Block lengths: array([1, 1], dtype=int32)

astype fails if data contains values which cannot be converted to specified dtype. Note that the limitation is
applied to fill_value which default is np.nan.

In [7]: pd.SparseSeries([1., np.nan, 2., np.nan], fill_value=np.nan).astype(np.

˓→int64)

Out[7]:
ValueError: unable to coerce current fill_value nan to int64 dtype

106 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Other sparse fixes

• Subclassed SparseDataFrame and SparseSeries now preserve class types when slicing or transposing.
(GH13787)
• SparseArray with bool dtype now supports logical (bool) operators (GH14000)
• Bug in SparseSeries with MultiIndex [] indexing may raise IndexError (GH13144)
• Bug in SparseSeries with MultiIndex [] indexing result may have normal Index (GH13144)
• Bug in SparseDataFrame in which axis=None did not default to axis=0 (GH13048)
• Bug in SparseSeries and SparseDataFrame creation with object dtype may raise TypeError
(GH11633)
• Bug in SparseDataFrame doesn’t respect passed SparseArray or SparseSeries ‘s dtype and
fill_value (GH13866)
• Bug in SparseArray and SparseSeries don’t apply ufunc to fill_value (GH13853)
• Bug in SparseSeries.abs incorrectly keeps negative fill_value (GH13853)
• Bug in single row slicing on multi-type SparseDataFrame s, types were previously forced to float
(GH13917)
• Bug in SparseSeries slicing changes integer dtype to float (GH8292)
• Bug in SparseDataFarme comparison ops may raise TypeError (GH13001)
• Bug in SparseDataFarme.isnull raises ValueError (GH8276)
• Bug in SparseSeries representation with bool dtype may raise IndexError (GH13110)
• Bug in SparseSeries and SparseDataFrame of bool or int64 dtype may display its values like
float64 dtype (GH13110)
• Bug in sparse indexing using SparseArray with bool dtype may return incorrect result (GH13985)
• Bug in SparseArray created from SparseSeries may lose dtype (GH13999)
• Bug in SparseSeries comparison with dense returns normal Series rather than SparseSeries
(GH13999)

1.7.2.14 Indexer dtype changes

Note: This change only affects 64 bit python running on Windows, and only affects relatively advanced indexing
operations

Methods such as Index.get_indexer that return an indexer array, coerce that array to a “platform int”, so that
it can be directly used in 3rd party library operations like numpy.take. Previously, a platform int was defined as
np.int_ which corresponds to a C integer, but the correct type, and what is being used now, is np.intp, which
corresponds to the C integer size that can hold a pointer (GH3033, GH13972).
These types are the same on many platform, but for 64 bit python on Windows, np.int_ is 32 bits, and np.intp
is 64 bits. Changing this behavior improves performance for many operations on that platform.
Previous behavior:

1.7. v0.19.0 (October 2, 2016) 107

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [1]: i = pd.Index(['a', 'b', 'c'])

In [2]: i.get_indexer(['b', 'b', 'c']).dtype

Out[2]: dtype('int32')

New behavior:

In [1]: i = pd.Index(['a', 'b', 'c'])

In [2]: i.get_indexer(['b', 'b', 'c']).dtype

Out[2]: dtype('int64')

1.7.2.15 Other API Changes

• Timestamp.to_pydatetime will issue a UserWarning when warn=True, and the instance has a non-
zero number of nanoseconds, previously this would print a message to stdout (GH14101).
• Series.unique() with datetime and timezone now returns return array of Timestamp with timezone
(GH13565).
• Panel.to_sparse() will raise a NotImplementedError exception when called (GH13778).
• Index.reshape() will raise a NotImplementedError exception when called (GH12882).
• .filter() enforces mutual exclusion of the keyword arguments (GH12399).
• eval‘s upcasting rules for float32 types have been updated to be more consistent with NumPy’s rules. New
behavior will not upcast to float64 if you multiply a pandas float32 object by a scalar float64 (GH12388).
• An UnsupportedFunctionCall error is now raised if NumPy ufuncs like np.mean are called on groupby
or resample objects (GH12811).
• __setitem__ will no longer apply a callable rhs as a function instead of storing it. Call where directly to
get the previous behavior (GH13299).
• Calls to .sample() will respect the random seed set via numpy.random.seed(n) (GH13161)
• Styler.apply is now more strict about the outputs your function must return. For axis=0 or axis=1, the
output shape must be identical. For axis=None, the output must be a DataFrame with identical columns and
index labels (GH13222).
• Float64Index.astype(int) will now raise ValueError if Float64Index contains NaN values
(GH13149)
• TimedeltaIndex.astype(int) and DatetimeIndex.astype(int) will now return
Int64Index instead of np.array (GH13209)
• Passing Period with multiple frequencies to normal Index now returns Index with object dtype
(GH13664)
• PeriodIndex.fillna with Period has different freq now coerces to object dtype (GH13664)
• Faceted boxplots from DataFrame.boxplot(by=col) now return a Series when return_type is
not None. Previously these returned an OrderedDict. Note that when return_type=None, the default,
these still return a 2-D NumPy array (GH12216, GH7096).
• pd.read_hdf will now raise a ValueError instead of KeyError, if a mode other than r, r+ and a is
supplied. (GH13623)

108 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• pd.read_csv(), pd.read_table(), and pd.read_hdf() raise the builtin FileNotFoundError

exception for Python 3.x when called on a nonexistent file; this is back-ported as IOError in Python 2.x
(GH14086)
• More informative exceptions are passed through the csv parser. The exception type would now be the original
exception type instead of CParserError (GH13652).
• pd.read_csv() in the C engine will now issue a ParserWarning or raise a ValueError when sep
encoded is more than one character long (GH14065)
• DataFrame.values will now return float64 with a DataFrame of mixed int64 and uint64 dtypes,
conforming to np.find_common_type (GH10364, GH13917)
• .groupby.groups will now return a dictionary of Index objects, rather than a dictionary of np.ndarray
or lists (GH14293)

1.7.3 Deprecations

• Series.reshape and Categorical.reshape have been deprecated and will be removed in a subse-
quent release (GH12882, GH12882)
• PeriodIndex.to_datetime has been deprecated in favor of PeriodIndex.to_timestamp
(GH8254)
• Timestamp.to_datetime has been deprecated in favor of Timestamp.to_pydatetime (GH8254)
• Index.to_datetime and DatetimeIndex.to_datetime have been deprecated in favor of pd.
to_datetime (GH8254)
• pandas.core.datetools module has been deprecated and will be removed in a subsequent release
(GH14094)
• SparseList has been deprecated and will be removed in a future version (GH13784)
• DataFrame.to_html() and DataFrame.to_latex() have dropped the colSpace parameter in fa-
vor of col_space (GH13857)
• DataFrame.to_sql() has deprecated the flavor parameter, as it is superfluous when SQLAlchemy is
not installed (GH13611)
• Deprecated read_csv keywords:
– compact_ints and use_unsigned have been deprecated and will be removed in a future version
(GH13320)
– buffer_lines has been deprecated and will be removed in a future version (GH13360)
– as_recarray has been deprecated and will be removed in a future version (GH13373)
– skip_footer has been deprecated in favor of skipfooter and will be removed in a future version
(GH13349)
• top-level pd.ordered_merge() has been renamed to pd.merge_ordered() and the original name will
be removed in a future version (GH13358)
• Timestamp.offset property (and named arg in the constructor), has been deprecated in favor of freq
(GH12160)
• pd.tseries.util.pivot_annual is deprecated. Use pivot_table as alternative, an example is here
(GH736)
• pd.tseries.util.isleapyear has been deprecated and will be removed in a subsequent release.
Datetime-likes now have a .is_leap_year property (GH13727)

1.7. v0.19.0 (October 2, 2016) 109

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Panel4D and PanelND constructors are deprecated and will be removed in a future version. The recom-
mended way to represent these types of n-dimensional data are with the xarray package. Pandas provides a
to_xarray() method to automate this conversion (GH13564).
• pandas.tseries.frequencies.get_standard_freq is deprecated. Use pandas.tseries.
frequencies.to_offset(freq).rule_code instead (GH13874)
• pandas.tseries.frequencies.to_offset‘s freqstr keyword is deprecated in favor of freq
(GH13874)
• Categorical.from_array has been deprecated and will be removed in a future version (GH13854)

1.7.4 Removal of prior version deprecations/changes

• The SparsePanel class has been removed (GH13778)

• The pd.sandbox module has been removed in favor of the external library pandas-qt (GH13670)
• The pandas.io.data and pandas.io.wb modules are removed in favor of the pandas-datareader package
(GH13724).
• The pandas.tools.rplot module has been removed in favor of the seaborn package (GH13855)
• DataFrame.to_csv() has dropped the engine parameter, as was deprecated in 0.17.1 (GH11274,
GH13419)
• DataFrame.to_dict() has dropped the outtype parameter in favor of orient (GH13627, GH8486)
• pd.Categorical has dropped setting of the ordered attribute directly in favor of the set_ordered
method (GH13671)
• pd.Categorical has dropped the levels attribute in favor of categories (GH8376)
• DataFrame.to_sql() has dropped the mysql option for the flavor parameter (GH13611)
• Panel.shift() has dropped the lags parameter in favor of periods (GH14041)
• pd.Index has dropped the diff method in favor of difference (GH13669)
• pd.DataFrame has dropped the to_wide method in favor of to_panel (GH14039)
• Series.to_csv has dropped the nanRep parameter in favor of na_rep (GH13804)
• Series.xs, DataFrame.xs, Panel.xs, Panel.major_xs, and Panel.minor_xs have dropped
the copy parameter (GH13781)
• str.split has dropped the return_type parameter in favor of expand (GH13701)
• Removal of the legacy time rules (offset aliases), deprecated since 0.17.0 (this has been alias since 0.8.0)
(GH13590, GH13868). Now legacy time rules raises ValueError. For the list of currently supported off-
sets, see here.
• The default value for the return_type parameter for DataFrame.plot.box and DataFrame.
boxplot changed from None to "axes". These methods will now return a matplotlib axes by default instead
of a dictionary of artists. See here (GH6581).
• The tquery and uquery functions in the pandas.io.sql module are removed (GH5950).

1.7.5 Performance Improvements

• Improved performance of sparse IntIndex.intersect (GH13082)

110 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Improved performance of sparse arithmetic with BlockIndex when the number of blocks are large, though
recommended to use IntIndex in such cases (GH13082)
• Improved performance of DataFrame.quantile() as it now operates per-block (GH11623)
• Improved performance of float64 hash table operations, fixing some very slow indexing and groupby operations
in python 3 (GH13166, GH13334)
• Improved performance of DataFrameGroupBy.transform (GH12737)
• Improved performance of Index and Series .duplicated (GH10235)
• Improved performance of Index.difference (GH12044)
• Improved performance of RangeIndex.is_monotonic_increasing and
is_monotonic_decreasing (GH13749)
• Improved performance of datetime string parsing in DatetimeIndex (GH13692)
• Improved performance of hashing Period (GH12817)
• Improved performance of factorize of datetime with timezone (GH13750)
• Improved performance of by lazily creating indexing hashtables on larger Indexes (GH14266)
• Improved performance of groupby.groups (GH14293)
• Unecessary materializing of a MultiIndex when introspecting for memory usage (GH14308)

1.7.6 Bug Fixes

• Bug in groupby().shift(), which could cause a segfault or corruption in rare circumstances when group-
ing by columns with missing values (GH13813)
• Bug in groupby().cumsum() calculating cumprod when axis=1. (GH13994)
• Bug in pd.to_timedelta() in which the errors parameter was not being respected (GH13613)
• Bug in io.json.json_normalize(), where non-ascii keys raised an exception (GH13213)
• Bug when passing a not-default-indexed Series as xerr or yerr in .plot() (GH11858)
• Bug in area plot draws legend incorrectly if subplot is enabled or legend is moved after plot (matplotlib 1.5.0 is
required to draw area plot legend properly) (GH9161, GH13544)
• Bug in DataFrame assignment with an object-dtyped Index where the resultant column is mutable to the
original object. (GH13522)
• Bug in matplotlib AutoDataFormatter; this restores the second scaled formatting and re-adds micro-second
scaled formatting (GH13131)
• Bug in selection from a HDFStore with a fixed format and start and/or stop specified will now return the
selected range (GH8287)
• Bug in Categorical.from_codes() where an unhelpful error was raised when an invalid ordered
parameter was passed in (GH14058)
• Bug in Series construction from a tuple of integers on windows not returning default dtype (int64) (GH13646)
• Bug in TimedeltaIndex addition with a Datetime-like object where addition overflow was not being caught
(GH14068)
• Bug in .groupby(..).resample(..) when the same object is called multiple times (GH13174)
• Bug in .to_records() when index name is a unicode string (GH13172)

1.7. v0.19.0 (October 2, 2016) 111

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Bug in calling .memory_usage() on object which doesn’t implement (GH12924)

• Regression in Series.quantile with nans (also shows up in .median() and .describe() ); further-
more now names the Series with the quantile (GH13098, GH13146)
• Bug in SeriesGroupBy.transform with datetime values and missing groups (GH13191)
• Bug where empty Series were incorrectly coerced in datetime-like numeric operations (GH13844)
• Bug in Categorical constructor when passed a Categorical containing datetimes with timezones
(GH14190)
• Bug in Series.str.extractall() with str index raises ValueError (GH13156)
• Bug in Series.str.extractall() with single group and quantifier (GH13382)
• Bug in DatetimeIndex and Period subtraction raises ValueError or AttributeError rather than
TypeError (GH13078)
• Bug in Index and Series created with NaN and NaT mixed data may not have datetime64 dtype
(GH13324)
• Bug in Index and Series may ignore np.datetime64('nat') and np.timdelta64('nat') to
infer dtype (GH13324)
• Bug in PeriodIndex and Period subtraction raises AttributeError (GH13071)
• Bug in PeriodIndex construction returning a float64 index in some circumstances (GH13067)
• Bug in .resample(..) with a PeriodIndex not changing its freq appropriately when empty (GH13067)
• Bug in .resample(..) with a PeriodIndex not retaining its type or name with an empty DataFrame
appropriately when empty (GH13212)
• Bug in groupby(..).apply(..) when the passed function returns scalar values per group (GH13468).
• Bug in groupby(..).resample(..) where passing some keywords would raise an exception (GH13235)
• Bug in .tz_convert on a tz-aware DateTimeIndex that relied on index being sorted for correct results
(GH13306)
• Bug in .tz_localize with dateutil.tz.tzlocal may return incorrect result (GH13583)
• Bug in DatetimeTZDtype dtype with dateutil.tz.tzlocal cannot be regarded as valid dtype
(GH13583)
• Bug in pd.read_hdf() where attempting to load an HDF file with a single dataset, that had one or more
categorical columns, failed unless the key argument was set to the name of the dataset. (GH13231)
• Bug in .rolling() that allowed a negative integer window in contruction of the Rolling() object, but
would later fail on aggregation (GH13383)
• Bug in Series indexing with tuple-valued data and a numeric index (GH13509)
• Bug in printing pd.DataFrame where unusual elements with the object dtype were causing segfaults
(GH13717)
• Bug in ranking Series which could result in segfaults (GH13445)
• Bug in various index types, which did not propagate the name of passed index (GH12309)
• Bug in DatetimeIndex, which did not honour the copy=True (GH13205)
• Bug in DatetimeIndex.is_normalized returns incorrectly for normalized date_range in case of local
timezones (GH13459)

112 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Bug in pd.concat and .append may coerces datetime64 and timedelta to object dtype containing
python built-in datetime or timedelta rather than Timestamp or Timedelta (GH13626)
• Bug in PeriodIndex.append may raises AttributeError when the result is object dtype
(GH13221)
• Bug in CategoricalIndex.append may accept normal list (GH13626)
• Bug in pd.concat and .append with the same timezone get reset to UTC (GH7795)
• Bug in Series and DataFrame .append raises AmbiguousTimeError if data contains datetime near
DST boundary (GH13626)
• Bug in DataFrame.to_csv() in which float values were being quoted even though quotations were speci-
fied for non-numeric values only (GH12922, GH13259)
• Bug in DataFrame.describe() raising ValueError with only boolean columns (GH13898)
• Bug in MultiIndex slicing where extra elements were returned when level is non-unique (GH12896)
• Bug in .str.replace does not raise TypeError for invalid replacement (GH13438)
• Bug in MultiIndex.from_arrays which didn’t check for input array lengths matching (GH13599)
• Bug in cartesian_product and MultiIndex.from_product which may raise with empty input ar-
rays (GH12258)
• Bug in pd.read_csv() which may cause a segfault or corruption when iterating in large chunks over a
stream/file under rare circumstances (GH13703)
• Bug in pd.read_csv() which caused errors to be raised when a dictionary containing scalars is passed in
for na_values (GH12224)
• Bug in pd.read_csv() which caused BOM files to be incorrectly parsed by not ignoring the BOM (GH4793)
• Bug in pd.read_csv() with engine='python' which raised errors when a numpy array was passed in
for usecols (GH12546)
• Bug in pd.read_csv() where the index columns were being incorrectly parsed when parsed as dates with a
thousands parameter (GH14066)
• Bug in pd.read_csv() with engine='python' in which NaN values weren’t being detected after data
was converted to numeric values (GH13314)
• Bug in pd.read_csv() in which the nrows argument was not properly validated for both engines
(GH10476)
• Bug in pd.read_csv() with engine='python' in which infinities of mixed-case forms were not being
interpreted properly (GH13274)
• Bug in pd.read_csv() with engine='python' in which trailing NaN values were not being parsed
(GH13320)
• Bug in pd.read_csv() with engine='python' when reading from a tempfile.TemporaryFile
on Windows with Python 3 (GH13398)
• Bug in pd.read_csv() that prevents usecols kwarg from accepting single-byte unicode strings
(GH13219)
• Bug in pd.read_csv() that prevents usecols from being an empty set (GH13402)
• Bug in pd.read_csv() in the C engine where the NULL character was not being parsed as NULL
(GH14012)
• Bug in pd.read_csv() with engine='c' in which NULL quotechar was not accepted even though
quoting was specified as None (GH13411)

1.7. v0.19.0 (October 2, 2016) 113

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Bug in pd.read_csv() with engine='c' in which fields were not properly cast to float when quoting was
specified as non-numeric (GH13411)
• Bug in pd.read_csv() in Python 2.x with non-UTF8 encoded, multi-character separated data (GH3404)
• Bug in pd.read_csv(), where aliases for utf-xx (e.g. UTF-xx, UTF_xx, utf_xx) raised UnicodeDecodeError
(GH13549)
• Bug in pd.read_csv, pd.read_table, pd.read_fwf, pd.read_stata and pd.read_sas where
files were opened by parsers but not closed if both chunksize and iterator were None. (GH13940)
• Bug in StataReader, StataWriter, XportReader and SAS7BDATReader where a file was not prop-
erly closed when an error was raised. (GH13940)
• Bug in pd.pivot_table() where margins_name is ignored when aggfunc is a list (GH13354)
• Bug in pd.Series.str.zfill, center, ljust, rjust, and pad when passing non-integers, did not
raise TypeError (GH13598)
• Bug in checking for any null objects in a TimedeltaIndex, which always returned True (GH13603)
• Bug in Series arithmetic raises TypeError if it contains datetime-like as object dtype (GH13043)
• Bug Series.isnull() and Series.notnull() ignore Period('NaT') (GH13737)
• Bug Series.fillna() and Series.dropna() don’t affect to Period('NaT') (GH13737
• Bug in .fillna(value=np.nan) incorrectly raises KeyError on a category dtyped Series
(GH14021)
• Bug in extension dtype creation where the created types were not is/identical (GH13285)
• Bug in .resample(..) where incorrect warnings were triggered by IPython introspection (GH13618)
• Bug in NaT - Period raises AttributeError (GH13071)
• Bug in Series comparison may output incorrect result if rhs contains NaT (GH9005)
• Bug in Series and Index comparison may output incorrect result if it contains NaT with object dtype
(GH13592)
• Bug in Period addition raises TypeError if Period is on right hand side (GH13069)
• Bug in Peirod and Series or Index comparison raises TypeError (GH13200)
• Bug in pd.set_eng_float_format() that would prevent NaN and Inf from formatting (GH11981)
• Bug in .unstack with Categorical dtype resets .ordered to True (GH13249)
• Clean some compile time warnings in datetime parsing (GH13607)
• Bug in factorize raises AmbiguousTimeError if data contains datetime near DST boundary (GH13750)
• Bug in .set_index raises AmbiguousTimeError if new index contains DST boundary and multi levels
(GH12920)
• Bug in .shift raises AmbiguousTimeError if data contains datetime near DST boundary (GH13926)
• Bug in pd.read_hdf() returns incorrect result when a DataFrame with a categorical column and a
query which doesn’t match any values (GH13792)
• Bug in .iloc when indexing with a non lex-sorted MultiIndex (GH13797)
• Bug in .loc when indexing with date strings in a reverse sorted DatetimeIndex (GH14316)
• Bug in Series comparison operators when dealing with zero dim NumPy arrays (GH13006)
• Bug in .combine_first may return incorrect dtype (GH7630, GH10567)

114 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Bug in groupby where apply returns different result depending on whether first result is None or not
(GH12824)
• Bug in groupby(..).nth() where the group key is included inconsistently if called after .head()/.
tail() (GH12839)
• Bug in .to_html, .to_latex and .to_string silently ignore custom datetime formatter passed through
the formatters key word (GH10690)
• Bug in DataFrame.iterrows(), not yielding a Series subclasse if defined (GH13977)
• Bug in pd.to_numeric when errors='coerce' and input contains non-hashable objects (GH13324)
• Bug in invalid Timedelta arithmetic and comparison may raise ValueError rather than TypeError
(GH13624)
• Bug in invalid datetime parsing in to_datetime and DatetimeIndex may raise TypeError rather than
ValueError (GH11169, GH11287)
• Bug in Index created with tz-aware Timestamp and mismatched tz option incorrectly coerces timezone
(GH13692)
• Bug in DatetimeIndex with nanosecond frequency does not include timestamp specified with end
(GH13672)
• Bug in `Series` when setting a slice with a `np.timedelta64` (GH14155)
• Bug in Index raises OutOfBoundsDatetime if datetime exceeds datetime64[ns] bounds, rather
than coercing to object dtype (GH13663)
• Bug in Index may ignore specified datetime64 or timedelta64 passed as dtype (GH13981)
• Bug in RangeIndex can be created without no arguments rather than raises TypeError (GH13793)
• Bug in .value_counts() raises OutOfBoundsDatetime if data exceeds datetime64[ns] bounds
(GH13663)
• Bug in DatetimeIndex may raise OutOfBoundsDatetime if input np.datetime64 has other unit
than ns (GH9114)
• Bug in Series creation with np.datetime64 which has other unit than ns as object dtype results in
incorrect values (GH13876)
• Bug in resample with timedelta data where data was casted to float (GH13119).
• Bug in pd.isnull() pd.notnull() raise TypeError if input datetime-like has other unit than ns
(GH13389)
• Bug in pd.merge() may raise TypeError if input datetime-like has other unit than ns (GH13389)
• Bug in HDFStore/read_hdf() discarded DatetimeIndex.name if tz was set (GH13884)
• Bug in Categorical.remove_unused_categories() changes .codes dtype to platform int
(GH13261)
• Bug in groupby with as_index=False returns all NaN’s when grouping on multiple columns including a
categorical one (GH13204)
• Bug in df.groupby(...)[...] where getitem with Int64Index raised an error (GH13731)
• Bug in the CSS classes assigned to DataFrame.style for index names. Previously they were assigned
"col_heading level<n> col<c>" where n was the number of levels + 1. Now they are assigned
"index_name level<n>", where n is the correct level for that MultiIndex.
• Bug where pd.read_gbq() could throw ImportError: No module named discovery as a re-
sult of a naming conflict with another python package called apiclient (GH13454)

1.7. v0.19.0 (October 2, 2016) 115

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Bug in Index.union returns an incorrect result with a named empty index (GH13432)
• Bugs in Index.difference and DataFrame.join raise in Python3 when using mixed-integer indexes
(GH13432, GH12814)
• Bug in subtract tz-aware datetime.datetime from tz-aware datetime64 series (GH14088)
• Bug in .to_excel() when DataFrame contains a MultiIndex which contains a label with a NaN value
(GH13511)
• Bug in invalid frequency offset string like “D1”, “-2-3H” may not raise ValueError (GH13930)
• Bug in concat and groupby for hierarchical frames with RangeIndex levels (GH13542).
• Bug in Series.str.contains() for Series containing only NaN values of object dtype (GH14171)
• Bug in agg() function on groupby dataframe changes dtype of datetime64[ns] column to float64
(GH12821)
• Bug in using NumPy ufunc with PeriodIndex to add or subtract integer raise
IncompatibleFrequency. Note that using standard operator like + or - is recommended, because
standard operators use more efficient path (GH13980)
• Bug in operations on NaT returning float instead of datetime64[ns] (GH12941)
• Bug in Series flexible arithmetic methods (like .add()) raises ValueError when axis=None
(GH13894)
• Bug in DataFrame.to_csv() with MultiIndex columns in which a stray empty line was added
(GH6618)
• Bug in DatetimeIndex, TimedeltaIndex and PeriodIndex.equals() may return True when
input isn’t Index but contains the same values (GH13107)
• Bug in assignment against datetime with timezone may not work if it contains datetime near DST boundary
(GH14146)
• Bug in pd.eval() and HDFStore query truncating long float literals with python 2 (GH14241)
• Bug in Index raises KeyError displaying incorrect column when column is not in the df and columns con-
tains duplicate values (GH13822)
• Bug in Period and PeriodIndex creating wrong dates when frequency has combined offset aliases
(GH13874)
• Bug in .to_string() when called with an integer line_width and index=False raises an Unbound-
LocalError exception because idx referenced before assignment.
• Bug in eval() where the resolvers argument would not accept a list (GH14095)
• Bugs in stack, get_dummies, make_axis_dummies which don’t preserve categorical dtypes in
(multi)indexes (GH13854)
• PeriodIndex can now accept list and array which contains pd.NaT (GH13430)
• Bug in df.groupby where .median() returns arbitrary values if grouped dataframe contains empty bins
(GH13629)
• Bug in Index.copy() where name parameter was ignored (GH14302)

116 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

1.8 v0.18.1 (May 3, 2016)

This is a minor bug-fix release from 0.18.0 and includes a large number of bug fixes along with several new features,
enhancements, and performance improvements. We recommend that all users upgrade to this version.
Highlights include:
• .groupby(...) has been enhanced to provide convenient syntax when working with .rolling(..),
.expanding(..) and .resample(..) per group, see here
• pd.to_datetime() has gained the ability to assemble dates from a DataFrame, see here
• Method chaining improvements, see here.
• Custom business hour offset, see here.
• Many bug fixes in the handling of sparse, see here
• Expanded the Tutorials section with a feature on modern pandas, courtesy of @TomAugsburger. (GH13045).

What’s new in v0.18.1

• New features
– Custom Business Hour
– .groupby(..) syntax with window and resample operations
– Method chaininng improvements

* .where() and .mask()

* .loc[], .iloc[], .ix[]
* [] indexing
– Partial string indexing on DateTimeIndex when part of a MultiIndex
– Assembling Datetimes
– Other Enhancements
• Sparse changes
• API changes
– .groupby(..).nth() changes
– numpy function compatibility
– Using .apply on groupby resampling
– Changes in read_csv exceptions
– to_datetime error changes
– Other API changes
– Deprecations
• Performance Improvements
• Bug Fixes

1.8. v0.18.1 (May 3, 2016) 117

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

1.8.1 New features

1.8.1.1 Custom Business Hour

The CustomBusinessHour is a mixture of BusinessHour and CustomBusinessDay which allows you to

specify arbitrary holidays. For details, see Custom Business Hour (GH11514)
In [1]: from pandas.tseries.offsets import CustomBusinessHour

In [2]: from pandas.tseries.holiday import USFederalHolidayCalendar

In [3]: bhour_us = CustomBusinessHour(calendar=USFederalHolidayCalendar())

Friday before MLK Day

In [4]: dt = datetime(2014, 1, 17, 15)

In [5]: dt + bhour_us
Out[5]: Timestamp('2014-01-17 16:00:00')

Tuesday after MLK Day (Monday is skipped because it’s a holiday)

In [6]: dt + bhour_us * 2
Out[6]: Timestamp('2014-01-20 09:00:00')

1.8.1.2 .groupby(..) syntax with window and resample operations

.groupby(...) has been enhanced to provide convenient syntax when working with .rolling(..), .
expanding(..) and .resample(..) per group, see (GH12486, GH12738).
You can now use .rolling(..) and .expanding(..) as methods on groupbys. These return another deferred
object (similar to what .rolling() and .expanding() do on ungrouped pandas objects). You can then operate
on these RollingGroupby objects in a similar manner.
Previously you would have to do this to get a rolling window mean per-group:
In [7]: df = pd.DataFrame({'A': [1] * 20 + [2] * 12 + [3] * 8,
...: 'B': np.arange(40)})
...:

In [8]: df
Out[8]:
A B
0 1 0
1 1 1
2 1 2
3 1 3
4 1 4
5 1 5
6 1 6
.. .. ..
33 3 33
34 3 34
35 3 35
36 3 36
37 3 37
38 3 38

118 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

39 3 39

[40 rows x 2 columns]

In [9]: df.groupby('A').apply(lambda x: x.rolling(4).B.mean())

Out[9]:
A
1 0 NaN
1 NaN
2 NaN
3 1.5
4 2.5
5 3.5
6 4.5
...
3 33 NaN
34 NaN
35 33.5
36 34.5
37 35.5
38 36.5
39 37.5
Name: B, Length: 40, dtype: float64

Now you can do:

In [10]: df.groupby('A').rolling(4).B.mean()
Out[10]:
A
1 0 NaN
1 NaN
2 NaN
3 1.5
4 2.5
5 3.5
6 4.5
...
3 33 NaN
34 NaN
35 33.5
36 34.5
37 35.5
38 36.5
39 37.5
Name: B, Length: 40, dtype: float64

For .resample(..) type of operations, previously you would have to:

In [11]: df = pd.DataFrame({'date': pd.date_range(start='2016-01-01',
....: periods=4,
....: freq='W'),
....: 'group': [1, 1, 2, 2],
....: 'val': [5, 6, 7, 8]}).set_index('date')
....:

In [12]: df
Out[12]:
group val

1.8. v0.18.1 (May 3, 2016) 119

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

date
2016-01-03 1 5
2016-01-10 1 6
2016-01-17 2 7
2016-01-24 2 8

In [13]: df.groupby('group').apply(lambda x: x.resample('1D').ffill())

Out[13]:
group val
group date
1 2016-01-03 1 5
2016-01-04 1 5
2016-01-05 1 5
2016-01-06 1 5
2016-01-07 1 5
2016-01-08 1 5
2016-01-09 1 5
... ... ...
2 2016-01-18 2 7
2016-01-19 2 7
2016-01-20 2 7
2016-01-21 2 7
2016-01-22 2 7
2016-01-23 2 7
2016-01-24 2 8

[16 rows x 2 columns]

Now you can do:

In [14]: df.groupby('group').resample('1D').ffill()
Out[14]:
group val
group date
1 2016-01-03 1 5
2016-01-04 1 5
2016-01-05 1 5
2016-01-06 1 5
2016-01-07 1 5
2016-01-08 1 5
2016-01-09 1 5
... ... ...
2 2016-01-18 2 7
2016-01-19 2 7
2016-01-20 2 7
2016-01-21 2 7
2016-01-22 2 7
2016-01-23 2 7
2016-01-24 2 8

[16 rows x 2 columns]

1.8.1.3 Method chaininng improvements

The following methods / indexers now accept a callable. It is intended to make these more useful in method chains,
see the documentation. (GH11485, GH12533)

120 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• .where() and .mask()

• .loc[], iloc[] and .ix[]
• [] indexing

.where() and .mask()

These can accept a callable for the condition and other arguments.

In [15]: df = pd.DataFrame({'A': [1, 2, 3],

....: 'B': [4, 5, 6],
....: 'C': [7, 8, 9]})
....:

In [16]: df.where(lambda x: x > 4, lambda x: x + 10)

Out[16]:
A B C
0 11 14 7
1 12 5 8
2 13 6 9

.loc[], .iloc[], .ix[]

These can accept a callable, and a tuple of callable as a slicer. The callable can return a valid boolean indexer or
anything which is valid for these indexer’s input.

# callable returns bool indexer

In [17]: df.loc[lambda x: x.A >= 2, lambda x: x.sum() > 10]
Out[17]:
B C
1 5 8
2 6 9

# callable returns list of labels

In [18]: df.loc[lambda x: [1, 2], lambda x: ['A', 'B']]
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[18]:
A B
1 2 5
2 3 6

[] indexing

Finally, you can use a callable in [] indexing of Series, DataFrame and Panel. The callable must return a valid input
for [] indexing depending on its class and index type.

In [19]: df[lambda x: 'A']

Out[19]:
0 1
1 2
2 3
Name: A, dtype: int64

Using these methods / indexers, you can chain data selection operations without using temporary variable.

1.8. v0.18.1 (May 3, 2016) 121

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [20]: bb = pd.read_csv('data/baseball.csv', index_col='id')

In [21]: (bb.groupby(['year', 'team'])

....: .sum()
....: .loc[lambda df: df.r > 100]
....: )
....:
Out[21]:
stint g ab r h X2b X3b hr rbi sb cs bb \
year team
2007 CIN 6 379 745 101 203 35 2 36 125.0 10.0 1.0 105
DET 5 301 1062 162 283 54 4 37 144.0 24.0 7.0 97
HOU 4 311 926 109 218 47 6 14 77.0 10.0 4.0 60
LAN 11 413 1021 153 293 61 3 36 154.0 7.0 5.0 114
NYN 13 622 1854 240 509 101 3 61 243.0 22.0 4.0 174
SFN 5 482 1305 198 337 67 6 40 171.0 26.0 7.0 235
TEX 2 198 729 115 200 40 4 28 115.0 21.0 4.0 73
TOR 4 459 1408 187 378 96 2 58 223.0 4.0 2.0 190

so ibb hbp sh sf gidp

year team
2007 CIN 127.0 14.0 1.0 1.0 15.0 18.0
DET 176.0 3.0 10.0 4.0 8.0 28.0
HOU 212.0 3.0 9.0 16.0 6.0 17.0
LAN 141.0 8.0 9.0 3.0 8.0 29.0
NYN 310.0 24.0 23.0 18.0 15.0 48.0
SFN 188.0 51.0 8.0 16.0 6.0 41.0
TEX 140.0 4.0 5.0 2.0 8.0 16.0
TOR 265.0 16.0 12.0 4.0 16.0 38.0

1.8.1.4 Partial string indexing on DateTimeIndex when part of a MultiIndex

Partial string indexing now matches on DateTimeIndex when part of a MultiIndex (GH10331)
In [22]: dft2 = pd.DataFrame(np.random.randn(20, 1),
....: columns=['A'],
....: index=pd.MultiIndex.from_product([pd.date_range('20130101
˓→',

....:
˓→periods=10,

....: freq='12H
˓→'),

....: ['a', 'b']]))

....:

In [23]: dft2
Out[23]:
A
2013-01-01 00:00:00 a 0.156998
b -0.571455
2013-01-01 12:00:00 a 1.057633
b -0.791489
2013-01-02 00:00:00 a -0.524627
b 0.071878
2013-01-02 12:00:00 a 1.910759
... ...
2013-01-04 00:00:00 b 1.015405

122 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

2013-01-04 12:00:00 a 0.749185

b -0.675521
2013-01-05 00:00:00 a 0.440266
b 0.688972
2013-01-05 12:00:00 a -0.276646
b 1.924533

[20 rows x 1 columns]

In [24]: dft2.loc['2013-01-05']
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

A
2013-01-05 00:00:00 a 0.440266
b 0.688972
2013-01-05 12:00:00 a -0.276646
b 1.924533

On other levels
In [25]: idx = pd.IndexSlice

In [26]: dft2 = dft2.swaplevel(0, 1).sort_index()

In [27]: dft2
Out[27]:
A
a 2013-01-01 00:00:00 0.156998
2013-01-01 12:00:00 1.057633
2013-01-02 00:00:00 -0.524627
2013-01-02 12:00:00 1.910759
2013-01-03 00:00:00 0.513082
2013-01-03 12:00:00 1.043945
2013-01-04 00:00:00 1.459927
... ...
b 2013-01-02 12:00:00 0.787965
2013-01-03 00:00:00 -0.546416
2013-01-03 12:00:00 2.107785
2013-01-04 00:00:00 1.015405
2013-01-04 12:00:00 -0.675521
2013-01-05 00:00:00 0.688972
2013-01-05 12:00:00 1.924533

[20 rows x 1 columns]

In [28]: dft2.loc[idx[:, '2013-01-05'], :]

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

A
a 2013-01-05 00:00:00 0.440266
2013-01-05 12:00:00 -0.276646
b 2013-01-05 00:00:00 0.688972
2013-01-05 12:00:00 1.924533

1.8.1.5 Assembling Datetimes

pd.to_datetime() has gained the ability to assemble datetimes from a passed in DataFrame or a dict.

1.8. v0.18.1 (May 3, 2016) 123

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

(GH8158).

In [29]: df = pd.DataFrame({'year': [2015, 2016],

....: 'month': [2, 3],
....: 'day': [4, 5],
....: 'hour': [2, 3]})
....:

In [30]: df
Out[30]:
day hour month year
0 4 2 2 2015
1 5 3 3 2016

Assembling using the passed frame.

In [31]: pd.to_datetime(df)
Out[31]:
0 2015-02-04 02:00:00
1 2016-03-05 03:00:00
dtype: datetime64[ns]

You can pass only the columns that you need to assemble.

In [32]: pd.to_datetime(df[['year', 'month', 'day']])

Out[32]:
0 2015-02-04
1 2016-03-05
dtype: datetime64[ns]

1.8.1.6 Other Enhancements

• pd.read_csv() now supports delim_whitespace=True for the Python engine (GH12958)

• pd.read_csv() now supports opening ZIP files that contains a single CSV, via extension inference or explict
compression='zip' (GH12175)
• pd.read_csv() now supports opening files using xz compression, via extension inference or explicit
compression='xz' is specified; xz compressions is also supported by DataFrame.to_csv in the same
way (GH11852)
• pd.read_msgpack() now always gives writeable ndarrays even when compression is used (GH12359).
• pd.read_msgpack() now supports serializing and de-serializing categoricals with msgpack (GH12573)
• .to_json() now supports NDFrames that contain categorical and sparse data (GH10778)
• interpolate() now supports method='akima' (GH7588).
• pd.read_excel() now accepts path objects (e.g. pathlib.Path, py.path.local) for the file path,
in line with other read_* functions (GH12655)
• Added .weekday_name property as a component to DatetimeIndex and the .dt accessor. (GH11128)
• Index.take now handles allow_fill and fill_value consistently (GH12631)

In [33]: idx = pd.Index([1., 2., 3., 4.], dtype='float')

# default, allow_fill=True, fill_value=None

In [34]: idx.take([2, -1])

124 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Out[34]: Float64Index([3.0, 4.0], dtype='float64')

In [35]: idx.take([2, -1], fill_value=True)

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[35]: Float64Index([3.0,
˓→nan], dtype='float64')

• Index now supports .str.get_dummies() which returns MultiIndex, see Creating Indicator Vari-
ables (GH10008, GH10103)

In [36]: idx = pd.Index(['a|b', 'a|c', 'b|c'])

In [37]: idx.str.get_dummies('|')
Out[37]:
MultiIndex(levels=[[0, 1], [0, 1], [0, 1]],
labels=[[1, 1, 0], [1, 0, 1], [0, 1, 1]],
names=['a', 'b', 'c'])

• pd.crosstab() has gained a normalize argument for normalizing frequency tables (GH12569). Exam-
ples in the updated docs here.
• .resample(..).interpolate() is now supported (GH12925)
• .isin() now accepts passed sets (GH12988)

1.8.2 Sparse changes

These changes conform sparse handling to return the correct types and work to make a smoother experience with
indexing.
SparseArray.take now returns a scalar for scalar input, SparseArray for others. Furthermore, it handles a
negative indexer with the same rule as Index (GH10560, GH12796)

In [38]: s = pd.SparseArray([np.nan, np.nan, 1, 2, 3, np.nan, 4, 5, np.nan, 6])

In [39]: s.take(0)
Out[39]: nan

In [40]: s.take([1, 2, 3])

\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[40]:
[nan, 1.0, 2.0]
Fill: nan
IntIndex
Indices: array([1, 2], dtype=int32)

• Bug in SparseSeries[] indexing with Ellipsis raises KeyError (GH9467)

• Bug in SparseArray[] indexing with tuples are not handled properly (GH12966)
• Bug in SparseSeries.loc[] with list-like input raises TypeError (GH10560)
• Bug in SparseSeries.iloc[] with scalar input may raise IndexError (GH10560)
• Bug in SparseSeries.loc[], .iloc[] with slice returns SparseArray, rather than
SparseSeries (GH10560)
• Bug in SparseDataFrame.loc[], .iloc[] may results in dense Series, rather than SparseSeries
(GH12787)
• Bug in SparseArray addition ignores fill_value of right hand side (GH12910)

1.8. v0.18.1 (May 3, 2016) 125

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Bug in SparseArray mod raises AttributeError (GH12910)

• Bug in SparseArray pow calculates 1 ** np.nan as np.nan which must be 1 (GH12910)
• Bug in SparseArray comparison output may incorrect result or raise ValueError (GH12971)
• Bug in SparseSeries.__repr__ raises TypeError when it is longer than max_rows (GH10560)
• Bug in SparseSeries.shape ignores fill_value (GH10452)
• Bug in SparseSeries and SparseArray may have different dtype from its dense values (GH12908)
• Bug in SparseSeries.reindex incorrectly handle fill_value (GH12797)
• Bug in SparseArray.to_frame() results in DataFrame, rather than SparseDataFrame (GH9850)
• Bug in SparseSeries.value_counts() does not count fill_value (GH6749)
• Bug in SparseArray.to_dense() does not preserve dtype (GH10648)
• Bug in SparseArray.to_dense() incorrectly handle fill_value (GH12797)
• Bug in pd.concat() of SparseSeries results in dense (GH10536)
• Bug in pd.concat() of SparseDataFrame incorrectly handle fill_value (GH9765)
• Bug in pd.concat() of SparseDataFrame may raise AttributeError (GH12174)
• Bug in SparseArray.shift() may raise NameError or TypeError (GH12908)

1.8.3 API changes

1.8.3.1 .groupby(..).nth() changes

The index in .groupby(..).nth() output is now more consistent when the as_index argument is passed
(GH11039):

In [41]: df = DataFrame({'A' : ['a', 'b', 'a'],

....: 'B' : [1, 2, 3]})
....:

In [42]: df
Out[42]:
A B
0 a 1
1 b 2
2 a 3

Previous Behavior:

In [3]: df.groupby('A', as_index=True)['B'].nth(0)

Out[3]:
0 1
1 2
Name: B, dtype: int64

In [4]: df.groupby('A', as_index=False)['B'].nth(0)

Out[4]:
0 1
1 2
Name: B, dtype: int64

126 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

New Behavior:
In [43]: df.groupby('A', as_index=True)['B'].nth(0)
Out[43]:
A
a 1
b 2
Name: B, dtype: int64

In [44]: df.groupby('A', as_index=False)['B'].nth(0)

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[44]:
0 1
1 2
Name: B, dtype: int64

Furthermore, previously, a .groupby would always sort, regardless if sort=False was passed with .nth().
In [45]: np.random.seed(1234)

In [46]: df = pd.DataFrame(np.random.randn(100, 2), columns=['a', 'b'])

In [47]: df['c'] = np.random.randint(0, 4, 100)

Previous Behavior:
In [4]: df.groupby('c', sort=True).nth(1)
Out[4]:
a b
c
0 -0.334077 0.002118
1 0.036142 -2.074978
2 -0.720589 0.887163
3 0.859588 -0.636524

In [5]: df.groupby('c', sort=False).nth(1)

Out[5]:
a b
c
0 -0.334077 0.002118
1 0.036142 -2.074978
2 -0.720589 0.887163
3 0.859588 -0.636524

New Behavior:
In [48]: df.groupby('c', sort=True).nth(1)
Out[48]:
a b
c
0 -0.334077 0.002118
1 0.036142 -2.074978
2 -0.720589 0.887163
3 0.859588 -0.636524

In [49]: df.groupby('c', sort=False).nth(1)

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

a b
c

1.8. v0.18.1 (May 3, 2016) 127

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

2 -0.720589 0.887163
3 0.859588 -0.636524
0 -0.334077 0.002118
1 0.036142 -2.074978

1.8.3.2 numpy function compatibility

Compatibility between pandas array-like methods (e.g. sum and take) and their numpy counterparts has been greatly
increased by augmenting the signatures of the pandas methods so as to accept arguments that can be passed in from
numpy, even if they are not necessarily used in the pandas implementation (GH12644, GH12638, GH12687)
• .searchsorted() for Index and TimedeltaIndex now accept a sorter argument to maintain com-
patibility with numpy’s searchsorted function (GH12238)
• Bug in numpy compatibility of np.round() on a Series (GH12600)
An example of this signature augmentation is illustrated below:
In [50]: sp = pd.SparseDataFrame([1, 2, 3])

In [51]: sp
Out[51]:
0
0 1
1 2
2 3

Previous behaviour:
In [2]: np.cumsum(sp, axis=0)
...
TypeError: cumsum() takes at most 2 arguments (4 given)

New behaviour:
In [52]: np.cumsum(sp, axis=0)
Out[52]:
0
0 1
1 3
2 6

1.8.3.3 Using .apply on groupby resampling

Using apply on resampling groupby operations (using a pd.TimeGrouper) now has the same output types as
similar apply calls on other groupby operations. (GH11742).
In [53]: df = pd.DataFrame({'date': pd.to_datetime(['10/10/2000', '11/10/2000']),
....: 'value': [10, 13]})
....:

In [54]: df
Out[54]:
date value
0 2000-10-10 10
1 2000-11-10 13

128 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Previous behavior:

In [1]: df.groupby(pd.TimeGrouper(key='date', freq='M')).apply(lambda x: x.value.

˓→sum())

Out[1]:
...
TypeError: cannot concatenate a non-NDFrame object

# Output is a Series
In [2]: df.groupby(pd.TimeGrouper(key='date', freq='M')).apply(lambda x: x[['value']].
˓→sum())

Out[2]:
date
2000-10-31 value 10
2000-11-30 value 13
dtype: int64

New Behavior:

# Output is a Series
In [55]: df.groupby(pd.TimeGrouper(key='date', freq='M')).apply(lambda x: x.value.
˓→sum())

Out[55]:
date
2000-10-31 10
2000-11-30 13
Freq: M, dtype: int64

# Output is a DataFrame
In [56]: df.groupby(pd.TimeGrouper(key='date', freq='M')).apply(lambda x: x[['value
˓→']].sum())

Out[56]:
value
date
2000-10-31 10
2000-11-30 13

1.8.3.4 Changes in read_csv exceptions

In order to standardize the read_csv API for both the c and python engines, both will now raise an
EmptyDataError, a subclass of ValueError, in response to empty columns or header (GH12493, GH12506)
Previous behaviour:

In [1]: df = pd.read_csv(StringIO(''), engine='c')

...
ValueError: No columns to parse from file

In [2]: df = pd.read_csv(StringIO(''), engine='python')

...
StopIteration

New behaviour:

In [1]: df = pd.read_csv(StringIO(''), engine='c')

...
pandas.io.common.EmptyDataError: No columns to parse from file

1.8. v0.18.1 (May 3, 2016) 129

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [2]: df = pd.read_csv(StringIO(''), engine='python')

...
pandas.io.common.EmptyDataError: No columns to parse from file

In addition to this error change, several others have been made as well:
• CParserError now sub-classes ValueError instead of just a Exception (GH12551)
• A CParserError is now raised instead of a generic Exception in read_csv when the c engine cannot
parse a column (GH12506)
• A ValueError is now raised instead of a generic Exception in read_csv when the c engine encounters
a NaN value in an integer column (GH12506)
• A ValueError is now raised instead of a generic Exception in read_csv when true_values is
specified, and the c engine encounters an element in a column containing unencodable bytes (GH12506)
• pandas.parser.OverflowError exception has been removed and has been replaced with Python’s built-
in OverflowError exception (GH12506)
• pd.read_csv() no longer allows a combination of strings and integers for the usecols parameter
(GH12678)

1.8.3.5 to_datetime error changes

Bugs in pd.to_datetime() when passing a unit with convertible entries and errors='coerce' or non-
convertible with errors='ignore'. Furthermore, an OutOfBoundsDateime exception will be raised when an
out-of-range value is encountered for that unit when errors='raise'. (GH11758, GH13052, GH13059)
Previous behaviour:

In [27]: pd.to_datetime(1420043460, unit='s', errors='coerce')

Out[27]: NaT

In [28]: pd.to_datetime(11111111, unit='D', errors='ignore')

OverflowError: Python int too large to convert to C long

In [29]: pd.to_datetime(11111111, unit='D', errors='raise')

OverflowError: Python int too large to convert to C long

New behaviour:

In [2]: pd.to_datetime(1420043460, unit='s', errors='coerce')

Out[2]: Timestamp('2014-12-31 16:31:00')

In [3]: pd.to_datetime(11111111, unit='D', errors='ignore')

Out[3]: 11111111

In [4]: pd.to_datetime(11111111, unit='D', errors='raise')

OutOfBoundsDatetime: cannot convert input with unit 'D'

1.8.3.6 Other API changes

• .swaplevel() for Series, DataFrame, Panel, and MultiIndex now features defaults for its first
two parameters i and j that swap the two innermost levels of the index. (GH12934)

130 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• .searchsorted() for Index and TimedeltaIndex now accept a sorter argument to maintain com-
patibility with numpy’s searchsorted function (GH12238)
• Period and PeriodIndex now raises IncompatibleFrequency error which inherits ValueError
rather than raw ValueError (GH12615)
• Series.apply for category dtype now applies the passed function to each of the .categories (and not
the .codes), and returns a category dtype if possible (GH12473)
• read_csv will now raise a TypeError if parse_dates is neither a boolean, list, or dictionary (matches
the doc-string) (GH5636)
• The default for .query()/.eval() is now engine=None, which will use numexpr if it’s installed;
otherwise it will fallback to the python engine. This mimics the pre-0.18.1 behavior if numexpr is installed
(and which, previously, if numexpr was not installed, .query()/.eval() would raise). (GH12749)
• pd.show_versions() now includes pandas_datareader version (GH12740)
• Provide a proper __name__ and __qualname__ attributes for generic functions (GH12021)
• pd.concat(ignore_index=True) now uses RangeIndex as default (GH12695)
• pd.merge() and DataFrame.join() will show a UserWarning when merging/joining a single- with
a multi-leveled dataframe (GH9455, GH12219)
• Compat with scipy > 0.17 for deprecated piecewise_polynomial interpolation method; support for the
replacement from_derivatives method (GH12887)

1.8.3.7 Deprecations

• The method name Index.sym_diff() is deprecated and can be replaced by Index.

symmetric_difference() (GH12591)
• The method name Categorical.sort() is deprecated in favor of Categorical.sort_values()
(GH12882)

1.8.4 Performance Improvements

• Improved speed of SAS reader (GH12656, GH12961)

• Performance improvements in .groupby(..).cumcount() (GH11039)
• Improved memory usage in pd.read_csv() when using skiprows=an_integer (GH13005)
• Improved performance of DataFrame.to_sql when checking case sensitivity for tables. Now only checks
if table has been created correctly when table name is not lower case. (GH12876)
• Improved performance of Period construction and time series plotting (GH12903, GH11831).
• Improved performance of .str.encode() and .str.decode() methods (GH13008)
• Improved performance of to_numeric if input is numeric dtype (GH12777)
• Improved performance of sparse arithmetic with IntIndex (GH13036)

1.8.5 Bug Fixes

• usecols parameter in pd.read_csv is now respected even when the lines of a CSV file are not even
(GH12203)

1.8. v0.18.1 (May 3, 2016) 131

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Bug in groupby.transform(..) when axis=1 is specified with a non-monotonic ordered index

(GH12713)
• Bug in Period and PeriodIndex creation raises KeyError if freq="Minute" is specified. Note that
“Minute” freq is deprecated in v0.17.0, and recommended to use freq="T" instead (GH11854)
• Bug in .resample(...).count() with a PeriodIndex always raising a TypeError (GH12774)
• Bug in .resample(...) with a PeriodIndex casting to a DatetimeIndex when empty (GH12868)
• Bug in .resample(...) with a PeriodIndex when resampling to an existing frequency (GH12770)
• Bug in printing data which contains Period with different freq raises ValueError (GH12615)
• Bug in Series construction with Categorical and dtype='category' is specified (GH12574)
• Bugs in concatenation with a coercable dtype was too aggressive, resulting in different dtypes in outputfor-
matting when an object was longer than display.max_rows (GH12411, GH12045, GH11594, GH10571,
GH12211)
• Bug in float_format option with option not being validated as a callable. (GH12706)
• Bug in GroupBy.filter when dropna=False and no groups fulfilled the criteria (GH12768)
• Bug in __name__ of .cum* functions (GH12021)
• Bug in .astype() of a Float64Inde/Int64Index to an Int64Index (GH12881)
• Bug in roundtripping an integer based index in .to_json()/.read_json() when orient='index'
(the default) (GH12866)
• Bug in plotting Categorical dtypes cause error when attempting stacked bar plot (GH13019)
• Compat with >= numpy 1.11 for NaT comparions (GH12969)
• Bug in .drop() with a non-unique MultiIndex. (GH12701)
• Bug in .concat of datetime tz-aware and naive DataFrames (GH12467)
• Bug in correctly raising a ValueError in .resample(..).fillna(..) when passing a non-string
(GH12952)
• Bug fixes in various encoding and header processing issues in pd.read_sas() (GH12659, GH12654,
GH12647, GH12809)
• Bug in pd.crosstab() where would silently ignore aggfunc if values=None (GH12569).
• Potential segfault in DataFrame.to_json when serialising datetime.time (GH11473).
• Potential segfault in DataFrame.to_json when attempting to serialise 0d array (GH11299).
• Segfault in to_json when attempting to serialise a DataFrame or Series with non-ndarray values; now
supports serialization of category, sparse, and datetime64[ns, tz] dtypes (GH10778).
• Bug in DataFrame.to_json with unsupported dtype not passed to default handler (GH12554).
• Bug in .align not returning the sub-class (GH12983)
• Bug in aligning a Series with a DataFrame (GH13037)
• Bug in ABCPanel in which Panel4D was not being considered as a valid instance of this generic type
(GH12810)
• Bug in consistency of .name on .groupby(..).apply(..) cases (GH12363)
• Bug in Timestamp.__repr__ that caused pprint to fail in nested structures (GH12622)

132 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Bug in Timedelta.min and Timedelta.max, the properties now report the true minimum/maximum
timedeltas as recognized by pandas. See the documentation. (GH12727)
• Bug in .quantile() with interpolation may coerce to float unexpectedly (GH12772)
• Bug in .quantile() with empty Series may return scalar rather than empty Series (GH12772)
• Bug in .loc with out-of-bounds in a large indexer would raise IndexError rather than KeyError
(GH12527)
• Bug in resampling when using a TimedeltaIndex and .asfreq(), would previously not include the final
fencepost (GH12926)
• Bug in equality testing with a Categorical in a DataFrame (GH12564)
• Bug in GroupBy.first(), .last() returns incorrect row when TimeGrouper is used (GH7453)
• Bug in pd.read_csv() with the c engine when specifying skiprows with newlines in quoted items
(GH10911, GH12775)
• Bug in DataFrame timezone lost when assigning tz-aware datetime Series with alignment (GH12981)
• Bug in .value_counts() when normalize=True and dropna=True where nulls still contributed to
the normalized count (GH12558)
• Bug in Series.value_counts() loses name if its dtype is category (GH12835)
• Bug in Series.value_counts() loses timezone info (GH12835)
• Bug in Series.value_counts(normalize=True) with Categorical raises
UnboundLocalError (GH12835)
• Bug in Panel.fillna() ignoring inplace=True (GH12633)
• Bug in pd.read_csv() when specifying names, usecols, and parse_dates simultaneously with the
c engine (GH9755)
• Bug in pd.read_csv() when specifying delim_whitespace=True and lineterminator simulta-
neously with the c engine (GH12912)
• Bug in Series.rename, DataFrame.rename and DataFrame.rename_axis not treating Series
as mappings to relabel (GH12623).
• Clean in .rolling.min and .rolling.max to enhance dtype handling (GH12373)
• Bug in groupby where complex types are coerced to float (GH12902)
• Bug in Series.map raises TypeError if its dtype is category or tz-aware datetime (GH12473)
• Bugs on 32bit platforms for some test comparisons (GH12972)
• Bug in index coercion when falling back from RangeIndex construction (GH12893)
• Better error message in window functions when invalid argument (e.g. a float window) is passed (GH12669)
• Bug in slicing subclassed DataFrame defined to return subclassed Series may return normal Series
(GH11559)
• Bug in .str accessor methods may raise ValueError if input has name and the result is DataFrame or
MultiIndex (GH12617)
• Bug in DataFrame.last_valid_index() and DataFrame.first_valid_index() on empty
frames (GH12800)
• Bug in CategoricalIndex.get_loc returns different result from regular Index (GH12531)
• Bug in PeriodIndex.resample where name not propagated (GH12769)

1.8. v0.18.1 (May 3, 2016) 133

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Bug in date_range closed keyword and timezones (GH12684).

• Bug in pd.concat raises AttributeError when input data contains tz-aware datetime and timedelta
(GH12620)
• Bug in pd.concat did not handle empty Series properly (GH11082)
• Bug in .plot.bar alginment when width is specified with int (GH12979)
• Bug in fill_value is ignored if the argument to a binary operator is a constant (GH12723)
• Bug in pd.read_html() when using bs4 flavor and parsing table with a header and only one column
(GH9178)
• Bug in .pivot_table when margins=True and dropna=True where nulls still contributed to margin
count (GH12577)
• Bug in .pivot_table when dropna=False where table index/column names disappear (GH12133)
• Bug in pd.crosstab() when margins=True and dropna=False which raised (GH12642)
• Bug in Series.name when name attribute can be a hashable type (GH12610)
• Bug in .describe() resets categorical columns information (GH11558)
• Bug where loffset argument was not applied when calling resample().count() on a timeseries
(GH12725)
• pd.read_excel() now accepts column names associated with keyword argument names (GH12870)
• Bug in pd.to_numeric() with Index returns np.ndarray, rather than Index (GH12777)
• Bug in pd.to_numeric() with datetime-like may raise TypeError (GH12777)
• Bug in pd.to_numeric() with scalar raises ValueError (GH12777)

1.9 v0.18.0 (March 13, 2016)

This is a major release from 0.17.1 and includes a small number of API changes, several new features, enhancements,
and performance improvements along with a large number of bug fixes. We recommend that all users upgrade to this
version.

Warning: pandas >= 0.18.0 no longer supports compatibility with Python version 2.6 and 3.3 (GH7718,
GH11273)

Warning: numexpr version 2.4.4 will now show a warning and not be used as a computation back-end for
pandas because of some buggy behavior. This does not affect other versions (>= 2.1 and >= 2.4.6). (GH12489)

Highlights include:
• Moving and expanding window functions are now methods on Series and DataFrame, similar to .groupby,
see here.
• Adding support for a RangeIndex as a specialized form of the Int64Index for memory savings, see here.
• API breaking change to the .resample method to make it more .groupby like, see here.
• Removal of support for positional indexing with floats, which was deprecated since 0.14.0. This will now raise
a TypeError, see here.

134 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• The .to_xarray() function has been added for compatibility with the xarray package, see here.
• The read_sas function has been enhanced to read sas7bdat files, see here.
• Addition of the .str.extractall() method, and API changes to the .str.extract() method and .str.cat() method.
• pd.test() top-level nose test runner is available (GH4327).
Check the API Changes and deprecations before updating.

What’s new in v0.18.0

• New features
– Window functions are now methods
– Changes to rename
– Range Index
– Changes to str.extract
– Addition of str.extractall
– Changes to str.cat
– Datetimelike rounding
– Formatting of Integers in FloatIndex
– Changes to dtype assignment behaviors
– to_xarray
– Latex Representation
– pd.read_sas() changes
– Other enhancements
• Backwards incompatible API changes
– NaT and Timedelta operations
– Changes to msgpack
– Signature change for .rank
– Bug in QuarterBegin with n=0
– Resample API

* Downsampling
* Upsampling
* Previous API will work but with deprecations
– Changes to eval
– Other API Changes
– Deprecations
– Removal of deprecated float indexers
– Removal of prior version deprecations/changes
• Performance Improvements

1.9. v0.18.0 (March 13, 2016) 135

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Bug Fixes

1.9.1 New features

1.9.1.1 Window functions are now methods

Window functions have been refactored to be methods on Series/DataFrame objects, rather than top-level func-
tions, which are now deprecated. This allows these window-type functions, to have a similar API to that of .groupby.
See the full documentation here (GH11603, GH12373)

In [1]: np.random.seed(1234)

In [2]: df = pd.DataFrame({'A' : range(10), 'B' : np.random.randn(10)})

In [3]: df
Out[3]:
A B
0 0 0.471435
1 1 -1.190976
2 2 1.432707
3 3 -0.312652
4 4 -0.720589
5 5 0.887163
6 6 0.859588
7 7 -0.636524
8 8 0.015696
9 9 -2.242685

Previous Behavior:

In [8]: pd.rolling_mean(df,window=3)
FutureWarning: pd.rolling_mean is deprecated for DataFrame and will be
˓→removed in a future version, replace with

DataFrame.rolling(window=3,center=False).mean()
Out[8]:
A B
0 NaN NaN
1 NaN NaN
2 1 0.237722
3 2 -0.023640
4 3 0.133155
5 4 -0.048693
6 5 0.342054
7 6 0.370076
8 7 0.079587
9 8 -0.954504

New Behavior:

In [4]: r = df.rolling(window=3)

These show a descriptive repr

In [5]: r
Out[5]: Rolling [window=3,center=False,axis=0]

136 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

with tab-completion of available methods and properties.

In [9]: r.
r.A r.agg r.apply r.count r.exclusions r.max r.
˓→median r.name r.skew r.sum
r.B r.aggregate r.corr r.cov r.kurt r.mean r.
˓→min r.quantile r.std r.var

The methods operate on the Rolling object itself

In [6]: r.mean()
Out[6]:
A B
0 NaN NaN
1 NaN NaN
2 1.0 0.237722
3 2.0 -0.023640
4 3.0 0.133155
5 4.0 -0.048693
6 5.0 0.342054
7 6.0 0.370076
8 7.0 0.079587
9 8.0 -0.954504

They provide getitem accessors

In [7]: r['A'].mean()
Out[7]:
0 NaN
1 NaN
2 1.0
3 2.0
4 3.0
5 4.0
6 5.0
7 6.0
8 7.0
9 8.0
Name: A, dtype: float64

And multiple aggregations

In [8]: r.agg({'A' : ['mean','std'],

...: 'B' : ['mean','std']})
...:
Out[8]:
A B
mean std mean std
0 NaN NaN NaN NaN
1 NaN NaN NaN NaN
2 1.0 1.0 0.237722 1.327364
3 2.0 1.0 -0.023640 1.335505
4 3.0 1.0 0.133155 1.143778
5 4.0 1.0 -0.048693 0.835747
6 5.0 1.0 0.342054 0.920379
7 6.0 1.0 0.370076 0.871850
8 7.0 1.0 0.079587 0.750099
9 8.0 1.0 -0.954504 1.162285

1.9. v0.18.0 (March 13, 2016) 137

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

1.9.1.2 Changes to rename

Series.rename and NDFrame.rename_axis can now take a scalar or list-like argument for altering the Series
or axis name, in addition to their old behaviors of altering labels. (GH9494, GH11965)

In [9]: s = pd.Series(np.random.randn(5))

In [10]: s.rename('newname')
Out[10]:
0 1.150036
1 0.991946
2 0.953324
3 -2.021255
4 -0.334077
Name: newname, dtype: float64

In [11]: df = pd.DataFrame(np.random.randn(5, 2))

In [12]: (df.rename_axis("indexname")
....: .rename_axis("columns_name", axis="columns"))
....:
Out[12]:
columns_name 0 1
indexname
0 0.002118 0.405453
1 0.289092 1.321158
2 -1.546906 -0.202646
3 -0.655969 0.193421
4 0.553439 1.318152

The new functionality works well in method chains. Previously these methods only accepted functions or dicts map-
ping a label to a new label. This continues to work as before for function or dict-like values.

1.9.1.3 Range Index

A RangeIndex has been added to the Int64Index sub-classes to support a memory saving alternative for common
use cases. This has a similar implementation to the python range object (xrange in python 2), in that it only
stores the start, stop, and step values for the index. It will transparently interact with the user API, converting to
Int64Index if needed.
This will now be the default constructed index for NDFrame objects, rather than previous an Int64Index. (GH939,
GH12070, GH12071, GH12109, GH12888)
Previous Behavior:

In [3]: s = pd.Series(range(1000))

In [4]: s.index
Out[4]:
Int64Index([ 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9,
...
990, 991, 992, 993, 994, 995, 996, 997, 998, 999], dtype='int64',
˓→length=1000)

In [6]: s.index.nbytes
Out[6]: 8000

138 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

New Behavior:

In [13]: s = pd.Series(range(1000))

In [14]: s.index
Out[14]: RangeIndex(start=0, stop=1000, step=1)

In [15]: s.index.nbytes
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[15]: 80

1.9.1.4 Changes to str.extract

The .str.extract method takes a regular expression with capture groups, finds the first match in each subject string, and
returns the contents of the capture groups (GH11386).
In v0.18.0, the expand argument was added to extract.
• expand=False: it returns a Series, Index, or DataFrame, depending on the subject and regular expres-
sion pattern (same behavior as pre-0.18.0).
• expand=True: it always returns a DataFrame, which is more consistent and less confusing from the per-
spective of a user.
Currently the default is expand=None which gives a FutureWarning and uses expand=False. To avoid this
warning, please explicitly specify expand.

In [1]: pd.Series(['a1', 'b2', 'c3']).str.extract('[ab](\d)', expand=None)

FutureWarning: currently extract(expand=None) means expand=False (return Index/Series/
˓→DataFrame)

but in a future version of pandas this will be changed to expand=True (return

˓→DataFrame)

Out[1]:
0 1
1 2
2 NaN
dtype: object

Extracting a regular expression with one group returns a Series if expand=False.

In [16]: pd.Series(['a1', 'b2', 'c3']).str.extract('[ab](\d)', expand=False)

Out[16]:
0 1
1 2
2 NaN
dtype: object

It returns a DataFrame with one column if expand=True.

In [17]: pd.Series(['a1', 'b2', 'c3']).str.extract('[ab](\d)', expand=True)

Out[17]:
0
0 1
1 2
2 NaN

Calling on an Index with a regex with exactly one capture group returns an Index if expand=False.

1.9. v0.18.0 (March 13, 2016) 139

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [18]: s = pd.Series(["a1", "b2", "c3"], ["A11", "B22", "C33"])

In [19]: s.index
Out[19]: Index(['A11', 'B22', 'C33'], dtype='object')

In [20]: s.index.str.extract("(?P<letter>[a-zA-Z])", expand=False)

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[20]: Index(['A', 'B', 'C'],
˓→dtype='object', name='letter')

It returns a DataFrame with one column if expand=True.

In [21]: s.index.str.extract("(?P<letter>[a-zA-Z])", expand=True)

Out[21]:
letter
0 A
1 B
2 C

Calling on an Index with a regex with more than one capture group raises ValueError if expand=False.

>>> s.index.str.extract("(?P<letter>[a-zA-Z])([0-9]+)", expand=False)

ValueError: only one regex group is supported with Index

It returns a DataFrame if expand=True.

In [22]: s.index.str.extract("(?P<letter>[a-zA-Z])([0-9]+)", expand=True)

Out[22]:
letter 1
0 A 11
1 B 22
2 C 33

In summary, extract(expand=True) always returns a DataFrame with a row for every subject string, and a
column for every capture group.

1.9.1.5 Addition of str.extractall

The .str.extractall method was added (GH11386). Unlike extract, which returns only the first match.

In [23]: s = pd.Series(["a1a2", "b1", "c1"], ["A", "B", "C"])

In [24]: s
Out[24]:
A a1a2
B b1
C c1
dtype: object

In [25]: s.str.extract("(?P<letter>[ab])(?P<digit>\d)", expand=False)

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[25]:
letter digit
A a 1
B b 1
C NaN NaN

The extractall method returns all matches.

140 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [26]: s.str.extractall("(?P<letter>[ab])(?P<digit>\d)")
Out[26]:
letter digit
match
A 0 a 1
1 a 2
B 0 b 1

1.9.1.6 Changes to str.cat

The method .str.cat() concatenates the members of a Series. Before, if NaN values were present in the Series,
calling .str.cat() on it would return NaN, unlike the rest of the Series.str.* API. This behavior has been
amended to ignore NaN values by default. (GH11435).
A new, friendlier ValueError is added to protect against the mistake of supplying the sep as an arg, rather than as
a kwarg. (GH11334).
In [27]: pd.Series(['a','b',np.nan,'c']).str.cat(sep=' ')
Out[27]: 'a b c'

In [28]: pd.Series(['a','b',np.nan,'c']).str.cat(sep=' ', na_rep='?')

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[28]: 'a b ? c'

In [2]: pd.Series(['a','b',np.nan,'c']).str.cat(' ')

ValueError: Did you mean to supply a `sep` keyword?

1.9.1.7 Datetimelike rounding

DatetimeIndex, Timestamp, TimedeltaIndex, Timedelta have gained the .round(), .floor() and
.ceil() method for datetimelike rounding, flooring and ceiling. (GH4314, GH11963)
Naive datetimes
In [29]: dr = pd.date_range('20130101 09:12:56.1234', periods=3)

In [30]: dr
Out[30]:
DatetimeIndex(['2013-01-01 09:12:56.123400', '2013-01-02 09:12:56.123400',
'2013-01-03 09:12:56.123400'],
dtype='datetime64[ns]', freq='D')

In [31]: dr.round('s')
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

DatetimeIndex(['2013-01-01 09:12:56', '2013-01-02 09:12:56',

'2013-01-03 09:12:56'],
dtype='datetime64[ns]', freq=None)

# Timestamp scalar
In [32]: dr[0]
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→Timestamp('2013-01-01 09:12:56.123400', freq='D')

In [33]: dr[0].round('10s')
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→Timestamp('2013-01-01 09:13:00')

1.9. v0.18.0 (March 13, 2016) 141

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Tz-aware are rounded, floored and ceiled in local times

In [34]: dr = dr.tz_localize('US/Eastern')

In [35]: dr
Out[35]:
DatetimeIndex(['2013-01-01 09:12:56.123400-05:00',
'2013-01-02 09:12:56.123400-05:00',
'2013-01-03 09:12:56.123400-05:00'],
dtype='datetime64[ns, US/Eastern]', freq='D')

In [36]: dr.round('s')
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

DatetimeIndex(['2013-01-01 09:12:56-05:00', '2013-01-02 09:12:56-05:00',

'2013-01-03 09:12:56-05:00'],
dtype='datetime64[ns, US/Eastern]', freq=None)

Timedeltas
In [37]: t = timedelta_range('1 days 2 hr 13 min 45 us',periods=3,freq='d')

In [38]: t
Out[38]:
TimedeltaIndex(['1 days 02:13:00.000045', '2 days 02:13:00.000045',
'3 days 02:13:00.000045'],
dtype='timedelta64[ns]', freq='D')

In [39]: t.round('10min')
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→TimedeltaIndex(['1 days 02:10:00', '2 days 02:10:00', '3 days 02:10:00'], dtype=

˓→'timedelta64[ns]', freq=None)

# Timedelta scalar
In [40]: t[0]
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→Timedelta('1 days 02:13:00.000045')

In [41]: t[0].round('2h')
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→Timedelta('1 days 02:00:00')

In addition, .round(), .floor() and .ceil() will be available thru the .dt accessor of Series.
In [42]: s = pd.Series(dr)

In [43]: s
Out[43]:
0 2013-01-01 09:12:56.123400-05:00
1 2013-01-02 09:12:56.123400-05:00
2 2013-01-03 09:12:56.123400-05:00
dtype: datetime64[ns, US/Eastern]

In [44]: s.dt.round('D')
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

0 2013-01-01 00:00:00-05:00

142 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

1 2013-01-02 00:00:00-05:00
2 2013-01-03 00:00:00-05:00
dtype: datetime64[ns, US/Eastern]

1.9.1.8 Formatting of Integers in FloatIndex

Integers in FloatIndex, e.g. 1., are now formatted with a decimal point and a 0 digit, e.g. 1.0 (GH11713) This
change not only affects the display to the console, but also the output of IO methods like .to_csv or .to_html.
Previous Behavior:

In [2]: s = pd.Series([1,2,3], index=np.arange(3.))

In [3]: s
Out[3]:
0 1
1 2
2 3
dtype: int64

In [4]: s.index
Out[4]: Float64Index([0.0, 1.0, 2.0], dtype='float64')

In [5]: print(s.to_csv(path=None))
0,1
1,2
2,3

New Behavior:

In [45]: s = pd.Series([1,2,3], index=np.arange(3.))

In [46]: s
Out[46]:
0.0 1
1.0 2
2.0 3
dtype: int64

In [47]: s.index
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[47]: Float64Index([0.0, 1.0, 2.
˓→0], dtype='float64')

In [48]: print(s.to_csv(path=None))
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→0,1

1.0,2
2.0,3

1.9.1.9 Changes to dtype assignment behaviors

When a DataFrame’s slice is updated with a new slice of the same dtype, the dtype of the DataFrame will now remain
the same. (GH10503)
Previous Behavior:

1.9. v0.18.0 (March 13, 2016) 143

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [5]: df = pd.DataFrame({'a': [0, 1, 1],

'b': pd.Series([100, 200, 300], dtype='uint32')})

In [7]: df.dtypes
Out[7]:
a int64
b uint32
dtype: object

In [8]: ix = df['a'] == 1

In [9]: df.loc[ix, 'b'] = df.loc[ix, 'b']

In [11]: df.dtypes
Out[11]:
a int64
b int64
dtype: object

New Behavior:

In [49]: df = pd.DataFrame({'a': [0, 1, 1],

....: 'b': pd.Series([100, 200, 300], dtype='uint32')})
....:

In [50]: df.dtypes
Out[50]:
a int64
b uint32
dtype: object

In [51]: ix = df['a'] == 1

In [52]: df.loc[ix, 'b'] = df.loc[ix, 'b']

In [53]: df.dtypes
Out[53]:
a int64
b uint32
dtype: object

When a DataFrame’s integer slice is partially updated with a new slice of floats that could potentially be downcasted
to integer without losing precision, the dtype of the slice will be set to float instead of integer.
Previous Behavior:

In [4]: df = pd.DataFrame(np.array(range(1,10)).reshape(3,3),
columns=list('abc'),
index=[[4,4,8], [8,10,12]])

In [5]: df
Out[5]:
a b c
4 8 1 2 3
10 4 5 6
8 12 7 8 9

In [7]: df.ix[4, 'c'] = np.array([0., 1.])

144 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [8]: df
Out[8]:
a b c
4 8 1 2 0
10 4 5 1
8 12 7 8 9

New Behavior:

In [54]: df = pd.DataFrame(np.array(range(1,10)).reshape(3,3),
....: columns=list('abc'),
....: index=[[4,4,8], [8,10,12]])
....:

In [55]: df
Out[55]:
a b c
4 8 1 2 3
10 4 5 6
8 12 7 8 9

In [56]: df.loc[4, 'c'] = np.array([0., 1.])

In [57]: df
Out[57]:
a b c
4 8 1 2 0.0
10 4 5 1.0
8 12 7 8 9.0

1.9.1.10 to_xarray

In a future version of pandas, we will be deprecating Panel and other > 2 ndim objects. In order to provide for
continuity, all NDFrame objects have gained the .to_xarray() method in order to convert to xarray objects,
which has a pandas-like interface for > 2 ndim. (GH11972)
See the xarray full-documentation here.

In [1]: p = Panel(np.arange(2*3*4).reshape(2,3,4))

In [2]: p.to_xarray()
Out[2]:
<xarray.DataArray (items: 2, major_axis: 3, minor_axis: 4)>
array([[[ 0, 1, 2, 3],
[ 4, 5, 6, 7],
[ 8, 9, 10, 11]],

[[12, 13, 14, 15],

[16, 17, 18, 19],
[20, 21, 22, 23]]])
Coordinates:
* items (items) int64 0 1
* major_axis (major_axis) int64 0 1 2
* minor_axis (minor_axis) int64 0 1 2 3

1.9. v0.18.0 (March 13, 2016) 145

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

1.9.1.11 Latex Representation

DataFrame has gained a ._repr_latex_() method in order to allow for conversion to latex in a ipython/jupyter
notebook using nbconvert. (GH11778)
Note that this must be activated by setting the option pd.display.latex.repr=True (GH12182)
For example, if you have a jupyter notebook you plan to convert to latex using nbconvert, place the statement pd.
display.latex.repr=True in the first cell to have the contained DataFrame output also stored as latex.
The options display.latex.escape and display.latex.longtable have also been added to the config-
uration and are used automatically by the to_latex method. See the available options docs for more info.

1.9.1.12 pd.read_sas() changes

read_sas has gained the ability to read SAS7BDAT files, including compressed files. The files can be read in
entirety, or incrementally. For full details see here. (GH4052)

1.9.1.13 Other enhancements

• Handle truncated floats in SAS xport files (GH11713)

• Added option to hide index in Series.to_string (GH11729)
• read_excel now supports s3 urls of the format s3://bucketname/filename (GH11447)
• add support for AWS_S3_HOST env variable when reading from s3 (GH12198)
• A simple version of Panel.round() is now implemented (GH11763)
• For Python 3.x, round(DataFrame), round(Series), round(Panel) will work (GH11763)
• sys.getsizeof(obj) returns the memory usage of a pandas object, including the values it contains
(GH11597)
• Series gained an is_unique attribute (GH11946)
• DataFrame.quantile and Series.quantile now accept interpolation keyword (GH10174).
• Added DataFrame.style.format for more flexible formatting of cell values (GH11692)
• DataFrame.select_dtypes now allows the np.float16 typecode (GH11990)
• pivot_table() now accepts most iterables for the values parameter (GH12017)
• Added Google BigQuery service account authentication support, which enables authentication on remote
servers. (GH11881, GH12572). For further details see here
• HDFStore is now iterable: for k in store is equivalent to for k in store.keys() (GH12221).
• Add missing methods/fields to .dt for Period (GH8848)
• The entire codebase has been PEP-ified (GH12096)

1.9.2 Backwards incompatible API changes

• the leading whitespaces have been removed from the output of .to_string(index=False) method
(GH11833)
• the out parameter has been removed from the Series.round() method. (GH11763)
• DataFrame.round() leaves non-numeric columns unchanged in its return, rather than raises. (GH11885)

146 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• DataFrame.head(0) and DataFrame.tail(0) return empty frames, rather than self. (GH11937)
• Series.head(0) and Series.tail(0) return empty series, rather than self. (GH11937)
• to_msgpack and read_msgpack encoding now defaults to 'utf-8'. (GH12170)
• the order of keyword arguments to text file parsing functions (.read_csv(), .read_table(), .
read_fwf()) changed to group related arguments. (GH11555)
• NaTType.isoformat now returns the string 'NaT to allow the result to be passed to the constructor of
Timestamp. (GH12300)

1.9.2.1 NaT and Timedelta operations

NaT and Timedelta have expanded arithmetic operations, which are extended to Series arithmetic where applica-
ble. Operations defined for datetime64[ns] or timedelta64[ns] are now also defined for NaT (GH11564).
NaT now supports arithmetic operations with integers and floats.

In [58]: pd.NaT * 1
Out[58]: NaT

In [59]: pd.NaT * 1.5

\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[59]: NaT

In [60]: pd.NaT / 2
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[60]: NaT

In [61]: pd.NaT * np.nan

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[61]: NaT

NaT defines more arithmetic operations with datetime64[ns] and timedelta64[ns].

In [62]: pd.NaT / pd.NaT

Out[62]: nan

In [63]: pd.Timedelta('1s') / pd.NaT

\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[63]: nan

NaT may represent either a datetime64[ns] null or a timedelta64[ns] null. Given the ambiguity, it is
treated as a timedelta64[ns], which allows more operations to succeed.

In [64]: pd.NaT + pd.NaT

Out[64]: NaT

# same as
In [65]: pd.Timedelta('1s') + pd.Timedelta('1s')
\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[65]: Timedelta('0 days 00:00:02')

as opposed to

In [3]: pd.Timestamp('19900315') + pd.Timestamp('19900315')

TypeError: unsupported operand type(s) for +: 'Timestamp' and 'Timestamp'

However, when wrapped in a Series whose dtype is datetime64[ns] or timedelta64[ns], the dtype
information is respected.

1.9. v0.18.0 (March 13, 2016) 147

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [1]: pd.Series([pd.NaT], dtype='<M8[ns]') + pd.Series([pd.NaT], dtype='<M8[ns]')

TypeError: can only operate on a datetimes for subtraction,
but the operator [__add__] was passed

In [66]: pd.Series([pd.NaT], dtype='<m8[ns]') + pd.Series([pd.NaT], dtype='<m8[ns]')

Out[66]:
0 NaT
dtype: timedelta64[ns]

Timedelta division by floats now works.

In [67]: pd.Timedelta('1s') / 2.0
Out[67]: Timedelta('0 days 00:00:00.500000')

Subtraction by Timedelta in a Series by a Timestamp works (GH11925)

In [68]: ser = pd.Series(pd.timedelta_range('1 day', periods=3))

In [69]: ser
Out[69]:
0 1 days
1 2 days
2 3 days
dtype: timedelta64[ns]

In [70]: pd.Timestamp('2012-01-01') - ser

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[70]:
0 2011-12-31
1 2011-12-30
2 2011-12-29
dtype: datetime64[ns]

NaT.isoformat() now returns 'NaT'. This change allows allows pd.Timestamp to rehydrate any timestamp
like object from its isoformat (GH12300).

1.9.2.2 Changes to msgpack

Forward incompatible changes in msgpack writing format were made over 0.17.0 and 0.18.0; older versions of
pandas cannot read files packed by newer versions (GH12129, GH10527)
Bugs in to_msgpack and read_msgpack introduced in 0.17.0 and fixed in 0.18.0, caused files packed in Python
2 unreadable by Python 3 (GH12142). The following table describes the backward and forward compat of msgpacks.

Packed with Can be unpacked with

pre-0.17 / Python 2 any
pre-0.17 / Python 3 any
0.17 / Python 2
Warning: • ==0.17 / Python 2
• >=0.18 / any Python

0.17 / Python 3 >=0.18 / any Python

0.18 >= 0.18
0.18.0 is backward-compatible for reading files packed by older versions, except for files packed with 0.17 in
Python 2, in which case only they can only be unpacked in Python 2.

148 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

1.9.2.3 Signature change for .rank

Series.rank and DataFrame.rank now have the same signature (GH11759)

Previous signature
In [3]: pd.Series([0,1]).rank(method='average', na_option='keep',
ascending=True, pct=False)
Out[3]:
0 1
1 2
dtype: float64

In [4]: pd.DataFrame([0,1]).rank(axis=0, numeric_only=None,

method='average', na_option='keep',
ascending=True, pct=False)
Out[4]:
0
0 1
1 2

New signature
In [71]: pd.Series([0,1]).rank(axis=0, method='average', numeric_only=None,
....: na_option='keep', ascending=True, pct=False)
....:
Out[71]:
0 1.0
1 2.0
dtype: float64

In [72]: pd.DataFrame([0,1]).rank(axis=0, method='average', numeric_only=None,

....: na_option='keep', ascending=True, pct=False)
....:
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[72]:
0
0 1.0
1 2.0

1.9.2.4 Bug in QuarterBegin with n=0

In previous versions, the behavior of the QuarterBegin offset was inconsistent depending on the date when the n
parameter was 0. (GH11406)
The general semantics of anchored offsets for n=0 is to not move the date when it is an anchor point (e.g., a quarter
start date), and otherwise roll forward to the next anchor point.
In [73]: d = pd.Timestamp('2014-02-01')

In [74]: d
Out[74]: Timestamp('2014-02-01 00:00:00')

In [75]: d + pd.offsets.QuarterBegin(n=0, startingMonth=2)

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[75]: Timestamp('2014-02-01 00:00:00')

In [76]: d + pd.offsets.QuarterBegin(n=0, startingMonth=1)

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[76]:
˓→Timestamp('2014-04-01 00:00:00')

1.9. v0.18.0 (March 13, 2016) 149

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

For the QuarterBegin offset in previous versions, the date would be rolled backwards if date was in the same
month as the quarter start date.
In [3]: d = pd.Timestamp('2014-02-15')

In [4]: d + pd.offsets.QuarterBegin(n=0, startingMonth=2)

Out[4]: Timestamp('2014-02-01 00:00:00')

This behavior has been corrected in version 0.18.0, which is consistent with other anchored offsets like MonthBegin
and YearBegin.
In [77]: d = pd.Timestamp('2014-02-15')

In [78]: d + pd.offsets.QuarterBegin(n=0, startingMonth=2)

Out[78]: Timestamp('2014-05-01 00:00:00')

1.9.2.5 Resample API

Like the change in the window functions API above, .resample(...) is changing to have a more groupby-like
API. (GH11732, GH12702, GH12202, GH12332, GH12334, GH12348, GH12448).
In [79]: np.random.seed(1234)

In [80]: df = pd.DataFrame(np.random.rand(10,4),
....: columns=list('ABCD'),
....: index=pd.date_range('2010-01-01 09:00:00', periods=10,
˓→freq='s'))

....:

In [81]: df
Out[81]:
A B C D
2010-01-01 09:00:00 0.191519 0.622109 0.437728 0.785359
2010-01-01 09:00:01 0.779976 0.272593 0.276464 0.801872
2010-01-01 09:00:02 0.958139 0.875933 0.357817 0.500995
2010-01-01 09:00:03 0.683463 0.712702 0.370251 0.561196
2010-01-01 09:00:04 0.503083 0.013768 0.772827 0.882641
2010-01-01 09:00:05 0.364886 0.615396 0.075381 0.368824
2010-01-01 09:00:06 0.933140 0.651378 0.397203 0.788730
2010-01-01 09:00:07 0.316836 0.568099 0.869127 0.436173
2010-01-01 09:00:08 0.802148 0.143767 0.704261 0.704581
2010-01-01 09:00:09 0.218792 0.924868 0.442141 0.909316

Previous API:
You would write a resampling operation that immediately evaluates. If a how parameter was not provided, it would
default to how='mean'.
In [6]: df.resample('2s')
Out[6]:
A B C D
2010-01-01 09:00:00 0.485748 0.447351 0.357096 0.793615
2010-01-01 09:00:02 0.820801 0.794317 0.364034 0.531096
2010-01-01 09:00:04 0.433985 0.314582 0.424104 0.625733
2010-01-01 09:00:06 0.624988 0.609738 0.633165 0.612452
2010-01-01 09:00:08 0.510470 0.534317 0.573201 0.806949

150 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

You could also specify a how directly

In [7]: df.resample('2s', how='sum')

Out[7]:
A B C D
2010-01-01 09:00:00 0.971495 0.894701 0.714192 1.587231
2010-01-01 09:00:02 1.641602 1.588635 0.728068 1.062191
2010-01-01 09:00:04 0.867969 0.629165 0.848208 1.251465
2010-01-01 09:00:06 1.249976 1.219477 1.266330 1.224904
2010-01-01 09:00:08 1.020940 1.068634 1.146402 1.613897

New API:
Now, you can write .resample(..) as a 2-stage operation like .groupby(...), which yields a Resampler.

In [82]: r = df.resample('2s')

In [83]: r
Out[83]: DatetimeIndexResampler [freq=<2 * Seconds>, axis=0, closed=left, label=left,
˓→convention=start, base=0]

Downsampling

You can then use this object to perform operations. These are downsampling operations (going from a higher frequency
to a lower one).

In [84]: r.mean()
Out[84]:
A B C D
2010-01-01 09:00:00 0.485748 0.447351 0.357096 0.793615
2010-01-01 09:00:02 0.820801 0.794317 0.364034 0.531096
2010-01-01 09:00:04 0.433985 0.314582 0.424104 0.625733
2010-01-01 09:00:06 0.624988 0.609738 0.633165 0.612452
2010-01-01 09:00:08 0.510470 0.534317 0.573201 0.806949

In [85]: r.sum()
Out[85]:
A B C D
2010-01-01 09:00:00 0.971495 0.894701 0.714192 1.587231
2010-01-01 09:00:02 1.641602 1.588635 0.728068 1.062191
2010-01-01 09:00:04 0.867969 0.629165 0.848208 1.251465
2010-01-01 09:00:06 1.249976 1.219477 1.266330 1.224904
2010-01-01 09:00:08 1.020940 1.068634 1.146402 1.613897

Furthermore, resample now supports getitem operations to perform the resample on specific columns.

In [86]: r[['A','C']].mean()
Out[86]:
A C
2010-01-01 09:00:00 0.485748 0.357096
2010-01-01 09:00:02 0.820801 0.364034
2010-01-01 09:00:04 0.433985 0.424104
2010-01-01 09:00:06 0.624988 0.633165
2010-01-01 09:00:08 0.510470 0.573201

1.9. v0.18.0 (March 13, 2016) 151

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

and .aggregate type operations.

In [87]: r.agg({'A' : 'mean', 'B' : 'sum'})
Out[87]:
A B
2010-01-01 09:00:00 0.485748 0.894701
2010-01-01 09:00:02 0.820801 1.588635
2010-01-01 09:00:04 0.433985 0.629165
2010-01-01 09:00:06 0.624988 1.219477
2010-01-01 09:00:08 0.510470 1.068634

These accessors can of course, be combined

In [88]: r[['A','B']].agg(['mean','sum'])
Out[88]:
A B
mean sum mean sum
2010-01-01 09:00:00 0.485748 0.971495 0.447351 0.894701
2010-01-01 09:00:02 0.820801 1.641602 0.794317 1.588635
2010-01-01 09:00:04 0.433985 0.867969 0.314582 0.629165
2010-01-01 09:00:06 0.624988 1.249976 0.609738 1.219477
2010-01-01 09:00:08 0.510470 1.020940 0.534317 1.068634

Upsampling

Upsampling operations take you from a lower frequency to a higher frequency. These are now performed with the
Resampler objects with backfill(), ffill(), fillna() and asfreq() methods.
In [89]: s = pd.Series(np.arange(5,dtype='int64'),
....: index=date_range('2010-01-01', periods=5, freq='Q'))
....:

In [90]: s
Out[90]:
2010-03-31 0
2010-06-30 1
2010-09-30 2
2010-12-31 3
2011-03-31 4
Freq: Q-DEC, dtype: int64

Previously
In [6]: s.resample('M', fill_method='ffill')
Out[6]:
2010-03-31 0
2010-04-30 0
2010-05-31 0
2010-06-30 1
2010-07-31 1
2010-08-31 1
2010-09-30 2
2010-10-31 2
2010-11-30 2
2010-12-31 3
2011-01-31 3
2011-02-28 3

152 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

2011-03-31 4
Freq: M, dtype: int64

New API

In [91]: s.resample('M').ffill()
Out[91]:
2010-03-31 0
2010-04-30 0
2010-05-31 0
2010-06-30 1
2010-07-31 1
2010-08-31 1
2010-09-30 2
2010-10-31 2
2010-11-30 2
2010-12-31 3
2011-01-31 3
2011-02-28 3
2011-03-31 4
Freq: M, dtype: int64

Note: In the new API, you can either downsample OR upsample. The prior implementation would allow you to pass
an aggregator function (like mean) even though you were upsampling, providing a bit of confusion.

Previous API will work but with deprecations

Warning: This new API for resample includes some internal changes for the prior-to-0.18.0 API, to work with a
deprecation warning in most cases, as the resample operation returns a deferred object. We can intercept operations
and just do what the (pre 0.18.0) API did (with a warning). Here is a typical use case:
In [4]: r = df.resample('2s')

In [6]: r*10
pandas/tseries/resample.py:80: FutureWarning: .resample() is now a deferred
˓→operation

use .resample(...).mean() instead of .resample(...)

Out[6]:
A B C D
2010-01-01 09:00:00 4.857476 4.473507 3.570960 7.936154
2010-01-01 09:00:02 8.208011 7.943173 3.640340 5.310957
2010-01-01 09:00:04 4.339846 3.145823 4.241039 6.257326
2010-01-01 09:00:06 6.249881 6.097384 6.331650 6.124518
2010-01-01 09:00:08 5.104699 5.343172 5.732009 8.069486

However, getting and assignment operations directly on a Resampler will raise a ValueError:
In [7]: r.iloc[0] = 5
ValueError: .resample() is now a deferred operation
use .resample(...).mean() instead of .resample(...)

There is a situation where the new API can not perform all the operations when using original code. This code is

1.9. v0.18.0 (March 13, 2016) 153

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

intending to resample every 2s, take the mean AND then take the min of those results.
In [4]: df.resample('2s').min()
Out[4]:
A 0.433985
B 0.314582
C 0.357096
D 0.531096
dtype: float64

The new API will:

In [92]: df.resample('2s').min()
Out[92]:
A B C D
2010-01-01 09:00:00 0.191519 0.272593 0.276464 0.785359
2010-01-01 09:00:02 0.683463 0.712702 0.357817 0.500995
2010-01-01 09:00:04 0.364886 0.013768 0.075381 0.368824
2010-01-01 09:00:06 0.316836 0.568099 0.397203 0.436173
2010-01-01 09:00:08 0.218792 0.143767 0.442141 0.704581

The good news is the return dimensions will differ between the new API and the old API, so this should loudly
raise an exception.
To replicate the original operation
In [93]: df.resample('2s').mean().min()
Out[93]:
A 0.433985
B 0.314582
C 0.357096
D 0.531096
dtype: float64

1.9.2.6 Changes to eval

In prior versions, new columns assignments in an eval expression resulted in an inplace change to the DataFrame.
(GH9297, GH8664, GH10486)

In [94]: df = pd.DataFrame({'a': np.linspace(0, 10, 5), 'b': range(5)})

In [95]: df
Out[95]:
a b
0 0.0 0
1 2.5 1
2 5.0 2
3 7.5 3
4 10.0 4

In [12]: df.eval('c = a + b')

FutureWarning: eval expressions containing an assignment currentlydefault to
˓→operating inplace.

This will change in a future version of pandas, use inplace=True to avoid this
˓→warning.

In [13]: df

154 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Out[13]:
a b c
0 0.0 0 0.0
1 2.5 1 3.5
2 5.0 2 7.0
3 7.5 3 10.5
4 10.0 4 14.0

In version 0.18.0, a new inplace keyword was added to choose whether the assignment should be done inplace or
return a copy.

In [96]: df
Out[96]:
a b c
0 0.0 0 0.0
1 2.5 1 3.5
2 5.0 2 7.0
3 7.5 3 10.5
4 10.0 4 14.0

In [97]: df.eval('d = c - b', inplace=False)

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

a b c d
0 0.0 0 0.0 0.0
1 2.5 1 3.5 2.5
2 5.0 2 7.0 5.0
3 7.5 3 10.5 7.5
4 10.0 4 14.0 10.0

In [98]: df
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

a b c
0 0.0 0 0.0
1 2.5 1 3.5
2 5.0 2 7.0
3 7.5 3 10.5
4 10.0 4 14.0

In [99]: df.eval('d = c - b', inplace=True)

In [100]: df
Out[100]:
a b c d
0 0.0 0 0.0 0.0
1 2.5 1 3.5 2.5
2 5.0 2 7.0 5.0
3 7.5 3 10.5 7.5
4 10.0 4 14.0 10.0

Warning: For backwards compatability, inplace defaults to True if not specified. This will change in a
future version of pandas. If your code depends on an inplace assignment you should update to explicitly set
inplace=True

The inplace keyword parameter was also added the query method.

1.9. v0.18.0 (March 13, 2016) 155

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [101]: df.query('a > 5')

Out[101]:
a b c d
3 7.5 3 10.5 7.5
4 10.0 4 14.0 10.0

In [102]: df.query('a > 5', inplace=True)

In [103]: df
Out[103]:
a b c d
3 7.5 3 10.5 7.5
4 10.0 4 14.0 10.0

Warning: Note that the default value for inplace in a query is False, which is consistent with prior versions.

eval has also been updated to allow multi-line expressions for multiple assignments. These expressions will be
evaluated one at a time in order. Only assignments are valid for multi-line expressions.

In [104]: df
Out[104]:
a b c d
3 7.5 3 10.5 7.5
4 10.0 4 14.0 10.0

In [105]: df.eval("""
.....: e = d + a
.....: f = e - 22
.....: g = f / 2.0""", inplace=True)
.....:

In [106]: df
Out[106]:
a b c d e f g
3 7.5 3 10.5 7.5 15.0 -7.0 -3.5
4 10.0 4 14.0 10.0 20.0 -2.0 -1.0

1.9.2.7 Other API Changes

• DataFrame.between_time and Series.between_time now only parse a fixed set of time strings.
Parsing of date strings is no longer supported and raises a ValueError. (GH11818)

In [107]: s = pd.Series(range(10), pd.date_range('2015-01-01', freq='H',

˓→periods=10))

In [108]: s.between_time("7:00am", "9:00am")

Out[108]:
2015-01-01 07:00:00 7
2015-01-01 08:00:00 8
2015-01-01 09:00:00 9
Freq: H, dtype: int64

This will now raise.

156 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [2]: s.between_time('20150101 07:00:00','20150101 09:00:00')

ValueError: Cannot convert arg ['20150101 07:00:00'] to a time.

• .memory_usage() now includes values in the index, as does memory_usage in .info() (GH11597)
• DataFrame.to_latex() now supports non-ascii encodings (eg utf-8) in Python 2 with the parameter
encoding (GH7061)
• pandas.merge() and DataFrame.merge() will show a specific error message when trying to merge
with an object that is not of type DataFrame or a subclass (GH12081)
• DataFrame.unstack and Series.unstack now take fill_value keyword to allow direct replace-
ment of missing values when an unstack results in missing values in the resulting DataFrame. As an added
benefit, specifying fill_value will preserve the data type of the original stacked data. (GH9746)
• As part of the new API for window functions and resampling, aggregation functions have been clarified, raising
more informative error messages on invalid aggregations. (GH9052). A full set of examples are presented in
groupby.
• Statistical functions for NDFrame objects (like sum(), mean(), min()) will now raise if non-numpy-
compatible arguments are passed in for **kwargs (GH12301)
• .to_latex and .to_html gain a decimal parameter like .to_csv; the default is '.' (GH12031)
• More helpful error message when constructing a DataFrame with empty data but with indices (GH8020)
• .describe() will now properly handle bool dtype as a categorical (GH6625)
• More helpful error message with an invalid .transform with user defined input (GH10165)
• Exponentially weighted functions now allow specifying alpha directly (GH10789) and raise ValueError if
parameters violate 0 < alpha <= 1 (GH12492)

1.9.2.8 Deprecations

• The functions pd.rolling_*, pd.expanding_*, and pd.ewm* are deprecated and replaced by the cor-
responding method call. Note that the new suggested syntax includes all of the arguments (even if default)
(GH11603)
In [1]: s = pd.Series(range(3))

In [2]: pd.rolling_mean(s,window=2,min_periods=1)
FutureWarning: pd.rolling_mean is deprecated for Series and
will be removed in a future version, replace with
Series.rolling(min_periods=1,window=2,center=False).mean()
Out[2]:
0 0.0
1 0.5
2 1.5
dtype: float64

In [3]: pd.rolling_cov(s, s, window=2)

FutureWarning: pd.rolling_cov is deprecated for Series and
will be removed in a future version, replace with
Series.rolling(window=2).cov(other=<Series>)
Out[3]:
0 NaN
1 0.5
2 0.5
dtype: float64

1.9. v0.18.0 (March 13, 2016) 157

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• The the freq and how arguments to the .rolling, .expanding, and .ewm (new) functions are deprecated,
and will be removed in a future version. You can simply resample the input prior to creating a window function.
(GH11603).
For example, instead of s.rolling(window=5,freq='D').max() to get the max value on a rolling
5 Day window, one could use s.resample('D').mean().rolling(window=5).max(), which first
resamples the data to daily data, then provides a rolling 5 day window.
• pd.tseries.frequencies.get_offset_name function is deprecated. Use offset’s .freqstr prop-
erty as alternative (GH11192)
• pandas.stats.fama_macbeth routines are deprecated and will be removed in a future version (GH6077)
• pandas.stats.ols, pandas.stats.plm and pandas.stats.var routines are deprecated and will
be removed in a future version (GH6077)
• show a FutureWarning rather than a DeprecationWarning on using long-time deprecated syntax in
HDFStore.select, where the where clause is not a string-like (GH12027)
• The pandas.options.display.mpl_style configuration has been deprecated and will be removed in
a future version of pandas. This functionality is better handled by matplotlib’s style sheets (GH11783).

1.9.2.9 Removal of deprecated float indexers

In GH4892 indexing with floating point numbers on a non-Float64Index was deprecated (in version 0.14.0). In
0.18.0, this deprecation warning is removed and these will now raise a TypeError. (GH12165, GH12333)

In [109]: s = pd.Series([1, 2, 3], index=[4, 5, 6])

In [110]: s
Out[110]:
4 1
5 2
6 3
dtype: int64

In [111]: s2 = pd.Series([1, 2, 3], index=list('abc'))

In [112]: s2
Out[112]:
a 1
b 2
c 3
dtype: int64

Previous Behavior:

# this is label indexing

In [2]: s[5.0]
FutureWarning: scalar indexers for index type Int64Index should be integers and not
˓→floating point

Out[2]: 2

# this is positional indexing

In [3]: s.iloc[1.0]
FutureWarning: scalar indexers for index type Int64Index should be integers and not
˓→floating point

158 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Out[3]: 2

# this is label indexing

In [4]: s.loc[5.0]
FutureWarning: scalar indexers for index type Int64Index should be integers and not
˓→floating point

Out[4]: 2

# .ix would coerce 1.0 to the positional 1, and index

In [5]: s2.ix[1.0] = 10
FutureWarning: scalar indexers for index type Index should be integers and not
˓→floating point

In [6]: s2
Out[6]:
a 1
b 10
c 3
dtype: int64

New Behavior:
For iloc, getting & setting via a float scalar will always raise.

In [3]: s.iloc[2.0]
TypeError: cannot do label indexing on <class 'pandas.indexes.numeric.Int64Index'>
˓→with these indexers [2.0] of <type 'float'>

Other indexers will coerce to a like integer for both getting and setting. The FutureWarning has been dropped for
.loc, .ix and [].

In [113]: s[5.0]
Out[113]: 2

In [114]: s.loc[5.0]
\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[114]: 2

and setting

In [115]: s_copy = s.copy()

In [116]: s_copy[5.0] = 10

In [117]: s_copy
Out[117]:
4 1
5 10
6 3
dtype: int64

In [118]: s_copy = s.copy()

In [119]: s_copy.loc[5.0] = 10

In [120]: s_copy
Out[120]:
4 1
5 10

1.9. v0.18.0 (March 13, 2016) 159

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

6 3
dtype: int64

Positional setting with .ix and a float indexer will ADD this value to the index, rather than previously setting the
value by position.

In [3]: s2.ix[1.0] = 10
In [4]: s2
Out[4]:
a 1
b 2
c 3
1.0 10
dtype: int64

Slicing will also coerce integer-like floats to integers for a non-Float64Index.

In [121]: s.loc[5.0:6]
Out[121]:
5 2
6 3
dtype: int64

Note that for floats that are NOT coercible to ints, the label based bounds will be excluded

In [122]: s.loc[5.1:6]
Out[122]:
6 3
dtype: int64

Float indexing on a Float64Index is unchanged.

In [123]: s = pd.Series([1, 2, 3], index=np.arange(3.))

In [124]: s[1.0]
Out[124]: 2

In [125]: s[1.0:2.5]
\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[125]:
1.0 2
2.0 3
dtype: int64

1.9.2.10 Removal of prior version deprecations/changes

• Removal of rolling_corr_pairwise in favor of .rolling().corr(pairwise=True) (GH4950)

• Removal of expanding_corr_pairwise in favor of .expanding().corr(pairwise=True)
(GH4950)
• Removal of DataMatrix module. This was not imported into the pandas namespace in any event (GH12111)
• Removal of cols keyword in favor of subset in DataFrame.duplicated() and DataFrame.
drop_duplicates() (GH6680)
• Removal of the read_frame and frame_query (both aliases for pd.read_sql) and write_frame
(alias of to_sql) functions in the pd.io.sql namespace, deprecated since 0.14.0 (GH6292).

160 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Removal of the order keyword from .factorize() (GH6930)

1.9.3 Performance Improvements

• Improved performance of andrews_curves (GH11534)

• Improved huge DatetimeIndex, PeriodIndex and TimedeltaIndex‘s ops performance including
NaT (GH10277)
• Improved performance of pandas.concat (GH11958)
• Improved performance of StataReader (GH11591)
• Improved performance in construction of Categoricals with Series of datetimes containing NaT
(GH12077)
• Improved performance of ISO 8601 date parsing for dates without separators (GH11899), leading zeros
(GH11871) and with whitespace preceding the time zone (GH9714)

1.9.4 Bug Fixes

• Bug in GroupBy.size when data-frame is empty. (GH11699)

• Bug in Period.end_time when a multiple of time period is requested (GH11738)
• Regression in .clip with tz-aware datetimes (GH11838)
• Bug in date_range when the boundaries fell on the frequency (GH11804, GH12409)
• Bug in consistency of passing nested dicts to .groupby(...).agg(...) (GH9052)
• Accept unicode in Timedelta constructor (GH11995)
• Bug in value label reading for StataReader when reading incrementally (GH12014)
• Bug in vectorized DateOffset when n parameter is 0 (GH11370)
• Compat for numpy 1.11 w.r.t. NaT comparison changes (GH12049)
• Bug in read_csv when reading from a StringIO in threads (GH11790)
• Bug in not treating NaT as a missing value in datetimelikes when factorizing & with Categoricals
(GH12077)
• Bug in getitem when the values of a Series were tz-aware (GH12089)
• Bug in Series.str.get_dummies when one of the variables was ‘name’ (GH12180)
• Bug in pd.concat while concatenating tz-aware NaT series. (GH11693, GH11755, GH12217)
• Bug in pd.read_stata with version <= 108 files (GH12232)
• Bug in Series.resample using a frequency of Nano when the index is a DatetimeIndex and contains
non-zero nanosecond parts (GH12037)
• Bug in resampling with .nunique and a sparse index (GH12352)
• Removed some compiler warnings (GH12471)
• Work around compat issues with boto in python 3.5 (GH11915)
• Bug in NaT subtraction from Timestamp or DatetimeIndex with timezones (GH11718)
• Bug in subtraction of Series of a single tz-aware Timestamp (GH12290)

1.9. v0.18.0 (March 13, 2016) 161

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Use compat iterators in PY2 to support .next() (GH12299)

• Bug in Timedelta.round with negative values (GH11690)
• Bug in .loc against CategoricalIndex may result in normal Index (GH11586)
• Bug in DataFrame.info when duplicated column names exist (GH11761)
• Bug in .copy of datetime tz-aware objects (GH11794)
• Bug in Series.apply and Series.map where timedelta64 was not boxed (GH11349)
• Bug in DataFrame.set_index() with tz-aware Series (GH12358)
• Bug in subclasses of DataFrame where AttributeError did not propagate (GH11808)
• Bug groupby on tz-aware data where selection not returning Timestamp (GH11616)
• Bug in pd.read_clipboard and pd.to_clipboard functions not supporting Unicode; upgrade in-
cluded pyperclip to v1.5.15 (GH9263)
• Bug in DataFrame.query containing an assignment (GH8664)
• Bug in from_msgpack where __contains__() fails for columns of the unpacked DataFrame, if the
DataFrame has object columns. (GH11880)
• Bug in .resample on categorical data with TimedeltaIndex (GH12169)
• Bug in timezone info lost when broadcasting scalar datetime to DataFrame (GH11682)
• Bug in Index creation from Timestamp with mixed tz coerces to UTC (GH11488)
• Bug in to_numeric where it does not raise if input is more than one dimension (GH11776)
• Bug in parsing timezone offset strings with non-zero minutes (GH11708)
• Bug in df.plot using incorrect colors for bar plots under matplotlib 1.5+ (GH11614)
• Bug in the groupby plot method when using keyword arguments (GH11805).
• Bug in DataFrame.duplicated and drop_duplicates causing spurious matches when setting
keep=False (GH11864)
• Bug in .loc result with duplicated key may have Index with incorrect dtype (GH11497)
• Bug in pd.rolling_median where memory allocation failed even with sufficient memory (GH11696)
• Bug in DataFrame.style with spurious zeros (GH12134)
• Bug in DataFrame.style with integer columns not starting at 0 (GH12125)
• Bug in .style.bar may not rendered properly using specific browser (GH11678)
• Bug in rich comparison of Timedelta with a numpy.array of Timedelta that caused an infinite recur-
sion (GH11835)
• Bug in DataFrame.round dropping column index name (GH11986)
• Bug in df.replace while replacing value in mixed dtype Dataframe (GH11698)
• Bug in Index prevents copying name of passed Index, when a new name is not provided (GH11193)
• Bug in read_excel failing to read any non-empty sheets when empty sheets exist and sheetname=None
(GH11711)
• Bug in read_excel failing to raise NotImplemented error when keywords parse_dates and
date_parser are provided (GH11544)
• Bug in read_sql with pymysql connections failing to return chunked data (GH11522)

162 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Bug in .to_csv ignoring formatting parameters decimal, na_rep, float_format for float indexes
(GH11553)
• Bug in Int64Index and Float64Index preventing the use of the modulo operator (GH9244)
• Bug in MultiIndex.drop for not lexsorted multi-indexes (GH12078)
• Bug in DataFrame when masking an empty DataFrame (GH11859)
• Bug in .plot potentially modifying the colors input when the number of columns didn’t match the number
of series provided (GH12039).
• Bug in Series.plot failing when index has a CustomBusinessDay frequency (GH7222).
• Bug in .to_sql for datetime.time values with sqlite fallback (GH8341)
• Bug in read_excel failing to read data with one column when squeeze=True (GH12157)
• Bug in read_excel failing to read one empty column (GH12292, GH9002)
• Bug in .groupby where a KeyError was not raised for a wrong column if there was only one row in the
dataframe (GH11741)
• Bug in .read_csv with dtype specified on empty data producing an error (GH12048)
• Bug in .read_csv where strings like '2E' are treated as valid floats (GH12237)
• Bug in building pandas with debugging symbols (GH12123)
• Removed millisecond property of DatetimeIndex. This would always raise a ValueError
(GH12019).
• Bug in Series constructor with read-only data (GH11502)
• Removed pandas.util.testing.choice(). Should use np.random.choice(), instead.
(GH12386)
• Bug in .loc setitem indexer preventing the use of a TZ-aware DatetimeIndex (GH12050)
• Bug in .style indexes and multi-indexes not appearing (GH11655)
• Bug in to_msgpack and from_msgpack which did not correctly serialize or deserialize NaT (GH12307).
• Bug in .skew and .kurt due to roundoff error for highly similar values (GH11974)
• Bug in Timestamp constructor where microsecond resolution was lost if HHMMSS were not separated with
‘:’ (GH10041)
• Bug in buffer_rd_bytes src->buffer could be freed more than once if reading failed, causing a segfault
(GH12098)
• Bug in crosstab where arguments with non-overlapping indexes would return a KeyError (GH10291)
• Bug in DataFrame.apply in which reduction was not being prevented for cases in which dtype was not a
numpy dtype (GH12244)
• Bug when initializing categorical series with a scalar value. (GH12336)
• Bug when specifying a UTC DatetimeIndex by setting utc=True in .to_datetime (GH11934)
• Bug when increasing the buffer size of CSV reader in read_csv (GH12494)
• Bug when setting columns of a DataFrame with duplicate column names (GH12344)

1.9. v0.18.0 (March 13, 2016) 163

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

1.10 v0.17.1 (November 21, 2015)

Note: We are proud to announce that pandas has become a sponsored project of the (NUMFocus organization). This
will help ensure the success of development of pandas as a world-class open-source project.

This is a minor bug-fix release from 0.17.0 and includes a large number of bug fixes along several new features,
enhancements, and performance improvements. We recommend that all users upgrade to this version.
Highlights include:
• Support for Conditional HTML Formatting, see here
• Releasing the GIL on the csv reader & other ops, see here
• Fixed regression in DataFrame.drop_duplicates from 0.16.2, causing incorrect results on integer values
(GH11376)

What’s new in v0.17.1

• New features
– Conditional HTML Formatting
• Enhancements
• API changes
– Deprecations
• Performance Improvements
• Bug Fixes

1.10.1 New features

1.10.1.1 Conditional HTML Formatting

Warning: This is a new feature and is under active development. We’ll be adding features an possibly making
breaking changes in future releases. Feedback is welcome.

We’ve added experimental support for conditional HTML formatting: the visual styling of a DataFrame based on the
data. The styling is accomplished with HTML and CSS. Acesses the styler class with the pandas.DataFrame.
style, attribute, an instance of Styler with your data attached.
Here’s a quick example:

In [1]: np.random.seed(123)

In [2]: df = DataFrame(np.random.randn(10, 5), columns=list('abcde'))

In [3]: html = df.style.background_gradient(cmap='viridis', low=.5)

We can render the HTML to get the following table.

164 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Styler interacts nicely with the Jupyter Notebook. See the documentation for more.

1.10.2 Enhancements

• DatetimeIndex now supports conversion to strings with astype(str) (GH10442)

• Support for compression (gzip/bz2) in pandas.DataFrame.to_csv() (GH7615)
• pd.read_* functions can now also accept pathlib.Path, or py._path.local.LocalPath ob-
jects for the filepath_or_buffer argument. (GH11033) - The DataFrame and Series functions
.to_csv(), .to_html() and .to_latex() can now handle paths beginning with tildes (e.g. ~/
Documents/) (GH11438)
• DataFrame now uses the fields of a namedtuple as columns, if columns are not supplied (GH11181)
• DataFrame.itertuples() now returns namedtuple objects, when possible. (GH11269, GH11625)
• Added axvlines_kwds to parallel coordinates plot (GH10709)
• Option to .info() and .memory_usage() to provide for deep introspection of memory consumption. Note
that this can be expensive to compute and therefore is an optional parameter. (GH11595)

In [4]: df = DataFrame({'A' : ['foo']*1000})

In [5]: df['B'] = df['A'].astype('category')

# shows the '+' as we have object dtypes

In [6]: df.info()
<class 'pandas.core.frame.DataFrame'>
RangeIndex: 1000 entries, 0 to 999
Data columns (total 2 columns):
A 1000 non-null object
B 1000 non-null category
dtypes: category(1), object(1)
memory usage: 9.0+ KB

# we have an accurate memory assessment (but can be expensive to compute this)

In [7]: df.info(memory_usage='deep')
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→<class 'pandas.core.frame.DataFrame'>

RangeIndex: 1000 entries, 0 to 999

Data columns (total 2 columns):
A 1000 non-null object
B 1000 non-null category
dtypes: category(1), object(1)
memory usage: 75.4 KB

• Index now has a fillna method (GH10089)

In [8]: pd.Index([1, np.nan, 3]).fillna(2)

Out[8]: Float64Index([1.0, 2.0, 3.0], dtype='float64')

• Series of type category now make .str.<...> and .dt.<...> accessor methods / properties available,
if the categories are of that type. (GH10661)

In [9]: s = pd.Series(list('aabb')).astype('category')

In [10]: s
Out[10]:

1.10. v0.17.1 (November 21, 2015) 165

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

0 a
1 a
2 b
3 b
dtype: category
Categories (2, object): [a, b]

In [11]: s.str.contains("a")
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[11]:
˓→

0 True
1 True
2 False
3 False
dtype: bool

In [12]: date = pd.Series(pd.date_range('1/1/2015', periods=5)).astype('category')

In [13]: date
Out[13]:
0 2015-01-01
1 2015-01-02
2 2015-01-03
3 2015-01-04
4 2015-01-05
dtype: category
Categories (5, datetime64[ns]): [2015-01-01, 2015-01-02, 2015-01-03, 2015-01-04,
˓→2015-01-05]

In [14]: date.dt.day
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

0 1
1 2
2 3
3 4
4 5
dtype: int64

• pivot_table now has a margins_name argument so you can use something other than the default of ‘All’
(GH3335)
• Implement export of datetime64[ns, tz] dtypes with a fixed HDF5 store (GH11411)
• Pretty printing sets (e.g. in DataFrame cells) now uses set literal syntax ({x, y}) instead of Legacy Python
syntax (set([x, y])) (GH11215)
• Improve the error message in pandas.io.gbq.to_gbq() when a streaming insert fails (GH11285) and
when the DataFrame does not match the schema of the destination table (GH11359)

1.10.3 API changes

• raise NotImplementedError in Index.shift for non-supported index types (GH8038)

• min and max reductions on datetime64 and timedelta64 dtyped series now result in NaT and not nan
(GH11245).
• Indexing with a null key will raise a TypeError, instead of a ValueError (GH11356)

166 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Series.ptp will now ignore missing values by default (GH11163)

1.10.3.1 Deprecations

• The pandas.io.ga module which implements google-analytics support is deprecated and will be
removed in a future version (GH11308)
• Deprecate the engine keyword in .to_csv(), which will be removed in a future version (GH11274)

1.10.4 Performance Improvements

• Checking monotonic-ness before sorting on an index (GH11080)

• Series.dropna performance improvement when its dtype can’t contain NaN (GH11159)
• Release the GIL on most datetime field operations (e.g. DatetimeIndex.year, Series.dt.year),
normalization, and conversion to and from Period, DatetimeIndex.to_period and PeriodIndex.
to_timestamp (GH11263)
• Release the GIL on some rolling algos: rolling_median, rolling_mean, rolling_max,
rolling_min, rolling_var, rolling_kurt, rolling_skew (GH11450)
• Release the GIL when reading and parsing text files in read_csv, read_table (GH11272)
• Improved performance of rolling_median (GH11450)
• Improved performance of to_excel (GH11352)
• Performance bug in repr of Categorical categories, which was rendering the strings before chopping them
for display (GH11305)
• Performance improvement in Categorical.remove_unused_categories, (GH11643).
• Improved performance of Series constructor with no data and DatetimeIndex (GH11433)
• Improved performance of shift, cumprod, and cumsum with groupby (GH4095)

1.10.5 Bug Fixes

• SparseArray.__iter__() now does not cause PendingDeprecationWarning in Python 3.5

(GH11622)
• Regression from 0.16.2 for output formatting of long floats/nan, restored in (GH11302)
• Series.sort_index() now correctly handles the inplace option (GH11402)
• Incorrectly distributed .c file in the build on PyPi when reading a csv of floats and passing na_values=<a
scalar> would show an exception (GH11374)
• Bug in .to_latex() output broken when the index has a name (GH10660)
• Bug in HDFStore.append with strings whose encoded length exceded the max unencoded length (GH11234)
• Bug in merging datetime64[ns, tz] dtypes (GH11405)
• Bug in HDFStore.select when comparing with a numpy scalar in a where clause (GH11283)
• Bug in using DataFrame.ix with a multi-index indexer (GH11372)
• Bug in date_range with ambigous endpoints (GH11626)

1.10. v0.17.1 (November 21, 2015) 167

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Prevent adding new attributes to the accessors .str, .dt and .cat. Retrieving such a value was not possible,
so error out on setting it. (GH10673)
• Bug in tz-conversions with an ambiguous time and .dt accessors (GH11295)
• Bug in output formatting when using an index of ambiguous times (GH11619)
• Bug in comparisons of Series vs list-likes (GH11339)
• Bug in DataFrame.replace with a datetime64[ns, tz] and a non-compat to_replace (GH11326,
GH11153)
• Bug in isnull where numpy.datetime64('NaT') in a numpy.array was not determined to be
null(GH11206)
• Bug in list-like indexing with a mixed-integer Index (GH11320)
• Bug in pivot_table with margins=True when indexes are of Categorical dtype (GH10993)
• Bug in DataFrame.plot cannot use hex strings colors (GH10299)
• Regression in DataFrame.drop_duplicates from 0.16.2, causing incorrect results on integer values
(GH11376)
• Bug in pd.eval where unary ops in a list error (GH11235)
• Bug in squeeze() with zero length arrays (GH11230, GH8999)
• Bug in describe() dropping column names for hierarchical indexes (GH11517)
• Bug in DataFrame.pct_change() not propagating axis keyword on .fillna method (GH11150)
• Bug in .to_csv() when a mix of integer and string column names are passed as the columns parameter
(GH11637)
• Bug in indexing with a range, (GH11652)
• Bug in inference of numpy scalars and preserving dtype when setting columns (GH11638)
• Bug in to_sql using unicode column names giving UnicodeEncodeError with (GH11431).
• Fix regression in setting of xticks in plot (GH11529).
• Bug in holiday.dates where observance rules could not be applied to holiday and doc enhancement
(GH11477, GH11533)
• Fix plotting issues when having plain Axes instances instead of SubplotAxes (GH11520, GH11556).
• Bug in DataFrame.to_latex() produces an extra rule when header=False (GH7124)
• Bug in df.groupby(...).apply(func) when a func returns a Series containing a new datetimelike
column (GH11324)
• Bug in pandas.json when file to load is big (GH11344)
• Bugs in to_excel with duplicate columns (GH11007, GH10982, GH10970)
• Fixed a bug that prevented the construction of an empty series of dtype datetime64[ns, tz] (GH11245).
• Bug in read_excel with multi-index containing integers (GH11317)
• Bug in to_excel with openpyxl 2.2+ and merging (GH11408)
• Bug in DataFrame.to_dict() produces a np.datetime64 object instead of Timestamp when only
datetime is present in data (GH11327)
• Bug in DataFrame.corr() raises exception when computes Kendall correlation for DataFrames with
boolean and not boolean columns (GH11560)

168 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Bug in the link-time error caused by C inline functions on FreeBSD 10+ (with clang) (GH10510)
• Bug in DataFrame.to_csv in passing through arguments for formatting MultiIndexes, including
date_format (GH7791)
• Bug in DataFrame.join() with how='right' producing a TypeError (GH11519)
• Bug in Series.quantile with empty list results has Index with object dtype (GH11588)
• Bug in pd.merge results in empty Int64Index rather than Index(dtype=object) when the merge
result is empty (GH11588)
• Bug in Categorical.remove_unused_categories when having NaN values (GH11599)
• Bug in DataFrame.to_sparse() loses column names for MultiIndexes (GH11600)
• Bug in DataFrame.round() with non-unique column index producing a Fatal Python error (GH11611)
• Bug in DataFrame.round() with decimals being a non-unique indexed Series producing extra columns
(GH11618)

1.11 v0.17.0 (October 9, 2015)

This is a major release from 0.16.2 and includes a small number of API changes, several new features, enhancements,
and performance improvements along with a large number of bug fixes. We recommend that all users upgrade to this
version.

Warning: pandas >= 0.17.0 will no longer support compatibility with Python version 3.2 (GH9118)

Warning: The pandas.io.data package is deprecated and will be replaced by the pandas-datareader pack-
age. This will allow the data modules to be independently updated to your pandas installation. The API for
pandas-datareader v0.1.1 is exactly the same as in pandas v0.17.0 (GH8961, GH10861).
After installing pandas-datareader, you can easily change your imports:
from pandas.io import data, wb

becomes
from pandas_datareader import data, wb

Highlights include:
• Release the Global Interpreter Lock (GIL) on some cython operations, see here
• Plotting methods are now available as attributes of the .plot accessor, see here
• The sorting API has been revamped to remove some long-time inconsistencies, see here
• Support for a datetime64[ns] with timezones as a first-class dtype, see here
• The default for to_datetime will now be to raise when presented with unparseable formats, previously
this would return the original input. Also, date parse functions now return consistent results. See here
• The default for dropna in HDFStore has changed to False, to store by default all rows even if they are all
NaN, see here

1.11. v0.17.0 (October 9, 2015) 169

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Datetime accessor (dt) now supports Series.dt.strftime to generate formatted strings for datetime-
likes, and Series.dt.total_seconds to generate each duration of the timedelta in seconds. See here
• Period and PeriodIndex can handle multiplied freq like 3D, which corresponding to 3 days span. See here
• Development installed versions of pandas will now have PEP440 compliant version strings (GH9518)
• Development support for benchmarking with the Air Speed Velocity library (GH8361)
• Support for reading SAS xport files, see here
• Documentation comparing SAS to pandas, see here
• Removal of the automatic TimeSeries broadcasting, deprecated since 0.8.0, see here
• Display format with plain text can optionally align with Unicode East Asian Width, see here
• Compatibility with Python 3.5 (GH11097)
• Compatibility with matplotlib 1.5.0 (GH11111)
Check the API Changes and deprecations before updating.

What’s new in v0.17.0

• New features
– Datetime with TZ
– Releasing the GIL
– Plot submethods
– Additional methods for dt accessor

* strftime
* total_seconds
– Period Frequency Enhancement
– Support for SAS XPORT files
– Support for Math Functions in .eval()
– Changes to Excel with MultiIndex
– Google BigQuery Enhancements
– Display Alignment with Unicode East Asian Width
– Other enhancements
• Backwards incompatible API changes
– Changes to sorting API
– Changes to to_datetime and to_timedelta

* Error handling
* Consistent Parsing
– Changes to Index Comparisons
– Changes to Boolean Comparisons vs. None
– HDFStore dropna behavior

170 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

– Changes to display.precision option

– Changes to Categorical.unique
– Changes to bool passed as header in Parsers
– Other API Changes
– Deprecations
– Removal of prior version deprecations/changes
• Performance Improvements
• Bug Fixes

1.11.1 New features

1.11.1.1 Datetime with TZ

We are adding an implementation that natively supports datetime with timezones. A Series or a DataFrame
column previously could be assigned a datetime with timezones, and would work as an object dtype. This had
performance issues with a large number rows. See the docs for more details. (GH8260, GH10763, GH11034).
The new implementation allows for having a single-timezone across all rows, with operations in a performant manner.

In [1]: df = DataFrame({'A' : date_range('20130101',periods=3),

...: 'B' : date_range('20130101',periods=3,tz='US/Eastern'),
...: 'C' : date_range('20130101',periods=3,tz='CET')})
...:

In [2]: df
Out[2]:
A B C
0 2013-01-01 2013-01-01 00:00:00-05:00 2013-01-01 00:00:00+01:00
1 2013-01-02 2013-01-02 00:00:00-05:00 2013-01-02 00:00:00+01:00
2 2013-01-03 2013-01-03 00:00:00-05:00 2013-01-03 00:00:00+01:00

In [3]: df.dtypes
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

A datetime64[ns]
B datetime64[ns, US/Eastern]
C datetime64[ns, CET]
dtype: object

In [4]: df.B
Out[4]:
0 2013-01-01 00:00:00-05:00
1 2013-01-02 00:00:00-05:00
2 2013-01-03 00:00:00-05:00
Name: B, dtype: datetime64[ns, US/Eastern]

In [5]: df.B.dt.tz_localize(None)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

0 2013-01-01
1 2013-01-02

1.11. v0.17.0 (October 9, 2015) 171

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

2 2013-01-03
Name: B, dtype: datetime64[ns]

This uses a new-dtype representation as well, that is very similar in look-and-feel to its numpy cousin
datetime64[ns]
In [6]: df['B'].dtype
Out[6]: datetime64[ns, US/Eastern]

In [7]: type(df['B'].dtype)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[7]: pandas.core.dtypes.dtypes.DatetimeTZDtype

Note: There is a slightly different string repr for the underlying DatetimeIndex as a result of the dtype changes,
but functionally these are the same.
Previous Behavior:
In [1]: pd.date_range('20130101',periods=3,tz='US/Eastern')
Out[1]: DatetimeIndex(['2013-01-01 00:00:00-05:00', '2013-01-02 00:00:00-05:00',
'2013-01-03 00:00:00-05:00'],
dtype='datetime64[ns]', freq='D', tz='US/Eastern')

In [2]: pd.date_range('20130101',periods=3,tz='US/Eastern').dtype
Out[2]: dtype('<M8[ns]')

New Behavior:
In [8]: pd.date_range('20130101',periods=3,tz='US/Eastern')
Out[8]:
DatetimeIndex(['2013-01-01 00:00:00-05:00', '2013-01-02 00:00:00-05:00',
'2013-01-03 00:00:00-05:00'],
dtype='datetime64[ns, US/Eastern]', freq='D')

In [9]: pd.date_range('20130101',periods=3,tz='US/Eastern').dtype
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→datetime64[ns, US/Eastern]

1.11.1.2 Releasing the GIL

We are releasing the global-interpreter-lock (GIL) on some cython operations. This will allow other threads to run
simultaneously during computation, potentially allowing performance improvements from multi-threading. Notably
groupby, nsmallest, value_counts and some indexing operations benefit from this. (GH8882)
For example the groupby expression in the following code will have the GIL released during the factorization step,
e.g. df.groupby('key') as well as the .sum() operation.
N = 1000000
ngroups = 10
df = DataFrame({'key' : np.random.randint(0,ngroups,size=N),
'data' : np.random.randn(N) })
df.groupby('key')['data'].sum()

Releasing of the GIL could benefit an application that uses threads for user interactions (e.g. QT), or performing
multi-threaded computations. A nice example of a library that can handle these types of computation-in-parallel is the
dask library.

172 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

1.11.1.3 Plot submethods

The Series and DataFrame .plot() method allows for customizing plot types by supplying the kind keyword
arguments. Unfortunately, many of these kinds of plots use different required and optional keyword arguments, which
makes it difficult to discover what any given plot kind uses out of the dozens of possible arguments.
To alleviate this issue, we have added a new, optional plotting interface, which exposes each kind of plot as a method of
the .plot attribute. Instead of writing series.plot(kind=<kind>, ...), you can now also use series.
plot.<kind>(...):

In [10]: df = pd.DataFrame(np.random.rand(10, 2), columns=['a', 'b'])

In [11]: df.plot.bar()

As a result of this change, these methods are now all discoverable via tab-completion:

In [12]: df.plot.<TAB>
df.plot.area df.plot.barh df.plot.density df.plot.hist df.plot.line
˓→df.plot.scatter

df.plot.bar df.plot.box df.plot.hexbin df.plot.kde df.plot.pie

Each method signature only includes relevant arguments. Currently, these are limited to required arguments, but in the
future these will include optional arguments, as well. For an overview, see the new Plotting API documentation.

1.11.1.4 Additional methods for dt accessor

strftime

We are now supporting a Series.dt.strftime method for datetime-likes to generate a formatted string
(GH10110). Examples:

# DatetimeIndex
In [13]: s = pd.Series(pd.date_range('20130101', periods=4))

1.11. v0.17.0 (October 9, 2015) 173

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [14]: s
Out[14]:
0 2013-01-01
1 2013-01-02
2 2013-01-03
3 2013-01-04
dtype: datetime64[ns]

In [15]: s.dt.strftime('%Y/%m/%d')
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[15]:
˓→

0 2013/01/01
1 2013/01/02
2 2013/01/03
3 2013/01/04
dtype: object

# PeriodIndex
In [16]: s = pd.Series(pd.period_range('20130101', periods=4))

In [17]: s
Out[17]:
0 2013-01-01
1 2013-01-02
2 2013-01-03
3 2013-01-04
dtype: object

In [18]: s.dt.strftime('%Y/%m/%d')
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[18]:
˓→

0 2013/01/01
1 2013/01/02
2 2013/01/03
3 2013/01/04
dtype: object

The string format is as the python standard library and details can be found here

total_seconds

pd.Series of type timedelta64 has new method .dt.total_seconds() returning the duration of the
timedelta in seconds (GH10817)

# TimedeltaIndex
In [19]: s = pd.Series(pd.timedelta_range('1 minutes', periods=4))

In [20]: s
Out[20]:
0 0 days 00:01:00
1 1 days 00:01:00
2 2 days 00:01:00
3 3 days 00:01:00
dtype: timedelta64[ns]

174 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [21]: s.dt.total_seconds()
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

0 60.0
1 86460.0
2 172860.0
3 259260.0
dtype: float64

1.11.1.5 Period Frequency Enhancement

Period, PeriodIndex and period_range can now accept multiplied freq. Also, Period.freq and
PeriodIndex.freq are now stored as a DateOffset instance like DatetimeIndex, and not as str
(GH7811)
A multiplied freq represents a span of corresponding length. The example below creates a period of 3 days. Addition
and subtraction will shift the period by its span.

In [22]: p = pd.Period('2015-08-01', freq='3D')

In [23]: p
Out[23]: Period('2015-08-01', '3D')

In [24]: p + 1
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[24]: Period('2015-08-04', '3D')

In [25]: p - 2
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[25]:
˓→Period('2015-07-26', '3D')

In [26]: p.to_timestamp()
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→Timestamp('2015-08-01 00:00:00')

In [27]: p.to_timestamp(how='E')
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→Timestamp('2015-08-03 00:00:00')

You can use the multiplied freq in PeriodIndex and period_range.

In [28]: idx = pd.period_range('2015-08-01', periods=4, freq='2D')

In [29]: idx
Out[29]: PeriodIndex(['2015-08-01', '2015-08-03', '2015-08-05', '2015-08-07'], dtype=
˓→'period[2D]', freq='2D')

In [30]: idx + 1
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→PeriodIndex(['2015-08-03', '2015-08-05', '2015-08-07', '2015-08-09'], dtype=

˓→'period[2D]', freq='2D')

1.11.1.6 Support for SAS XPORT files

read_sas() provides support for reading SAS XPORT format files. (GH4052).

1.11. v0.17.0 (October 9, 2015) 175

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

df = pd.read_sas('sas_xport.xpt')

It is also possible to obtain an iterator and read an XPORT file incrementally.

for df in pd.read_sas('sas_xport.xpt', chunksize=10000)
do_something(df)

See the docs for more details.

1.11.1.7 Support for Math Functions in .eval()

eval() now supports calling math functions (GH4893)

df = pd.DataFrame({'a': np.random.randn(10)})
df.eval("b = sin(a)")

The support math functions are sin, cos, exp, log, expm1, log1p, sqrt, sinh, cosh, tanh, arcsin, arccos, arctan, arccosh,
arcsinh, arctanh, abs and arctan2.
These functions map to the intrinsics for the NumExpr engine. For the Python engine, they are mapped to NumPy
calls.

1.11.1.8 Changes to Excel with MultiIndex

In version 0.16.2 a DataFrame with MultiIndex columns could not be written to Excel via to_excel. That
functionality has been added (GH10564), along with updating read_excel so that the data can be read back with, no
loss of information, by specifying which columns/rows make up the MultiIndex in the header and index_col
parameters (GH4679)
See the documentation for more details.
In [31]: df = pd.DataFrame([[1,2,3,4], [5,6,7,8]],
....: columns = pd.MultiIndex.from_product([['foo','bar'],['a','b
˓→']],

....: names = ['col1', 'col2

˓→']),

....: index = pd.MultiIndex.from_product([['j'], ['l', 'k']],

....: names = ['i1', 'i2']))
....:

In [32]: df
Out[32]:
col1 foo bar
col2 a b a b
i1 i2
j l 1 2 3 4
k 5 6 7 8

In [33]: df.to_excel('test.xlsx')

In [34]: df = pd.read_excel('test.xlsx', header=[0,1], index_col=[0,1])

In [35]: df
Out[35]:
col1 foo bar
col2 a b a b

176 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

i1 i2
j l 1 2 3 4
k 5 6 7 8

Previously, it was necessary to specify the has_index_names argument in read_excel, if the serialized data
had index names. For version 0.17.0 the ouptput format of to_excel has been changed to make this keyword
unnecessary - the change is shown below.
Old

New

Warning: Excel files saved in version 0.16.2 or prior that had index names will still able to be read in, but the
has_index_names argument must specified to True.

1.11.1.9 Google BigQuery Enhancements

• Added ability to automatically create a table/dataset using the pandas.io.gbq.to_gbq() function if the
destination table/dataset does not exist. (GH8325, GH11121).
• Added ability to replace an existing table and schema when calling the pandas.io.gbq.to_gbq() func-
tion via the if_exists argument. See the docs for more details (GH8325).
• InvalidColumnOrder and InvalidPageToken in the gbq module will raise ValueError instead of
IOError.

1.11. v0.17.0 (October 9, 2015) 177

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• The generate_bq_schema() function is now deprecated and will be removed in a future version
(GH11121)
• The gbq module will now support Python 3 (GH11094).

1.11.1.10 Display Alignment with Unicode East Asian Width

Warning: Enabling this option will affect the performance for printing of DataFrame and Series (about 2
times slower). Use only when it is actually required.

Some East Asian countries use Unicode characters its width is corresponding to 2 alphabets. If a DataFrame or
Series contains these characters, the default output cannot be aligned properly. The following options are added to
enable precise handling for these characters.
• display.unicode.east_asian_width: Whether to use the Unicode East Asian Width to calculate the
display text width. (GH2612)
• display.unicode.ambiguous_as_wide: Whether to handle Unicode characters belong to Ambiguous
as Wide. (GH11102)
In [36]: df = pd.DataFrame({u'': ['UK', u''], u'': ['Alice', u'']})

In [37]: df;

In [38]: pd.set_option('display.unicode.east_asian_width', True)

In [39]: df;

For further details, see here

1.11.1.11 Other enhancements

• Support for openpyxl >= 2.2. The API for style support is now stable (GH10125)
• merge now accepts the argument indicator which adds a Categorical-type column (by default called
_merge) to the output object that takes on the values (GH8790)
Observation Origin _merge value
Merge key only in 'left' frame left_only
Merge key only in 'right' frame right_only
Merge key in both frames both

178 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [40]: df1 = pd.DataFrame({'col1':[0,1], 'col_left':['a','b']})

In [41]: df2 = pd.DataFrame({'col1':[1,2,2],'col_right':[2,2,2]})

In [42]: pd.merge(df1, df2, on='col1', how='outer', indicator=True)

Out[42]:
col1 col_left col_right _merge
0 0 a NaN left_only
1 1 b 2.0 both
2 2 NaN 2.0 right_only
3 2 NaN 2.0 right_only

For more, see the updated docs

• pd.to_numeric is a new function to coerce strings to numbers (possibly with coercion) (GH11133)
• pd.merge will now allow duplicate column names if they are not merged upon (GH10639).
• pd.pivot will now allow passing index as None (GH3962).
• pd.concat will now use existing Series names if provided (GH10698).

In [43]: foo = pd.Series([1,2], name='foo')

In [44]: bar = pd.Series([1,2])

In [45]: baz = pd.Series([4,5])

Previous Behavior:

In [1] pd.concat([foo, bar, baz], 1)

Out[1]:
0 1 2
0 1 1 4
1 2 2 5

New Behavior:

In [46]: pd.concat([foo, bar, baz], 1)

Out[46]:
foo 0 1
0 1 1 4
1 2 2 5

• DataFrame has gained the nlargest and nsmallest methods (GH10393)

• Add a limit_direction keyword argument that works with limit to enable interpolate to fill NaN
values forward, backward, or both (GH9218, GH10420, GH11115)

In [47]: ser = pd.Series([np.nan, np.nan, 5, np.nan, np.nan, np.nan, 13])

In [48]: ser.interpolate(limit=1, limit_direction='both')

Out[48]:
0 NaN
1 5.0
2 5.0
3 7.0
4 NaN
5 11.0

1.11. v0.17.0 (October 9, 2015) 179

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

6 13.0
dtype: float64

• Added a DataFrame.round method to round the values to a variable number of decimal places (GH10568).
In [49]: df = pd.DataFrame(np.random.random([3, 3]), columns=['A', 'B', 'C'],
....: index=['first', 'second', 'third'])
....:

In [50]: df
Out[50]:
A B C
first 0.342764 0.304121 0.417022
second 0.681301 0.875457 0.510422
third 0.669314 0.585937 0.624904

In [51]: df.round(2)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

A B C
first 0.34 0.30 0.42
second 0.68 0.88 0.51
third 0.67 0.59 0.62

In [52]: df.round({'A': 0, 'C': 2})

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

A B C
first 0.0 0.304121 0.42
second 1.0 0.875457 0.51
third 1.0 0.585937 0.62

• drop_duplicates and duplicated now accept a keep keyword to target first, last, and all duplicates.
The take_last keyword is deprecated, see here (GH6511, GH8505)
In [53]: s = pd.Series(['A', 'B', 'C', 'A', 'B', 'D'])

In [54]: s.drop_duplicates()
Out[54]:
0 A
1 B
2 C
5 D
dtype: object

In [55]: s.drop_duplicates(keep='last')
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[55]:
2 C
3 A
4 B
5 D
dtype: object

In [56]: s.drop_duplicates(keep=False)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

2 C
5 D

180 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

dtype: object

• Reindex now has a tolerance argument that allows for finer control of Limits on filling while reindexing
(GH10411):

In [57]: df = pd.DataFrame({'x': range(5),

....: 't': pd.date_range('2000-01-01', periods=5)})
....:

In [58]: df.reindex([0.1, 1.9, 3.5],

....: method='nearest',
....: tolerance=0.2)
....:
Out[58]:
t x
0.1 2000-01-01 0.0
1.9 2000-01-03 2.0
3.5 NaT NaN

When used on a DatetimeIndex, TimedeltaIndex or PeriodIndex, tolerance will coerced into

a Timedelta if possible. This allows you to specify tolerance with a string:

In [59]: df = df.set_index('t')

In [60]: df.reindex(pd.to_datetime(['1999-12-31']),
....: method='nearest',
....: tolerance='1 day')
....:
Out[60]:
x
1999-12-31 0

tolerance is also exposed by the lower level Index.get_indexer and Index.get_loc methods.
• Added functionality to use the base argument when resampling a TimeDeltaIndex (GH10530)
• DatetimeIndex can be instantiated using strings contains NaT (GH7599)
• to_datetime can now accept the yearfirst keyword (GH7599)
• pandas.tseries.offsets larger than the Day offset can now be used with a Series for addi-
tion/subtraction (GH10699). See the docs for more details.
• pd.Timedelta.total_seconds() now returns Timedelta duration to ns precision (previously microsec-
ond precision) (GH10939)
• PeriodIndex now supports arithmetic with np.ndarray (GH10638)
• Support pickling of Period objects (GH10439)
• .as_blocks will now take a copy optional argument to return a copy of the data, default is to copy (no
change in behavior from prior versions), (GH9607)
• regex argument to DataFrame.filter now handles numeric column names instead of raising
ValueError (GH10384).
• Enable reading gzip compressed files via URL, either by explicitly setting the compression parameter or by
inferring from the presence of the HTTP Content-Encoding header in the response (GH8685)
• Enable writing Excel files in memory using StringIO/BytesIO (GH7074)
• Enable serialization of lists and dicts to strings in ExcelWriter (GH8188)

1.11. v0.17.0 (October 9, 2015) 181

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• SQL io functions now accept a SQLAlchemy connectable. (GH7877)

• pd.read_sql and to_sql can accept database URI as con parameter (GH10214)
• read_sql_table will now allow reading from views (GH10750).
• Enable writing complex values to HDFStores when using the table format (GH10447)
• Enable pd.read_hdf to be used without specifying a key when the HDF file contains a single dataset
(GH10443)
• pd.read_stata will now read Stata 118 type files. (GH9882)
• msgpack submodule has been updated to 0.4.6 with backward compatibility (GH10581)
• DataFrame.to_dict now accepts orient='index' keyword argument (GH10844).
• DataFrame.apply will return a Series of dicts if the passed function returns a dict and reduce=True
(GH8735).
• Allow passing kwargs to the interpolation methods (GH10378).
• Improved error message when concatenating an empty iterable of Dataframe objects (GH9157)
• pd.read_csv can now read bz2-compressed files incrementally, and the C parser can read bz2-compressed
files from AWS S3 (GH11070, GH11072).
• In pd.read_csv, recognize s3n:// and s3a:// URLs as designating S3 file storage (GH11070,
GH11071).
• Read CSV files from AWS S3 incrementally, instead of first downloading the entire file. (Full file download still
required for compressed files in Python 2.) (GH11070, GH11073)
• pd.read_csv is now able to infer compression type for files read from AWS S3 storage (GH11070,
GH11074).

1.11.2 Backwards incompatible API changes

1.11.2.1 Changes to sorting API

The sorting API has had some longtime inconsistencies. (GH9816, GH8239).
Here is a summary of the API PRIOR to 0.17.0:
• Series.sort is INPLACE while DataFrame.sort returns a new object.
• Series.order returns a new object
• It was possible to use Series/DataFrame.sort_index to sort by values by passing the by keyword.
• Series/DataFrame.sortlevel worked only on a MultiIndex for sorting by index.
To address these issues, we have revamped the API:
• We have introduced a new method, DataFrame.sort_values(), which is the merger of DataFrame.
sort(), Series.sort(), and Series.order(), to handle sorting of values.
• The existing methods Series.sort(), Series.order(), and DataFrame.sort() have been depre-
cated and will be removed in a future version.
• The by argument of DataFrame.sort_index() has been deprecated and will be removed in a future
version.
• The existing method .sort_index() will gain the level keyword to enable level sorting.

182 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

We now have two distinct and non-overlapping methods of sorting. A * marks items that will show a
FutureWarning.
To sort by the values:
Previous Replacement
* Series.order() Series.sort_values()
* Series.sort() Series.sort_values(inplace=True)
* DataFrame.sort(columns=...) DataFrame.sort_values(by=...)
To sort by the index:
Previous Replacement
Series.sort_index() Series.sort_index()
Series.sortlevel(level=...) Series.sort_index(level=...)
DataFrame.sort_index() DataFrame.sort_index()
DataFrame.sortlevel(level=...) DataFrame.sort_index(level=...)
* DataFrame.sort() DataFrame.sort_index()
We have also deprecated and changed similar methods in two Series-like classes, Index and Categorical.
Previous Replacement
* Index.order() Index.sort_values()
* Categorical.order() Categorical.sort_values()

1.11.2.2 Changes to to_datetime and to_timedelta

Error handling

The default for pd.to_datetime error handling has changed to errors='raise'. In prior versions it was
errors='ignore'. Furthermore, the coerce argument has been deprecated in favor of errors='coerce'.
This means that invalid parsing will raise rather that return the original input as in previous versions. (GH10636)
Previous Behavior:

In [2]: pd.to_datetime(['2009-07-31', 'asd'])

Out[2]: array(['2009-07-31', 'asd'], dtype=object)

New Behavior:

In [3]: pd.to_datetime(['2009-07-31', 'asd'])

ValueError: Unknown string format

Of course you can coerce this as well.

In [61]: to_datetime(['2009-07-31', 'asd'], errors='coerce')

Out[61]: DatetimeIndex(['2009-07-31', 'NaT'], dtype='datetime64[ns]', freq=None)

To keep the previous behavior, you can use errors='ignore':

In [62]: to_datetime(['2009-07-31', 'asd'], errors='ignore')

Out[62]: array(['2009-07-31', 'asd'], dtype=object)

Furthermore, pd.to_timedelta has gained a similar API, of errors='raise'|'ignore'|'coerce', and

the coerce keyword has been deprecated in favor of errors='coerce'.

1.11. v0.17.0 (October 9, 2015) 183

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Consistent Parsing

The string parsing of to_datetime, Timestamp and DatetimeIndex has been made consistent. (GH7599)
Prior to v0.17.0, Timestamp and to_datetime may parse year-only datetime-string incorrectly using today’s
date, otherwise DatetimeIndex uses the beginning of the year. Timestamp and to_datetime may raise
ValueError in some types of datetime-string which DatetimeIndex can parse, such as a quarterly string.
Previous Behavior:
In [1]: Timestamp('2012Q2')
Traceback
...
ValueError: Unable to parse 2012Q2

# Results in today's date.

In [2]: Timestamp('2014')
Out [2]: 2014-08-12 00:00:00

v0.17.0 can parse them as below. It works on DatetimeIndex also.

New Behavior:
In [63]: Timestamp('2012Q2')
Out[63]: Timestamp('2012-04-01 00:00:00')

In [64]: Timestamp('2014')
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[64]: Timestamp('2014-01-01 00:00:00')

In [65]: DatetimeIndex(['2012Q2', '2014'])

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[65]:
˓→DatetimeIndex(['2012-04-01', '2014-01-01'], dtype='datetime64[ns]', freq=None)

Note: If you want to perform calculations based on today’s date, use Timestamp.now() and pandas.
tseries.offsets.
In [66]: import pandas.tseries.offsets as offsets

In [67]: Timestamp.now()
Out[67]: Timestamp('2017-10-27 10:37:30.766906')

In [68]: Timestamp.now() + offsets.DateOffset(years=1)

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[68]: Timestamp('2018-10-27
˓→10:37:30.768416')

1.11.2.3 Changes to Index Comparisons

Operator equal on Index should behavior similarly to Series (GH9947, GH10637)

Starting in v0.17.0, comparing Index objects of different lengths will raise a ValueError. This is to be consistent
with the behavior of Series.
Previous Behavior:
In [2]: pd.Index([1, 2, 3]) == pd.Index([1, 4, 5])
Out[2]: array([ True, False, False], dtype=bool)

184 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [3]: pd.Index([1, 2, 3]) == pd.Index([2])

Out[3]: array([False, True, False], dtype=bool)

In [4]: pd.Index([1, 2, 3]) == pd.Index([1, 2])

Out[4]: False

New Behavior:

In [8]: pd.Index([1, 2, 3]) == pd.Index([1, 4, 5])

Out[8]: array([ True, False, False], dtype=bool)

In [9]: pd.Index([1, 2, 3]) == pd.Index([2])

ValueError: Lengths must match to compare

In [10]: pd.Index([1, 2, 3]) == pd.Index([1, 2])

ValueError: Lengths must match to compare

Note that this is different from the numpy behavior where a comparison can be broadcast:

In [69]: np.array([1, 2, 3]) == np.array([1])

Out[69]: array([ True, False, False], dtype=bool)

or it can return False if broadcasting can not be done:

In [70]: np.array([1, 2, 3]) == np.array([1, 2])

Out[70]: False

1.11.2.4 Changes to Boolean Comparisons vs. None

Boolean comparisons of a Series vs None will now be equivalent to comparing with np.nan, rather than raise
TypeError. (GH1079).

In [71]: s = Series(range(3))

In [72]: s.iloc[1] = None

In [73]: s
Out[73]:
0 0.0
1 NaN
2 2.0
dtype: float64

Previous Behavior:

In [5]: s==None
TypeError: Could not compare <type 'NoneType'> type with Series

New Behavior:

In [74]: s==None
Out[74]:
0 False
1 False

1.11. v0.17.0 (October 9, 2015) 185

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

2 False
dtype: bool

Usually you simply want to know which values are null.

In [75]: s.isnull()
Out[75]:
0 False
1 True
2 False
dtype: bool

Warning: You generally will want to use isnull/notnull for these types of comparisons, as isnull/
notnull tells you which elements are null. One has to be mindful that nan's don’t compare equal, but None's
do. Note that Pandas/numpy uses the fact that np.nan != np.nan, and treats None like np.nan.
In [76]: None == None
Out[76]: True

In [77]: np.nan == np.nan

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[77]: False

1.11.2.5 HDFStore dropna behavior

The default behavior for HDFStore write functions with format='table' is now to keep rows that are all missing.
Previously, the behavior was to drop rows that were all missing save the index. The previous behavior can be replicated
using the dropna=True option. (GH9382)
Previous Behavior:

In [78]: df_with_missing = pd.DataFrame({'col1':[0, np.nan, 2],

....: 'col2':[1, np.nan, np.nan]})
....:

In [79]: df_with_missing
Out[79]:
col1 col2
0 0.0 1.0
1 NaN NaN
2 2.0 NaN

In [27]:
df_with_missing.to_hdf('file.h5',
'df_with_missing',
format='table',
mode='w')

In [28]: pd.read_hdf('file.h5', 'df_with_missing')

Out [28]:
col1 col2
0 0 1
2 2 NaN

186 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

New Behavior:

In [80]: df_with_missing.to_hdf('file.h5',
....: 'df_with_missing',
....: format='table',
....: mode='w')
....:

In [81]: pd.read_hdf('file.h5', 'df_with_missing')

Out[81]:
col1 col2
0 0.0 1.0
1 NaN NaN
2 2.0 NaN

See the docs for more details.

1.11.2.6 Changes to display.precision option

The display.precision option has been clarified to refer to decimal places (GH10451).
Earlier versions of pandas would format floating point numbers to have one less decimal place than the value in
display.precision.

In [1]: pd.set_option('display.precision', 2)

In [2]: pd.DataFrame({'x': [123.456789]})

Out[2]:
x
0 123.5

If interpreting precision as “significant figures” this did work for scientific notation but that same interpretation did not
work for values with standard formatting. It was also out of step with how numpy handles formatting.
Going forward the value of display.precision will directly control the number of places after the decimal, for
regular formatting as well as scientific notation, similar to how numpy’s precision print option works.

In [82]: pd.set_option('display.precision', 2)

In [83]: pd.DataFrame({'x': [123.456789]})

Out[83]:
x
0 123.46

To preserve output behavior with prior versions the default value of display.precision has been reduced to 6
from 7.

1.11.2.7 Changes to Categorical.unique

Categorical.unique now returns new Categoricals with categories and codes that are unique, rather
than returning np.array (GH10508)
• unordered category: values and categories are sorted by appearance order.
• ordered category: values are sorted by appearance order, categories keep existing order.

1.11. v0.17.0 (October 9, 2015) 187

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [84]: cat = pd.Categorical(['C', 'A', 'B', 'C'],

....: categories=['A', 'B', 'C'],
....: ordered=True)
....:

In [85]: cat
Out[85]:
[C, A, B, C]
Categories (3, object): [A < B < C]

In [86]: cat.unique()
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[86]:
[C, A, B]
Categories (3, object): [A < B < C]

In [87]: cat = pd.Categorical(['C', 'A', 'B', 'C'],

....: categories=['A', 'B', 'C'])
....:

In [88]: cat
Out[88]:
[C, A, B, C]
Categories (3, object): [A, B, C]

In [89]: cat.unique()
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[89]:
[C, A, B]
Categories (3, object): [C, A, B]

1.11.2.8 Changes to bool passed as header in Parsers

In earlier versions of pandas, if a bool was passed the header argument of read_csv, read_excel, or
read_html it was implicitly converted to an integer, resulting in header=0 for False and header=1 for True
(GH6113)
A bool input to header will now raise a TypeError

In [29]: df = pd.read_csv('data.csv', header=False)

TypeError: Passing a bool to header is invalid. Use header=None for no header or
header=int or list-like of ints to specify the row(s) making up the column names

1.11.2.9 Other API Changes

• Line and kde plot with subplots=True now uses default colors, not all black. Specify color='k' to draw
all lines in black (GH9894)
• Calling the .value_counts() method on a Series with a categorical dtype now returns a Series with a
CategoricalIndex (GH10704)
• The metadata properties of subclasses of pandas objects will now be serialized (GH10553).
• groupby using Categorical follows the same rule as Categorical.unique described above
(GH10508)
• When constructing DataFrame with an array of complex64 dtype previously meant the corresponding col-
umn was automatically promoted to the complex128 dtype. Pandas will now preserve the itemsize of the

188 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

input for complex data (GH10952)

• some numeric reduction operators would return ValueError, rather than TypeError on object types that
includes strings and numbers (GH11131)
• Passing currently unsupported chunksize argument to read_excel or ExcelFile.parse will now
raise NotImplementedError (GH8011)
• Allow an ExcelFile object to be passed into read_excel (GH11198)
• DatetimeIndex.union does not infer freq if self and the input have None as freq (GH11086)
• NaT‘s methods now either raise ValueError, or return np.nan or NaT (GH9513)
Behavior Methods
return np.nan weekday, isoweekday
return NaT date, now, replace, to_datetime, today
return np.datetime64('NaT') to_datetime64 (unchanged)
raise ValueError All other public methods (names not beginning with underscores)

1.11.2.10 Deprecations

• For Series the following indexing functions are deprecated (GH10177).

Deprecated Function Replacement
.irow(i) .iloc[i] or .iat[i]
.iget(i) .iloc[i] or .iat[i]
.iget_value(i) .iloc[i] or .iat[i]
• For DataFrame the following indexing functions are deprecated (GH10177).
Deprecated Function Replacement
.irow(i) .iloc[i]
.iget_value(i, j) .iloc[i, j] or .iat[i, j]
.icol(j) .iloc[:, j]

Note: These indexing function have been deprecated in the documentation since 0.11.0.

• Categorical.name was deprecated to make Categorical more numpy.ndarray like. Use

Series(cat, name="whatever") instead (GH10482).
• Setting missing values (NaN) in a Categorical‘s categories will issue a warning (GH10748). You can
still have missing values in the values.
• drop_duplicates and duplicated‘s take_last keyword was deprecated in favor of keep. (GH6511,
GH8505)
• Series.nsmallest and nlargest‘s take_last keyword was deprecated in favor of keep. (GH10792)
• DataFrame.combineAdd and DataFrame.combineMult are deprecated. They can easily be replaced
by using the add and mul methods: DataFrame.add(other, fill_value=0) and DataFrame.
mul(other, fill_value=1.) (GH10735).
• TimeSeries deprecated in favor of Series (note that this has been an alias since 0.13.0), (GH10890)
• SparsePanel deprecated and will be removed in a future version (GH11157).
• Series.is_time_series deprecated in favor of Series.index.is_all_dates (GH11135)
• Legacy offsets (like 'A@JAN') are deprecated (note that this has been alias since 0.8.0) (GH10878)

1.11. v0.17.0 (October 9, 2015) 189

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• WidePanel deprecated in favor of Panel, LongPanel in favor of DataFrame (note these have been
aliases since < 0.11.0), (GH10892)
• DataFrame.convert_objects has been deprecated in favor of type-specific functions pd.
to_datetime, pd.to_timestamp and pd.to_numeric (new in 0.17.0) (GH11133).

1.11.2.11 Removal of prior version deprecations/changes

• Removal of na_last parameters from Series.order() and Series.sort(), in favor of

na_position. (GH5231)
• Remove of percentile_width from .describe(), in favor of percentiles. (GH7088)
• Removal of colSpace parameter from DataFrame.to_string(), in favor of col_space, circa 0.8.0
version.
• Removal of automatic time-series broadcasting (GH2304)

In [90]: np.random.seed(1234)

In [91]: df = DataFrame(np.random.randn(5,2),columns=list('AB'),index=date_range(
˓→'20130101',periods=5))

In [92]: df
Out[92]:
A B
2013-01-01 0.471435 -1.190976
2013-01-02 1.432707 -0.312652
2013-01-03 -0.720589 0.887163
2013-01-04 0.859588 -0.636524
2013-01-05 0.015696 -2.242685

Previously

In [3]: df + df.A
FutureWarning: TimeSeries broadcasting along DataFrame index by default is
˓→deprecated.

Please use DataFrame.<op> to explicitly broadcast arithmetic operations along the

˓→index

Out[3]:
A B
2013-01-01 0.942870 -0.719541
2013-01-02 2.865414 1.120055
2013-01-03 -1.441177 0.166574
2013-01-04 1.719177 0.223065
2013-01-05 0.031393 -2.226989

Current

In [93]: df.add(df.A,axis='index')
Out[93]:
A B
2013-01-01 0.942870 -0.719541
2013-01-02 2.865414 1.120055
2013-01-03 -1.441177 0.166574
2013-01-04 1.719177 0.223065
2013-01-05 0.031393 -2.226989

190 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Remove table keyword in HDFStore.put/append, in favor of using format= (GH4645)

• Remove kind in read_excel/ExcelFile as its unused (GH4712)
• Remove infer_type keyword from pd.read_html as its unused (GH4770, GH7032)
• Remove offset and timeRule keywords from Series.tshift/shift, in favor of freq (GH4853,
GH4864)
• Remove pd.load/pd.save aliases in favor of pd.to_pickle/pd.read_pickle (GH3787)

1.11.3 Performance Improvements

• Development support for benchmarking with the Air Speed Velocity library (GH8361)
• Added vbench benchmarks for alternative ExcelWriter engines and reading Excel files (GH7171)
• Performance improvements in Categorical.value_counts (GH10804)
• Performance improvements in SeriesGroupBy.nunique and SeriesGroupBy.value_counts and
SeriesGroupby.transform (GH10820, GH11077)
• Performance improvements in DataFrame.drop_duplicates with integer dtypes (GH10917)
• Performance improvements in DataFrame.duplicated with wide frames. (GH10161, GH11180)
• 4x improvement in timedelta string parsing (GH6755, GH10426)
• 8x improvement in timedelta64 and datetime64 ops (GH6755)
• Significantly improved performance of indexing MultiIndex with slicers (GH10287)
• 8x improvement in iloc using list-like input (GH10791)
• Improved performance of Series.isin for datetimelike/integer Series (GH10287)
• 20x improvement in concat of Categoricals when categories are identical (GH10587)
• Improved performance of to_datetime when specified format string is ISO8601 (GH10178)
• 2x improvement of Series.value_counts for float dtype (GH10821)
• Enable infer_datetime_format in to_datetime when date components do not have 0 padding
(GH11142)
• Regression from 0.16.1 in constructing DataFrame from nested dictionary (GH11084)
• Performance improvements in addition/subtraction operations for DateOffset with Series or
DatetimeIndex (GH10744, GH11205)

1.11.4 Bug Fixes

• Bug in incorrection computation of .mean() on timedelta64[ns] because of overflow (GH9442)

• Bug in .isin on older numpies (:issue: 11232)
• Bug in DataFrame.to_html(index=False) renders unnecessary name row (GH10344)
• Bug in DataFrame.to_latex() the column_format argument could not be passed (GH9402)
• Bug in DatetimeIndex when localizing with NaT (GH10477)
• Bug in Series.dt ops in preserving meta-data (GH10477)
• Bug in preserving NaT when passed in an otherwise invalid to_datetime construction (GH10477)

1.11. v0.17.0 (October 9, 2015) 191

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Bug in DataFrame.apply when function returns categorical series. (GH9573)

• Bug in to_datetime with invalid dates and formats supplied (GH10154)
• Bug in Index.drop_duplicates dropping name(s) (GH10115)
• Bug in Series.quantile dropping name (GH10881)
• Bug in pd.Series when setting a value on an empty Series whose index has a frequency. (GH10193)
• Bug in pd.Series.interpolate with invalid order keyword values. (GH10633)
• Bug in DataFrame.plot raises ValueError when color name is specified by multiple characters
(GH10387)
• Bug in Index construction with a mixed list of tuples (GH10697)
• Bug in DataFrame.reset_index when index contains NaT. (GH10388)
• Bug in ExcelReader when worksheet is empty (GH6403)
• Bug in BinGrouper.group_info where returned values are not compatible with base class (GH10914)
• Bug in clearing the cache on DataFrame.pop and a subsequent inplace op (GH10912)
• Bug in indexing with a mixed-integer Index causing an ImportError (GH10610)
• Bug in Series.count when index has nulls (GH10946)
• Bug in pickling of a non-regular freq DatetimeIndex (GH11002)
• Bug causing DataFrame.where to not respect the axis parameter when the frame has a symmetric shape.
(GH9736)
• Bug in Table.select_column where name is not preserved (GH10392)
• Bug in offsets.generate_range where start and end have finer precision than offset (GH9907)
• Bug in pd.rolling_* where Series.name would be lost in the output (GH10565)
• Bug in stack when index or columns are not unique. (GH10417)
• Bug in setting a Panel when an axis has a multi-index (GH10360)
• Bug in USFederalHolidayCalendar where USMemorialDay and USMartinLutherKingJr were
incorrect (GH10278 and GH9760 )
• Bug in .sample() where returned object, if set, gives unnecessary SettingWithCopyWarning
(GH10738)
• Bug in .sample() where weights passed as Series were not aligned along axis before being treated posi-
tionally, potentially causing problems if weight indices were not aligned with sampled object. (GH10738)
• Regression fixed in (GH9311, GH6620, GH9345), where groupby with a datetime-like converting to float with
certain aggregators (GH10979)
• Bug in DataFrame.interpolate with axis=1 and inplace=True (GH10395)
• Bug in io.sql.get_schema when specifying multiple columns as primary key (GH10385).
• Bug in groupby(sort=False) with datetime-like Categorical raises ValueError (GH10505)
• Bug in groupby(axis=1) with filter() throws IndexError (GH11041)
• Bug in test_categorical on big-endian builds (GH10425)
• Bug in Series.shift and DataFrame.shift not supporting categorical data (GH9416)
• Bug in Series.map using categorical Series raises AttributeError (GH10324)

192 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Bug in MultiIndex.get_level_values including Categorical raises AttributeError

(GH10460)
• Bug in pd.get_dummies with sparse=True not returning SparseDataFrame (GH10531)
• Bug in Index subtypes (such as PeriodIndex) not returning their own type for .drop and .insert
methods (GH10620)
• Bug in algos.outer_join_indexer when right array is empty (GH10618)
• Bug in filter (regression from 0.16.0) and transform when grouping on multiple keys, one of which is
datetime-like (GH10114)
• Bug in to_datetime and to_timedelta causing Index name to be lost (GH10875)
• Bug in len(DataFrame.groupby) causing IndexError when there’s a column containing only NaNs
(:issue: 11016)
• Bug that caused segfault when resampling an empty Series (GH10228)
• Bug in DatetimeIndex and PeriodIndex.value_counts resets name from its result, but retains in
result’s Index. (GH10150)
• Bug in pd.eval using numexpr engine coerces 1 element numpy array to scalar (GH10546)
• Bug in pd.concat with axis=0 when column is of dtype category (GH10177)
• Bug in read_msgpack where input type is not always checked (GH10369, GH10630)
• Bug in pd.read_csv with kwargs index_col=False, index_col=['a', 'b'] or dtype
(GH10413, GH10467, GH10577)
• Bug in Series.from_csv with header kwarg not setting the Series.name or the Series.index.
name (GH10483)
• Bug in groupby.var which caused variance to be inaccurate for small float values (GH10448)
• Bug in Series.plot(kind='hist') Y Label not informative (GH10485)
• Bug in read_csv when using a converter which generates a uint8 type (GH9266)
• Bug causes memory leak in time-series line and area plot (GH9003)
• Bug when setting a Panel sliced along the major or minor axes when the right-hand side is a DataFrame
(GH11014)
• Bug that returns None and does not raise NotImplementedError when operator functions (e.g. .add) of
Panel are not implemented (GH7692)
• Bug in line and kde plot cannot accept multiple colors when subplots=True (GH9894)
• Bug in DataFrame.plot raises ValueError when color name is specified by multiple characters
(GH10387)
• Bug in left and right align of Series with MultiIndex may be inverted (GH10665)
• Bug in left and right join of with MultiIndex may be inverted (GH10741)
• Bug in read_stata when reading a file with a different order set in columns (GH10757)
• Bug in Categorical may not representing properly when category contains tz or Period (GH10713)
• Bug in Categorical.__iter__ may not returning correct datetime and Period (GH10713)
• Bug in indexing with a PeriodIndex on an object with a PeriodIndex (GH4125)
• Bug in read_csv with engine='c': EOF preceded by a comment, blank line, etc. was not handled correctly
(GH10728, GH10548)

1.11. v0.17.0 (October 9, 2015) 193

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Reading “famafrench” data via DataReader results in HTTP 404 error because of the website url is changed
(GH10591).
• Bug in read_msgpack where DataFrame to decode has duplicate column names (GH9618)
• Bug in io.common.get_filepath_or_buffer which caused reading of valid S3 files to fail if the
bucket also contained keys for which the user does not have read permission (GH10604)
• Bug in vectorised setting of timestamp columns with python datetime.date and numpy datetime64
(GH10408, GH10412)
• Bug in Index.take may add unnecessary freq attribute (GH10791)
• Bug in merge with empty DataFrame may raise IndexError (GH10824)
• Bug in to_latex where unexpected keyword argument for some documented arguments (GH10888)
• Bug in indexing of large DataFrame where IndexError is uncaught (GH10645 and GH10692)
• Bug in read_csv when using the nrows or chunksize parameters if file contains only a header line
(GH9535)
• Bug in serialization of category types in HDF5 in presence of alternate encodings. (GH10366)
• Bug in pd.DataFrame when constructing an empty DataFrame with a string dtype (GH9428)
• Bug in pd.DataFrame.diff when DataFrame is not consolidated (GH10907)
• Bug in pd.unique for arrays with the datetime64 or timedelta64 dtype that meant an array with object
dtype was returned instead the original dtype (GH9431)
• Bug in Timedelta raising error when slicing from 0s (GH10583)
• Bug in DatetimeIndex.take and TimedeltaIndex.take may not raise IndexError against invalid
index (GH10295)
• Bug in Series([np.nan]).astype('M8[ms]'), which now returns Series([pd.NaT])
(GH10747)
• Bug in PeriodIndex.order reset freq (GH10295)
• Bug in date_range when freq divides end as nanos (GH10885)
• Bug in iloc allowing memory outside bounds of a Series to be accessed with negative integers (GH10779)
• Bug in read_msgpack where encoding is not respected (GH10581)
• Bug preventing access to the first index when using iloc with a list containing the appropriate negative integer
(GH10547, GH10779)
• Bug in TimedeltaIndex formatter causing error while trying to save DataFrame with
TimedeltaIndex using to_csv (GH10833)
• Bug in DataFrame.where when handling Series slicing (GH10218, GH9558)
• Bug where pd.read_gbq throws ValueError when Bigquery returns zero rows (GH10273)
• Bug in to_json which was causing segmentation fault when serializing 0-rank ndarray (GH9576)
• Bug in plotting functions may raise IndexError when plotted on GridSpec (GH10819)
• Bug in plot result may show unnecessary minor ticklabels (GH10657)
• Bug in groupby incorrect computation for aggregation on DataFrame with NaT (E.g first, last, min).
(GH10590, GH11010)
• Bug when constructing DataFrame where passing a dictionary with only scalar values and specifying columns
did not raise an error (GH10856)

194 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Bug in .var() causing roundoff errors for highly similar values (GH10242)
• Bug in DataFrame.plot(subplots=True) with duplicated columns outputs incorrect result (GH10962)
• Bug in Index arithmetic may result in incorrect class (GH10638)
• Bug in date_range results in empty if freq is negative annualy, quarterly and monthly (GH11018)
• Bug in DatetimeIndex cannot infer negative freq (GH11018)
• Remove use of some deprecated numpy comparison operations, mainly in tests. (GH10569)
• Bug in Index dtype may not applied properly (GH11017)
• Bug in io.gbq when testing for minimum google api client version (GH10652)
• Bug in DataFrame construction from nested dict with timedelta keys (GH11129)
• Bug in .fillna against may raise TypeError when data contains datetime dtype (GH7095, GH11153)
• Bug in .groupby when number of keys to group by is same as length of index (GH11185)
• Bug in convert_objects where converted values might not be returned if all null and coerce (GH9589)
• Bug in convert_objects where copy keyword was not respected (GH9589)

1.12 v0.16.2 (June 12, 2015)

This is a minor bug-fix release from 0.16.1 and includes a a large number of bug fixes along some new features
(pipe() method), enhancements, and performance improvements.
We recommend that all users upgrade to this version.
Highlights include:
• A new pipe method, see here
• Documentation on how to use numba with pandas, see here

What’s new in v0.16.2

• New features
– Pipe
– Other Enhancements
• API Changes
• Performance Improvements
• Bug Fixes

1.12.1 New features

1.12.1.1 Pipe

We’ve introduced a new method DataFrame.pipe(). As suggested by the name, pipe should be used to pipe
data through a chain of function calls. The goal is to avoid confusing nested function calls like

1.12. v0.16.2 (June 12, 2015) 195

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

# df is a DataFrame
# f, g, and h are functions that take and return DataFrames
f(g(h(df), arg1=1), arg2=2, arg3=3)

The logic flows from inside out, and function names are separated from their keyword arguments. This can be rewritten
as

(df.pipe(h)
.pipe(g, arg1=1)
.pipe(f, arg2=2, arg3=3)
)

Now both the code and the logic flow from top to bottom. Keyword arguments are next to their functions. Overall the
code is much more readable.
In the example above, the functions f, g, and h each expected the DataFrame as the first positional argument. When
the function you wish to apply takes its data anywhere other than the first argument, pass a tuple of (function,
keyword) indicating where the DataFrame should flow. For example:

In [1]: import statsmodels.formula.api as sm

In [2]: bb = pd.read_csv('data/baseball.csv', index_col='id')

# sm.poisson takes (formula, data)

In [3]: (bb.query('h > 0')
...: .assign(ln_h = lambda df: np.log(df.h))
...: .pipe((sm.poisson, 'data'), 'hr ~ ln_h + year + g + C(lg)')
...: .fit()
...: .summary()
...: )
...:
Optimization terminated successfully.
Current function value: 2.116284
Iterations 24
Out[3]:
<class 'statsmodels.iolib.summary.Summary'>
"""
Poisson Regression Results
==============================================================================
Dep. Variable: hr No. Observations: 68
Model: Poisson Df Residuals: 63
Method: MLE Df Model: 4
Date: Fri, 27 Oct 2017 Pseudo R-squ.: 0.6878
Time: 10:37:31 Log-Likelihood: -143.91
converged: True LL-Null: -460.91
LLR p-value: 6.774e-136
===============================================================================
coef std err z P>|z| [0.025 0.975]
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Intercept -1267.3636 457.867 -2.768 0.006 -2164.767 -369.960
C(lg)[T.NL] -0.2057 0.101 -2.044 0.041 -0.403 -0.008
ln_h 0.9280 0.191 4.866 0.000 0.554 1.302
year 0.6301 0.228 2.762 0.006 0.183 1.077
g 0.0099 0.004 2.754 0.006 0.003 0.017
===============================================================================
"""

The pipe method is inspired by unix pipes, which stream text through processes. More recently dplyr and magrittr

196 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

have introduced the popular (%>%) pipe operator for R.

See the documentation for more. (GH10129)

1.12.1.2 Other Enhancements

• Added rsplit to Index/Series StringMethods (GH10303)

• Removed the hard-coded size limits on the DataFrame HTML representation in the IPython notebook, and
leave this to IPython itself (only for IPython v3.0 or greater). This eliminates the duplicate scroll bars that
appeared in the notebook with large frames (GH10231).
Note that the notebook has a toggle output scrolling feature to limit the display of very large frames
(by clicking left of the output). You can also configure the way DataFrames are displayed using the pandas
options, see here here.
• axis parameter of DataFrame.quantile now accepts also index and column. (GH9543)

1.12.2 API Changes

• Holiday now raises NotImplementedError if both offset and observance are used in the construc-
tor instead of returning an incorrect result (GH10217).

1.12.3 Performance Improvements

• Improved Series.resample performance with dtype=datetime64[ns] (GH7754)

• Increase performance of str.split when expand=True (GH10081)

1.12.4 Bug Fixes

• Bug in Series.hist raises an error when a one row Series was given (GH10214)
• Bug where HDFStore.select modifies the passed columns list (GH7212)
• Bug in Categorical repr with display.width of None in Python 3 (GH10087)
• Bug in to_json with certain orients and a CategoricalIndex would segfault (GH10317)
• Bug where some of the nan funcs do not have consistent return dtypes (GH10251)
• Bug in DataFrame.quantile on checking that a valid axis was passed (GH9543)
• Bug in groupby.apply aggregation for Categorical not preserving categories (GH10138)
• Bug in to_csv where date_format is ignored if the datetime is fractional (GH10209)
• Bug in DataFrame.to_json with mixed data types (GH10289)
• Bug in cache updating when consolidating (GH10264)
• Bug in mean() where integer dtypes can overflow (GH10172)
• Bug where Panel.from_dict does not set dtype when specified (GH10058)
• Bug in Index.union raises AttributeError when passing array-likes. (GH10149)
• Bug in Timestamp‘s’ microsecond, quarter, dayofyear, week and daysinmonth properties re-
turn np.int type, not built-in int. (GH10050)

1.12. v0.16.2 (June 12, 2015) 197

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Bug in NaT raises AttributeError when accessing to daysinmonth, dayofweek properties.

(GH10096)
• Bug in Index repr when using the max_seq_items=None setting (GH10182).
• Bug in getting timezone data with dateutil on various platforms ( GH9059, GH8639, GH9663, GH10121)
• Bug in displaying datetimes with mixed frequencies; display ‘ms’ datetimes to the proper precision. (GH10170)
• Bug in setitem where type promotion is applied to the entire block (GH10280)
• Bug in Series arithmetic methods may incorrectly hold names (GH10068)
• Bug in GroupBy.get_group when grouping on multiple keys, one of which is categorical. (GH10132)
• Bug in DatetimeIndex and TimedeltaIndex names are lost after timedelta arithmetics ( GH9926)
• Bug in DataFrame construction from nested dict with datetime64 (GH10160)
• Bug in Series construction from dict with datetime64 keys (GH9456)
• Bug in Series.plot(label="LABEL") not correctly setting the label (GH10119)
• Bug in plot not defaulting to matplotlib axes.grid setting (GH9792)
• Bug causing strings containing an exponent, but no decimal to be parsed as int instead of float in
engine='python' for the read_csv parser (GH9565)
• Bug in Series.align resets name when fill_value is specified (GH10067)
• Bug in read_csv causing index name not to be set on an empty DataFrame (GH10184)
• Bug in SparseSeries.abs resets name (GH10241)
• Bug in TimedeltaIndex slicing may reset freq (GH10292)
• Bug in GroupBy.get_group raises ValueError when group key contains NaT (GH6992)
• Bug in SparseSeries constructor ignores input data name (GH10258)
• Bug in Categorical.remove_categories causing a ValueError when removing the NaN category
if underlying dtype is floating-point (GH10156)
• Bug where infer_freq infers timerule (WOM-5XXX) unsupported by to_offset (GH9425)
• Bug in DataFrame.to_hdf() where table format would raise a seemingly unrelated error for invalid (non-
string) column names. This is now explicitly forbidden. (GH9057)
• Bug to handle masking empty DataFrame (GH10126).
• Bug where MySQL interface could not handle numeric table/column names (GH10255)
• Bug in read_csv with a date_parser that returned a datetime64 array of other time resolution than
[ns] (GH10245)
• Bug in Panel.apply when the result has ndim=0 (GH10332)
• Bug in read_hdf where auto_close could not be passed (GH9327).
• Bug in read_hdf where open stores could not be used (GH10330).
• Bug in adding empty DataFrame``s, now results in a ``DataFrame that .equals an empty
DataFrame (GH10181).
• Bug in to_hdf and HDFStore which did not check that complib choices were valid (GH4582, GH8874).

198 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

1.13 v0.16.1 (May 11, 2015)

This is a minor bug-fix release from 0.16.0 and includes a a large number of bug fixes along several new features,
enhancements, and performance improvements. We recommend that all users upgrade to this version.
Highlights include:
• Support for a CategoricalIndex, a category based index, see here
• New section on how-to-contribute to pandas, see here
• Revised “Merge, join, and concatenate” documentation, including graphical examples to make it easier to un-
derstand each operations, see here
• New method sample for drawing random samples from Series, DataFrames and Panels. See here
• The default Index printing has changed to a more uniform format, see here
• BusinessHour datetime-offset is now supported, see here
• Further enhancement to the .str accessor to make string operations easier, see here

What’s new in v0.16.1

• Enhancements
– CategoricalIndex
– Sample
– String Methods Enhancements
– Other Enhancements
• API changes
– Deprecations
• Index Representation
• Performance Improvements
• Bug Fixes

Warning: In pandas 0.17.0, the sub-package pandas.io.data will be removed in favor of a separately
installable package. See here for details (GH8961)

1.13.1 Enhancements

1.13.1.1 CategoricalIndex

We introduce a CategoricalIndex, a new type of index object that is useful for supporting indexing with dupli-
cates. This is a container around a Categorical (introduced in v0.15.0) and allows efficient indexing and storage
of an index with a large number of duplicated elements. Prior to 0.16.1, setting the index of a DataFrame/Series
with a category dtype would convert this to regular object-based Index.

1.13. v0.16.1 (May 11, 2015) 199

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [1]: df = DataFrame({'A' : np.arange(6),

...: 'B' : Series(list('aabbca')).astype('category',
...: categories=list('cab'))
...: })
...:

In [2]: df
Out[2]:
A B
0 0 a
1 1 a
2 2 b
3 3 b
4 4 c
5 5 a

In [3]: df.dtypes
Out[3]:
A int64
B category
dtype: object

In [4]: df.B.cat.categories
Out[4]: Index(['c', 'a', 'b'], dtype='object')

setting the index, will create create a CategoricalIndex

In [5]: df2 = df.set_index('B')

In [6]: df2.index
Out[6]: CategoricalIndex(['a', 'a', 'b', 'b', 'c', 'a'], categories=['c', 'a', 'b'],
˓→ordered=False, name='B', dtype='category')

indexing with __getitem__/.iloc/.loc/.ix works similarly to an Index with duplicates. The indexers
MUST be in the category or the operation will raise.
In [7]: df2.loc['a']
Out[7]:
A
B
a 0
a 1
a 5

and preserves the CategoricalIndex

In [8]: df2.loc['a'].index
Out[8]: CategoricalIndex(['a', 'a', 'a'], categories=['c', 'a', 'b'], ordered=False,
˓→name='B', dtype='category')

sorting will order by the order of the categories

In [9]: df2.sort_index()
Out[9]:
A
B
c 4
a 0

200 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

a 1
a 5
b 2
b 3

groupby operations on the index will preserve the index nature as well

In [10]: df2.groupby(level=0).sum()
Out[10]:
A
B
c 4
a 6
b 5

In [11]: df2.groupby(level=0).sum().index
Out[11]: CategoricalIndex(['c', 'a', 'b'], categories=['c', 'a', 'b'], ordered=False,
˓→name='B', dtype='category')

reindexing operations, will return a resulting index based on the type of the passed indexer, meaning that passing a
list will return a plain-old-Index; indexing with a Categorical will return a CategoricalIndex, indexed
according to the categories of the PASSED Categorical dtype. This allows one to arbitrarly index these even with
values NOT in the categories, similarly to how you can reindex ANY pandas index.

In [12]: df2.reindex(['a','e'])
Out[12]:
A
B
a 0.0
a 1.0
a 5.0
e NaN

In [13]: df2.reindex(['a','e']).index
Out[13]: Index(['a', 'a', 'a', 'e'], dtype='object', name='B')

In [14]: df2.reindex(pd.Categorical(['a','e'],categories=list('abcde')))
Out[14]:
A
B
a 0.0
a 1.0
a 5.0
e NaN

In [15]: df2.reindex(pd.Categorical(['a','e'],categories=list('abcde'))).index
Out[15]: CategoricalIndex(['a', 'a', 'a', 'e'], categories=['a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'e'],
˓→ordered=False, name='B', dtype='category')

See the documentation for more. (GH7629, GH10038, GH10039)

1.13.1.2 Sample

Series, DataFrames, and Panels now have a new method: sample(). The method accepts a specific number of rows
or columns to return, or a fraction of the total number or rows or columns. It also has options for sampling with or
without replacement, for passing in a column for weights for non-uniform sampling, and for setting seed values to

1.13. v0.16.1 (May 11, 2015) 201

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

facilitate replication. (GH2419)

In [1]: example_series = Series([0,1,2,3,4,5])

# When no arguments are passed, returns 1

In [2]: example_series.sample()
Out[2]:
3 3
dtype: int64

# One may specify either a number of rows:

In [3]: example_series.sample(n=3)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[3]:
5 5
1 1
4 4
dtype: int64

# Or a fraction of the rows:

In [4]: example_series.sample(frac=0.5)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[4]:
4 4
1 1
0 0
dtype: int64

# weights are accepted.

In [5]: example_weights = [0, 0, 0.2, 0.2, 0.2, 0.4]

In [6]: example_series.sample(n=3, weights=example_weights)

Out[6]:
2 2
3 3
5 5
dtype: int64

# weights will also be normalized if they do not sum to one,

# and missing values will be treated as zeros.
In [7]: example_weights2 = [0.5, 0, 0, 0, None, np.nan]

In [8]: example_series.sample(n=1, weights=example_weights2)

Out[8]:
0 0
dtype: int64

When applied to a DataFrame, one may pass the name of a column to specify sampling weights when sampling from
rows.

In [9]: df = DataFrame({'col1':[9,8,7,6], 'weight_column':[0.5, 0.4, 0.1, 0]})

In [10]: df.sample(n=3, weights='weight_column')

Out[10]:
col1 weight_column
0 9 0.5
1 8 0.4
2 7 0.1

202 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

1.13.1.3 String Methods Enhancements

Continuing from v0.16.0, the following enhancements make string operations easier and more consistent with standard
python string operations.
• Added StringMethods (.str accessor) to Index (GH9068)
The .str accessor is now available for both Series and Index.

In [11]: idx = Index([' jack', 'jill ', ' jesse ', 'frank'])

In [12]: idx.str.strip()
Out[12]: Index(['jack', 'jill', 'jesse', 'frank'], dtype='object')

One special case for the .str accessor on Index is that if a string method returns bool, the .str accessor
will return a np.array instead of a boolean Index (GH8875). This enables the following expression to work
naturally:

In [13]: idx = Index(['a1', 'a2', 'b1', 'b2'])

In [14]: s = Series(range(4), index=idx)

In [15]: s
Out[15]:
a1 0
a2 1
b1 2
b2 3
dtype: int64

In [16]: idx.str.startswith('a')
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[16]: array([ True,
˓→True, False, False], dtype=bool)

In [17]: s[s.index.str.startswith('a')]
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

a1 0
a2 1
dtype: int64

• The following new methods are accesible via .str accessor to apply the function to each values. (GH9766,
GH9773, GH10031, GH10045, GH10052)
Methods
capitalize() swapcase() normalize() partition() rpartition()
index() rindex() translate()
• split now takes expand keyword to specify whether to expand dimensionality. return_type is depre-
cated. (GH9847)

In [18]: s = Series(['a,b', 'a,c', 'b,c'])

# return Series
In [19]: s.str.split(',')
Out[19]:
0 [a, b]
1 [a, c]
2 [b, c]

1.13. v0.16.1 (May 11, 2015) 203

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

dtype: object

# return DataFrame
In [20]: s.str.split(',', expand=True)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[20]:
0 1
0 a b
1 a c
2 b c

In [21]: idx = Index(['a,b', 'a,c', 'b,c'])

# return Index
In [22]: idx.str.split(',')
Out[22]: Index([['a', 'b'], ['a', 'c'], ['b', 'c']], dtype='object')

# return MultiIndex
In [23]: idx.str.split(',', expand=True)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[23]:
MultiIndex(levels=[['a', 'b'], ['b', 'c']],
labels=[[0, 0, 1], [0, 1, 1]])

• Improved extract and get_dummies methods for Index.str (GH9980)

1.13.1.4 Other Enhancements

• BusinessHour offset is now supported, which represents business hours starting from 09:00 - 17:00 on
BusinessDay by default. See Here for details. (GH7905)

In [24]: from pandas.tseries.offsets import BusinessHour

In [25]: Timestamp('2014-08-01 09:00') + BusinessHour()

Out[25]: Timestamp('2014-08-01 10:00:00')

In [26]: Timestamp('2014-08-01 07:00') + BusinessHour()

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[26]: Timestamp('2014-08-01 10:00:00
˓→')

In [27]: Timestamp('2014-08-01 16:30') + BusinessHour()

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[27]:
˓→Timestamp('2014-08-04 09:30:00')

• DataFrame.diff now takes an axis parameter that determines the direction of differencing (GH9727)
• Allow clip, clip_lower, and clip_upper to accept array-like arguments as thresholds (This is a regres-
sion from 0.11.0). These methods now have an axis parameter which determines how the Series or DataFrame
will be aligned with the threshold(s). (GH6966)
• DataFrame.mask() and Series.mask() now support same keywords as where (GH8801)
• drop function can now accept errors keyword to suppress ValueError raised when any of label does not
exist in the target data. (GH6736)

In [28]: df = DataFrame(np.random.randn(3, 3), columns=['A', 'B', 'C'])

In [29]: df.drop(['A', 'X'], axis=1, errors='ignore')

Out[29]:

204 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

B C
0 1.058969 -0.397840
1 1.047579 1.045938
2 -0.122092 0.124713

• Add support for separating years and quarters using dashes, for example 2014-Q1. (GH9688)
• Allow conversion of values with dtype datetime64 or timedelta64 to strings using astype(str)
(GH9757)
• get_dummies function now accepts sparse keyword. If set to True, the return DataFrame is sparse, e.g.
SparseDataFrame. (GH8823)
• Period now accepts datetime64 as value input. (GH9054)
• Allow timedelta string conversion when leading zero is missing from time definition, ie 0:00:00 vs 00:00:00.
(GH9570)
• Allow Panel.shift with axis='items' (GH9890)
• Trying to write an excel file now raises NotImplementedError if the DataFrame has a MultiIndex
instead of writing a broken Excel file. (GH9794)
• Allow Categorical.add_categories to accept Series or np.array. (GH9927)
• Add/delete str/dt/cat accessors dynamically from __dir__. (GH9910)
• Add normalize as a dt accessor method. (GH10047)
• DataFrame and Series now have _constructor_expanddim property as overridable constructor for
one higher dimensionality data. This should be used only when it is really needed, see here
• pd.lib.infer_dtype now returns 'bytes' in Python 3 where appropriate. (GH10032)

1.13.2 API changes

• When passing in an ax to df.plot( ..., ax=ax), the sharex kwarg will now default to False. The result
is that the visibility of xlabels and xticklabels will not anymore be changed. You have to do that by yourself
for the right axes in your figure or set sharex=True explicitly (but this changes the visible for all axes in the
figure, not only the one which is passed in!). If pandas creates the subplots itself (e.g. no passed in ax kwarg),
then the default is still sharex=True and the visibility changes are applied.
• assign() now inserts new columns in alphabetical order. Previously the order was arbitrary. (GH9777)
• By default, read_csv and read_table will now try to infer the compression type based on the file exten-
sion. Set compression=None to restore the previous behavior (no decompression). (GH9770)

1.13.2.1 Deprecations

• Series.str.split‘s return_type keyword was removed in favor of expand (GH9847)

1.13.3 Index Representation

The string representation of Index and its sub-classes have now been unified. These will show a single-line display
if there are few values; a wrapped multi-line display for a lot of values (but less than display.max_seq_items;
if lots of items (> display.max_seq_items) will show a truncated display (the head and tail of the data). The
formatting for MultiIndex is unchanges (a multi-line wrapped display). The display width responds to the option
display.max_seq_items, which is defaulted to 100. (GH6482)

1.13. v0.16.1 (May 11, 2015) 205

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Previous Behavior
In [2]: pd.Index(range(4),name='foo')
Out[2]: Int64Index([0, 1, 2, 3], dtype='int64')

In [3]: pd.Index(range(104),name='foo')
Out[3]: Int64Index([0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18,
˓→19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39,
˓→40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60,
˓→61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81,
˓→82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, ...], dtype=
˓→'int64')

In [4]: pd.date_range('20130101',periods=4,name='foo',tz='US/Eastern')
Out[4]:
<class 'pandas.tseries.index.DatetimeIndex'>
[2013-01-01 00:00:00-05:00, ..., 2013-01-04 00:00:00-05:00]
Length: 4, Freq: D, Timezone: US/Eastern

In [5]: pd.date_range('20130101',periods=104,name='foo',tz='US/Eastern')
Out[5]:
<class 'pandas.tseries.index.DatetimeIndex'>
[2013-01-01 00:00:00-05:00, ..., 2013-04-14 00:00:00-04:00]
Length: 104, Freq: D, Timezone: US/Eastern

New Behavior
In [30]: pd.set_option('display.width', 80)

In [31]: pd.Index(range(4), name='foo')

Out[31]: RangeIndex(start=0, stop=4, step=1, name='foo')

In [32]: pd.Index(range(30), name='foo')

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[32]: RangeIndex(start=0,
˓→stop=30, step=1, name='foo')

In [33]: pd.Index(range(104), name='foo')

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→RangeIndex(start=0, stop=104, step=1, name='foo')

In [34]: pd.CategoricalIndex(['a','bb','ccc','dddd'], ordered=True, name='foobar')

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→CategoricalIndex(['a', 'bb', 'ccc', 'dddd'], categories=['a', 'bb', 'ccc', 'dddd'],

˓→ordered=True, name='foobar', dtype='category')

In [35]: pd.CategoricalIndex(['a','bb','ccc','dddd']*10, ordered=True, name='foobar')

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

CategoricalIndex(['a', 'bb', 'ccc', 'dddd', 'a', 'bb', 'ccc', 'dddd', 'a',

'bb', 'ccc', 'dddd', 'a', 'bb', 'ccc', 'dddd', 'a', 'bb',
'ccc', 'dddd', 'a', 'bb', 'ccc', 'dddd', 'a', 'bb', 'ccc',
'dddd', 'a', 'bb', 'ccc', 'dddd', 'a', 'bb', 'ccc', 'dddd',
'a', 'bb', 'ccc', 'dddd'],
categories=['a', 'bb', 'ccc', 'dddd'], ordered=True, name='foobar',
˓→dtype='category')

In [36]: pd.CategoricalIndex(['a','bb','ccc','dddd']*100, ordered=True, name='foobar')

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

206 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

CategoricalIndex(['a', 'bb', 'ccc', 'dddd', 'a', 'bb', 'ccc', 'dddd', 'a',

'bb',
...
'ccc', 'dddd', 'a', 'bb', 'ccc', 'dddd', 'a', 'bb', 'ccc',
'dddd'],
categories=['a', 'bb', 'ccc', 'dddd'], ordered=True, name='foobar',
˓→dtype='category', length=400)

In [37]: pd.date_range('20130101',periods=4, name='foo', tz='US/Eastern')

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

DatetimeIndex(['2013-01-01 00:00:00-05:00', '2013-01-02 00:00:00-05:00',

'2013-01-03 00:00:00-05:00', '2013-01-04 00:00:00-05:00'],
dtype='datetime64[ns, US/Eastern]', name='foo', freq='D')

In [38]: pd.date_range('20130101',periods=25, freq='D')

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

DatetimeIndex(['2013-01-01', '2013-01-02', '2013-01-03', '2013-01-04',

'2013-01-05', '2013-01-06', '2013-01-07', '2013-01-08',
'2013-01-09', '2013-01-10', '2013-01-11', '2013-01-12',
'2013-01-13', '2013-01-14', '2013-01-15', '2013-01-16',
'2013-01-17', '2013-01-18', '2013-01-19', '2013-01-20',
'2013-01-21', '2013-01-22', '2013-01-23', '2013-01-24',
'2013-01-25'],
dtype='datetime64[ns]', freq='D')

In [39]: pd.date_range('20130101',periods=104, name='foo', tz='US/Eastern')

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

DatetimeIndex(['2013-01-01 00:00:00-05:00', '2013-01-02 00:00:00-05:00',

'2013-01-03 00:00:00-05:00', '2013-01-04 00:00:00-05:00',
'2013-01-05 00:00:00-05:00', '2013-01-06 00:00:00-05:00',
'2013-01-07 00:00:00-05:00', '2013-01-08 00:00:00-05:00',
'2013-01-09 00:00:00-05:00', '2013-01-10 00:00:00-05:00',
...
'2013-04-05 00:00:00-04:00', '2013-04-06 00:00:00-04:00',
'2013-04-07 00:00:00-04:00', '2013-04-08 00:00:00-04:00',
'2013-04-09 00:00:00-04:00', '2013-04-10 00:00:00-04:00',
'2013-04-11 00:00:00-04:00', '2013-04-12 00:00:00-04:00',
'2013-04-13 00:00:00-04:00', '2013-04-14 00:00:00-04:00'],
dtype='datetime64[ns, US/Eastern]', name='foo', length=104, freq='D')

1.13.4 Performance Improvements

• Improved csv write performance with mixed dtypes, including datetimes by up to 5x (GH9940)
• Improved csv write performance generally by 2x (GH9940)
• Improved the performance of pd.lib.max_len_string_array by 5-7x (GH10024)

1.13.5 Bug Fixes

• Bug where labels did not appear properly in the legend of DataFrame.plot(), passing label= arguments
works, and Series indices are no longer mutated. (GH9542)

1.13. v0.16.1 (May 11, 2015) 207

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Bug in json serialization causing a segfault when a frame had zero length. (GH9805)
• Bug in read_csv where missing trailing delimiters would cause segfault. (GH5664)
• Bug in retaining index name on appending (GH9862)
• Bug in scatter_matrix draws unexpected axis ticklabels (GH5662)
• Fixed bug in StataWriter resulting in changes to input DataFrame upon save (GH9795).
• Bug in transform causing length mismatch when null entries were present and a fast aggregator was being
used (GH9697)
• Bug in equals causing false negatives when block order differed (GH9330)
• Bug in grouping with multiple pd.Grouper where one is non-time based (GH10063)
• Bug in read_sql_table error when reading postgres table with timezone (GH7139)
• Bug in DataFrame slicing may not retain metadata (GH9776)
• Bug where TimdeltaIndex were not properly serialized in fixed HDFStore (GH9635)
• Bug with TimedeltaIndex constructor ignoring name when given another TimedeltaIndex as data
(GH10025).
• Bug in DataFrameFormatter._get_formatted_index with not applying max_colwidth to the
DataFrame index (GH7856)
• Bug in .loc with a read-only ndarray data source (GH10043)
• Bug in groupby.apply() that would raise if a passed user defined function either returned only None (for
all input). (GH9685)
• Always use temporary files in pytables tests (GH9992)
• Bug in plotting continuously using secondary_y may not show legend properly. (GH9610, GH9779)
• Bug in DataFrame.plot(kind="hist") results in TypeError when DataFrame contains non-
numeric columns (GH9853)
• Bug where repeated plotting of DataFrame with a DatetimeIndex may raise TypeError (GH9852)
• Bug in setup.py that would allow an incompat cython version to build (GH9827)
• Bug in plotting secondary_y incorrectly attaches right_ax property to secondary axes specifying itself
recursively. (GH9861)
• Bug in Series.quantile on empty Series of type Datetime or Timedelta (GH9675)
• Bug in where causing incorrect results when upcasting was required (GH9731)
• Bug in FloatArrayFormatter where decision boundary for displaying “small” floats in decimal format is
off by one order of magnitude for a given display.precision (GH9764)
• Fixed bug where DataFrame.plot() raised an error when both color and style keywords were passed
and there was no color symbol in the style strings (GH9671)
• Not showing a DeprecationWarning on combining list-likes with an Index (GH10083)
• Bug in read_csv and read_table when using skip_rows parameter if blank lines are present. (GH9832)
• Bug in read_csv() interprets index_col=True as 1 (GH9798)
• Bug in index equality comparisons using == failing on Index/MultiIndex type incompatibility (GH9785)
• Bug in which SparseDataFrame could not take nan as a column name (GH8822)
• Bug in to_msgpack and read_msgpack zlib and blosc compression support (GH9783)

208 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Bug GroupBy.size doesn’t attach index name properly if grouped by TimeGrouper (GH9925)
• Bug causing an exception in slice assignments because length_of_indexer returns wrong results
(GH9995)
• Bug in csv parser causing lines with initial whitespace plus one non-space character to be skipped. (GH9710)
• Bug in C csv parser causing spurious NaNs when data started with newline followed by whitespace. (GH10022)
• Bug causing elements with a null group to spill into the final group when grouping by a Categorical
(GH9603)
• Bug where .iloc and .loc behavior is not consistent on empty dataframes (GH9964)
• Bug in invalid attribute access on a TimedeltaIndex incorrectly raised ValueError instead of
AttributeError (GH9680)
• Bug in unequal comparisons between categorical data and a scalar, which was not in the categories (e.g.
Series(Categorical(list("abc"), ordered=True)) > "d". This returned False for all el-
ements, but now raises a TypeError. Equality comparisons also now return False for == and True for !=.
(GH9848)
• Bug in DataFrame __setitem__ when right hand side is a dictionary (GH9874)
• Bug in where when dtype is datetime64/timedelta64, but dtype of other is not (GH9804)
• Bug in MultiIndex.sortlevel() results in unicode level name breaks (GH9856)
• Bug in which groupby.transform incorrectly enforced output dtypes to match input dtypes. (GH9807)
• Bug in DataFrame constructor when columns parameter is set, and data is an empty list (GH9939)
• Bug in bar plot with log=True raises TypeError if all values are less than 1 (GH9905)
• Bug in horizontal bar plot ignores log=True (GH9905)
• Bug in PyTables queries that did not return proper results using the index (GH8265, GH9676)
• Bug where dividing a dataframe containing values of type Decimal by another Decimal would raise.
(GH9787)
• Bug where using DataFrames asfreq would remove the name of the index. (GH9885)
• Bug causing extra index point when resample BM/BQ (GH9756)
• Changed caching in AbstractHolidayCalendar to be at the instance level rather than at the class level as
the latter can result in unexpected behaviour. (GH9552)
• Fixed latex output for multi-indexed dataframes (GH9778)
• Bug causing an exception when setting an empty range using DataFrame.loc (GH9596)
• Bug in hiding ticklabels with subplots and shared axes when adding a new plot to an existing grid of axes
(GH9158)
• Bug in transform and filter when grouping on a categorical variable (GH9921)
• Bug in transform when groups are equal in number and dtype to the input index (GH9700)
• Google BigQuery connector now imports dependencies on a per-method basis.(GH9713)
• Updated BigQuery connector to no longer use deprecated oauth2client.tools.run() (GH8327)
• Bug in subclassed DataFrame. It may not return the correct class, when slicing or subsetting it. (GH9632)
• Bug in .median() where non-float null values are not handled correctly (GH10040)
• Bug in Series.fillna() where it raises if a numerically convertible string is given (GH10092)

1.13. v0.16.1 (May 11, 2015) 209

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

1.14 v0.16.0 (March 22, 2015)

This is a major release from 0.15.2 and includes a small number of API changes, several new features, enhancements,
and performance improvements along with a large number of bug fixes. We recommend that all users upgrade to this
version.
Highlights include:
• DataFrame.assign method, see here
• Series.to_coo/from_coo methods to interact with scipy.sparse, see here
• Backwards incompatible change to Timedelta to conform the .seconds attribute with datetime.
timedelta, see here
• Changes to the .loc slicing API to conform with the behavior of .ix see here
• Changes to the default for ordering in the Categorical constructor, see here
• Enhancement to the .str accessor to make string operations easier, see here
• The pandas.tools.rplot, pandas.sandbox.qtpandas and pandas.rpy modules are deprecated.
We refer users to external packages like seaborn, pandas-qt and rpy2 for similar or equivalent functionality, see
here
Check the API Changes and deprecations before updating.

What’s new in v0.16.0

• New features
– DataFrame Assign
– Interaction with scipy.sparse
– String Methods Enhancements
– Other enhancements
• Backwards incompatible API changes
– Changes in Timedelta
– Indexing Changes
– Categorical Changes
– Other API Changes
– Deprecations
– Removal of prior version deprecations/changes
• Performance Improvements
• Bug Fixes

210 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

1.14.1 New features

1.14.1.1 DataFrame Assign

Inspired by dplyr’s mutate verb, DataFrame has a new assign() method. The function signature for assign is
simply **kwargs. The keys are the column names for the new fields, and the values are either a value to be inserted
(for example, a Series or NumPy array), or a function of one argument to be called on the DataFrame. The new
values are inserted, and the entire DataFrame (with all original and new columns) is returned.

In [1]: iris = read_csv('data/iris.data')

In [2]: iris.head()
Out[2]:
SepalLength SepalWidth PetalLength PetalWidth Name
0 5.1 3.5 1.4 0.2 Iris-setosa
1 4.9 3.0 1.4 0.2 Iris-setosa
2 4.7 3.2 1.3 0.2 Iris-setosa
3 4.6 3.1 1.5 0.2 Iris-setosa
4 5.0 3.6 1.4 0.2 Iris-setosa

In [3]: iris.assign(sepal_ratio=iris['SepalWidth'] / iris['SepalLength']).head()

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

SepalLength SepalWidth PetalLength PetalWidth Name sepal_ratio

0 5.1 3.5 1.4 0.2 Iris-setosa 0.686275
1 4.9 3.0 1.4 0.2 Iris-setosa 0.612245
2 4.7 3.2 1.3 0.2 Iris-setosa 0.680851
3 4.6 3.1 1.5 0.2 Iris-setosa 0.673913
4 5.0 3.6 1.4 0.2 Iris-setosa 0.720000

Above was an example of inserting a precomputed value. We can also pass in a function to be evalutated.

In [4]: iris.assign(sepal_ratio = lambda x: (x['SepalWidth'] /

...: x['SepalLength'])).head()
...:
Out[4]:
SepalLength SepalWidth PetalLength PetalWidth Name sepal_ratio
0 5.1 3.5 1.4 0.2 Iris-setosa 0.686275
1 4.9 3.0 1.4 0.2 Iris-setosa 0.612245
2 4.7 3.2 1.3 0.2 Iris-setosa 0.680851
3 4.6 3.1 1.5 0.2 Iris-setosa 0.673913
4 5.0 3.6 1.4 0.2 Iris-setosa 0.720000

The power of assign comes when used in chains of operations. For example, we can limit the DataFrame to just
those with a Sepal Length greater than 5, calculate the ratio, and plot

In [5]: (iris.query('SepalLength > 5')

...: .assign(SepalRatio = lambda x: x.SepalWidth / x.SepalLength,
...: PetalRatio = lambda x: x.PetalWidth / x.PetalLength)
...: .plot(kind='scatter', x='SepalRatio', y='PetalRatio'))
...:
Out[5]: <matplotlib.axes._subplots.AxesSubplot at 0x137e0f668>

1.14. v0.16.0 (March 22, 2015) 211

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

See the documentation for more. (GH9229)

1.14.1.2 Interaction with scipy.sparse

Added SparseSeries.to_coo() and SparseSeries.from_coo() methods (GH8048) for converting to

and from scipy.sparse.coo_matrix instances (see here). For example, given a SparseSeries with MultiIndex
we can convert to a scipy.sparse.coo_matrix by specifying the row and column labels as index levels:

In [6]: from numpy import nan

In [7]: s = Series([3.0, nan, 1.0, 3.0, nan, nan])

In [8]: s.index = MultiIndex.from_tuples([(1, 2, 'a', 0),

...: (1, 2, 'a', 1),
...: (1, 1, 'b', 0),
...: (1, 1, 'b', 1),
...: (2, 1, 'b', 0),
...: (2, 1, 'b', 1)],
...: names=['A', 'B', 'C', 'D'])
...:

In [9]: s
Out[9]:
A B C D
1 2 a 0 3.0
1 NaN
1 b 0 1.0
1 3.0
2 1 b 0 NaN
1 NaN
dtype: float64

# SparseSeries
In [10]: ss = s.to_sparse()

In [11]: ss
Out[11]:
A B C D
1 2 a 0 3.0
1 NaN

212 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

1 b
0 1.0
1 3.0
2 1 b 0 NaN
1 NaN
dtype: float64
BlockIndex
Block locations: array([0, 2], dtype=int32)
Block lengths: array([1, 2], dtype=int32)

In [12]: A, rows, columns = ss.to_coo(row_levels=['A', 'B'],

....: column_levels=['C', 'D'],
....: sort_labels=False)
....:

In [13]: A
Out[13]:
<3x4 sparse matrix of type '<class 'numpy.float64'>'
with 3 stored elements in COOrdinate format>

In [14]: A.todense()
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

matrix([[3., 0., 0., 0.],

[0., 0., 1., 3.],
[0., 0., 0., 0.]])

In [15]: rows
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→[(1, 2), (1, 1), (2, 1)]

In [16]: columns
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→[('a', 0), ('a', 1), ('b', 0), ('b', 1)]

The from_coo method is a convenience method for creating a SparseSeries from a scipy.sparse.
coo_matrix:
In [17]: from scipy import sparse

In [18]: A = sparse.coo_matrix(([3.0, 1.0, 2.0], ([1, 0, 0], [0, 2, 3])),

....: shape=(3, 4))
....:

In [19]: A
Out[19]:
<3x4 sparse matrix of type '<class 'numpy.float64'>'
with 3 stored elements in COOrdinate format>

In [20]: A.todense()
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

matrix([[0., 0., 1., 2.],

[3., 0., 0., 0.],
[0., 0., 0., 0.]])

In [21]: ss = SparseSeries.from_coo(A)

In [22]: ss

1.14. v0.16.0 (March 22, 2015) 213

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Out[22]:
0 2 1.0
3 2.0
1 0 3.0
dtype: float64
BlockIndex
Block locations: array([0], dtype=int32)
Block lengths: array([3], dtype=int32)

1.14.1.3 String Methods Enhancements

• Following new methods are accesible via .str accessor to apply the function to each values. This is intended
to make it more consistent with standard methods on strings. (GH9282, GH9352, GH9386, GH9387, GH9439)
Methods
isalnum() isalpha() isdigit() isdigit() isspace()
islower() isupper() istitle() isnumeric() isdecimal()
find() rfind() ljust() rjust() zfill()
In [23]: s = Series(['abcd', '3456', 'EFGH'])

In [24]: s.str.isalpha()
Out[24]:
0 True
1 False
2 True
dtype: bool

In [25]: s.str.find('ab')
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[25]:
0 0
1 -1
2 -1
dtype: int64

• Series.str.pad() and Series.str.center() now accept fillchar option to specify filling char-
acter (GH9352)

In [26]: s = Series(['12', '300', '25'])

In [27]: s.str.pad(5, fillchar='_')

Out[27]:
0 ___12
1 __300
2 ___25
dtype: object

• Added Series.str.slice_replace(), which previously raised NotImplementedError (GH8888)

In [28]: s = Series(['ABCD', 'EFGH', 'IJK'])

In [29]: s.str.slice_replace(1, 3, 'X')

Out[29]:
0 AXD
1 EXH
2 IX

214 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

dtype: object

# replaced with empty char

In [30]: s.str.slice_replace(0, 1)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[30]:
0 BCD
1 FGH
2 JK
dtype: object

1.14.1.4 Other enhancements

• Reindex now supports method='nearest' for frames or series with a monotonic increasing or decreasing
index (GH9258):

In [31]: df = pd.DataFrame({'x': range(5)})

In [32]: df.reindex([0.2, 1.8, 3.5], method='nearest')

Out[32]:
x
0.2 0
1.8 2
3.5 4

This method is also exposed by the lower level Index.get_indexer and Index.get_loc methods.
• The read_excel() function’s sheetname argument now accepts a list and None, to get multiple or all sheets
respectively. If more than one sheet is specified, a dictionary is returned. (GH9450)

# Returns the 1st and 4th sheet, as a dictionary of DataFrames.

pd.read_excel('path_to_file.xls',sheetname=['Sheet1',3])

• Allow Stata files to be read incrementally with an iterator; support for long strings in Stata files. See the docs
here (GH9493:).
• Paths beginning with ~ will now be expanded to begin with the user’s home directory (GH9066)
• Added time interval selection in get_data_yahoo (GH9071)
• Added Timestamp.to_datetime64() to complement Timedelta.to_timedelta64() (GH9255)
• tseries.frequencies.to_offset() now accepts Timedelta as input (GH9064)
• Lag parameter was added to the autocorrelation method of Series, defaults to lag-1 autocorrelation (GH9192)
• Timedelta will now accept nanoseconds keyword in constructor (GH9273)
• SQL code now safely escapes table and column names (GH8986)
• Added auto-complete for Series.str.<tab>, Series.dt.<tab> and Series.cat.<tab>
(GH9322)
• Index.get_indexer now supports method='pad' and method='backfill' even for any target ar-
ray, not just monotonic targets. These methods also work for monotonic decreasing as well as monotonic
increasing indexes (GH9258).
• Index.asof now works on all index types (GH9258).
• A verbose argument has been augmented in io.read_excel(), defaults to False. Set to True to print
sheet names as they are parsed. (GH9450)

1.14. v0.16.0 (March 22, 2015) 215

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Added days_in_month (compatibility alias daysinmonth) property to Timestamp, DatetimeIndex,

Period, PeriodIndex, and Series.dt (GH9572)
• Added decimal option in to_csv to provide formatting for non-‘.’ decimal separators (GH781)
• Added normalize option for Timestamp to normalized to midnight (GH8794)
• Added example for DataFrame import to R using HDF5 file and rhdf5 library. See the documentation for
more (GH9636).

1.14.2 Backwards incompatible API changes

1.14.2.1 Changes in Timedelta

In v0.15.0 a new scalar type Timedelta was introduced, that is a sub-class of datetime.timedelta. Mentioned
here was a notice of an API change w.r.t. the .seconds accessor. The intent was to provide a user-friendly set of
accessors that give the ‘natural’ value for that unit, e.g. if you had a Timedelta('1 day, 10:11:12'), then
.seconds would return 12. However, this is at odds with the definition of datetime.timedelta, which defines
.seconds as 10 * 3600 + 11 * 60 + 12 == 36672.
So in v0.16.0, we are restoring the API to match that of datetime.timedelta. Further, the component values are
still available through the .components accessor. This affects the .seconds and .microseconds accessors,
and removes the .hours, .minutes, .milliseconds accessors. These changes affect TimedeltaIndex and
the Series .dt accessor as well. (GH9185, GH9139)
Previous Behavior

In [2]: t = pd.Timedelta('1 day, 10:11:12.100123')

In [3]: t.days
Out[3]: 1

In [4]: t.seconds
Out[4]: 12

In [5]: t.microseconds
Out[5]: 123

New Behavior

In [33]: t = pd.Timedelta('1 day, 10:11:12.100123')

In [34]: t.days
Out[34]: 1

In [35]: t.seconds
\\\\\\\\\\\Out[35]: 36672

In [36]: t.microseconds
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[36]: 100123

Using .components allows the full component access

In [37]: t.components
Out[37]: Components(days=1, hours=10, minutes=11, seconds=12, milliseconds=100,
˓→microseconds=123, nanoseconds=0)

216 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [38]: t.components.seconds
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→12

1.14.2.2 Indexing Changes

The behavior of a small sub-set of edge cases for using .loc have changed (GH8613). Furthermore we have improved
the content of the error messages that are raised:
• Slicing with .loc where the start and/or stop bound is not found in the index is now allowed; this previously
would raise a KeyError. This makes the behavior the same as .ix in this case. This change is only for
slicing, not when indexing with a single label.

In [39]: df = DataFrame(np.random.randn(5,4),
....: columns=list('ABCD'),
....: index=date_range('20130101',periods=5))
....:

In [40]: df
Out[40]:
A B C D
2013-01-01 -0.322795 0.841675 2.390961 0.076200
2013-01-02 -0.566446 0.036142 -2.074978 0.247792
2013-01-03 -0.897157 -0.136795 0.018289 0.755414
2013-01-04 0.215269 0.841009 -1.445810 -1.401973
2013-01-05 -0.100918 -0.548242 -0.144620 0.354020

In [41]: s = Series(range(5),[-2,-1,1,2,3])

In [42]: s
Out[42]:
-2 0
-1 1
1 2
2 3
3 4
dtype: int64

Previous Behavior

In [4]: df.loc['2013-01-02':'2013-01-10']
KeyError: 'stop bound [2013-01-10] is not in the [index]'

In [6]: s.loc[-10:3]
KeyError: 'start bound [-10] is not the [index]'

New Behavior

In [43]: df.loc['2013-01-02':'2013-01-10']
Out[43]:
A B C D
2013-01-02 -0.566446 0.036142 -2.074978 0.247792
2013-01-03 -0.897157 -0.136795 0.018289 0.755414
2013-01-04 0.215269 0.841009 -1.445810 -1.401973
2013-01-05 -0.100918 -0.548242 -0.144620 0.354020

1.14. v0.16.0 (March 22, 2015) 217

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [44]: s.loc[-10:3]
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

-2 0
-1 1
1 2
2 3
3 4
dtype: int64

• Allow slicing with float-like values on an integer index for .ix. Previously this was only enabled for .loc:
Previous Behavior

In [8]: s.ix[-1.0:2]
TypeError: the slice start value [-1.0] is not a proper indexer for this index
˓→type (Int64Index)

New Behavior

In [2]: s.ix[-1.0:2]
Out[2]:
-1 1
1 2
2 3
dtype: int64

• Provide a useful exception for indexing with an invalid type for that index when using .loc. For example
trying to use .loc on an index of type DatetimeIndex or PeriodIndex or TimedeltaIndex, with an
integer (or a float).
Previous Behavior

In [4]: df.loc[2:3]
KeyError: 'start bound [2] is not the [index]'

New Behavior

In [4]: df.loc[2:3]
TypeError: Cannot do slice indexing on <class 'pandas.tseries.index.DatetimeIndex
˓→'> with <type 'int'> keys

1.14.2.3 Categorical Changes

In prior versions, Categoricals that had an unspecified ordering (meaning no ordered keyword was passed)
were defaulted as ordered Categoricals. Going forward, the ordered keyword in the Categorical constructor
will default to False. Ordering must now be explicit.
Furthermore, previously you could change the ordered attribute of a Categorical by just setting the attribute,
e.g. cat.ordered=True; This is now deprecated and you should use cat.as_ordered() or cat.
as_unordered(). These will by default return a new object and not modify the existing object. (GH9347,
GH9190)
Previous Behavior

In [3]: s = Series([0,1,2], dtype='category')

218 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [4]: s
Out[4]:
0 0
1 1
2 2
dtype: category
Categories (3, int64): [0 < 1 < 2]

In [5]: s.cat.ordered
Out[5]: True

In [6]: s.cat.ordered = False

In [7]: s
Out[7]:
0 0
1 1
2 2
dtype: category
Categories (3, int64): [0, 1, 2]

New Behavior

In [45]: s = Series([0,1,2], dtype='category')

In [46]: s
Out[46]:
0 0
1 1
2 2
dtype: category
Categories (3, int64): [0, 1, 2]

In [47]: s.cat.ordered
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[47]:
˓→False

In [48]: s = s.cat.as_ordered()

In [49]: s
Out[49]:
0 0
1 1
2 2
dtype: category
Categories (3, int64): [0 < 1 < 2]

In [50]: s.cat.ordered
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[50]:
˓→True

# you can set in the constructor of the Categorical

In [51]: s = Series(Categorical([0,1,2],ordered=True))

In [52]: s
Out[52]:
0 0
1 1

1.14. v0.16.0 (March 22, 2015) 219

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

2 2
dtype: category
Categories (3, int64): [0 < 1 < 2]

In [53]: s.cat.ordered
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[53]:
˓→True

For ease of creation of series of categorical data, we have added the ability to pass keywords when calling .
astype(). These are passed directly to the constructor.

In [54]: s = Series(["a","b","c","a"]).astype('category',ordered=True)

In [55]: s
Out[55]:
0 a
1 b
2 c
3 a
dtype: category
Categories (3, object): [a < b < c]

In [56]: s = Series(["a","b","c","a"]).astype('category',categories=list('abcdef'),
˓→ordered=False)

In [57]: s
Out[57]:
0 a
1 b
2 c
3 a
dtype: category
Categories (6, object): [a, b, c, d, e, f]

1.14.2.4 Other API Changes

• Index.duplicated now returns np.array(dtype=bool) rather than Index(dtype=object)

containing bool values. (GH8875)
• DataFrame.to_json now returns accurate type serialisation for each column for frames of mixed dtype
(GH9037)
Previously data was coerced to a common dtype before serialisation, which for example resulted in integers
being serialised to floats:

In [2]: pd.DataFrame({'i': [1,2], 'f': [3.0, 4.2]}).to_json()

Out[2]: '{"f":{"0":3.0,"1":4.2},"i":{"0":1.0,"1":2.0}}'

Now each column is serialised using its correct dtype:

In [2]: pd.DataFrame({'i': [1,2], 'f': [3.0, 4.2]}).to_json()

Out[2]: '{"f":{"0":3.0,"1":4.2},"i":{"0":1,"1":2}}'

• DatetimeIndex, PeriodIndex and TimedeltaIndex.summary now output the same format.

(GH9116)
• TimedeltaIndex.freqstr now output the same string format as DatetimeIndex. (GH9116)

220 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Bar and horizontal bar plots no longer add a dashed line along the info axis. The prior style can be achieved
with matplotlib’s axhline or axvline methods (GH9088).
• Series accessors .dt, .cat and .str now raise AttributeError instead of TypeError if the series
does not contain the appropriate type of data (GH9617). This follows Python’s built-in exception hierarchy
more closely and ensures that tests like hasattr(s, 'cat') are consistent on both Python 2 and 3.
• Series now supports bitwise operation for integral types (GH9016). Previously even if the input dtypes were
integral, the output dtype was coerced to bool.
Previous Behavior

In [2]: pd.Series([0,1,2,3], list('abcd')) | pd.Series([4,4,4,4], list('abcd'))

Out[2]:
a True
b True
c True
d True
dtype: bool

New Behavior. If the input dtypes are integral, the output dtype is also integral and the output values are the
result of the bitwise operation.

In [2]: pd.Series([0,1,2,3], list('abcd')) | pd.Series([4,4,4,4], list('abcd'))

Out[2]:
a 4
b 5
c 6
d 7
dtype: int64

• During division involving a Series or DataFrame, 0/0 and 0//0 now give np.nan instead of np.inf.
(GH9144, GH8445)
Previous Behavior

In [2]: p = pd.Series([0, 1])

In [3]: p / 0
Out[3]:
0 inf
1 inf
dtype: float64

In [4]: p // 0
Out[4]:
0 inf
1 inf
dtype: float64

New Behavior

In [54]: p = pd.Series([0, 1])

In [55]: p / 0
Out[55]:
0 NaN
1 inf
dtype: float64

1.14. v0.16.0 (March 22, 2015) 221

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [56]: p // 0
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[56]:
0 NaN
1 inf
dtype: float64

• Series.values_counts and Series.describe for categorical data will now put NaN entries at the
end. (GH9443)
• Series.describe for categorical data will now give counts and frequencies of 0, not NaN, for unused
categories (GH9443)
• Due to a bug fix, looking up a partial string label with DatetimeIndex.asof now includes values that
match the string, even if they are after the start of the partial string label (GH9258).
Old behavior:

In [4]: pd.to_datetime(['2000-01-31', '2000-02-28']).asof('2000-02')

Out[4]: Timestamp('2000-01-31 00:00:00')

Fixed behavior:

In [57]: pd.to_datetime(['2000-01-31', '2000-02-28']).asof('2000-02')

Out[57]: Timestamp('2000-02-28 00:00:00')

To reproduce the old behavior, simply add more precision to the label (e.g., use 2000-02-01 instead of
2000-02).

1.14.2.5 Deprecations

• The rplot trellis plotting interface is deprecated and will be removed in a future version. We refer to external
packages like seaborn for similar but more refined functionality (GH3445). The documentation includes some
examples how to convert your existing code using rplot to seaborn: rplot docs.
• The pandas.sandbox.qtpandas interface is deprecated and will be removed in a future version. We refer
users to the external package pandas-qt. (GH9615)
• The pandas.rpy interface is deprecated and will be removed in a future version. Similar functionaility can
be accessed thru the rpy2 project (GH9602)
• Adding DatetimeIndex/PeriodIndex to another DatetimeIndex/PeriodIndex is being depre-
cated as a set-operation. This will be changed to a TypeError in a future version. .union() should be used
for the union set operation. (GH9094)
• Subtracting DatetimeIndex/PeriodIndex from another DatetimeIndex/PeriodIndex is be-
ing deprecated as a set-operation. This will be changed to an actual numeric subtraction yielding a
TimeDeltaIndex in a future version. .difference() should be used for the differencing set operation.
(GH9094)

1.14.2.6 Removal of prior version deprecations/changes

• DataFrame.pivot_table and crosstab‘s rows and cols keyword arguments were removed in favor
of index and columns (GH6581)
• DataFrame.to_excel and DataFrame.to_csv cols keyword argument was removed in favor of
columns (GH6581)

222 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Removed convert_dummies in favor of get_dummies (GH6581)

• Removed value_range in favor of describe (GH6581)

1.14.3 Performance Improvements

• Fixed a performance regression for .loc indexing with an array or list-like (GH9126:).
• DataFrame.to_json 30x performance improvement for mixed dtype frames. (GH9037)
• Performance improvements in MultiIndex.duplicated by working with labels instead of values
(GH9125)
• Improved the speed of nunique by calling unique instead of value_counts (GH9129, GH7771)
• Performance improvement of up to 10x in DataFrame.count and DataFrame.dropna by taking advan-
tage of homogeneous/heterogeneous dtypes appropriately (GH9136)
• Performance improvement of up to 20x in DataFrame.count when using a MultiIndex and the level
keyword argument (GH9163)
• Performance and memory usage improvements in merge when key space exceeds int64 bounds (GH9151)
• Performance improvements in multi-key groupby (GH9429)
• Performance improvements in MultiIndex.sortlevel (GH9445)
• Performance and memory usage improvements in DataFrame.duplicated (GH9398)
• Cythonized Period (GH9440)
• Decreased memory usage on to_hdf (GH9648)

1.14.4 Bug Fixes

• Changed .to_html to remove leading/trailing spaces in table body (GH4987)

• Fixed issue using read_csv on s3 with Python 3 (GH9452)
• Fixed compatibility issue in DatetimeIndex affecting architectures where numpy.int_ defaults to
numpy.int32 (GH8943)
• Bug in Panel indexing with an object-like (GH9140)
• Bug in the returned Series.dt.components index was reset to the default index (GH9247)
• Bug in Categorical.__getitem__/__setitem__ with listlike input getting incorrect results from
indexer coercion (GH9469)
• Bug in partial setting with a DatetimeIndex (GH9478)
• Bug in groupby for integer and datetime64 columns when applying an aggregator that caused the value to be
changed when the number was sufficiently large (GH9311, GH6620)
• Fixed bug in to_sql when mapping a Timestamp object column (datetime column with timezone info) to
the appropriate sqlalchemy type (GH9085).
• Fixed bug in to_sql dtype argument not accepting an instantiated SQLAlchemy type (GH9083).
• Bug in .loc partial setting with a np.datetime64 (GH9516)
• Incorrect dtypes inferred on datetimelike looking Series & on .xs slices (GH9477)

1.14. v0.16.0 (March 22, 2015) 223

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Items in Categorical.unique() (and s.unique() if s is of dtype category) now appear in the order
in which they are originally found, not in sorted order (GH9331). This is now consistent with the behavior for
other dtypes in pandas.
• Fixed bug on big endian platforms which produced incorrect results in StataReader (GH8688).
• Bug in MultiIndex.has_duplicates when having many levels causes an indexer overflow (GH9075,
GH5873)
• Bug in pivot and unstack where nan values would break index alignment (GH4862, GH7401, GH7403,
GH7405, GH7466, GH9497)
• Bug in left join on multi-index with sort=True or null values (GH9210).
• Bug in MultiIndex where inserting new keys would fail (GH9250).
• Bug in groupby when key space exceeds int64 bounds (GH9096).
• Bug in unstack with TimedeltaIndex or DatetimeIndex and nulls (GH9491).
• Bug in rank where comparing floats with tolerance will cause inconsistent behaviour (GH8365).
• Fixed character encoding bug in read_stata and StataReader when loading data from a URL (GH9231).
• Bug in adding offsets.Nano to other offets raises TypeError (GH9284)
• Bug in DatetimeIndex iteration, related to (GH8890), fixed in (GH9100)
• Bugs in resample around DST transitions. This required fixing offset classes so they behave correctly on
DST transitions. (GH5172, GH8744, GH8653, GH9173, GH9468).
• Bug in binary operator method (eg .mul()) alignment with integer levels (GH9463).
• Bug in boxplot, scatter and hexbin plot may show an unnecessary warning (GH8877)
• Bug in subplot with layout kw may show unnecessary warning (GH9464)
• Bug in using grouper functions that need passed thru arguments (e.g. axis), when using wrapped function (e.g.
fillna), (GH9221)
• DataFrame now properly supports simultaneous copy and dtype arguments in constructor (GH9099)
• Bug in read_csv when using skiprows on a file with CR line endings with the c engine. (GH9079)
• isnull now detects NaT in PeriodIndex (GH9129)
• Bug in groupby .nth() with a multiple column groupby (GH8979)
• Bug in DataFrame.where and Series.where coerce numerics to string incorrectly (GH9280)
• Bug in DataFrame.where and Series.where raise ValueError when string list-like is passed.
(GH9280)
• Accessing Series.str methods on with non-string values now raises TypeError instead of producing
incorrect results (GH9184)
• Bug in DatetimeIndex.__contains__ when index has duplicates and is not monotonic increasing
(GH9512)
• Fixed division by zero error for Series.kurt() when all values are equal (GH9197)
• Fixed issue in the xlsxwriter engine where it added a default ‘General’ format to cells if no other format
wass applied. This prevented other row or column formatting being applied. (GH9167)
• Fixes issue with index_col=False when usecols is also specified in read_csv. (GH9082)
• Bug where wide_to_long would modify the input stubnames list (GH9204)

224 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Bug in to_sql not storing float64 values using double precision. (GH9009)
• SparseSeries and SparsePanel now accept zero argument constructors (same as their non-sparse coun-
terparts) (GH9272).
• Regression in merging Categorical and object dtypes (GH9426)
• Bug in read_csv with buffer overflows with certain malformed input files (GH9205)
• Bug in groupby MultiIndex with missing pair (GH9049, GH9344)
• Fixed bug in Series.groupby where grouping on MultiIndex levels would ignore the sort argument
(GH9444)
• Fix bug in DataFrame.Groupby where sort=False is ignored in the case of Categorical columns.
(GH8868)
• Fixed bug with reading CSV files from Amazon S3 on python 3 raising a TypeError (GH9452)
• Bug in the Google BigQuery reader where the ‘jobComplete’ key may be present but False in the query results
(GH8728)
• Bug in Series.values_counts with excluding NaN for categorical type Series with dropna=True
(GH9443)
• Fixed mising numeric_only option for DataFrame.std/var/sem (GH9201)
• Support constructing Panel or Panel4D with scalar data (GH8285)
• Series text representation disconnected from max_rows/max_columns (GH7508).
• Series number formatting inconsistent when truncated (GH8532).
Previous Behavior

In [2]: pd.options.display.max_rows = 10
In [3]: s = pd.Series([1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,0.9999,1,1]*10)
In [4]: s
Out[4]:
0 1
1 1
2 1
...
127 0.9999
128 1.0000
129 1.0000
Length: 130, dtype: float64

New Behavior

0 1.0000
1 1.0000
2 1.0000
3 1.0000
4 1.0000
...
125 1.0000
126 1.0000
127 0.9999
128 1.0000
129 1.0000
dtype: float64

1.14. v0.16.0 (March 22, 2015) 225

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• A Spurious SettingWithCopy Warning was generated when setting a new item in a frame in some cases
(GH8730)
The following would previously report a SettingWithCopy Warning.

In [1]: df1 = DataFrame({'x': Series(['a','b','c']), 'y': Series(['d','e','f'])})

In [2]: df2 = df1[['x']]

In [3]: df2['y'] = ['g', 'h', 'i']

1.15 v0.15.2 (December 12, 2014)

This is a minor release from 0.15.1 and includes a large number of bug fixes along with several new features, enhance-
ments, and performance improvements. A small number of API changes were necessary to fix existing bugs. We
recommend that all users upgrade to this version.
• Enhancements
• API Changes
• Performance Improvements
• Bug Fixes

1.15.1 API changes

• Indexing in MultiIndex beyond lex-sort depth is now supported, though a lexically sorted index will have a
better performance. (GH2646)

In [1]: df = pd.DataFrame({'jim':[0, 0, 1, 1],

...: 'joe':['x', 'x', 'z', 'y'],
...: 'jolie':np.random.rand(4)}).set_index(['jim', 'joe'])
...:

In [2]: df
Out[2]:
jolie
jim joe
0 x 0.123943
x 0.119381
1 z 0.738523
y 0.587304

In [3]: df.index.lexsort_depth
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→1

# in prior versions this would raise a KeyError

# will now show a PerformanceWarning
In [4]: df.loc[(1, 'z')]
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

jolie
jim joe
1 z 0.738523

226 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

# lexically sorting
In [5]: df2 = df.sort_index()

In [6]: df2
Out[6]:
jolie
jim joe
0 x 0.123943
x 0.119381
1 y 0.587304
z 0.738523

In [7]: df2.index.lexsort_depth
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→2

In [8]: df2.loc[(1,'z')]
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

jolie
jim joe
1 z 0.738523

• Bug in unique of Series with category dtype, which returned all categories regardless whether they were
“used” or not (see GH8559 for the discussion). Previous behaviour was to return all categories:

In [3]: cat = pd.Categorical(['a', 'b', 'a'], categories=['a', 'b', 'c'])

In [4]: cat
Out[4]:
[a, b, a]
Categories (3, object): [a < b < c]

In [5]: cat.unique()
Out[5]: array(['a', 'b', 'c'], dtype=object)

Now, only the categories that do effectively occur in the array are returned:

In [9]: cat = pd.Categorical(['a', 'b', 'a'], categories=['a', 'b', 'c'])

In [10]: cat.unique()
Out[10]:
[a, b]
Categories (2, object): [a, b]

• Series.all and Series.any now support the level and skipna parameters. Series.all,
Series.any, Index.all, and Index.any no longer support the out and keepdims parameters, which
existed for compatibility with ndarray. Various index types no longer support the all and any aggregation
functions and will now raise TypeError. (GH8302).
• Allow equality comparisons of Series with a categorical dtype and object dtype; previously these would raise
TypeError (GH8938)
• Bug in NDFrame: conflicting attribute/column names now behave consistently between getting and setting.
Previously, when both a column and attribute named y existed, data.y would return the attribute, while
data.y = z would update the column (GH8994)

1.15. v0.15.2 (December 12, 2014) 227

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [11]: data = pd.DataFrame({'x':[1, 2, 3]})

In [12]: data.y = 2

In [13]: data['y'] = [2, 4, 6]

In [14]: data
Out[14]:
x y
0 1 2
1 2 4
2 3 6

# this assignment was inconsistent

In [15]: data.y = 5

Old behavior:

In [6]: data.y
Out[6]: 2

In [7]: data['y'].values
Out[7]: array([5, 5, 5])

New behavior:

In [16]: data.y
Out[16]: 5

In [17]: data['y'].values
\\\\\\\\\\\Out[17]: array([2, 4, 6])

• Timestamp('now') is now equivalent to Timestamp.now() in that it returns the local time rather than
UTC. Also, Timestamp('today') is now equivalent to Timestamp.today() and both have tz as a
possible argument. (GH9000)
• Fix negative step support for label-based slices (GH8753)
Old behavior:

In [1]: s = pd.Series(np.arange(3), ['a', 'b', 'c'])

Out[1]:
a 0
b 1
c 2
dtype: int64

In [2]: s.loc['c':'a':-1]
Out[2]:
c 2
dtype: int64

New behavior:

In [18]: s = pd.Series(np.arange(3), ['a', 'b', 'c'])

In [19]: s.loc['c':'a':-1]
Out[19]:

228 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

c 2
b 1
a 0
dtype: int64

1.15.2 Enhancements

Categorical enhancements:
• Added ability to export Categorical data to Stata (GH8633). See here for limitations of categorical variables
exported to Stata data files.
• Added flag order_categoricals to StataReader and read_stata to select whether to order im-
ported categorical data (GH8836). See here for more information on importing categorical variables from Stata
data files.
• Added ability to export Categorical data to to/from HDF5 (GH7621). Queries work the same as if it was an
object array. However, the category dtyped data is stored in a more efficient manner. See here for an
example and caveats w.r.t. prior versions of pandas.
• Added support for searchsorted() on Categorical class (GH8420).
Other enhancements:
• Added the ability to specify the SQL type of columns when writing a DataFrame to a database (GH8778). For
example, specifying to use the sqlalchemy String type instead of the default Text type for string columns:

from sqlalchemy.types import String

data.to_sql('data_dtype', engine, dtype={'Col_1': String})

• Series.all and Series.any now support the level and skipna parameters (GH8302):

In [20]: s = pd.Series([False, True, False], index=[0, 0, 1])

In [21]: s.any(level=0)
Out[21]:
0 True
1 False
dtype: bool

• Panel now supports the all and any aggregation functions. (GH8302):

In [22]: p = pd.Panel(np.random.rand(2, 5, 4) > 0.1)

In [23]: p.all()
Out[23]:
0 1
0 True True
1 True True
2 False False
3 True True

• Added support for utcfromtimestamp(), fromtimestamp(), and combine() on Timestamp class

(GH5351).
• Added Google Analytics (pandas.io.ga) basic documentation (GH8835). See
‘here<http://pandas.pydata.org/pandas-docs/version/0.15.2/remote_data.html#remote-data-ga>‘__.

1.15. v0.15.2 (December 12, 2014) 229

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Timedelta arithmetic returns NotImplemented in unknown cases, allowing extensions by custom classes
(GH8813).
• Timedelta now supports arithemtic with numpy.ndarray objects of the appropriate dtype (numpy 1.8 or
newer only) (GH8884).
• Added Timedelta.to_timedelta64() method to the public API (GH8884).
• Added gbq.generate_bq_schema() function to the gbq module (GH8325).
• Series now works with map objects the same way as generators (GH8909).
• Added context manager to HDFStore for automatic closing (GH8791).
• to_datetime gains an exact keyword to allow for a format to not require an exact match for a provided for-
mat string (if its False). exact defaults to True (meaning that exact matching is still the default) (GH8904)
• Added axvlines boolean option to parallel_coordinates plot function, determines whether vertical lines will
be printed, default is True
• Added ability to read table footers to read_html (GH8552)
• to_sql now infers datatypes of non-NA values for columns that contain NA values and have dtype object
(GH8778).

1.15.3 Performance

• Reduce memory usage when skiprows is an integer in read_csv (GH8681)

• Performance boost for to_datetime conversions with a passed format=, and the exact=False
(GH8904)

1.15.4 Bug Fixes

• Bug in concat of Series with category dtype which were coercing to object. (GH8641)
• Bug in Timestamp-Timestamp not returning a Timedelta type and datelike-datelike ops with timezones
(GH8865)
• Made consistent a timezone mismatch exception (either tz operated with None or incompatible timezone), will
now return TypeError rather than ValueError (a couple of edge cases only), (GH8865)
• Bug in using a pd.Grouper(key=...) with no level/axis or level only (GH8795, GH8866)
• Report a TypeError when invalid/no parameters are passed in a groupby (GH8015)
• Bug in packaging pandas with py2app/cx_Freeze (GH8602, GH8831)
• Bug in groupby signatures that didn’t include *args or **kwargs (GH8733).
• io.data.Options now raises RemoteDataError when no expiry dates are available from Yahoo and
when it receives no data from Yahoo (GH8761), (GH8783).
• Unclear error message in csv parsing when passing dtype and names and the parsed data is a different data type
(GH8833)
• Bug in slicing a multi-index with an empty list and at least one boolean indexer (GH8781)
• io.data.Options now raises RemoteDataError when no expiry dates are available from Yahoo
(GH8761).
• Timedelta kwargs may now be numpy ints and floats (GH8757).

230 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Fixed several outstanding bugs for Timedelta arithmetic and comparisons (GH8813, GH5963, GH5436).
• sql_schema now generates dialect appropriate CREATE TABLE statements (GH8697)
• slice string method now takes step into account (GH8754)
• Bug in BlockManager where setting values with different type would break block integrity (GH8850)
• Bug in DatetimeIndex when using time object as key (GH8667)
• Bug in merge where how='left' and sort=False would not preserve left frame order (GH7331)
• Bug in MultiIndex.reindex where reindexing at level would not reorder labels (GH4088)
• Bug in certain operations with dateutil timezones, manifesting with dateutil 2.3 (GH8639)
• Regression in DatetimeIndex iteration with a Fixed/Local offset timezone (GH8890)
• Bug in to_datetime when parsing a nanoseconds using the %f format (GH8989)
• io.data.Options now raises RemoteDataError when no expiry dates are available from Yahoo and
when it receives no data from Yahoo (GH8761), (GH8783).
• Fix: The font size was only set on x axis if vertical or the y axis if horizontal. (GH8765)
• Fixed division by 0 when reading big csv files in python 3 (GH8621)
• Bug in outputing a Multindex with to_html,index=False which would add an extra column (GH8452)
• Imported categorical variables from Stata files retain the ordinal information in the underlying data (GH8836).
• Defined .size attribute across NDFrame objects to provide compat with numpy >= 1.9.1; buggy with np.
array_split (GH8846)
• Skip testing of histogram plots for matplotlib <= 1.2 (GH8648).
• Bug where get_data_google returned object dtypes (GH3995)
• Bug in DataFrame.stack(..., dropna=False) when the DataFrame’s columns is a MultiIndex
whose labels do not reference all its levels. (GH8844)
• Bug in that Option context applied on __enter__ (GH8514)
• Bug in resample that causes a ValueError when resampling across multiple days and the last offset is not calcu-
lated from the start of the range (GH8683)
• Bug where DataFrame.plot(kind='scatter') fails when checking if an np.array is in the DataFrame
(GH8852)
• Bug in pd.infer_freq/DataFrame.inferred_freq that prevented proper sub-daily frequency infer-
ence when the index contained DST days (GH8772).
• Bug where index name was still used when plotting a series with use_index=False (GH8558).
• Bugs when trying to stack multiple columns, when some (or all) of the level names are numbers (GH8584).
• Bug in MultiIndex where __contains__ returns wrong result if index is not lexically sorted or unique
(GH7724)
• BUG CSV: fix problem with trailing whitespace in skipped rows, (GH8679), (GH8661), (GH8983)
• Regression in Timestamp does not parse ‘Z’ zone designator for UTC (GH8771)
• Bug in StataWriter the produces writes strings with 244 characters irrespective of actual size (GH8969)
• Fixed ValueError raised by cummin/cummax when datetime64 Series contains NaT. (GH8965)
• Bug in Datareader returns object dtype if there are missing values (GH8980)

1.15. v0.15.2 (December 12, 2014) 231

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Bug in plotting if sharex was enabled and index was a timeseries, would show labels on multiple axes (GH3964).
• Bug where passing a unit to the TimedeltaIndex constructor applied the to nano-second conversion twice.
(GH9011).
• Bug in plotting of a period-like array (GH9012)

1.16 v0.15.1 (November 9, 2014)

This is a minor bug-fix release from 0.15.0 and includes a small number of API changes, several new features, en-
hancements, and performance improvements along with a large number of bug fixes. We recommend that all users
upgrade to this version.
• Enhancements
• API Changes
• Bug Fixes

1.16.1 API changes

• s.dt.hour and other .dt accessors will now return np.nan for missing values (rather than previously -1),
(GH8689)

In [1]: s = Series(date_range('20130101',periods=5,freq='D'))

In [2]: s.iloc[2] = np.nan

In [3]: s
Out[3]:
0 2013-01-01
1 2013-01-02
2 NaT
3 2013-01-04
4 2013-01-05
dtype: datetime64[ns]

previous behavior:

In [6]: s.dt.hour
Out[6]:
0 0
1 0
2 -1
3 0
4 0
dtype: int64

current behavior:

In [4]: s.dt.hour
Out[4]:
0 0.0
1 0.0
2 NaN
3 0.0

232 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

4 0.0
dtype: float64

• groupby with as_index=False will not add erroneous extra columns to result (GH8582):

In [5]: np.random.seed(2718281)

In [6]: df = pd.DataFrame(np.random.randint(0, 100, (10, 2)),

...: columns=['jim', 'joe'])
...:

In [7]: df.head()
Out[7]:
jim joe
0 61 81
1 96 49
2 55 65
3 72 51
4 77 12

In [8]: ts = pd.Series(5 * np.random.randint(0, 3, 10))

previous behavior:

In [4]: df.groupby(ts, as_index=False).max()

Out[4]:
NaN jim joe
0 0 72 83
1 5 77 84
2 10 96 65

current behavior:

In [9]: df.groupby(ts, as_index=False).max()

Out[9]:
jim joe
0 72 83
1 77 84
2 96 65

• groupby will not erroneously exclude columns if the column name conflics with the grouper name (GH8112):

In [10]: df = pd.DataFrame({'jim': range(5), 'joe': range(5, 10)})

In [11]: df
Out[11]:
jim joe
0 0 5
1 1 6
2 2 7
3 3 8
4 4 9

In [12]: gr = df.groupby(df['jim'] < 2)

previous behavior (excludes 1st column from output):

1.16. v0.15.1 (November 9, 2014) 233

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [4]: gr.apply(sum)
Out[4]:
joe
jim
False 24
True 11

current behavior:

In [13]: gr.apply(sum)
Out[13]:
jim joe
jim
False 9 24
True 1 11

• Support for slicing with monotonic decreasing indexes, even if start or stop is not found in the index
(GH7860):

In [14]: s = pd.Series(['a', 'b', 'c', 'd'], [4, 3, 2, 1])

In [15]: s
Out[15]:
4 a
3 b
2 c
1 d
dtype: object

previous behavior:

In [8]: s.loc[3.5:1.5]
KeyError: 3.5

current behavior:

In [16]: s.loc[3.5:1.5]
Out[16]:
3 b
2 c
dtype: object

• io.data.Options has been fixed for a change in the format of the Yahoo Options page (GH8612),
(GH8741)

Note: As a result of a change in Yahoo’s option page layout, when an expiry date is given, Options methods
now return data for a single expiry date. Previously, methods returned all data for the selected month.

The month and year parameters have been undeprecated and can be used to get all options data for a given
month.
If an expiry date that is not valid is given, data for the next expiry after the given date is returned.
Option data frames are now saved on the instance as callsYYMMDD or putsYYMMDD. Previously they were
saved as callsMMYY and putsMMYY. The next expiry is saved as calls and puts.
New features:

234 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

– The expiry parameter can now be a single date or a list-like object containing dates.
– A new property expiry_dates was added, which returns all available expiry dates.
Current behavior:

In [17]: from pandas.io.data import Options

In [18]: aapl = Options('aapl','yahoo')

In [19]: aapl.get_call_data().iloc[0:5,0:1]
Out[19]:
Last
Strike Expiry Type Symbol
80 2014-11-14 call AAPL141114C00080000 29.05
84 2014-11-14 call AAPL141114C00084000 24.80
85 2014-11-14 call AAPL141114C00085000 24.05
86 2014-11-14 call AAPL141114C00086000 22.76
87 2014-11-14 call AAPL141114C00087000 21.74

In [20]: aapl.expiry_dates
Out[20]:
[datetime.date(2014, 11, 14),
datetime.date(2014, 11, 22),
datetime.date(2014, 11, 28),
datetime.date(2014, 12, 5),
datetime.date(2014, 12, 12),
datetime.date(2014, 12, 20),
datetime.date(2015, 1, 17),
datetime.date(2015, 2, 20),
datetime.date(2015, 4, 17),
datetime.date(2015, 7, 17),
datetime.date(2016, 1, 15),
datetime.date(2017, 1, 20)]

In [21]: aapl.get_near_stock_price(expiry=aapl.expiry_dates[0:3]).iloc[0:5,0:1]
Out[21]:
Last
Strike Expiry Type Symbol
109 2014-11-22 call AAPL141122C00109000 1.48
2014-11-28 call AAPL141128C00109000 1.79
110 2014-11-14 call AAPL141114C00110000 0.55
2014-11-22 call AAPL141122C00110000 1.02
2014-11-28 call AAPL141128C00110000 1.32

• pandas now also registers the datetime64 dtype in matplotlib’s units registry to plot such values as datetimes.
This is activated once pandas is imported. In previous versions, plotting an array of datetime64 values will
have resulted in plotted integer values. To keep the previous behaviour, you can do del matplotlib.
units.registry[np.datetime64] (GH8614).

1.16.2 Enhancements

• concat permits a wider variety of iterables of pandas objects to be passed as the first parameter (GH8645):

In [17]: from collections import deque

In [18]: df1 = pd.DataFrame([1, 2, 3])

1.16. v0.15.1 (November 9, 2014) 235

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [19]: df2 = pd.DataFrame([4, 5, 6])

previous behavior:

In [7]: pd.concat(deque((df1, df2)))

TypeError: first argument must be a list-like of pandas objects, you passed an
˓→object of type "deque"

current behavior:

In [20]: pd.concat(deque((df1, df2)))

Out[20]:
0
0 1
1 2
2 3
0 4
1 5
2 6

• Represent MultiIndex labels with a dtype that utilizes memory based on the level size. In prior versions,
the memory usage was a constant 8 bytes per element in each level. In addition, in prior versions, the reported
memory usage was incorrect as it didn’t show the usage for the memory occupied by the underling data array.
(GH8456)

In [21]: dfi = DataFrame(1,index=pd.MultiIndex.from_product([['a'],range(1000)]),

˓→columns=['A'])

previous behavior:

# this was underreported in prior versions

In [1]: dfi.memory_usage(index=True)
Out[1]:
Index 8000 # took about 24008 bytes in < 0.15.1
A 8000
dtype: int64

current behavior:

In [22]: dfi.memory_usage(index=True)
Out[22]:
Index 11040
A 8000
dtype: int64

• Added Index properties is_monotonic_increasing and is_monotonic_decreasing (GH8680).

• Added option to select columns when importing Stata files (GH7935)
• Qualify memory usage in DataFrame.info() by adding + if it is a lower bound (GH8578)
• Raise errors in certain aggregation cases where an argument such as numeric_only is not handled (GH8592).
• Added support for 3-character ISO and non-standard country codes in io.wb.download() (GH8482)
• World Bank data requests now will warn/raise based on an errors argument, as well as a list of hard-coded
country codes and the World Bank’s JSON response. In prior versions, the error messages didn’t look at the
World Bank’s JSON response. Problem-inducing input were simply dropped prior to the request. The issue was

236 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

that many good countries were cropped in the hard-coded approach. All countries will work now, but some bad
countries will raise exceptions because some edge cases break the entire response. (GH8482)
• Added option to Series.str.split() to return a DataFrame rather than a Series (GH8428)
• Added option to df.info(null_counts=None|True|False) to override the default display options
and force showing of the null-counts (GH8701)

1.16.3 Bug Fixes

• Bug in unpickling of a CustomBusinessDay object (GH8591)

• Bug in coercing Categorical to a records array, e.g. df.to_records() (GH8626)
• Bug in Categorical not created properly with Series.to_frame() (GH8626)
• Bug in coercing in astype of a Categorical of a passed pd.Categorical (this now raises TypeError
correctly), (GH8626)
• Bug in cut/qcut when using Series and retbins=True (GH8589)
• Bug in writing Categorical columns to an SQL database with to_sql (GH8624).
• Bug in comparing Categorical of datetime raising when being compared to a scalar datetime (GH8687)
• Bug in selecting from a Categorical with .iloc (GH8623)
• Bug in groupby-transform with a Categorical (GH8623)
• Bug in duplicated/drop_duplicates with a Categorical (GH8623)
• Bug in Categorical reflected comparison operator raising if the first argument was a numpy array scalar
(e.g. np.int64) (GH8658)
• Bug in Panel indexing with a list-like (GH8710)
• Compat issue is DataFrame.dtypes when options.mode.use_inf_as_null is True (GH8722)
• Bug in read_csv, dialect parameter would not take a string (:issue: 8703)
• Bug in slicing a multi-index level with an empty-list (GH8737)
• Bug in numeric index operations of add/sub with Float/Index Index with numpy arrays (GH8608)
• Bug in setitem with empty indexer and unwanted coercion of dtypes (GH8669)
• Bug in ix/loc block splitting on setitem (manifests with integer-like dtypes, e.g. datetime64) (GH8607)
• Bug when doing label based indexing with integers not found in the index for non-unique but monotonic indexes
(GH8680).
• Bug when indexing a Float64Index with np.nan on numpy 1.7 (GH8980).
• Fix shape attribute for MultiIndex (GH8609)
• Bug in GroupBy where a name conflict between the grouper and columns would break groupby operations
(GH7115, GH8112)
• Fixed a bug where plotting a column y and specifying a label would mutate the index name of the original
DataFrame (GH8494)
• Fix regression in plotting of a DatetimeIndex directly with matplotlib (GH8614).
• Bug in date_range where partially-specified dates would incorporate current date (GH6961)
• Bug in Setting by indexer to a scalar value with a mixed-dtype Panel4d was failing (GH8702)

1.16. v0.15.1 (November 9, 2014) 237

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Bug where DataReader‘s would fail if one of the symbols passed was invalid. Now returns data for valid
symbols and np.nan for invalid (GH8494)
• Bug in get_quote_yahoo that wouldn’t allow non-float return values (GH5229).

1.17 v0.15.0 (October 18, 2014)

This is a major release from 0.14.1 and includes a small number of API changes, several new features, enhancements,
and performance improvements along with a large number of bug fixes. We recommend that all users upgrade to this
version.

Warning: pandas >= 0.15.0 will no longer support compatibility with NumPy versions < 1.7.0. If you want to
use the latest versions of pandas, please upgrade to NumPy >= 1.7.0 (GH7711)

• Highlights include:
– The Categorical type was integrated as a first-class pandas type, see here
– New scalar type Timedelta, and a new index type TimedeltaIndex, see here
– New datetimelike properties accessor .dt for Series, see Datetimelike Properties
– New DataFrame default display for df.info() to include memory usage, see Memory Usage
– read_csv will now by default ignore blank lines when parsing, see here
– API change in using Indexes in set operations, see here
– Enhancements in the handling of timezones, see here
– A lot of improvements to the rolling and expanding moment funtions, see here
– Internal refactoring of the Index class to no longer sub-class ndarray, see Internal Refactoring
– dropping support for PyTables less than version 3.0.0, and numexpr less than version 2.1 (GH7990)
– Split indexing documentation into Indexing and Selecting Data and MultiIndex / Advanced Indexing
– Split out string methods documentation into Working with Text Data
• Check the API Changes and deprecations before updating
• Other Enhancements
• Performance Improvements
• Bug Fixes

Warning: In 0.15.0 Index has internally been refactored to no longer sub-class ndarray but instead subclass
PandasObject, similarly to the rest of the pandas objects. This change allows very easy sub-classing and
creation of new index types. This should be a transparent change with only very limited API implications (See the
Internal Refactoring)

Warning: The refactorings in Categorical changed the two argument constructor from “codes/labels and
levels” to “values and levels (now called ‘categories’)”. This can lead to subtle bugs. If you use Categorical
directly, please audit your code before updating to this pandas version and change it to use the from_codes()
constructor. See more on Categorical here

238 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

1.17.1 New features

1.17.1.1 Categoricals in Series/DataFrame

Categorical can now be included in Series and DataFrames and gained new methods to manipulate. Thanks to Jan
Schulz for much of this API/implementation. (GH3943, GH5313, GH5314, GH7444, GH7839, GH7848, GH7864,
GH7914, GH7768, GH8006, GH3678, GH8075, GH8076, GH8143, GH8453, GH8518).
For full docs, see the categorical introduction and the API documentation.

In [1]: df = DataFrame({"id":[1,2,3,4,5,6], "raw_grade":['a', 'b', 'b', 'a', 'a', 'e

˓→']})

In [2]: df["grade"] = df["raw_grade"].astype("category")

In [3]: df["grade"]
Out[3]:
0 a
1 b
2 b
3 a
4 a
5 e
Name: grade, dtype: category
Categories (3, object): [a, b, e]

# Rename the categories

In [4]: df["grade"].cat.categories = ["very good", "good", "very bad"]

# Reorder the categories and simultaneously add the missing categories

In [5]: df["grade"] = df["grade"].cat.set_categories(["very bad", "bad", "medium",
˓→"good", "very good"])

In [6]: df["grade"]
Out[6]:
0 very good
1 good
2 good
3 very good
4 very good
5 very bad
Name: grade, dtype: category
Categories (5, object): [very bad, bad, medium, good, very good]

In [7]: df.sort_values("grade")
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

id raw_grade grade
5 6 e very bad
1 2 b good
2 3 b good
0 1 a very good
3 4 a very good
4 5 a very good

In [8]: df.groupby("grade").size()
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

1.17. v0.15.0 (October 18, 2014) 239

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

grade
very bad 1
bad 0
medium 0
good 2
very good 3
dtype: int64

• pandas.core.group_agg and pandas.core.factor_agg were removed. As an alternative, con-

struct a dataframe and use df.groupby(<group>).agg(<func>).
• Supplying “codes/labels and levels” to the Categorical constructor is not supported anymore. Supplying
two arguments to the constructor is now interpreted as “values and levels (now called ‘categories’)”. Please
change your code to use the from_codes() constructor.
• The Categorical.labels attribute was renamed to Categorical.codes and is read only. If you want
to manipulate codes, please use one of the API methods on Categoricals.
• The Categorical.levels attribute is renamed to Categorical.categories.

1.17.1.2 TimedeltaIndex/Scalar

We introduce a new scalar type Timedelta, which is a subclass of datetime.timedelta, and behaves in a
similar manner, but allows compatibility with np.timedelta64 types as well as a host of custom representation,
parsing, and attributes. This type is very similar to how Timestamp works for datetimes. It is a nice-API box for
the type. See the docs. (GH3009, GH4533, GH8209, GH8187, GH8190, GH7869, GH7661, GH8345, GH8471)

Warning: Timedelta scalars (and TimedeltaIndex) component fields are not the same as the component
fields on a datetime.timedelta object. For example, .seconds on a datetime.timedelta object
returns the total number of seconds combined between hours, minutes and seconds. In contrast, the pandas
Timedelta breaks out hours, minutes, microseconds and nanoseconds separately.
# Timedelta accessor
In [9]: tds = Timedelta('31 days 5 min 3 sec')

In [10]: tds.minutes
Out[10]: 5L

In [11]: tds.seconds
Out[11]: 3L

# datetime.timedelta accessor
# this is 5 minutes * 60 + 3 seconds
In [12]: tds.to_pytimedelta().seconds
Out[12]: 303

Note: this is no longer true starting from v0.16.0, where full compatibility with datetime.timedelta is
introduced. See the 0.16.0 whatsnew entry

Warning: Prior to 0.15.0 pd.to_timedelta would return a Series for list-like/Series input, and a np.
timedelta64 for scalar input. It will now return a TimedeltaIndex for list-like input, Series for Series
input, and Timedelta for scalar input.

240 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

The arguments to pd.to_timedelta are now (arg,unit='ns',box=True,coerce=False), previ-

ously were (arg,box=True,unit='ns') as these are more logical.

Consruct a scalar
In [9]: Timedelta('1 days 06:05:01.00003')
Out[9]: Timedelta('1 days 06:05:01.000030')

In [10]: Timedelta('15.5us')
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[10]: Timedelta('0 days 00:00:00.000015
˓→')

In [11]: Timedelta('1 hour 15.5us')

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[11]:
˓→Timedelta('0 days 01:00:00.000015')

# negative Timedeltas have this string repr

# to be more consistent with datetime.timedelta conventions
In [12]: Timedelta('-1us')
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→Timedelta('-1 days +23:59:59.999999')

# a NaT
In [13]: Timedelta('nan')
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→NaT

Access fields for a Timedelta

In [14]: td = Timedelta('1 hour 3m 15.5us')

In [15]: td.seconds
Out[15]: 3780

In [16]: td.microseconds
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[16]: 15

In [17]: td.nanoseconds
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[17]: 500

Construct a TimedeltaIndex
In [18]: TimedeltaIndex(['1 days','1 days, 00:00:05',
....: np.timedelta64(2,'D'),timedelta(days=2,seconds=2)])
....:
Out[18]:
TimedeltaIndex(['1 days 00:00:00', '1 days 00:00:05', '2 days 00:00:00',
'2 days 00:00:02'],
dtype='timedelta64[ns]', freq=None)

Constructing a TimedeltaIndex with a regular range

In [19]: timedelta_range('1 days',periods=5,freq='D')
Out[19]: TimedeltaIndex(['1 days', '2 days', '3 days', '4 days', '5 days'], dtype=
˓→'timedelta64[ns]', freq='D')

In [20]: timedelta_range(start='1 days',end='2 days',freq='30T')

1.17. v0.15.0 (October 18, 2014) 241

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

TimedeltaIndex(['1 days 00:00:00', '1 days 00:30:00', '1 days 01:00:00',

'1 days 01:30:00', '1 days 02:00:00', '1 days 02:30:00',
'1 days 03:00:00', '1 days 03:30:00', '1 days 04:00:00',
'1 days 04:30:00', '1 days 05:00:00', '1 days 05:30:00',
'1 days 06:00:00', '1 days 06:30:00', '1 days 07:00:00',
'1 days 07:30:00', '1 days 08:00:00', '1 days 08:30:00',
'1 days 09:00:00', '1 days 09:30:00', '1 days 10:00:00',
'1 days 10:30:00', '1 days 11:00:00', '1 days 11:30:00',
'1 days 12:00:00', '1 days 12:30:00', '1 days 13:00:00',
'1 days 13:30:00', '1 days 14:00:00', '1 days 14:30:00',
'1 days 15:00:00', '1 days 15:30:00', '1 days 16:00:00',
'1 days 16:30:00', '1 days 17:00:00', '1 days 17:30:00',
'1 days 18:00:00', '1 days 18:30:00', '1 days 19:00:00',
'1 days 19:30:00', '1 days 20:00:00', '1 days 20:30:00',
'1 days 21:00:00', '1 days 21:30:00', '1 days 22:00:00',
'1 days 22:30:00', '1 days 23:00:00', '1 days 23:30:00',
'2 days 00:00:00'],
dtype='timedelta64[ns]', freq='30T')

You can now use a TimedeltaIndex as the index of a pandas object

In [21]: s = Series(np.arange(5),
....: index=timedelta_range('1 days',periods=5,freq='s'))
....:

In [22]: s
Out[22]:
1 days 00:00:00 0
1 days 00:00:01 1
1 days 00:00:02 2
1 days 00:00:03 3
1 days 00:00:04 4
Freq: S, dtype: int64

You can select with partial string selections

In [23]: s['1 day 00:00:02']
Out[23]: 2

In [24]: s['1 day':'1 day 00:00:02']

\\\\\\\\\\\Out[24]:
1 days 00:00:00 0
1 days 00:00:01 1
1 days 00:00:02 2
Freq: S, dtype: int64

Finally, the combination of TimedeltaIndex with DatetimeIndex allow certain combination operations that
are NaT preserving:
In [25]: tdi = TimedeltaIndex(['1 days',pd.NaT,'2 days'])

In [26]: tdi.tolist()
Out[26]: [Timedelta('1 days 00:00:00'), NaT, Timedelta('2 days 00:00:00')]

In [27]: dti = date_range('20130101',periods=3)

242 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [28]: dti.tolist()
Out[28]:
[Timestamp('2013-01-01 00:00:00', freq='D'),
Timestamp('2013-01-02 00:00:00', freq='D'),
Timestamp('2013-01-03 00:00:00', freq='D')]

In [29]: (dti + tdi).tolist()

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→[Timestamp('2013-01-02 00:00:00'), NaT, Timestamp('2013-01-05 00:00:00')]

In [30]: (dti - tdi).tolist()

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→[Timestamp('2012-12-31 00:00:00'), NaT, Timestamp('2013-01-01 00:00:00')]

• iteration of a Series e.g. list(Series(...)) of timedelta64[ns] would prior to v0.15.0 return

np.timedelta64 for each element. These will now be wrapped in Timedelta.

1.17.1.3 Memory Usage

Implemented methods to find memory usage of a DataFrame. See the FAQ for more. (GH6852).
A new display option display.memory_usage (see Options and Settings) sets the default behavior of the
memory_usage argument in the df.info() method. By default display.memory_usage is True.

In [31]: dtypes = ['int64', 'float64', 'datetime64[ns]', 'timedelta64[ns]',

....: 'complex128', 'object', 'bool']
....:

In [32]: n = 5000

In [33]: data = dict([ (t, np.random.randint(100, size=n).astype(t))

....: for t in dtypes])
....:

In [34]: df = DataFrame(data)

In [35]: df['categorical'] = df['object'].astype('category')

In [36]: df.info()
<class 'pandas.core.frame.DataFrame'>
RangeIndex: 5000 entries, 0 to 4999
Data columns (total 8 columns):
bool 5000 non-null bool
complex128 5000 non-null complex128
datetime64[ns] 5000 non-null datetime64[ns]
float64 5000 non-null float64
int64 5000 non-null int64
object 5000 non-null object
timedelta64[ns] 5000 non-null timedelta64[ns]
categorical 5000 non-null category
dtypes: bool(1), category(1), complex128(1), datetime64[ns](1), float64(1), int64(1),
˓→object(1), timedelta64[ns](1)

memory usage: 289.1+ KB

Additionally memory_usage() is an available method for a dataframe object which returns the memory usage of
each column.

1.17. v0.15.0 (October 18, 2014) 243

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [37]: df.memory_usage(index=True)
Out[37]:
Index 80
bool 5000
complex128 80000
datetime64[ns] 40000
float64 40000
int64 40000
object 40000
timedelta64[ns] 40000
categorical 10920
dtype: int64

1.17.1.4 .dt accessor

Series has gained an accessor to succinctly return datetime like properties for the values of the Series, if its a
datetime/period like Series. (GH7207) This will return a Series, indexed like the existing Series. See the docs

# datetime
In [38]: s = Series(date_range('20130101 09:10:12',periods=4))

In [39]: s
Out[39]:
0 2013-01-01 09:10:12
1 2013-01-02 09:10:12
2 2013-01-03 09:10:12
3 2013-01-04 09:10:12
dtype: datetime64[ns]

In [40]: s.dt.hour
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

0 9
1 9
2 9
3 9
dtype: int64

In [41]: s.dt.second
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

0 12
1 12
2 12
3 12
dtype: int64

In [42]: s.dt.day
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

0 1
1 2
2 3
3 4
dtype: int64

244 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [43]: s.dt.freq
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→'D'

This enables nice expressions like this:

In [44]: s[s.dt.day==2]
Out[44]:
1 2013-01-02 09:10:12
dtype: datetime64[ns]

You can easily produce tz aware transformations:

In [45]: stz = s.dt.tz_localize('US/Eastern')

In [46]: stz
Out[46]:
0 2013-01-01 09:10:12-05:00
1 2013-01-02 09:10:12-05:00
2 2013-01-03 09:10:12-05:00
3 2013-01-04 09:10:12-05:00
dtype: datetime64[ns, US/Eastern]

In [47]: stz.dt.tz
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→<DstTzInfo 'US/Eastern' LMT-1 day, 19:04:00 STD>

You can also chain these types of operations:

In [48]: s.dt.tz_localize('UTC').dt.tz_convert('US/Eastern')
Out[48]:
0 2013-01-01 04:10:12-05:00
1 2013-01-02 04:10:12-05:00
2 2013-01-03 04:10:12-05:00
3 2013-01-04 04:10:12-05:00
dtype: datetime64[ns, US/Eastern]

The .dt accessor works for period and timedelta dtypes.

# period
In [49]: s = Series(period_range('20130101',periods=4,freq='D'))

In [50]: s
Out[50]:
0 2013-01-01
1 2013-01-02
2 2013-01-03
3 2013-01-04
dtype: object

In [51]: s.dt.year
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[51]:
˓→

0 2013
1 2013
2 2013
3 2013
dtype: int64

1.17. v0.15.0 (October 18, 2014) 245

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [52]: s.dt.day
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

0 1
1 2
2 3
3 4
dtype: int64

# timedelta
In [53]: s = Series(timedelta_range('1 day 00:00:05',periods=4,freq='s'))

In [54]: s
Out[54]:
0 1 days 00:00:05
1 1 days 00:00:06
2 1 days 00:00:07
3 1 days 00:00:08
dtype: timedelta64[ns]

In [55]: s.dt.days
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

0 1
1 1
2 1
3 1
dtype: int64

In [56]: s.dt.seconds
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

0 5
1 6
2 7
3 8
dtype: int64

In [57]: s.dt.components
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

days hours minutes seconds milliseconds microseconds nanoseconds

0 1 0 0 5 0 0 0
1 1 0 0 6 0 0 0
2 1 0 0 7 0 0 0
3 1 0 0 8 0 0 0

1.17.1.5 Timezone handling improvements

• tz_localize(None) for tz-aware Timestamp and DatetimeIndex now removes timezone holding
local time, previously this resulted in Exception or TypeError (GH7812)

In [58]: ts = Timestamp('2014-08-01 09:00', tz='US/Eastern')

In [59]: ts

246 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Out[59]: Timestamp('2014-08-01 09:00:00-0400', tz='US/Eastern')

In [60]: ts.tz_localize(None)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[60]:
˓→Timestamp('2014-08-01 09:00:00')

In [61]: didx = DatetimeIndex(start='2014-08-01 09:00', freq='H', periods=10, tz=

˓→'US/Eastern')

In [62]: didx
Out[62]:
DatetimeIndex(['2014-08-01 09:00:00-04:00', '2014-08-01 10:00:00-04:00',
'2014-08-01 11:00:00-04:00', '2014-08-01 12:00:00-04:00',
'2014-08-01 13:00:00-04:00', '2014-08-01 14:00:00-04:00',
'2014-08-01 15:00:00-04:00', '2014-08-01 16:00:00-04:00',
'2014-08-01 17:00:00-04:00', '2014-08-01 18:00:00-04:00'],
dtype='datetime64[ns, US/Eastern]', freq='H')

In [63]: didx.tz_localize(None)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

DatetimeIndex(['2014-08-01 09:00:00', '2014-08-01 10:00:00',

'2014-08-01 11:00:00', '2014-08-01 12:00:00',
'2014-08-01 13:00:00', '2014-08-01 14:00:00',
'2014-08-01 15:00:00', '2014-08-01 16:00:00',
'2014-08-01 17:00:00', '2014-08-01 18:00:00'],
dtype='datetime64[ns]', freq='H')

• tz_localize now accepts the ambiguous keyword which allows for passing an array of bools indicating
whether the date belongs in DST or not, ‘NaT’ for setting transition times to NaT, ‘infer’ for inferring DST/non-
DST, and ‘raise’ (default) for an AmbiguousTimeError to be raised. See the docs for more details (GH7943)
• DataFrame.tz_localize and DataFrame.tz_convert now accepts an optional level argument
for localizing a specific level of a MultiIndex (GH7846)
• Timestamp.tz_localize and Timestamp.tz_convert now raise TypeError in error cases, rather
than Exception (GH8025)
• a timeseries/index localized to UTC when inserted into a Series/DataFrame will preserve the UTC timezone
(rather than being a naive datetime64[ns]) as object dtype (GH8411)
• Timestamp.__repr__ displays dateutil.tz.tzoffset info (GH7907)

1.17.1.6 Rolling/Expanding Moments improvements

• rolling_min(), rolling_max(), rolling_cov(), and rolling_corr() now return objects with

all NaN when len(arg) < min_periods <= window rather than raising. (This makes all rolling func-
tions consistent in this behavior). (GH7766)
Prior to 0.15.0

In [64]: s = Series([10, 11, 12, 13])

In [15]: rolling_min(s, window=10, min_periods=5)

ValueError: min_periods (5) must be <= window (4)

New behavior

1.17. v0.15.0 (October 18, 2014) 247

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [4]: pd.rolling_min(s, window=10, min_periods=5)

Out[4]:
0 NaN
1 NaN
2 NaN
3 NaN
dtype: float64

• rolling_max(), rolling_min(), rolling_sum(), rolling_mean(), rolling_median(),

rolling_std(), rolling_var(), rolling_skew(), rolling_kurt(),
rolling_quantile(), rolling_cov(), rolling_corr(), rolling_corr_pairwise(),
rolling_window(), and rolling_apply() with center=True previously would return a result of
the same structure as the input arg with NaN in the final (window-1)/2 entries.
Now the final (window-1)/2 entries of the result are calculated as if the input arg were followed by
(window-1)/2 NaN values (or with shrinking windows, in the case of rolling_apply()). (GH7925,
GH8269)
Prior behavior (note final value is NaN):

In [7]: rolling_sum(Series(range(4)), window=3, min_periods=0, center=True)

Out[7]:
0 1
1 3
2 6
3 NaN
dtype: float64

New behavior (note final value is 5 = sum([2, 3, NaN])):

In [7]: rolling_sum(Series(range(4)), window=3, min_periods=0, center=True)

Out[7]:
0 1
1 3
2 6
3 5
dtype: float64

• rolling_window() now normalizes the weights properly in rolling mean mode (mean=True) so that the
calculated weighted means (e.g. ‘triang’, ‘gaussian’) are distributed about the same means as those calculated
without weighting (i.e. ‘boxcar’). See the note on normalization for further details. (GH7618)

In [65]: s = Series([10.5, 8.8, 11.4, 9.7, 9.3])

Behavior prior to 0.15.0:

In [39]: rolling_window(s, window=3, win_type='triang', center=True)

Out[39]:
0 NaN
1 6.583333
2 6.883333
3 6.683333
4 NaN
dtype: float64

New behavior

248 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [10]: pd.rolling_window(s, window=3, win_type='triang', center=True)

Out[10]:
0 NaN
1 9.875
2 10.325
3 10.025
4 NaN
dtype: float64

• Removed center argument from all expanding_ functions (see list), as the results produced when
center=True did not make much sense. (GH7925)
• Added optional ddof argument to expanding_cov() and rolling_cov(). The default value of 1 is
backwards-compatible. (GH8279)
• Documented the ddof argument to expanding_var(), expanding_std(), rolling_var(), and
rolling_std(). These functions’ support of a ddof argument (with a default value of 1) was previously
undocumented. (GH8064)
• ewma(), ewmstd(), ewmvol(), ewmvar(), ewmcov(), and ewmcorr() now interpret min_periods
in the same manner that the rolling_*() and expanding_*() functions do: a given result entry will be
NaN if the (expanding, in this case) window does not contain at least min_periods values. The previous
behavior was to set to NaN the min_periods entries starting with the first non- NaN value. (GH7977)
Prior behavior (note values start at index 2, which is min_periods after index 0 (the index of the first non-
empty value)):

In [66]: s = Series([1, None, None, None, 2, 3])

In [51]: ewma(s, com=3., min_periods=2)

Out[51]:
0 NaN
1 NaN
2 1.000000
3 1.000000
4 1.571429
5 2.189189
dtype: float64

New behavior (note values start at index 4, the location of the 2nd (since min_periods=2) non-empty value):

In [2]: pd.ewma(s, com=3., min_periods=2)

Out[2]:
0 NaN
1 NaN
2 NaN
3 NaN
4 1.759644
5 2.383784
dtype: float64

• ewmstd(), ewmvol(), ewmvar(), ewmcov(), and ewmcorr() now have an optional adjust argu-
ment, just like ewma() does, affecting how the weights are calculated. The default value of adjust is True,
which is backwards-compatible. See Exponentially weighted moment functions for details. (GH7911)
• ewma(), ewmstd(), ewmvol(), ewmvar(), ewmcov(), and ewmcorr() now have an optional
ignore_na argument. When ignore_na=False (the default), missing values are taken into account in

1.17. v0.15.0 (October 18, 2014) 249

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

the weights calculation. When ignore_na=True (which reproduces the pre-0.15.0 behavior), missing values
are ignored in the weights calculation. (GH7543)

In [7]: pd.ewma(Series([None, 1., 8.]), com=2.)

Out[7]:
0 NaN
1 1.0
2 5.2
dtype: float64

In [8]: pd.ewma(Series([1., None, 8.]), com=2., ignore_na=True) # pre-0.15.0

˓→behavior

Out[8]:
0 1.0
1 1.0
2 5.2
dtype: float64

In [9]: pd.ewma(Series([1., None, 8.]), com=2., ignore_na=False) # new default

Out[9]:
0 1.000000
1 1.000000
2 5.846154
dtype: float64

Warning: By default (ignore_na=False) the ewm*() functions’ weights calculation in the presence
of missing values is different than in pre-0.15.0 versions. To reproduce the pre-0.15.0 calculation of weights
in the presence of missing values one must specify explicitly ignore_na=True.

• Bug in expanding_cov(), expanding_corr(), rolling_cov(), rolling_cor(), ewmcov(),

and ewmcorr() returning results with columns sorted by name and producing an error for non-unique
columns; now handles non-unique columns and returns columns in original order (except for the case of two
DataFrames with pairwise=False, where behavior is unchanged) (GH7542)
• Bug in rolling_count() and expanding_*() functions unnecessarily producing error message for
zero-length data (GH8056)
• Bug in rolling_apply() and expanding_apply() interpreting min_periods=0 as
min_periods=1 (GH8080)
• Bug in expanding_std() and expanding_var() for a single value producing a confusing error message
(GH7900)
• Bug in rolling_std() and rolling_var() for a single value producing 0 rather than NaN (GH7900)
• Bug in ewmstd(), ewmvol(), ewmvar(), and ewmcov() calculation of de-biasing factors when
bias=False (the default). Previously an incorrect constant factor was used, based on adjust=True,
ignore_na=True, and an infinite number of observations. Now a different factor is used for each entry,
based on the actual weights (analogous to the usual N/(N-1) factor). In particular, for a single point a value of
NaN is returned when bias=False, whereas previously a value of (approximately) 0 was returned.
For example, consider the following pre-0.15.0 results for ewmvar(..., bias=False), and the corre-
sponding debiasing factors:

In [67]: s = Series([1., 2., 0., 4.])

250 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [89]: ewmvar(s, com=2., bias=False)

Out[89]:
0 -2.775558e-16
1 3.000000e-01
2 9.556787e-01
3 3.585799e+00
dtype: float64

In [90]: ewmvar(s, com=2., bias=False) / ewmvar(s, com=2., bias=True)

Out[90]:
0 1.25
1 1.25
2 1.25
3 1.25
dtype: float64

Note that entry 0 is approximately 0, and the debiasing factors are a constant 1.25. By comparison, the following
0.15.0 results have a NaN for entry 0, and the debiasing factors are decreasing (towards 1.25):

In [14]: pd.ewmvar(s, com=2., bias=False)

Out[14]:
0 NaN
1 0.500000
2 1.210526
3 4.089069
dtype: float64

In [15]: pd.ewmvar(s, com=2., bias=False) / pd.ewmvar(s, com=2., bias=True)

Out[15]:
0 NaN
1 2.083333
2 1.583333
3 1.425439
dtype: float64

See Exponentially weighted moment functions for details. (GH7912)

1.17.1.7 Improvements in the sql io module

• Added support for a chunksize parameter to to_sql function. This allows DataFrame to be written in
chunks and avoid packet-size overflow errors (GH8062).
• Added support for a chunksize parameter to read_sql function. Specifying this argument will return an
iterator through chunks of the query result (GH2908).
• Added support for writing datetime.date and datetime.time object columns with to_sql (GH6932).
• Added support for specifying a schema to read from/write to with read_sql_table and to_sql
(GH7441, GH7952). For example:

df.to_sql('table', engine, schema='other_schema')

pd.read_sql_table('table', engine, schema='other_schema')

• Added support for writing NaN values with to_sql (GH2754).

• Added support for writing datetime64 columns with to_sql for all database flavors (GH7103).

1.17. v0.15.0 (October 18, 2014) 251

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

1.17.2 Backwards incompatible API changes

1.17.2.1 Breaking changes

API changes related to Categorical (see here for more details):

• The Categorical constructor with two arguments changed from “codes/labels and levels” to “values and
levels (now called ‘categories’)”. This can lead to subtle bugs. If you use Categorical directly, please audit
your code by changing it to use the from_codes() constructor.
An old function call like (prior to 0.15.0):

pd.Categorical([0,1,0,2,1], levels=['a', 'b', 'c'])

will have to adapted to the following to keep the same behaviour:

In [2]: pd.Categorical.from_codes([0,1,0,2,1], categories=['a', 'b', 'c'])

Out[2]:
[a, b, a, c, b]
Categories (3, object): [a, b, c]

API changes related to the introduction of the Timedelta scalar (see above for more details):
• Prior to 0.15.0 to_timedelta() would return a Series for list-like/Series input, and a np.
timedelta64 for scalar input. It will now return a TimedeltaIndex for list-like input, Series for
Series input, and Timedelta for scalar input.
For API changes related to the rolling and expanding functions, see detailed overview above.
Other notable API changes:
• Consistency when indexing with .loc and a list-like indexer when no values are found.

In [68]: df = DataFrame([['a'],['b']],index=[1,2])

In [69]: df
Out[69]:
0
1 a
2 b

In prior versions there was a difference in these two constructs:

– df.loc[[3]] would return a frame reindexed by 3 (with all np.nan values)
– df.loc[[3],:] would raise KeyError.
Both will now raise a KeyError. The rule is that at least 1 indexer must be found when using a list-like and
.loc (GH7999)
Furthermore in prior versions these were also different:
– df.loc[[1,3]] would return a frame reindexed by [1,3]
– df.loc[[1,3],:] would raise KeyError.
Both will now return a frame reindex by [1,3]. E.g.

In [3]: df.loc[[1,3]]
Out[3]:
0
1 a

252 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

3 NaN

In [4]: df.loc[[1,3],:]
Out[4]:
0
1 a
3 NaN

This can also be seen in multi-axis indexing with a Panel.

In [70]: p = Panel(np.arange(2*3*4).reshape(2,3,4),
....: items=['ItemA','ItemB'],
....: major_axis=[1,2,3],
....: minor_axis=['A','B','C','D'])
....:

In [71]: p
Out[71]:
<class 'pandas.core.panel.Panel'>
Dimensions: 2 (items) x 3 (major_axis) x 4 (minor_axis)
Items axis: ItemA to ItemB
Major_axis axis: 1 to 3
Minor_axis axis: A to D

The following would raise KeyError prior to 0.15.0:

In [5]:
Out[5]:
ItemA ItemD
1 3 NaN
2 7 NaN
3 11 NaN

Furthermore, .loc will raise If no values are found in a multi-index with a list-like indexer:

In [72]: s = Series(np.arange(3,dtype='int64'),
....: index=MultiIndex.from_product([['A'],['foo','bar','baz']],
....: names=['one','two'])
....: ).sort_index()
....:

In [73]: s
Out[73]:
one two
A bar 1
baz 2
foo 0
dtype: int64

In [74]: try:
....: s.loc[['D']]
....: except KeyError as e:
....: print("KeyError: " + str(e))
....:
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\KeyError:
˓→"['D'] not in index"

• Assigning values to None now considers the dtype when choosing an ‘empty’ value (GH7941).

1.17. v0.15.0 (October 18, 2014) 253

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Previously, assigning to None in numeric containers changed the dtype to object (or errored, depending on the
call). It now uses NaN:

In [75]: s = Series([1, 2, 3])

In [76]: s.loc[0] = None

In [77]: s
Out[77]:
0 NaN
1 2.0
2 3.0
dtype: float64

NaT is now used similarly for datetime containers.

For object containers, we now preserve None values (previously these were converted to NaN values).

In [78]: s = Series(["a", "b", "c"])

In [79]: s.loc[0] = None

In [80]: s
Out[80]:
0 None
1 b
2 c
dtype: object

To insert a NaN, you must explicitly use np.nan. See the docs.
• In prior versions, updating a pandas object inplace would not reflect in other python references to this object.
(GH8511, GH5104)

In [81]: s = Series([1, 2, 3])

In [82]: s2 = s

In [83]: s += 1.5

Behavior prior to v0.15.0

# the original object

In [5]: s
Out[5]:
0 2.5
1 3.5
2 4.5
dtype: float64

# a reference to the original object

In [7]: s2
Out[7]:
0 1
1 2
2 3
dtype: int64

254 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

This is now the correct behavior

# the original object

In [84]: s
Out[84]:
0 2.5
1 3.5
2 4.5
dtype: float64

# a reference to the original object

In [85]: s2
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[85]:
0 2.5
1 3.5
2 4.5
dtype: float64

• Made both the C-based and Python engines for read_csv and read_table ignore empty lines in input as well as
whitespace-filled lines, as long as sep is not whitespace. This is an API change that can be controlled by the
keyword parameter skip_blank_lines. See the docs (GH4466)
• A timeseries/index localized to UTC when inserted into a Series/DataFrame will preserve the UTC timezone
and inserted as object dtype rather than being converted to a naive datetime64[ns] (GH8411).
• Bug in passing a DatetimeIndex with a timezone that was not being retained in DataFrame construction
from a dict (GH7822)
In prior versions this would drop the timezone, now it retains the timezone, but gives a column of object
dtype:

In [86]: i = date_range('1/1/2011', periods=3, freq='10s', tz = 'US/Eastern')

In [87]: i
Out[87]:
DatetimeIndex(['2011-01-01 00:00:00-05:00', '2011-01-01 00:00:10-05:00',
'2011-01-01 00:00:20-05:00'],
dtype='datetime64[ns, US/Eastern]', freq='10S')

In [88]: df = DataFrame( {'a' : i } )

In [89]: df
Out[89]:
a
0 2011-01-01 00:00:00-05:00
1 2011-01-01 00:00:10-05:00
2 2011-01-01 00:00:20-05:00

In [90]: df.dtypes
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

a datetime64[ns, US/Eastern]
dtype: object

Previously this would have yielded a column of datetime64 dtype, but without timezone info.
The behaviour of assigning a column to an existing dataframe as df[’a’] = i remains unchanged (this already
returned an object column with a timezone).
• When passing multiple levels to stack(), it will now raise a ValueError when the levels aren’t all level

1.17. v0.15.0 (October 18, 2014) 255

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

names or all level numbers (GH7660). See Reshaping by stacking and unstacking.
• Raise a ValueError in df.to_hdf with ‘fixed’ format, if df has non-unique columns as the resulting file
will be broken (GH7761)
• SettingWithCopy raise/warnings (according to the option mode.chained_assignment) will now be
issued when setting a value on a sliced mixed-dtype DataFrame using chained-assignment. (GH7845, GH7950)

In [1]: df = DataFrame(np.arange(0,9), columns=['count'])

In [2]: df['group'] = 'b'

In [3]: df.iloc[0:5]['group'] = 'a'

/usr/local/bin/ipython:1: SettingWithCopyWarning:
A value is trying to be set on a copy of a slice from a DataFrame.
Try using .loc[row_indexer,col_indexer] = value instead

See the the caveats in the documentation: http://pandas.pydata.org/pandas-docs/

˓→stable/indexing.html#indexing-view-versus-copy

• merge, DataFrame.merge, and ordered_merge now return the same type as the left argument
(GH7737).
• Previously an enlargement with a mixed-dtype frame would act unlike .append which will preserve dtypes
(related GH2578, GH8176):

In [91]: df = DataFrame([[True, 1],[False, 2]],

....: columns=["female","fitness"])
....:

In [92]: df
Out[92]:
female fitness
0 True 1
1 False 2

In [93]: df.dtypes
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[93]:
female bool
fitness int64
dtype: object

# dtypes are now preserved

In [94]: df.loc[2] = df.loc[1]

In [95]: df
Out[95]:
female fitness
0 True 1
1 False 2
2 False 2

In [96]: df.dtypes
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[96]:
˓→

female bool
fitness int64
dtype: object

256 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Series.to_csv() now returns a string when path=None, matching the behaviour of DataFrame.
to_csv() (GH8215).
• read_hdf now raises IOError when a file that doesn’t exist is passed in. Previously, a new, empty file was
created, and a KeyError raised (GH7715).
• DataFrame.info() now ends its output with a newline character (GH8114)
• Concatenating no objects will now raise a ValueError rather than a bare Exception.
• Merge errors will now be sub-classes of ValueError rather than raw Exception (GH8501)
• DataFrame.plot and Series.plot keywords are now have consistent orders (GH8037)

1.17.2.2 Internal Refactoring

In 0.15.0 Index has internally been refactored to no longer sub-class ndarray but instead subclass
PandasObject, similarly to the rest of the pandas objects. This change allows very easy sub-classing and cre-
ation of new index types. This should be a transparent change with only very limited API implications (GH5080,
GH7439, GH7796, GH8024, GH8367, GH7997, GH8522):
• you may need to unpickle pandas version < 0.15.0 pickles using pd.read_pickle rather than pickle.
load. See pickle docs
• when plotting with a PeriodIndex, the matplotlib internal axes will now be arrays of Period rather than a
PeriodIndex (this is similar to how a DatetimeIndex passes arrays of datetimes now)
• MultiIndexes will now raise similary to other pandas objects w.r.t. truth testing, see here (GH7897).
• When plotting a DatetimeIndex directly with matplotlib’s plot function, the axis labels will no longer be format-
ted as dates but as integers (the internal representation of a datetime64). UPDATE This is fixed in 0.15.1,
see here.

1.17.2.3 Deprecations

• The attributes Categorical labels and levels attributes are deprecated and renamed to codes and
categories.
• The outtype argument to pd.DataFrame.to_dict has been deprecated in favor of orient. (GH7840)
• The convert_dummies method has been deprecated in favor of get_dummies (GH8140)
• The infer_dst argument in tz_localize will be deprecated in favor of ambiguous to allow for more
flexibility in dealing with DST transitions. Replace infer_dst=True with ambiguous='infer' for the
same behavior (GH7943). See the docs for more details.
• The top-level pd.value_range has been deprecated and can be replaced by .describe() (GH8481)
• The Index set operations + and - were deprecated in order to provide these for numeric type operations on
certain index types. + can be replaced by .union() or |, and - by .difference(). Further the method
name Index.diff() is deprecated and can be replaced by Index.difference() (GH8226)

# +
Index(['a','b','c']) + Index(['b','c','d'])

# should be replaced by
Index(['a','b','c']).union(Index(['b','c','d']))

1.17. v0.15.0 (October 18, 2014) 257

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

# -
Index(['a','b','c']) - Index(['b','c','d'])

# should be replaced by
Index(['a','b','c']).difference(Index(['b','c','d']))

• The infer_types argument to read_html() now has no effect and is deprecated (GH7762, GH7032).

1.17.2.4 Removal of prior version deprecations/changes

• Remove DataFrame.delevel method in favor of DataFrame.reset_index

1.17.3 Enhancements

Enhancements in the importing/exporting of Stata files:

• Added support for bool, uint8, uint16 and uint32 datatypes in to_stata (GH7097, GH7365)
• Added conversion option when importing Stata files (GH8527)
• DataFrame.to_stata and StataWriter check string length for compatibility with limitations imposed
in dta files where fixed-width strings must contain 244 or fewer characters. Attempting to write Stata dta files
with strings longer than 244 characters raises a ValueError. (GH7858)
• read_stata and StataReader can import missing data information into a DataFrame by setting
the argument convert_missing to True. When using this options, missing values are returned as
StataMissingValue objects and columns containing missing values have object data type. (GH8045)
Enhancements in the plotting functions:
• Added layout keyword to DataFrame.plot. You can pass a tuple of (rows, columns), one of which
can be -1 to automatically infer (GH6667, GH8071).
• Allow to pass multiple axes to DataFrame.plot, hist and boxplot (GH5353, GH6970, GH7069)
• Added support for c, colormap and colorbar arguments for DataFrame.plot with
kind='scatter' (GH7780)
• Histogram from DataFrame.plot with kind='hist' (GH7809), See the docs.
• Boxplot from DataFrame.plot with kind='box' (GH7998), See the docs.
Other:
• read_csv now has a keyword parameter float_precision which specifies which floating-point converter
the C engine should use during parsing, see here (GH8002, GH8044)
• Added searchsorted method to Series objects (GH7447)
• describe() on mixed-types DataFrames is more flexible. Type-based column filtering is now possible via
the include/exclude arguments. See the docs (GH8164).

In [97]: df = DataFrame({'catA': ['foo', 'foo', 'bar'] * 8,

....: 'catB': ['a', 'b', 'c', 'd'] * 6,
....: 'numC': np.arange(24),
....: 'numD': np.arange(24.) + .5})
....:

In [98]: df.describe(include=["object"])
Out[98]:

258 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

catA catB
count 24 24
unique 2 4
top foo d
freq 16 6

In [99]: df.describe(include=["number", "object"], exclude=["float"])

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\O
˓→

catA catB numC

count 24 24 24.000000
unique 2 4 NaN
top foo d NaN
freq 16 6 NaN
mean NaN NaN 11.500000
std NaN NaN 7.071068
min NaN NaN 0.000000
25% NaN NaN 5.750000
50% NaN NaN 11.500000
75% NaN NaN 17.250000
max NaN NaN 23.000000

Requesting all columns is possible with the shorthand ‘all’

In [100]: df.describe(include='all')
Out[100]:
catA catB numC numD
count 24 24 24.000000 24.000000
unique 2 4 NaN NaN
top foo d NaN NaN
freq 16 6 NaN NaN
mean NaN NaN 11.500000 12.000000
std NaN NaN 7.071068 7.071068
min NaN NaN 0.000000 0.500000
25% NaN NaN 5.750000 6.250000
50% NaN NaN 11.500000 12.000000
75% NaN NaN 17.250000 17.750000
max NaN NaN 23.000000 23.500000

Without those arguments, ‘describe‘ will behave as before, including only numerical columns or, if none are,
only categorical columns. See also the docs
• Added split as an option to the orient argument in pd.DataFrame.to_dict. (GH7840)
• The get_dummies method can now be used on DataFrames. By default only catagorical columns are encoded
as 0’s and 1’s, while other columns are left untouched.
In [101]: df = DataFrame({'A': ['a', 'b', 'a'], 'B': ['c', 'c', 'b'],
.....: 'C': [1, 2, 3]})
.....:

In [102]: pd.get_dummies(df)
Out[102]:
C A_a A_b B_b B_c
0 1 1 0 0 1
1 2 0 1 0 1
2 3 1 0 1 0

• PeriodIndex supports resolution as the same as DatetimeIndex (GH7708)

1.17. v0.15.0 (October 18, 2014) 259

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• pandas.tseries.holiday has added support for additional holidays and ways to observe holidays
(GH7070)
• pandas.tseries.holiday.Holiday now supports a list of offsets in Python3 (GH7070)
• pandas.tseries.holiday.Holiday now supports a days_of_week parameter (GH7070)
• GroupBy.nth() now supports selecting multiple nth values (GH7910)

In [103]: business_dates = date_range(start='4/1/2014', end='6/30/2014', freq='B')

In [104]: df = DataFrame(1, index=business_dates, columns=['a', 'b'])

# get the first, 4th, and last date index for each month
In [105]: df.groupby((df.index.year, df.index.month)).nth([0, 3, -1])
Out[105]:
a b
2014 4 1 1
4 1 1
4 1 1
5 1 1
5 1 1
5 1 1
6 1 1
6 1 1
6 1 1

• Period and PeriodIndex supports addition/subtraction with timedelta-likes (GH7966)

If Period freq is D, H, T, S, L, U, N, Timedelta-like can be added if the result can have same freq. Otherwise,
only the same offsets can be added.

In [106]: idx = pd.period_range('2014-07-01 09:00', periods=5, freq='H')

In [107]: idx
Out[107]:
PeriodIndex(['2014-07-01 09:00', '2014-07-01 10:00', '2014-07-01 11:00',
'2014-07-01 12:00', '2014-07-01 13:00'],
dtype='period[H]', freq='H')

In [108]: idx + pd.offsets.Hour(2)

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

PeriodIndex(['2014-07-01 11:00', '2014-07-01 12:00', '2014-07-01 13:00',

'2014-07-01 14:00', '2014-07-01 15:00'],
dtype='period[H]', freq='H')

In [109]: idx + Timedelta('120m')

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

PeriodIndex(['2014-07-01 11:00', '2014-07-01 12:00', '2014-07-01 13:00',

'2014-07-01 14:00', '2014-07-01 15:00'],
dtype='period[H]', freq='H')

In [110]: idx = pd.period_range('2014-07', periods=5, freq='M')

In [111]: idx
Out[111]: PeriodIndex(['2014-07', '2014-08', '2014-09', '2014-10', '2014-11'],
˓→dtype='period[M]', freq='M')

260 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [112]: idx + pd.offsets.MonthEnd(3)

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→PeriodIndex(['2014-10', '2014-11', '2014-12', '2015-01', '2015-02'], dtype=

˓→'period[M]', freq='M')

• Added experimental compatibility with openpyxl for versions >= 2.0. The DataFrame.to_excel method
engine keyword now recognizes openpyxl1 and openpyxl2 which will explicitly require openpyxl v1
and v2 respectively, failing if the requested version is not available. The openpyxl engine is a now a meta-
engine that automatically uses whichever version of openpyxl is installed. (GH7177)
• DataFrame.fillna can now accept a DataFrame as a fill value (GH8377)
• Passing multiple levels to stack() will now work when multiple level numbers are passed (GH7660). See
Reshaping by stacking and unstacking.
• set_names(), set_labels(), and set_levels() methods now take an optional level keyword ar-
gument to all modification of specific level(s) of a MultiIndex. Additionally set_names() now accepts a
scalar string value when operating on an Index or on a specific level of a MultiIndex (GH7792)

In [113]: idx = MultiIndex.from_product([['a'], range(3), list("pqr")], names=[

˓→'foo', 'bar', 'baz'])

In [114]: idx.set_names('qux', level=0)

Out[114]:
MultiIndex(levels=[['a'], [0, 1, 2], ['p', 'q', 'r']],
labels=[[0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0], [0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 1, 2, 2, 2], [0,
˓→1, 2, 0, 1, 2, 0, 1, 2]],

names=['qux', 'bar', 'baz'])

In [115]: idx.set_names(['qux','baz'], level=[0,1])

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

MultiIndex(levels=[['a'], [0, 1, 2], ['p', 'q', 'r']],

labels=[[0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0], [0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 1, 2, 2, 2], [0,
˓→1, 2, 0, 1, 2, 0, 1, 2]],

names=['qux', 'baz', 'baz'])

In [116]: idx.set_levels(['a','b','c'], level='bar')

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

MultiIndex(levels=[['a'], ['a', 'b', 'c'], ['p', 'q', 'r']],

labels=[[0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0], [0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 1, 2, 2, 2], [0,
˓→1, 2, 0, 1, 2, 0, 1, 2]],

names=['foo', 'bar', 'baz'])

In [117]: idx.set_levels([['a','b','c'],[1,2,3]], level=[1,2])

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

MultiIndex(levels=[['a'], ['a', 'b', 'c'], [1, 2, 3]],

labels=[[0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0], [0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 1, 2, 2, 2], [0,
˓→1, 2, 0, 1, 2, 0, 1, 2]],

names=['foo', 'bar', 'baz'])

• Index.isin now supports a level argument to specify which index level to use for membership tests
(GH7892, GH7890)

In [1]: idx = MultiIndex.from_product([[0, 1], ['a', 'b', 'c']])

1.17. v0.15.0 (October 18, 2014) 261

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [2]: idx.values
Out[2]: array([(0, 'a'), (0, 'b'), (0, 'c'), (1, 'a'), (1, 'b'), (1, 'c')],
˓→dtype=object)

In [3]: idx.isin(['a', 'c', 'e'], level=1)

Out[3]: array([ True, False, True, True, False, True], dtype=bool)

• Index now supports duplicated and drop_duplicates. (GH4060)

In [118]: idx = Index([1, 2, 3, 4, 1, 2])

In [119]: idx
Out[119]: Int64Index([1, 2, 3, 4, 1, 2], dtype='int64')

In [120]: idx.duplicated()
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[120]: array([False,
˓→False, False, False, True, True], dtype=bool)

In [121]: idx.drop_duplicates()
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→Int64Index([1, 2, 3, 4], dtype='int64')

• add copy=True argument to pd.concat to enable pass thru of complete blocks (GH8252)
• Added support for numpy 1.8+ data types (bool_, int_, float_, string_) for conversion to R dataframe
(GH8400)

1.17.4 Performance

• Performance improvements in DatetimeIndex.__iter__ to allow faster iteration (GH7683)

• Performance improvements in Period creation (and PeriodIndex setitem) (GH5155)
• Improvements in Series.transform for significant performance gains (revised) (GH6496)
• Performance improvements in StataReader when reading large files (GH8040, GH8073)
• Performance improvements in StataWriter when writing large files (GH8079)
• Performance and memory usage improvements in multi-key groupby (GH8128)
• Performance improvements in groupby .agg and .apply where builtins max/min were not mapped to
numpy/cythonized versions (GH7722)
• Performance improvement in writing to sql (to_sql) of up to 50% (GH8208).
• Performance benchmarking of groupby for large value of ngroups (GH6787)
• Performance improvement in CustomBusinessDay, CustomBusinessMonth (GH8236)
• Performance improvement for MultiIndex.values for multi-level indexes containing datetimes (GH8543)

1.17.5 Bug Fixes

• Bug in pivot_table, when using margins and a dict aggfunc (GH8349)

• Bug in read_csv where squeeze=True would return a view (GH8217)
• Bug in checking of table name in read_sql in certain cases (GH7826).

262 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Bug in DataFrame.groupby where Grouper does not recognize level when frequency is specified
(GH7885)
• Bug in multiindexes dtypes getting mixed up when DataFrame is saved to SQL table (GH8021)
• Bug in Series 0-division with a float and integer operand dtypes (GH7785)
• Bug in Series.astype("unicode") not calling unicode on the values correctly (GH7758)
• Bug in DataFrame.as_matrix() with mixed datetime64[ns] and timedelta64[ns] dtypes
(GH7778)
• Bug in HDFStore.select_column() not preserving UTC timezone info when selecting a
DatetimeIndex (GH7777)
• Bug in to_datetime when format='%Y%m%d' and coerce=True are specified, where previously an
object array was returned (rather than a coerced time-series with NaT), (GH7930)
• Bug in DatetimeIndex and PeriodIndex in-place addition and subtraction cause different result from
normal one (GH6527)
• Bug in adding and subtracting PeriodIndex with PeriodIndex raise TypeError (GH7741)
• Bug in combine_first with PeriodIndex data raises TypeError (GH3367)
• Bug in multi-index slicing with missing indexers (GH7866)
• Bug in multi-index slicing with various edge cases (GH8132)
• Regression in multi-index indexing with a non-scalar type object (GH7914)
• Bug in Timestamp comparisons with == and int64 dtype (GH8058)
• Bug in pickles contains DateOffset may raise AttributeError when normalize attribute is reffered
internally (GH7748)
• Bug in Panel when using major_xs and copy=False is passed (deprecation warning fails because of
missing warnings) (GH8152).
• Bug in pickle deserialization that failed for pre-0.14.1 containers with dup items trying to avoid ambiguity when
matching block and manager items, when there’s only one block there’s no ambiguity (GH7794)
• Bug in putting a PeriodIndex into a Series would convert to int64 dtype, rather than object of
Periods (GH7932)
• Bug in HDFStore iteration when passing a where (GH8014)
• Bug in DataFrameGroupby.transform when transforming with a passed non-sorted key (GH8046,
GH8430)
• Bug in repeated timeseries line and area plot may result in ValueError or incorrect kind (GH7733)
• Bug in inference in a MultiIndex with datetime.date inputs (GH7888)
• Bug in get where an IndexError would not cause the default value to be returned (GH7725)
• Bug in offsets.apply, rollforward and rollback may reset nanosecond (GH7697)
• Bug in offsets.apply, rollforward and rollback may raise AttributeError if Timestamp
has dateutil tzinfo (GH7697)
• Bug in sorting a multi-index frame with a Float64Index (GH8017)
• Bug in inconsistent panel setitem with a rhs of a DataFrame for alignment (GH7763)
• Bug in is_superperiod and is_subperiod cannot handle higher frequencies than S (GH7760, GH7772,
GH7803)

1.17. v0.15.0 (October 18, 2014) 263

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Bug in 32-bit platforms with Series.shift (GH8129)

• Bug in PeriodIndex.unique returns int64 np.ndarray (GH7540)
• Bug in groupby.apply with a non-affecting mutation in the function (GH8467)
• Bug in DataFrame.reset_index which has MultiIndex contains PeriodIndex or
DatetimeIndex with tz raises ValueError (GH7746, GH7793)
• Bug in DataFrame.plot with subplots=True may draw unnecessary minor xticks and yticks (GH7801)
• Bug in StataReader which did not read variable labels in 117 files due to difference between Stata docu-
mentation and implementation (GH7816)
• Bug in StataReader where strings were always converted to 244 characters-fixed width irrespective of un-
derlying string size (GH7858)
• Bug in DataFrame.plot and Series.plot may ignore rot and fontsize keywords (GH7844)
• Bug in DatetimeIndex.value_counts doesn’t preserve tz (GH7735)
• Bug in PeriodIndex.value_counts results in Int64Index (GH7735)
• Bug in DataFrame.join when doing left join on index and there are multiple matches (GH5391)
• Bug in GroupBy.transform() where int groups with a transform that didn’t preserve the index were in-
correctly truncated (GH7972).
• Bug in groupby where callable objects without name attributes would take the wrong path, and produce a
DataFrame instead of a Series (GH7929)
• Bug in groupby error message when a DataFrame grouping column is duplicated (GH7511)
• Bug in read_html where the infer_types argument forced coercion of date-likes incorrectly (GH7762,
GH7032).
• Bug in Series.str.cat with an index which was filtered as to not include the first item (GH7857)
• Bug in Timestamp cannot parse nanosecond from string (GH7878)
• Bug in Timestamp with string offset and tz results incorrect (GH7833)
• Bug in tslib.tz_convert and tslib.tz_convert_single may return different results (GH7798)
• Bug in DatetimeIndex.intersection of non-overlapping timestamps with tz raises IndexError
(GH7880)
• Bug in alignment with TimeOps and non-unique indexes (GH8363)
• Bug in GroupBy.filter() where fast path vs. slow path made the filter return a non scalar value that
appeared valid but wasn’t (GH7870).
• Bug in date_range()/DatetimeIndex() when the timezone was inferred from input dates yet incorrect
times were returned when crossing DST boundaries (GH7835, GH7901).
• Bug in to_excel() where a negative sign was being prepended to positive infinity and was absent for negative
infinity (GH7949)
• Bug in area plot draws legend with incorrect alpha when stacked=True (GH8027)
• Period and PeriodIndex addition/subtraction with np.timedelta64 results in incorrect internal rep-
resentations (GH7740)
• Bug in Holiday with no offset or observance (GH7987)
• Bug in DataFrame.to_latex formatting when columns or index is a MultiIndex (GH7982).
• Bug in DateOffset around Daylight Savings Time produces unexpected results (GH5175).

264 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Bug in DataFrame.shift where empty columns would throw ZeroDivisionError on numpy 1.7
(GH8019)
• Bug in installation where html_encoding/*.html wasn’t installed and therefore some tests were not run-
ning correctly (GH7927).
• Bug in read_html where bytes objects were not tested for in _read (GH7927).
• Bug in DataFrame.stack() when one of the column levels was a datelike (GH8039)
• Bug in broadcasting numpy scalars with DataFrame (GH8116)
• Bug in pivot_table performed with nameless index and columns raises KeyError (GH8103)
• Bug in DataFrame.plot(kind='scatter') draws points and errorbars with different colors when the
color is specified by c keyword (GH8081)
• Bug in Float64Index where iat and at were not testing and were failing (GH8092).
• Bug in DataFrame.boxplot() where y-limits were not set correctly when producing multiple axes
(GH7528, GH5517).
• Bug in read_csv where line comments were not handled correctly given a custom line terminator or
delim_whitespace=True (GH8122).
• Bug in read_html where empty tables caused a StopIteration (GH7575)
• Bug in casting when setting a column in a same-dtype block (GH7704)
• Bug in accessing groups from a GroupBy when the original grouper was a tuple (GH8121).
• Bug in .at that would accept integer indexers on a non-integer index and do fallback (GH7814)
• Bug with kde plot and NaNs (GH8182)
• Bug in GroupBy.count with float32 data type were nan values were not excluded (GH8169).
• Bug with stacked barplots and NaNs (GH8175).
• Bug in resample with non evenly divisible offsets (e.g. ‘7s’) (GH8371)
• Bug in interpolation methods with the limit keyword when no values needed interpolating (GH7173).
• Bug where col_space was ignored in DataFrame.to_string() when header=False (GH8230).
• Bug with DatetimeIndex.asof incorrectly matching partial strings and returning the wrong date
(GH8245).
• Bug in plotting methods modifying the global matplotlib rcParams (GH8242).
• Bug in DataFrame.__setitem__ that caused errors when setting a dataframe column to a sparse array
(GH8131)
• Bug where Dataframe.boxplot() failed when entire column was empty (GH8181).
• Bug with messed variables in radviz visualization (GH8199).
• Bug in interpolation methods with the limit keyword when no values needed interpolating (GH7173).
• Bug where col_space was ignored in DataFrame.to_string() when header=False (GH8230).
• Bug in to_clipboard that would clip long column data (GH8305)
• Bug in DataFrame terminal display: Setting max_column/max_rows to zero did not trigger auto-resizing of
dfs to fit terminal width/height (GH7180).
• Bug in OLS where running with “cluster” and “nw_lags” parameters did not work correctly, but also did not
throw an error (GH5884).

1.17. v0.15.0 (October 18, 2014) 265

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Bug in DataFrame.dropna that interpreted non-existent columns in the subset argument as the ‘last column’
(GH8303)
• Bug in Index.intersection on non-monotonic non-unique indexes (GH8362).
• Bug in masked series assignment where mismatching types would break alignment (GH8387)
• Bug in NDFrame.equals gives false negatives with dtype=object (GH8437)
• Bug in assignment with indexer where type diversity would break alignment (GH8258)
• Bug in NDFrame.loc indexing when row/column names were lost when target was a list/ndarray (GH6552)
• Regression in NDFrame.loc indexing when rows/columns were converted to Float64Index if target was an
empty list/ndarray (GH7774)
• Bug in Series that allows it to be indexed by a DataFrame which has unexpected results. Such indexing is
no longer permitted (GH8444)
• Bug in item assignment of a DataFrame with multi-index columns where right-hand-side columns were not
aligned (GH7655)
• Suppress FutureWarning generated by NumPy when comparing object arrays containing NaN for equality
(GH7065)
• Bug in DataFrame.eval() where the dtype of the not operator (~) was not correctly inferred as bool.

1.18 v0.14.1 (July 11, 2014)

This is a minor release from 0.14.0 and includes a small number of API changes, several new features, enhancements,
and performance improvements along with a large number of bug fixes. We recommend that all users upgrade to this
version.
• Highlights include:
– New methods select_dtypes() to select columns based on the dtype and sem() to calculate the
standard error of the mean.
– Support for dateutil timezones (see docs).
– Support for ignoring full line comments in the read_csv() text parser.
– New documentation section on Options and Settings.
– Lots of bug fixes.
• Enhancements
• API Changes
• Performance Improvements
• Experimental Changes
• Bug Fixes

1.18.1 API changes

• Openpyxl now raises a ValueError on construction of the openpyxl writer instead of warning on pandas import
(GH7284).

266 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• For StringMethods.extract, when no match is found, the result - only containing NaN values - now also
has dtype=object instead of float (GH7242)
• Period objects no longer raise a TypeError when compared using == with another object that isn’t a
Period. Instead when comparing a Period with another object using == if the other object isn’t a Period
False is returned. (GH7376)
• Previously, the behaviour on resetting the time or not in offsets.apply, rollforward and rollback
operations differed between offsets. With the support of the normalize keyword for all offsets(see be-
low) with a default value of False (preserve time), the behaviour changed for certain offsets (BusinessMon-
thBegin, MonthEnd, BusinessMonthEnd, CustomBusinessMonthEnd, BusinessYearBegin, LastWeekOfMonth,
FY5253Quarter, LastWeekOfMonth, Easter):

In [6]: from pandas.tseries import offsets

In [7]: d = pd.Timestamp('2014-01-01 09:00')

# old behaviour < 0.14.1

In [8]: d + offsets.MonthEnd()
Out[8]: Timestamp('2014-01-31 00:00:00')

Starting from 0.14.1 all offsets preserve time by default. The old behaviour can be obtained with
normalize=True

# new behaviour
In [1]: d + offsets.MonthEnd()
Out[1]: Timestamp('2014-01-31 09:00:00')

In [2]: d + offsets.MonthEnd(normalize=True)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[2]: Timestamp('2014-01-31 00:00:00')

Note that for the other offsets the default behaviour did not change.
• Add back #N/A N/A as a default NA value in text parsing, (regresion from 0.12) (GH5521)
• Raise a TypeError on inplace-setting with a .where and a non np.nan value as this is inconsistent with a
set-item expression like df[mask] = None (GH7656)

1.18.2 Enhancements

• Add dropna argument to value_counts and nunique (GH5569).

• Add select_dtypes() method to allow selection of columns based on dtype (GH7316). See the docs.
• All offsets suppports the normalize keyword to specify whether offsets.apply, rollforward
and rollback resets the time (hour, minute, etc) or not (default False, preserves time) (GH7156):

In [3]: import pandas.tseries.offsets as offsets

In [4]: day = offsets.Day()

In [5]: day.apply(Timestamp('2014-01-01 09:00'))

Out[5]: Timestamp('2014-01-02 09:00:00')

In [6]: day = offsets.Day(normalize=True)

In [7]: day.apply(Timestamp('2014-01-01 09:00'))

Out[7]: Timestamp('2014-01-02 00:00:00')

1.18. v0.14.1 (July 11, 2014) 267

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• PeriodIndex is represented as the same format as DatetimeIndex (GH7601)

• StringMethods now work on empty Series (GH7242)
• The file parsers read_csv and read_table now ignore line comments provided by the parameter comment,
which accepts only a single character for the C reader. In particular, they allow for comments before file data
begins (GH2685)
• Add NotImplementedError for simultaneous use of chunksize and nrows for read_csv() (GH6774).
• Tests for basic reading of public S3 buckets now exist (GH7281).
• read_html now sports an encoding argument that is passed to the underlying parser library. You can use
this to read non-ascii encoded web pages (GH7323).
• read_excel now supports reading from URLs in the same way that read_csv does. (GH6809)
• Support for dateutil timezones, which can now be used in the same way as pytz timezones across pandas.
(GH4688)

In [8]: rng = date_range('3/6/2012 00:00', periods=10, freq='D',

...: tz='dateutil/Europe/London')
...:

In [9]: rng.tz
Out[9]: tzfile('/usr/share/zoneinfo/Europe/London')

See the docs.

• Implemented sem (standard error of the mean) operation for Series, DataFrame, Panel, and Groupby
(GH6897)
• Add nlargest and nsmallest to the Series groupby whitelist, which means you can now use these
methods on a SeriesGroupBy object (GH7053).
• All offsets apply, rollforward and rollback can now handle np.datetime64, previously results in
ApplyTypeError (GH7452)
• Period and PeriodIndex can contain NaT in its values (GH7485)
• Support pickling Series, DataFrame and Panel objects with non-unique labels along item axis (index,
columns and items respectively) (GH7370).
• Improved inference of datetime/timedelta with mixed null objects. Regression from 0.13.1 in interpretation of
an object Index with all null elements (GH7431)

1.18.3 Performance

• Improvements in dtype inference for numeric operations involving yielding performance gains for dtypes:
int64, timedelta64, datetime64 (GH7223)
• Improvements in Series.transform for significant performance gains (GH6496)
• Improvements in DataFrame.transform with ufuncs and built-in grouper functions for signifcant performance
gains (GH7383)
• Regression in groupby aggregation of datetime64 dtypes (GH7555)
• Improvements in MultiIndex.from_product for large iterables (GH7627)

268 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

1.18.4 Experimental

• pandas.io.data.Options has a new method, get_all_data method, and now consistently returns a
multi-indexed DataFrame (GH5602)
• io.gbq.read_gbq and io.gbq.to_gbq were refactored to remove the dependency on the Google
bq.py command line client. This submodule now uses httplib2 and the Google apiclient and
oauth2client API client libraries which should be more stable and, therefore, reliable than bq.py. See the
docs. (GH6937).

1.18.5 Bug Fixes

• Bug in DataFrame.where with a symmetric shaped frame and a passed other of a DataFrame (GH7506)
• Bug in Panel indexing with a multi-index axis (GH7516)
• Regression in datetimelike slice indexing with a duplicated index and non-exact end-points (GH7523)
• Bug in setitem with list-of-lists and single vs mixed types (GH7551:)
• Bug in timeops with non-aligned Series (GH7500)
• Bug in timedelta inference when assigning an incomplete Series (GH7592)
• Bug in groupby .nth with a Series and integer-like column name (GH7559)
• Bug in Series.get with a boolean accessor (GH7407)
• Bug in value_counts where NaT did not qualify as missing (NaN) (GH7423)
• Bug in to_timedelta that accepted invalid units and misinterpreted ‘m/h’ (GH7611, GH6423)
• Bug in line plot doesn’t set correct xlim if secondary_y=True (GH7459)
• Bug in grouped hist and scatter plots use old figsize default (GH7394)
• Bug in plotting subplots with DataFrame.plot, hist clears passed ax even if the number of subplots is
one (GH7391).
• Bug in plotting subplots with DataFrame.boxplot with by kw raises ValueError if the number of
subplots exceeds 1 (GH7391).
• Bug in subplots displays ticklabels and labels in different rule (GH5897)
• Bug in Panel.apply with a multi-index as an axis (GH7469)
• Bug in DatetimeIndex.insert doesn’t preserve name and tz (GH7299)
• Bug in DatetimeIndex.asobject doesn’t preserve name (GH7299)
• Bug in multi-index slicing with datetimelike ranges (strings and Timestamps), (GH7429)
• Bug in Index.min and max doesn’t handle nan and NaT properly (GH7261)
• Bug in PeriodIndex.min/max results in int (GH7609)
• Bug in resample where fill_method was ignored if you passed how (GH2073)
• Bug in TimeGrouper doesn’t exclude column specified by key (GH7227)
• Bug in DataFrame and Series bar and barh plot raises TypeError when bottom and left keyword is
specified (GH7226)
• Bug in DataFrame.hist raises TypeError when it contains non numeric column (GH7277)
• Bug in Index.delete does not preserve name and freq attributes (GH7302)

1.18. v0.14.1 (July 11, 2014) 269

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Bug in DataFrame.query()/eval where local string variables with the @ sign were being treated as
temporaries attempting to be deleted (GH7300).
• Bug in Float64Index which didn’t allow duplicates (GH7149).
• Bug in DataFrame.replace() where truthy values were being replaced (GH7140).
• Bug in StringMethods.extract() where a single match group Series would use the matcher’s name
instead of the group name (GH7313).
• Bug in isnull() when mode.use_inf_as_null == True where isnull wouldn’t test True when it
encountered an inf/-inf (GH7315).
• Bug in inferred_freq results in None for eastern hemisphere timezones (GH7310)
• Bug in Easter returns incorrect date when offset is negative (GH7195)
• Bug in broadcasting with .div, integer dtypes and divide-by-zero (GH7325)
• Bug in CustomBusinessDay.apply raiases NameError when np.datetime64 object is passed
(GH7196)
• Bug in MultiIndex.append, concat and pivot_table don’t preserve timezone (GH6606)
• Bug in .loc with a list of indexers on a single-multi index level (that is not nested) (GH7349)
• Bug in Series.map when mapping a dict with tuple keys of different lengths (GH7333)
• Bug all StringMethods now work on empty Series (GH7242)
• Fix delegation of read_sql to read_sql_query when query does not contain ‘select’ (GH7324).
• Bug where a string column name assignment to a DataFrame with a Float64Index raised a TypeError
during a call to np.isnan (GH7366).
• Bug where NDFrame.replace() didn’t correctly replace objects with Period values (GH7379).
• Bug in .ix getitem should always return a Series (GH7150)
• Bug in multi-index slicing with incomplete indexers (GH7399)
• Bug in multi-index slicing with a step in a sliced level (GH7400)
• Bug where negative indexers in DatetimeIndex were not correctly sliced (GH7408)
• Bug where NaT wasn’t repr’d correctly in a MultiIndex (GH7406, GH7409).
• Bug where bool objects were converted to nan in convert_objects (GH7416).
• Bug in quantile ignoring the axis keyword argument (:issue‘7306‘)
• Bug where nanops._maybe_null_out doesn’t work with complex numbers (GH7353)
• Bug in several nanops functions when axis==0 for 1-dimensional nan arrays (GH7354)
• Bug where nanops.nanmedian doesn’t work when axis==None (GH7352)
• Bug where nanops._has_infs doesn’t work with many dtypes (GH7357)
• Bug in StataReader.data where reading a 0-observation dta failed (GH7369)
• Bug in StataReader when reading Stata 13 (117) files containing fixed width strings (GH7360)
• Bug in StataWriter where encoding was ignored (GH7286)
• Bug in DatetimeIndex comparison doesn’t handle NaT properly (GH7529)
• Bug in passing input with tzinfo to some offsets apply, rollforward or rollback resets tzinfo or
raises ValueError (GH7465)

270 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Bug in DatetimeIndex.to_period, PeriodIndex.asobject, PeriodIndex.to_timestamp

doesn’t preserve name (GH7485)
• Bug in DatetimeIndex.to_period and PeriodIndex.to_timestanp handle NaT incorrectly
(GH7228)
• Bug in offsets.apply, rollforward and rollback may return normal datetime (GH7502)
• Bug in resample raises ValueError when target contains NaT (GH7227)
• Bug in Timestamp.tz_localize resets nanosecond info (GH7534)
• Bug in DatetimeIndex.asobject raises ValueError when it contains NaT (GH7539)
• Bug in Timestamp.__new__ doesn’t preserve nanosecond properly (GH7610)
• Bug in Index.astype(float) where it would return an object dtype Index (GH7464).
• Bug in DataFrame.reset_index loses tz (GH3950)
• Bug in DatetimeIndex.freqstr raises AttributeError when freq is None (GH7606)
• Bug in GroupBy.size created by TimeGrouper raises AttributeError (GH7453)
• Bug in single column bar plot is misaligned (GH7498).
• Bug in area plot with tz-aware time series raises ValueError (GH7471)
• Bug in non-monotonic Index.union may preserve name incorrectly (GH7458)
• Bug in DatetimeIndex.intersection doesn’t preserve timezone (GH4690)
• Bug in rolling_var where a window larger than the array would raise an error(GH7297)
• Bug with last plotted timeseries dictating xlim (GH2960)
• Bug with secondary_y axis not being considered for timeseries xlim (GH3490)
• Bug in Float64Index assignment with a non scalar indexer (GH7586)
• Bug in pandas.core.strings.str_contains does not properly match in a case insensitive fashion
when regex=False and case=False (GH7505)
• Bug in expanding_cov, expanding_corr, rolling_cov, and rolling_corr for two arguments
with mismatched index (GH7512)
• Bug in to_sql taking the boolean column as text column (GH7678)
• Bug in grouped hist doesn’t handle rot kw and sharex kw properly (GH7234)
• Bug in .loc performing fallback integer indexing with object dtype indices (GH7496)
• Bug (regression) in PeriodIndex constructor when passed Series objects (GH7701).

1.19 v0.14.0 (May 31 , 2014)

This is a major release from 0.13.1 and includes a small number of API changes, several new features, enhancements,
and performance improvements along with a large number of bug fixes. We recommend that all users upgrade to this
version.
• Highlights include:
– Officially support Python 3.4
– SQL interfaces updated to use sqlalchemy, See Here.

1.19. v0.14.0 (May 31 , 2014) 271

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

– Display interface changes, See Here

– MultiIndexing Using Slicers, See Here.
– Ability to join a singly-indexed DataFrame with a multi-indexed DataFrame, see Here
– More consistency in groupby results and more flexible groupby specifications, See Here
– Holiday calendars are now supported in CustomBusinessDay, see Here
– Several improvements in plotting functions, including: hexbin, area and pie plots, see Here.
– Performance doc section on I/O operations, See Here
• Other Enhancements
• API Changes
• Text Parsing API Changes
• Groupby API Changes
• Performance Improvements
• Prior Deprecations
• Deprecations
• Known Issues
• Bug Fixes

Warning: In 0.14.0 all NDFrame based containers have undergone significant internal refactoring. Before that
each block of homogeneous data had its own labels and extra care was necessary to keep those in sync with the
parent container’s labels. This should not have any visible user/API behavior changes (GH6745)

1.19.1 API changes

• read_excel uses 0 as the default sheet (GH6573)

• iloc will now accept out-of-bounds indexers for slices, e.g. a value that exceeds the length of the object
being indexed. These will be excluded. This will make pandas conform more with python/numpy indexing of
out-of-bounds values. A single indexer that is out-of-bounds and drops the dimensions of the object will still
raise IndexError (GH6296, GH6299). This could result in an empty axis (e.g. an empty DataFrame being
returned)
In [1]: dfl = DataFrame(np.random.randn(5,2),columns=list('AB'))

In [2]: dfl
Out[2]:
A B
0 1.583584 -0.438313
1 -0.402537 -0.780572
2 -0.141685 0.542241
3 0.370966 -0.251642
4 0.787484 1.666563

In [3]: dfl.iloc[:,2:3]
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

Empty DataFrame

272 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Columns: []
Index: [0, 1, 2, 3, 4]

In [4]: dfl.iloc[:,1:3]
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

B
0 -0.438313
1 -0.780572
2 0.542241
3 -0.251642
4 1.666563

In [5]: dfl.iloc[4:6]
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

A B
4 0.787484 1.666563

These are out-of-bounds selections

dfl.iloc[[4,5,6]]
IndexError: positional indexers are out-of-bounds

dfl.iloc[:,4]
IndexError: single positional indexer is out-of-bounds

• Slicing with negative start, stop & step values handles corner cases better (GH6531):
– df.iloc[:-len(df)] is now empty
– df.iloc[len(df)::-1] now enumerates all elements in reverse
• The DataFrame.interpolate() keyword downcast default has been changed from infer to None.
This is to preseve the original dtype unless explicitly requested otherwise (GH6290).
• When converting a dataframe to HTML it used to return Empty DataFrame. This special case has been removed,
instead a header with the column names is returned (GH6062).
• Series and Index now internall share more common operations, e.g. factorize(),nunique(),
value_counts() are now supported on Index types as well. The Series.weekday property from
is removed from Series for API consistency. Using a DatetimeIndex/PeriodIndex method on a Series
will now raise a TypeError. (GH4551, GH4056, GH5519, GH6380, GH7206).
• Add is_month_start, is_month_end, is_quarter_start, is_quarter_end,
is_year_start, is_year_end accessors for DateTimeIndex / Timestamp which return a
boolean array of whether the timestamp(s) are at the start/end of the month/quarter/year defined by the
frequency of the DateTimeIndex / Timestamp (GH4565, GH6998)
• Local variable usage has changed in pandas.eval()/DataFrame.eval()/DataFrame.query()
(GH5987). For the DataFrame methods, two things have changed
– Column names are now given precedence over locals
– Local variables must be referred to explicitly. This means that even if you have a local variable that is not
a column you must still refer to it with the '@' prefix.
– You can have an expression like df.query('@a < a') with no complaints from pandas about am-
biguity of the name a.

1.19. v0.14.0 (May 31 , 2014) 273

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

– The top-level pandas.eval() function does not allow you use the '@' prefix and provides you with
an error message telling you so.
– NameResolutionError was removed because it isn’t necessary anymore.
• Define and document the order of column vs index names in query/eval (GH6676)
• concat will now concatenate mixed Series and DataFrames using the Series name or numbering columns as
needed (GH2385). See the docs
• Slicing and advanced/boolean indexing operations on Index classes as well as Index.delete() and
Index.drop() methods will no longer change the type of the resulting index (GH6440, GH7040)

In [6]: i = pd.Index([1, 2, 3, 'a' , 'b', 'c'])

In [7]: i[[0,1,2]]
Out[7]: Index([1, 2, 3], dtype='object')

In [8]: i.drop(['a', 'b', 'c'])

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[8]: Index([1, 2, 3], dtype='object')

Previously, the above operation would return Int64Index. If you’d like to do this manually, use Index.
astype()

In [9]: i[[0,1,2]].astype(np.int_)
Out[9]: Int64Index([1, 2, 3], dtype='int64')

• set_index no longer converts MultiIndexes to an Index of tuples. For example, the old behavior returned an
Index in this case (GH6459):

# Old behavior, casted MultiIndex to an Index

In [10]: tuple_ind
Out[10]: Index([('a', 'c'), ('a', 'd'), ('b', 'c'), ('b', 'd')], dtype='object')

In [11]: df_multi.set_index(tuple_ind)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[11]:
˓→

0 1
(a, c) 0.471435 -1.190976
(a, d) 1.432707 -0.312652
(b, c) -0.720589 0.887163
(b, d) 0.859588 -0.636524

# New behavior
In [12]: mi
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

MultiIndex(levels=[['a', 'b'], ['c', 'd']],

labels=[[0, 0, 1, 1], [0, 1, 0, 1]])

In [13]: df_multi.set_index(mi)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

0 1
a c 0.471435 -1.190976
d 1.432707 -0.312652
b c -0.720589 0.887163
d 0.859588 -0.636524

This also applies when passing multiple indices to set_index:

274 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

# Old output, 2-level MultiIndex of tuples

In [14]: df_multi.set_index([df_multi.index, df_multi.index])
Out[14]:
0 1
(a, c) (a, c) 0.471435 -1.190976
(a, d) (a, d) 1.432707 -0.312652
(b, c) (b, c) -0.720589 0.887163
(b, d) (b, d) 0.859588 -0.636524

# New output, 4-level MultiIndex

In [15]: df_multi.set_index([df_multi.index, df_multi.index])
Out[15]:
0 1
a c a c 0.471435 -1.190976
d a d 1.432707 -0.312652
b c b c -0.720589 0.887163
d b d 0.859588 -0.636524

• pairwise keyword was added to the statistical moment functions rolling_cov, rolling_corr,
ewmcov, ewmcorr, expanding_cov, expanding_corr to allow the calculation of moving window
covariance and correlation matrices (GH4950). See Computing rolling pairwise covariances and correlations
in the docs.

In [1]: df = DataFrame(np.random.randn(10,4),columns=list('ABCD'))

In [4]: covs = pd.rolling_cov(df[['A','B','C']], df[['B','C','D']], 5,

˓→pairwise=True)

In [5]: covs[df.index[-1]]
Out[5]:
B C D
A 0.035310 0.326593 -0.505430
B 0.137748 -0.006888 -0.005383
C -0.006888 0.861040 0.020762

• Series.iteritems() is now lazy (returns an iterator rather than a list). This was the documented behavior
prior to 0.14. (GH6760)
• Added nunique and value_counts functions to Index for counting unique elements. (GH6734)
• stack and unstack now raise a ValueError when the level keyword refers to a non-unique item in the
Index (previously raised a KeyError). (GH6738)
• drop unused order argument from Series.sort; args now are in the same order as Series.order; add
na_position arg to conform to Series.order (GH6847)
• default sorting algorithm for Series.order is now quicksort, to conform with Series.sort (and
numpy defaults)
• add inplace keyword to Series.order/sort to make them inverses (GH6859)
• DataFrame.sort now places NaNs at the beginning or end of the sort according to the na_position
parameter. (GH3917)
• accept TextFileReader in concat, which was affecting a common user idiom (GH6583), this was a
regression from 0.13.1
• Added factorize functions to Index and Series to get indexer and unique values (GH7090)

1.19. v0.14.0 (May 31 , 2014) 275

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• describe on a DataFrame with a mix of Timestamp and string like objects returns a different Index (GH7088).
Previously the index was unintentionally sorted.
• Arithmetic operations with only bool dtypes now give a warning indicating that they are evaluated in Python
space for +, -, and * operations and raise for all others (GH7011, GH6762, GH7015, GH7210)

x = pd.Series(np.random.rand(10) > 0.5)

y = True
x + y # warning generated: should do x | y instead
x / y # this raises because it doesn't make sense

NotImplementedError: operator '/' not implemented for bool dtypes

• In HDFStore, select_as_multiple will always raise a KeyError, when a key or the selector is not
found (GH6177)
• df['col'] = value and df.loc[:,'col'] = value are now completely equivalent; previously the
.loc would not necessarily coerce the dtype of the resultant series (GH6149)
• dtypes and ftypes now return a series with dtype=object on empty containers (GH5740)
• df.to_csv will now return a string of the CSV data if neither a target path nor a buffer is provided (GH6061)
• pd.infer_freq() will now raise a TypeError if given an invalid Series/Index type (GH6407,
GH6463)
• A tuple passed to DataFame.sort_index will be interpreted as the levels of the index, rather than requiring
a list of tuple (GH4370)
• all offset operations now return Timestamp types (rather than datetime), Business/Week frequencies were
incorrect (GH4069)
• to_excel now converts np.inf into a string representation, customizable by the inf_rep keyword argu-
ment (Excel has no native inf representation) (GH6782)
• Replace pandas.compat.scipy.scoreatpercentile with numpy.percentile (GH6810)
• .quantile on a datetime[ns] series now returns Timestamp instead of np.datetime64 objects
(GH6810)
• change AssertionError to TypeError for invalid types passed to concat (GH6583)
• Raise a TypeError when DataFrame is passed an iterator as the data argument (GH5357)

1.19.2 Display Changes

• The default way of printing large DataFrames has changed. DataFrames exceeding max_rows and/or
max_columns are now displayed in a centrally truncated view, consistent with the printing of a pandas.
Series (GH5603).
In previous versions, a DataFrame was truncated once the dimension constraints were reached and an ellipse
(...) signaled that part of the data was cut off.

276 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In the current version, large DataFrames are centrally truncated, showing a preview of head and tail in both
dimensions.

• allow option 'truncate' for display.show_dimensions to only show the dimensions if the frame is
truncated (GH6547).
The default for display.show_dimensions will now be truncate. This is consistent with how Series
display length.
In [16]: dfd = pd.DataFrame(np.arange(25).reshape(-1,5), index=[0,1,2,3,4],
˓→columns=[0,1,2,3,4])

# show dimensions since this is truncated

In [17]: with pd.option_context('display.max_rows', 2, 'display.max_columns', 2,
....: 'display.show_dimensions', 'truncate'):
....: print(dfd)
....:
0 ... 4

1.19. v0.14.0 (May 31 , 2014) 277

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

0 0 ... 4
.. .. ... ..
4 20 ... 24

[5 rows x 5 columns]

# will not show dimensions since it is not truncated

In [18]: with pd.option_context('display.max_rows', 10, 'display.max_columns', 40,
....: 'display.show_dimensions', 'truncate'):
....: print(dfd)
....:
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→ 0 1 2 3 4
0 0 1 2 3 4
1 5 6 7 8 9
2 10 11 12 13 14
3 15 16 17 18 19
4 20 21 22 23 24

• Regression in the display of a MultiIndexed Series with display.max_rows is less than the length of the
series (GH7101)
• Fixed a bug in the HTML repr of a truncated Series or DataFrame not showing the class name with the large_repr
set to ‘info’ (GH7105)
• The verbose keyword in DataFrame.info(), which controls whether to shorten the info representation,
is now None by default. This will follow the global setting in display.max_info_columns. The global
setting can be overriden with verbose=True or verbose=False.
• Fixed a bug with the info repr not honoring the display.max_info_columns setting (GH6939)
• Offset/freq info now in Timestamp __repr__ (GH4553)

1.19.3 Text Parsing API Changes

read_csv()/read_table() will now be noiser w.r.t invalid options rather than falling back to the
PythonParser.
• Raise ValueError when sep specified with delim_whitespace=True in
read_csv()/read_table() (GH6607)
• Raise ValueError when engine='c' specified with unsupported options in
read_csv()/read_table() (GH6607)
• Raise ValueError when fallback to python parser causes options to be ignored (GH6607)
• Produce ParserWarning on fallback to python parser when no options are ignored (GH6607)
• Translate sep='\s+' to delim_whitespace=True in read_csv()/read_table() if no other C-
unsupported options specified (GH6607)

1.19.4 Groupby API Changes

More consistent behaviour for some groupby methods:

• groupby head and tail now act more like filter rather than an aggregation:

278 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [19]: df = pd.DataFrame([[1, 2], [1, 4], [5, 6]], columns=['A', 'B'])

In [20]: g = df.groupby('A')

In [21]: g.head(1) # filters DataFrame

Out[21]:
A B
0 1 2
2 5 6

In [22]: g.apply(lambda x: x.head(1)) # used to simply fall-through

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[22]:
A B
A
1 0 1 2
5 2 5 6

• groupby head and tail respect column selection:

In [23]: g[['B']].head(1)
Out[23]:
B
0 2
2 6

• groupby nth now reduces by default; filtering can be achieved by passing as_index=False. With an
optional dropna argument to ignore NaN. See the docs.
Reducing

In [24]: df = DataFrame([[1, np.nan], [1, 4], [5, 6]], columns=['A', 'B'])

In [25]: g = df.groupby('A')

In [26]: g.nth(0)
Out[26]:
B
A
1 NaN
5 6.0

# this is equivalent to g.first()

In [27]: g.nth(0, dropna='any')
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[27]:
B
A
1 4.0
5 6.0

# this is equivalent to g.last()

In [28]: g.nth(-1, dropna='any')
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[28]:
˓→

B
A
1 4.0
5 6.0

1.19. v0.14.0 (May 31 , 2014) 279

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Filtering
In [29]: gf = df.groupby('A',as_index=False)

In [30]: gf.nth(0)
Out[30]:
A B
0 1 NaN
2 5 6.0

In [31]: gf.nth(0, dropna='any')

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[31]:
A B
A
1 1 4.0
5 5 6.0

• groupby will now not return the grouped column for non-cython functions (GH5610, GH5614, GH6732), as its
already the index
In [32]: df = DataFrame([[1, np.nan], [1, 4], [5, 6], [5, 8]], columns=['A', 'B'])

In [33]: g = df.groupby('A')

In [34]: g.count()
Out[34]:
B
A
1 1
5 2

In [35]: g.describe()
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[35]:
B
count mean std min 25% 50% 75% max
A
1 1.0 4.0 NaN 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0
5 2.0 7.0 1.414214 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 8.0

• passing as_index will leave the grouped column in-place (this is not change in 0.14.0)
In [36]: df = DataFrame([[1, np.nan], [1, 4], [5, 6], [5, 8]], columns=['A', 'B'])

In [37]: g = df.groupby('A',as_index=False)

In [38]: g.count()
Out[38]:
A B
0 1 1
1 5 2

In [39]: g.describe()
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[39]:
A B \
count mean std min 25% 50% 75% max count mean std min 25%
0 2.0 1.0 0.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 4.0 NaN 4.0 4.0
1 2.0 5.0 0.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 2.0 7.0 1.414214 6.0 6.5

280 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

50% 75% max

0 4.0 4.0 4.0
1 7.0 7.5 8.0

• Allow specification of a more complex groupby via pd.Grouper, such as grouping by a Time and a string
field simultaneously. See the docs. (GH3794)
• Better propagation/preservation of Series names when performing groupby operations:
– SeriesGroupBy.agg will ensure that the name attribute of the original series is propagated to the
result (GH6265).
– If the function provided to GroupBy.apply returns a named series, the name of the series will be kept as
the name of the column index of the DataFrame returned by GroupBy.apply (GH6124). This facilitates
DataFrame.stack operations where the name of the column index is used as the name of the inserted
column containing the pivoted data.

1.19.5 SQL

The SQL reading and writing functions now support more database flavors through SQLAlchemy (GH2717, GH4163,
GH5950, GH6292). All databases supported by SQLAlchemy can be used, such as PostgreSQL, MySQL, Oracle,
Microsoft SQL server (see documentation of SQLAlchemy on included dialects).
The functionality of providing DBAPI connection objects will only be supported for sqlite3 in the future. The
'mysql' flavor is deprecated.
The new functions read_sql_query() and read_sql_table() are introduced. The function read_sql()
is kept as a convenience wrapper around the other two and will delegate to specific function depending on the provided
input (database table name or sql query).
In practice, you have to provide a SQLAlchemy engine to the sql functions. To connect with SQLAlchemy you use
the create_engine() function to create an engine object from database URI. You only need to create the engine
once per database you are connecting to. For an in-memory sqlite database:

In [40]: from sqlalchemy import create_engine

# Create your connection.

In [41]: engine = create_engine('sqlite:///:memory:')

This engine can then be used to write or read data to/from this database:

In [42]: df = pd.DataFrame({'A': [1,2,3], 'B': ['a', 'b', 'c']})

In [43]: df.to_sql('db_table', engine, index=False)

You can read data from a database by specifying the table name:

In [44]: pd.read_sql_table('db_table', engine)

Out[44]:
A B
0 1 a
1 2 b
2 3 c

or by specifying a sql query:

1.19. v0.14.0 (May 31 , 2014) 281

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [45]: pd.read_sql_query('SELECT * FROM db_table', engine)

Out[45]:
A B
0 1 a
1 2 b
2 3 c

Some other enhancements to the sql functions include:

• support for writing the index. This can be controlled with the index keyword (default is True).
• specify the column label to use when writing the index with index_label.
• specify string columns to parse as datetimes withh the parse_dates keyword in read_sql_query() and
read_sql_table().

Warning: Some of the existing functions or function aliases have been deprecated and will be removed in future
versions. This includes: tquery, uquery, read_frame, frame_query, write_frame.

Warning: The support for the ‘mysql’ flavor when using DBAPI connection objects has been deprecated. MySQL
will be further supported with SQLAlchemy engines (GH6900).

1.19.6 MultiIndexing Using Slicers

In 0.14.0 we added a new way to slice multi-indexed objects. You can slice a multi-index by providing multiple
indexers.
You can provide any of the selectors as if you are indexing by label, see Selection by Label, including slices, lists of
labels, labels, and boolean indexers.
You can use slice(None) to select all the contents of that level. You do not need to specify all the deeper levels,
they will be implied as slice(None).
As usual, both sides of the slicers are included as this is label indexing.
See the docs See also issues (GH6134, GH4036, GH3057, GH2598, GH5641, GH7106)

Warning: You should specify all axes in the .loc specifier, meaning the indexer for the index and for the
columns. Their are some ambiguous cases where the passed indexer could be mis-interpreted as indexing both
axes, rather than into say the MuliIndex for the rows.
You should do this:
df.loc[(slice('A1','A3'),.....),:]

rather than this:

df.loc[(slice('A1','A3'),.....)]

Warning: You will need to make sure that the selection axes are fully lexsorted!

282 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [46]: def mklbl(prefix,n):

....: return ["%s%s" % (prefix,i) for i in range(n)]
....:

In [47]: index = MultiIndex.from_product([mklbl('A',4),

....: mklbl('B',2),
....: mklbl('C',4),
....: mklbl('D',2)])
....:

In [48]: columns = MultiIndex.from_tuples([('a','foo'),('a','bar'),

....: ('b','foo'),('b','bah')],
....: names=['lvl0', 'lvl1'])
....:

In [49]: df = DataFrame(np.arange(len(index)*len(columns)).reshape((len(index),
˓→len(columns))),

....: index=index,
....: columns=columns).sort_index().sort_index(axis=1)
....:

In [50]: df
Out[50]:
lvl0 a b
lvl1 bar foo bah foo
A0 B0 C0 D0 1 0 3 2
D1 5 4 7 6
C1 D0 9 8 11 10
D1 13 12 15 14
C2 D0 17 16 19 18
D1 21 20 23 22
C3 D0 25 24 27 26
... ... ... ... ...
A3 B1 C0 D1 229 228 231 230
C1 D0 233 232 235 234
D1 237 236 239 238
C2 D0 241 240 243 242
D1 245 244 247 246
C3 D0 249 248 251 250
D1 253 252 255 254

[64 rows x 4 columns]

Basic multi-index slicing using slices, lists, and labels.

In [51]: df.loc[(slice('A1','A3'),slice(None), ['C1','C3']),:]

Out[51]:
lvl0 a b
lvl1 bar foo bah foo
A1 B0 C1 D0 73 72 75 74
D1 77 76 79 78
C3 D0 89 88 91 90
D1 93 92 95 94
B1 C1 D0 105 104 107 106
D1 109 108 111 110
C3 D0 121 120 123 122
... ... ... ... ...
A3 B0 C1 D1 205 204 207 206

1.19. v0.14.0 (May 31 , 2014) 283

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

C3 D0 217 216 219 218

D1 221 220 223 222
B1 C1 D0 233 232 235 234
D1 237 236 239 238
C3 D0 249 248 251 250
D1 253 252 255 254

[24 rows x 4 columns]

You can use a pd.IndexSlice to shortcut the creation of these slices

In [52]: idx = pd.IndexSlice

In [53]: df.loc[idx[:,:,['C1','C3']],idx[:,'foo']]
Out[53]:
lvl0 a b
lvl1 foo foo
A0 B0 C1 D0 8 10
D1 12 14
C3 D0 24 26
D1 28 30
B1 C1 D0 40 42
D1 44 46
C3 D0 56 58
... ... ...
A3 B0 C1 D1 204 206
C3 D0 216 218
D1 220 222
B1 C1 D0 232 234
D1 236 238
C3 D0 248 250
D1 252 254

[32 rows x 2 columns]

It is possible to perform quite complicated selections using this method on multiple axes at the same time.

In [54]: df.loc['A1',(slice(None),'foo')]
Out[54]:
lvl0 a b
lvl1 foo foo
B0 C0 D0 64 66
D1 68 70
C1 D0 72 74
D1 76 78
C2 D0 80 82
D1 84 86
C3 D0 88 90
... ... ...
B1 C0 D1 100 102
C1 D0 104 106
D1 108 110
C2 D0 112 114
D1 116 118
C3 D0 120 122
D1 124 126

[16 rows x 2 columns]

284 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [55]: df.loc[idx[:,:,['C1','C3']],idx[:,'foo']]
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

lvl0 a b
lvl1 foo foo
A0 B0 C1 D0 8 10
D1 12 14
C3 D0 24 26
D1 28 30
B1 C1 D0 40 42
D1 44 46
C3 D0 56 58
... ... ...
A3 B0 C1 D1 204 206
C3 D0 216 218
D1 220 222
B1 C1 D0 232 234
D1 236 238
C3 D0 248 250
D1 252 254

[32 rows x 2 columns]

Using a boolean indexer you can provide selection related to the values.

In [56]: mask = df[('a','foo')]>200

In [57]: df.loc[idx[mask,:,['C1','C3']],idx[:,'foo']]
Out[57]:
lvl0 a b
lvl1 foo foo
A3 B0 C1 D1 204 206
C3 D0 216 218
D1 220 222
B1 C1 D0 232 234
D1 236 238
C3 D0 248 250
D1 252 254

You can also specify the axis argument to .loc to interpret the passed slicers on a single axis.

In [58]: df.loc(axis=0)[:,:,['C1','C3']]
Out[58]:
lvl0 a b
lvl1 bar foo bah foo
A0 B0 C1 D0 9 8 11 10
D1 13 12 15 14
C3 D0 25 24 27 26
D1 29 28 31 30
B1 C1 D0 41 40 43 42
D1 45 44 47 46
C3 D0 57 56 59 58
... ... ... ... ...
A3 B0 C1 D1 205 204 207 206
C3 D0 217 216 219 218
D1 221 220 223 222
B1 C1 D0 233 232 235 234

1.19. v0.14.0 (May 31 , 2014) 285

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

D1 237 236 239 238

C3 D0 249 248 251 250
D1 253 252 255 254

[32 rows x 4 columns]

Furthermore you can set the values using these methods

In [59]: df2 = df.copy()

In [60]: df2.loc(axis=0)[:,:,['C1','C3']] = -10

In [61]: df2
Out[61]:
lvl0 a b
lvl1 bar foo bah foo
A0 B0 C0 D0 1 0 3 2
D1 5 4 7 6
C1 D0 -10 -10 -10 -10
D1 -10 -10 -10 -10
C2 D0 17 16 19 18
D1 21 20 23 22
C3 D0 -10 -10 -10 -10
... ... ... ... ...
A3 B1 C0 D1 229 228 231 230
C1 D0 -10 -10 -10 -10
D1 -10 -10 -10 -10
C2 D0 241 240 243 242
D1 245 244 247 246
C3 D0 -10 -10 -10 -10
D1 -10 -10 -10 -10

[64 rows x 4 columns]

You can use a right-hand-side of an alignable object as well.

In [62]: df2 = df.copy()

In [63]: df2.loc[idx[:,:,['C1','C3']],:] = df2*1000

In [64]: df2
Out[64]:
lvl0 a b
lvl1 bar foo bah foo
A0 B0 C0 D0 1 0 3 2
D1 5 4 7 6
C1 D0 9000 8000 11000 10000
D1 13000 12000 15000 14000
C2 D0 17 16 19 18
D1 21 20 23 22
C3 D0 25000 24000 27000 26000
... ... ... ... ...
A3 B1 C0 D1 229 228 231 230
C1 D0 233000 232000 235000 234000
D1 237000 236000 239000 238000
C2 D0 241 240 243 242
D1 245 244 247 246
C3 D0 249000 248000 251000 250000

286 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

D1 253000 252000 255000 254000

[64 rows x 4 columns]

1.19.7 Plotting

• Hexagonal bin plots from DataFrame.plot with kind='hexbin' (GH5478), See the docs.
• DataFrame.plot and Series.plot now supports area plot with specifying kind='area' (GH6656),
See the docs
• Pie plots from Series.plot and DataFrame.plot with kind='pie' (GH6976), See the docs.
• Plotting with Error Bars is now supported in the .plot method of DataFrame and Series objects (GH3796,
GH6834), See the docs.
• DataFrame.plot and Series.plot now support a table keyword for plotting matplotlib.Table,
See the docs. The table keyword can receive the following values.
– False: Do nothing (default).
– True: Draw a table using the DataFrame or Series called plot method. Data will be transposed to
meet matplotlib’s default layout.
– DataFrame or Series: Draw matplotlib.table using the passed data. The data will be drawn as
displayed in print method (not transposed automatically). Also, helper function pandas.tools.
plotting.table is added to create a table from DataFrame and Series, and add it to an
matplotlib.Axes.
• plot(legend='reverse') will now reverse the order of legend labels for most plot kinds. (GH6014)
• Line plot and area plot can be stacked by stacked=True (GH6656)
• Following keywords are now acceptable for DataFrame.plot() with kind='bar' and kind='barh':
– width: Specify the bar width. In previous versions, static value 0.5 was passed to matplotlib and it cannot
be overwritten. (GH6604)
– align: Specify the bar alignment. Default is center (different from matplotlib). In previous versions,
pandas passes align=’edge’ to matplotlib and adjust the location to center by itself, and it results align
keyword is not applied as expected. (GH4525)
– position: Specify relative alignments for bar plot layout. From 0 (left/bottom-end) to 1(right/top-end).
Default is 0.5 (center). (GH6604)
Because of the default align value changes, coordinates of bar plots are now located on integer values (0.0, 1.0,
2.0 ...). This is intended to make bar plot be located on the same coodinates as line plot. However, bar plot
may differs unexpectedly when you manually adjust the bar location or drawing area, such as using set_xlim,
set_ylim, etc. In this cases, please modify your script to meet with new coordinates.
• The parallel_coordinates() function now takes argument color instead of colors. A
FutureWarning is raised to alert that the old colors argument will not be supported in a future release.
(GH6956)
• The parallel_coordinates() and andrews_curves() functions now take positional argument
frame instead of data. A FutureWarning is raised if the old data argument is used by name. (GH6956)
• DataFrame.boxplot() now supports layout keyword (GH6769)
• DataFrame.boxplot() has a new keyword argument, return_type. It accepts 'dict', 'axes', or
'both', in which case a namedtuple with the matplotlib axes and a dict of matplotlib Lines is returned.

1.19. v0.14.0 (May 31 , 2014) 287

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

1.19.8 Prior Version Deprecations/Changes

There are prior version deprecations that are taking effect as of 0.14.0.
• Remove DateRange in favor of DatetimeIndex (GH6816)
• Remove column keyword from DataFrame.sort (GH4370)
• Remove precision keyword from set_eng_float_format() (GH395)
• Remove force_unicode keyword from DataFrame.to_string(), DataFrame.to_latex(), and
DataFrame.to_html(); these function encode in unicode by default (GH2224, GH2225)
• Remove nanRep keyword from DataFrame.to_csv() and DataFrame.to_string() (GH275)
• Remove unique keyword from HDFStore.select_column() (GH3256)
• Remove inferTimeRule keyword from Timestamp.offset() (GH391)
• Remove name keyword from get_data_yahoo() and get_data_google() ( commit b921d1a )
• Remove offset keyword from DatetimeIndex constructor ( commit 3136390 )
• Remove time_rule from several rolling-moment statistical functions, such as rolling_sum() (GH1042)
• Removed neg - boolean operations on numpy arrays in favor of inv ~, as this is going to be deprecated in numpy
1.9 (GH6960)

1.19.9 Deprecations

• The pivot_table()/DataFrame.pivot_table() and crosstab() functions now take arguments

index and columns instead of rows and cols. A FutureWarning is raised to alert that the old rows
and cols arguments will not be supported in a future release (GH5505)
• The DataFrame.drop_duplicates() and DataFrame.duplicated() methods now take argument
subset instead of cols to better align with DataFrame.dropna(). A FutureWarning is raised to
alert that the old cols arguments will not be supported in a future release (GH6680)
• The DataFrame.to_csv() and DataFrame.to_excel() functions now takes argument columns in-
stead of cols. A FutureWarning is raised to alert that the old cols arguments will not be supported in a
future release (GH6645)
• Indexers will warn FutureWarning when used with a scalar indexer and a non-floating point Index (GH4892,
GH6960)

# non-floating point indexes can only be indexed by integers / labels

In [1]: Series(1,np.arange(5))[3.0]
pandas/core/index.py:469: FutureWarning: scalar indexers for index type
˓→Int64Index should be integers and not floating point

Out[1]: 1

In [2]: Series(1,np.arange(5)).iloc[3.0]
pandas/core/index.py:469: FutureWarning: scalar indexers for index type
˓→Int64Index should be integers and not floating point

Out[2]: 1

In [3]: Series(1,np.arange(5)).iloc[3.0:4]
pandas/core/index.py:527: FutureWarning: slice indexers when using iloc
˓→should be integers and not floating point

Out[3]:
3 1

288 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

dtype: int64

# these are Float64Indexes, so integer or floating point is acceptable

In [4]: Series(1,np.arange(5.))[3]
Out[4]: 1

In [5]: Series(1,np.arange(5.))[3.0]
Out[6]: 1

• Numpy 1.9 compat w.r.t. deprecation warnings (GH6960)

• Panel.shift() now has a function signature that matches DataFrame.shift(). The old posi-
tional argument lags has been changed to a keyword argument periods with a default value of 1. A
FutureWarning is raised if the old argument lags is used by name. (GH6910)
• The order keyword argument of factorize() will be removed. (GH6926).
• Remove the copy keyword from DataFrame.xs(), Panel.major_xs(), Panel.minor_xs(). A
view will be returned if possible, otherwise a copy will be made. Previously the user could think that
copy=False would ALWAYS return a view. (GH6894)
• The parallel_coordinates() function now takes argument color instead of colors. A
FutureWarning is raised to alert that the old colors argument will not be supported in a future release.
(GH6956)
• The parallel_coordinates() and andrews_curves() functions now take positional argument
frame instead of data. A FutureWarning is raised if the old data argument is used by name. (GH6956)
• The support for the ‘mysql’ flavor when using DBAPI connection objects has been deprecated. MySQL will be
further supported with SQLAlchemy engines (GH6900).
• The following io.sql functions have been deprecated: tquery, uquery, read_frame, frame_query,
write_frame.
• The percentile_width keyword argument in describe() has been deprecated. Use the percentiles keyword
instead, which takes a list of percentiles to display. The default output is unchanged.
• The default return type of boxplot() will change from a dict to a matpltolib Axes in a future release. You
can use the future behavior now by passing return_type='axes' to boxplot.

1.19.10 Known Issues

• OpenPyXL 2.0.0 breaks backwards compatibility (GH7169)

1.19.11 Enhancements

• DataFrame and Series will create a MultiIndex object if passed a tuples dict, See the docs (GH3323)
In [65]: Series({('a', 'b'): 1, ('a', 'a'): 0,
....: ('a', 'c'): 2, ('b', 'a'): 3, ('b', 'b'): 4})
....:
Out[65]:
a a 0
b 1
c 2
b a 3
b 4
dtype: int64

1.19. v0.14.0 (May 31 , 2014) 289

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [66]: DataFrame({('a', 'b'): {('A', 'B'): 1, ('A', 'C'): 2},

....: ('a', 'a'): {('A', 'C'): 3, ('A', 'B'): 4},
....: ('a', 'c'): {('A', 'B'): 5, ('A', 'C'): 6},
....: ('b', 'a'): {('A', 'C'): 7, ('A', 'B'): 8},
....: ('b', 'b'): {('A', 'D'): 9, ('A', 'B'): 10}})
....:
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[66]:
a b
a b c a b
A B 4.0 1.0 5.0 8.0 10.0
C 3.0 2.0 6.0 7.0 NaN
D NaN NaN NaN NaN 9.0

• Added the sym_diff method to Index (GH5543)

• DataFrame.to_latex now takes a longtable keyword, which if True will return a table in a longtable
environment. (GH6617)
• Add option to turn off escaping in DataFrame.to_latex (GH6472)
• pd.read_clipboard will, if the keyword sep is unspecified, try to detect data copied from a spreadsheet
and parse accordingly. (GH6223)
• Joining a singly-indexed DataFrame with a multi-indexed DataFrame (GH3662)
See the docs. Joining multi-index DataFrames on both the left and right is not yet supported ATM.
In [67]: household = DataFrame(dict(household_id = [1,2,3],
....: male = [0,1,0],
....: wealth = [196087.3,316478.7,294750]),
....: columns = ['household_id','male','wealth']
....: ).set_index('household_id')
....:

In [68]: household
Out[68]:
male wealth
household_id
1 0 196087.3
2 1 316478.7
3 0 294750.0

In [69]: portfolio = DataFrame(dict(household_id = [1,2,2,3,3,3,4],

....: asset_id = ["nl0000301109","nl0000289783",
˓→"gb00b03mlx29",

....: "gb00b03mlx29","lu0197800237",
˓→"nl0000289965",np.nan],

....: name = ["ABN Amro","Robeco","Royal Dutch Shell

˓→","Royal Dutch Shell",

....: "AAB Eastern Europe Equity Fund",

˓→"Postbank BioTech Fonds",np.nan],

....: share = [1.0,0.4,0.6,0.15,0.6,0.25,1.0]),

....: columns = ['household_id','asset_id','name','share
˓→']

....: ).set_index(['household_id','asset_id'])
....:

In [70]: portfolio
Out[70]:

290 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

name share
household_id asset_id
1 nl0000301109 ABN Amro 1.00
2 nl0000289783 Robeco 0.40
gb00b03mlx29 Royal Dutch Shell 0.60
3 gb00b03mlx29 Royal Dutch Shell 0.15
lu0197800237 AAB Eastern Europe Equity Fund 0.60
nl0000289965 Postbank BioTech Fonds 0.25
4 NaN NaN 1.00

In [71]: household.join(portfolio, how='inner')

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

male wealth name \

household_id asset_id
1 nl0000301109 0 196087.3 ABN Amro
2 nl0000289783 1 316478.7 Robeco
gb00b03mlx29 1 316478.7 Royal Dutch Shell
3 gb00b03mlx29 0 294750.0 Royal Dutch Shell
lu0197800237 0 294750.0 AAB Eastern Europe Equity Fund
nl0000289965 0 294750.0 Postbank BioTech Fonds

share
household_id asset_id
1 nl0000301109 1.00
2 nl0000289783 0.40
gb00b03mlx29 0.60
3 gb00b03mlx29 0.15
lu0197800237 0.60
nl0000289965 0.25

• quotechar, doublequote, and escapechar can now be specified when using DataFrame.to_csv
(GH5414, GH4528)
• Partially sort by only the specified levels of a MultiIndex with the sort_remaining boolean kwarg.
(GH3984)
• Added to_julian_date to TimeStamp and DatetimeIndex. The Julian Date is used primarily in
astronomy and represents the number of days from noon, January 1, 4713 BC. Because nanoseconds are used
to define the time in pandas the actual range of dates that you can use is 1678 AD to 2262 AD. (GH4041)
• DataFrame.to_stata will now check data for compatibility with Stata data types and will upcast when
needed. When it is not possible to losslessly upcast, a warning is issued (GH6327)
• DataFrame.to_stata and StataWriter will accept keyword arguments time_stamp and data_label
which allow the time stamp and dataset label to be set when creating a file. (GH6545)
• pandas.io.gbq now handles reading unicode strings properly. (GH5940)
• Holidays Calendars are now available and can be used with the CustomBusinessDay offset (GH6719)
• Float64Index is now backed by a float64 dtype ndarray instead of an object dtype array (GH6471).
• Implemented Panel.pct_change (GH6904)
• Added how option to rolling-moment functions to dictate how to handle resampling; rolling_max() de-
faults to max, rolling_min() defaults to min, and all others default to mean (GH6297)
• CustomBuisnessMonthBegin and CustomBusinessMonthEnd are now available (GH6866)
• Series.quantile() and DataFrame.quantile() now accept an array of quantiles.

1.19. v0.14.0 (May 31 , 2014) 291

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• describe() now accepts an array of percentiles to include in the summary statistics (GH4196)
• pivot_table can now accept Grouper by index and columns keywords (GH6913)
In [72]: import datetime

In [73]: df = DataFrame({
....: 'Branch' : 'A A A A A B'.split(),
....: 'Buyer': 'Carl Mark Carl Carl Joe Joe'.split(),
....: 'Quantity': [1, 3, 5, 1, 8, 1],
....: 'Date' : [datetime.datetime(2013,11,1,13,0), datetime.datetime(2013,9,
˓→1,13,5),

....: datetime.datetime(2013,10,1,20,0), datetime.datetime(2013,10,

˓→2,10,0),

....: datetime.datetime(2013,11,1,20,0), datetime.datetime(2013,10,

˓→2,10,0)],

....: 'PayDay' : [datetime.datetime(2013,10,4,0,0), datetime.datetime(2013,

˓→10,15,13,5),

....: datetime.datetime(2013,9,5,20,0), datetime.datetime(2013,

˓→11,2,10,0),

....: datetime.datetime(2013,10,7,20,0), datetime.datetime(2013,

˓→9,5,10,0)]})

....:

In [74]: df
Out[74]:
Branch Buyer Date PayDay Quantity
0 A Carl 2013-11-01 13:00:00 2013-10-04 00:00:00 1
1 A Mark 2013-09-01 13:05:00 2013-10-15 13:05:00 3
2 A Carl 2013-10-01 20:00:00 2013-09-05 20:00:00 5
3 A Carl 2013-10-02 10:00:00 2013-11-02 10:00:00 1
4 A Joe 2013-11-01 20:00:00 2013-10-07 20:00:00 8
5 B Joe 2013-10-02 10:00:00 2013-09-05 10:00:00 1

In [75]: pivot_table(df, index=Grouper(freq='M', key='Date'),

....: columns=Grouper(freq='M', key='PayDay'),
....: values='Quantity', aggfunc=np.sum)
....:
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

PayDay 2013-09-30 2013-10-31 2013-11-30

Date
2013-09-30 NaN 3.0 NaN
2013-10-31 6.0 NaN 1.0
2013-11-30 NaN 9.0 NaN

• Arrays of strings can be wrapped to a specified width (str.wrap) (GH6999)

• Add nsmallest() and Series.nlargest() methods to Series, See the docs (GH3960)
• PeriodIndex fully supports partial string indexing like DatetimeIndex (GH7043)
In [76]: prng = period_range('2013-01-01 09:00', periods=100, freq='H')

In [77]: ps = Series(np.random.randn(len(prng)), index=prng)

In [78]: ps
Out[78]:
2013-01-01 09:00 0.015696
2013-01-01 10:00 -2.242685

292 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

2013-01-01 11:00 1.150036

2013-01-01 12:00 0.991946
2013-01-01 13:00 0.953324
2013-01-01 14:00 -2.021255
2013-01-01 15:00 -0.334077
...
2013-01-05 06:00 0.566534
2013-01-05 07:00 0.503592
2013-01-05 08:00 0.285296
2013-01-05 09:00 0.484288
2013-01-05 10:00 1.363482
2013-01-05 11:00 -0.781105
2013-01-05 12:00 -0.468018
Freq: H, Length: 100, dtype: float64

In [79]: ps['2013-01-02']
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

2013-01-02 00:00 0.553439

2013-01-02 01:00 1.318152
2013-01-02 02:00 -0.469305
2013-01-02 03:00 0.675554
2013-01-02 04:00 -1.817027
2013-01-02 05:00 -0.183109
2013-01-02 06:00 1.058969
...
2013-01-02 17:00 0.076200
2013-01-02 18:00 -0.566446
2013-01-02 19:00 0.036142
2013-01-02 20:00 -2.074978
2013-01-02 21:00 0.247792
2013-01-02 22:00 -0.897157
2013-01-02 23:00 -0.136795
Freq: H, Length: 24, dtype: float64

• read_excel can now read milliseconds in Excel dates and times with xlrd >= 0.9.3. (GH5945)
• pd.stats.moments.rolling_var now uses Welford’s method for increased numerical stability
(GH6817)
• pd.expanding_apply and pd.rolling_apply now take args and kwargs that are passed on to the func (GH6289)
• DataFrame.rank() now has a percentage rank option (GH5971)
• Series.rank() now has a percentage rank option (GH5971)
• Series.rank() and DataFrame.rank() now accept method='dense' for ranks without gaps
(GH6514)
• Support passing encoding with xlwt (GH3710)
• Refactor Block classes removing Block.items attributes to avoid duplication in item handling (GH6745,
GH6988).
• Testing statements updated to use specialized asserts (GH6175)

1.19. v0.14.0 (May 31 , 2014) 293

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

1.19.12 Performance

• Performance improvement when converting DatetimeIndex to floating ordinals using

DatetimeConverter (GH6636)
• Performance improvement for DataFrame.shift (GH5609)
• Performance improvement in indexing into a multi-indexed Series (GH5567)
• Performance improvements in single-dtyped indexing (GH6484)
• Improve performance of DataFrame construction with certain offsets, by removing faulty caching (e.g. Mon-
thEnd,BusinessMonthEnd), (GH6479)
• Improve performance of CustomBusinessDay (GH6584)
• improve performance of slice indexing on Series with string keys (GH6341, GH6372)
• Performance improvement for DataFrame.from_records when reading a specified number of rows from
an iterable (GH6700)
• Performance improvements in timedelta conversions for integer dtypes (GH6754)
• Improved performance of compatible pickles (GH6899)
• Improve performance in certain reindexing operations by optimizing take_2d (GH6749)
• GroupBy.count() is now implemented in Cython and is much faster for large numbers of groups (GH7016).

1.19.13 Experimental

There are no experimental changes in 0.14.0

1.19.14 Bug Fixes

• Bug in Series ValueError when index doesn’t match data (GH6532)

• Prevent segfault due to MultiIndex not being supported in HDFStore table format (GH1848)
• Bug in pd.DataFrame.sort_index where mergesort wasn’t stable when ascending=False
(GH6399)
• Bug in pd.tseries.frequencies.to_offset when argument has leading zeroes (GH6391)
• Bug in version string gen. for dev versions with shallow clones / install from tarball (GH6127)
• Inconsistent tz parsing Timestamp / to_datetime for current year (GH5958)
• Indexing bugs with reordered indexes (GH6252, GH6254)
• Bug in .xs with a Series multiindex (GH6258, GH5684)
• Bug in conversion of a string types to a DatetimeIndex with a specified frequency (GH6273, GH6274)
• Bug in eval where type-promotion failed for large expressions (GH6205)
• Bug in interpolate with inplace=True (GH6281)
• HDFStore.remove now handles start and stop (GH6177)
• HDFStore.select_as_multiple handles start and stop the same way as select (GH6177)
• HDFStore.select_as_coordinates and select_column works with a where clause that results in
filters (GH6177)

294 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Regression in join of non_unique_indexes (GH6329)

• Issue with groupby agg with a single function and a a mixed-type frame (GH6337)
• Bug in DataFrame.replace() when passing a non- bool to_replace argument (GH6332)
• Raise when trying to align on different levels of a multi-index assignment (GH3738)
• Bug in setting complex dtypes via boolean indexing (GH6345)
• Bug in TimeGrouper/resample when presented with a non-monotonic DatetimeIndex that would return invalid
results. (GH4161)
• Bug in index name propogation in TimeGrouper/resample (GH4161)
• TimeGrouper has a more compatible API to the rest of the groupers (e.g. groups was missing) (GH3881)
• Bug in multiple grouping with a TimeGrouper depending on target column order (GH6764)
• Bug in pd.eval when parsing strings with possible tokens like '&' (GH6351)
• Bug correctly handle placements of -inf in Panels when dividing by integer 0 (GH6178)
• DataFrame.shift with axis=1 was raising (GH6371)
• Disabled clipboard tests until release time (run locally with nosetests -A disabled) (GH6048).
• Bug in DataFrame.replace() when passing a nested dict that contained keys not in the values to be
replaced (GH6342)
• str.match ignored the na flag (GH6609).
• Bug in take with duplicate columns that were not consolidated (GH6240)
• Bug in interpolate changing dtypes (GH6290)
• Bug in Series.get, was using a buggy access method (GH6383)
• Bug in hdfstore queries of the form where=[('date', '>=', datetime(2013,1,1)),
('date', '<=', datetime(2014,1,1))] (GH6313)
• Bug in DataFrame.dropna with duplicate indices (GH6355)
• Regression in chained getitem indexing with embedded list-like from 0.12 (GH6394)
• Float64Index with nans not comparing correctly (GH6401)
• eval/query expressions with strings containing the @ character will now work (GH6366).
• Bug in Series.reindex when specifying a method with some nan values was inconsistent (noted on a
resample) (GH6418)
• Bug in DataFrame.replace() where nested dicts were erroneously depending on the order of dictionary
keys and values (GH5338).
• Perf issue in concatting with empty objects (GH3259)
• Clarify sorting of sym_diff on Index objects with NaN values (GH6444)
• Regression in MultiIndex.from_product with a DatetimeIndex as input (GH6439)
• Bug in str.extract when passed a non-default index (GH6348)
• Bug in str.split when passed pat=None and n=1 (GH6466)
• Bug in io.data.DataReader when passed "F-F_Momentum_Factor" and
data_source="famafrench" (GH6460)
• Bug in sum of a timedelta64[ns] series (GH6462)

1.19. v0.14.0 (May 31 , 2014) 295

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Bug in resample with a timezone and certain offsets (GH6397)

• Bug in iat/iloc with duplicate indices on a Series (GH6493)
• Bug in read_html where nan’s were incorrectly being used to indicate missing values in text. Should use the
empty string for consistency with the rest of pandas (GH5129).
• Bug in read_html tests where redirected invalid URLs would make one test fail (GH6445).
• Bug in multi-axis indexing using .loc on non-unique indices (GH6504)
• Bug that caused _ref_locs corruption when slice indexing across columns axis of a DataFrame (GH6525)
• Regression from 0.13 in the treatment of numpy datetime64 non-ns dtypes in Series creation (GH6529)
• .names attribute of MultiIndexes passed to set_index are now preserved (GH6459).
• Bug in setitem with a duplicate index and an alignable rhs (GH6541)
• Bug in setitem with .loc on mixed integer Indexes (GH6546)
• Bug in pd.read_stata which would use the wrong data types and missing values (GH6327)
• Bug in DataFrame.to_stata that lead to data loss in certain cases, and could be exported using the wrong
data types and missing values (GH6335)
• StataWriter replaces missing values in string columns by empty string (GH6802)
• Inconsistent types in Timestamp addition/subtraction (GH6543)
• Bug in preserving frequency across Timestamp addition/subtraction (GH4547)
• Bug in empty list lookup caused IndexError exceptions (GH6536, GH6551)
• Series.quantile raising on an object dtype (GH6555)
• Bug in .xs with a nan in level when dropped (GH6574)
• Bug in fillna with method='bfill/ffill' and datetime64[ns] dtype (GH6587)
• Bug in sql writing with mixed dtypes possibly leading to data loss (GH6509)
• Bug in Series.pop (GH6600)
• Bug in iloc indexing when positional indexer matched Int64Index of the corresponding axis and no re-
ordering happened (GH6612)
• Bug in fillna with limit and value specified
• Bug in DataFrame.to_stata when columns have non-string names (GH4558)
• Bug in compat with np.compress, surfaced in (GH6658)
• Bug in binary operations with a rhs of a Series not aligning (GH6681)
• Bug in DataFrame.to_stata which incorrectly handles nan values and ignores with_index keyword
argument (GH6685)
• Bug in resample with extra bins when using an evenly divisible frequency (GH4076)
• Bug in consistency of groupby aggregation when passing a custom function (GH6715)
• Bug in resample when how=None resample freq is the same as the axis frequency (GH5955)
• Bug in downcasting inference with empty arrays (GH6733)
• Bug in obj.blocks on sparse containers dropping all but the last items of same for dtype (GH6748)
• Bug in unpickling NaT (NaTType) (GH4606)

296 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Bug in DataFrame.replace() where regex metacharacters were being treated as regexs even when
regex=False (GH6777).
• Bug in timedelta ops on 32-bit platforms (GH6808)
• Bug in setting a tz-aware index directly via .index (GH6785)
• Bug in expressions.py where numexpr would try to evaluate arithmetic ops (GH6762).
• Bug in Makefile where it didn’t remove Cython generated C files with make clean (GH6768)
• Bug with numpy < 1.7.2 when reading long strings from HDFStore (GH6166)
• Bug in DataFrame._reduce where non bool-like (0/1) integers were being coverted into bools. (GH6806)
• Regression from 0.13 with fillna and a Series on datetime-like (GH6344)
• Bug in adding np.timedelta64 to DatetimeIndex with timezone outputs incorrect results (GH6818)
• Bug in DataFrame.replace() where changing a dtype through replacement would only replace the first
occurrence of a value (GH6689)
• Better error message when passing a frequency of ‘MS’ in Period construction (GH5332)
• Bug in Series.__unicode__ when max_rows=None and the Series has more than 1000 rows. (GH6863)
• Bug in groupby.get_group where a datetlike wasn’t always accepted (GH5267)
• Bug in groupBy.get_group created by TimeGrouper raises AttributeError (GH6914)
• Bug in DatetimeIndex.tz_localize and DatetimeIndex.tz_convert converting NaT incor-
rectly (GH5546)
• Bug in arithmetic operations affecting NaT (GH6873)
• Bug in Series.str.extract where the resulting Series from a single group match wasn’t renamed to
the group name
• Bug in DataFrame.to_csv where setting index=False ignored the header kwarg (GH6186)
• Bug in DataFrame.plot and Series.plot, where the legend behave inconsistently when plotting to the
same axes repeatedly (GH6678)
• Internal tests for patching __finalize__ / bug in merge not finalizing (GH6923, GH6927)
• accept TextFileReader in concat, which was affecting a common user idiom (GH6583)
• Bug in C parser with leading whitespace (GH3374)
• Bug in C parser with delim_whitespace=True and \r-delimited lines
• Bug in python parser with explicit multi-index in row following column header (GH6893)
• Bug in Series.rank and DataFrame.rank that caused small floats (<1e-13) to all receive the same rank
(GH6886)
• Bug in DataFrame.apply with functions that used *args‘‘ or **kwargs and returned an empty result
(GH6952)
• Bug in sum/mean on 32-bit platforms on overflows (GH6915)
• Moved Panel.shift to NDFrame.slice_shift and fixed to respect multiple dtypes. (GH6959)
• Bug in enabling subplots=True in DataFrame.plot only has single column raises TypeError, and
Series.plot raises AttributeError (GH6951)
• Bug in DataFrame.plot draws unnecessary axes when enabling subplots and kind=scatter
(GH6951)

1.19. v0.14.0 (May 31 , 2014) 297

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Bug in read_csv from a filesystem with non-utf-8 encoding (GH6807)

• Bug in iloc when setting / aligning (GH6766)
• Bug causing UnicodeEncodeError when get_dummies called with unicode values and a prefix (GH6885)
• Bug in timeseries-with-frequency plot cursor display (GH5453)
• Bug surfaced in groupby.plot when using a Float64Index (GH7025)
• Stopped tests from failing if options data isn’t able to be downloaded from Yahoo (GH7034)
• Bug in parallel_coordinates and radviz where reordering of class column caused possible color/class
mismatch (GH6956)
• Bug in radviz and andrews_curves where multiple values of ‘color’ were being passed to plotting method
(GH6956)
• Bug in Float64Index.isin() where containing nan s would make indices claim that they contained all
the things (GH7066).
• Bug in DataFrame.boxplot where it failed to use the axis passed as the ax argument (GH3578)
• Bug in the XlsxWriter and XlwtWriter implementations that resulted in datetime columns being format-
ted without the time (GH7075) were being passed to plotting method
• read_fwf() treats None in colspec like regular python slices. It now reads from the beginning or until the
end of the line when colspec contains a None (previously raised a TypeError)
• Bug in cache coherence with chained indexing and slicing; add _is_view property to NDFrame to correctly
predict views; mark is_copy on xs only if its an actual copy (and not a view) (GH7084)
• Bug in DatetimeIndex creation from string ndarray with dayfirst=True (GH5917)
• Bug in MultiIndex.from_arrays created from DatetimeIndex doesn’t preserve freq and tz
(GH7090)
• Bug in unstack raises ValueError when MultiIndex contains PeriodIndex (GH4342)
• Bug in boxplot and hist draws unnecessary axes (GH6769)
• Regression in groupby.nth() for out-of-bounds indexers (GH6621)
• Bug in quantile with datetime values (GH6965)
• Bug in Dataframe.set_index, reindex and pivot don’t preserve DatetimeIndex and
PeriodIndex attributes (GH3950, GH5878, GH6631)
• Bug in MultiIndex.get_level_values doesn’t preserve DatetimeIndex and PeriodIndex at-
tributes (GH7092)
• Bug in Groupby doesn’t preserve tz (GH3950)
• Bug in PeriodIndex partial string slicing (GH6716)
• Bug in the HTML repr of a truncated Series or DataFrame not showing the class name with the large_repr set
to ‘info’ (GH7105)
• Bug in DatetimeIndex specifying freq raises ValueError when passed value is too short (GH7098)
• Fixed a bug with the info repr not honoring the display.max_info_columns setting (GH6939)
• Bug PeriodIndex string slicing with out of bounds values (GH5407)
• Fixed a memory error in the hashtable implementation/factorizer on resizing of large tables (GH7157)
• Bug in isnull when applied to 0-dimensional object arrays (GH7176)

298 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Bug in query/eval where global constants were not looked up correctly (GH7178)
• Bug in recognizing out-of-bounds positional list indexers with iloc and a multi-axis tuple indexer (GH7189)
• Bug in setitem with a single value, multi-index and integer indices (GH7190, GH7218)
• Bug in expressions evaluation with reversed ops, showing in series-dataframe ops (GH7198, GH7192)
• Bug in multi-axis indexing with > 2 ndim and a multi-index (GH7199)
• Fix a bug where invalid eval/query operations would blow the stack (GH5198)

1.20 v0.13.1 (February 3, 2014)

This is a minor release from 0.13.0 and includes a small number of API changes, several new features, enhancements,
and performance improvements along with a large number of bug fixes. We recommend that all users upgrade to this
version.
Highlights include:
• Added infer_datetime_format keyword to read_csv/to_datetime to allow speedups for homo-
geneously formatted datetimes.
• Will intelligently limit display precision for datetime/timedelta formats.
• Enhanced Panel apply() method.
• Suggested tutorials in new Tutorials section.
• Our pandas ecosystem is growing, We now feature related projects in a new Pandas Ecosystem section.
• Much work has been taking place on improving the docs, and a new Contributing section has been added.
• Even though it may only be of interest to devs, we <3 our new CI status page: ScatterCI.

Warning: 0.13.1 fixes a bug that was caused by a combination of having numpy < 1.8, and doing chained
assignment on a string-like array. Please review the docs, chained indexing can have unexpected results and should
generally be avoided.
This would previously segfault:
In [1]: df = DataFrame(dict(A = np.array(['foo','bar','bah','foo','bar'])))

In [2]: df['A'].iloc[0] = np.nan

In [3]: df
Out[3]:
A
0 NaN
1 bar
2 bah
3 foo
4 bar

The recommended way to do this type of assignment is:

1.20. v0.13.1 (February 3, 2014) 299

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [4]: df = DataFrame(dict(A = np.array(['foo','bar','bah','foo','bar'])))

In [5]: df.loc[0,'A'] = np.nan

In [6]: df
Out[6]:
A
0 NaN
1 bar
2 bah
3 foo
4 bar

1.20.1 Output Formatting Enhancements

• df.info() view now display dtype info per column (GH5682)

• df.info() now honors the option max_info_rows, to disable null counts for large frames (GH5974)
In [7]: max_info_rows = pd.get_option('max_info_rows')

In [8]: df = DataFrame(dict(A = np.random.randn(10),

...: B = np.random.randn(10),
...: C = date_range('20130101',periods=10)))
...:

In [9]: df.iloc[3:6,[0,2]] = np.nan

# set to not display the null counts

In [10]: pd.set_option('max_info_rows',0)

In [11]: df.info()
<class 'pandas.core.frame.DataFrame'>
RangeIndex: 10 entries, 0 to 9
Data columns (total 3 columns):
A float64
B float64
C datetime64[ns]
dtypes: datetime64[ns](1), float64(2)
memory usage: 320.0 bytes

# this is the default (same as in 0.13.0)

In [12]: pd.set_option('max_info_rows',max_info_rows)

In [13]: df.info()
<class 'pandas.core.frame.DataFrame'>
RangeIndex: 10 entries, 0 to 9
Data columns (total 3 columns):
A 7 non-null float64
B 10 non-null float64
C 7 non-null datetime64[ns]
dtypes: datetime64[ns](1), float64(2)
memory usage: 320.0 bytes

• Add show_dimensions display option for the new DataFrame repr to control whether the dimensions print.

300 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [14]: df = DataFrame([[1, 2], [3, 4]])

In [15]: pd.set_option('show_dimensions', False)

In [16]: df
Out[16]:
0 1
0 1 2
1 3 4

In [17]: pd.set_option('show_dimensions', True)

In [18]: df
Out[18]:
0 1
0 1 2
1 3 4

[2 rows x 2 columns]

• The ArrayFormatter for datetime and timedelta64 now intelligently limit precision based on the
values in the array (GH3401)
Previously output might look like:
age today diff
0 2001-01-01 00:00:00 2013-04-19 00:00:00 4491 days, 00:00:00
1 2004-06-01 00:00:00 2013-04-19 00:00:00 3244 days, 00:00:00

Now the output looks like:

In [19]: df = DataFrame([ Timestamp('20010101'),
....: Timestamp('20040601') ], columns=['age'])
....:

In [20]: df['today'] = Timestamp('20130419')

In [21]: df['diff'] = df['today']-df['age']

In [22]: df
Out[22]:
age today diff
0 2001-01-01 2013-04-19 4491 days
1 2004-06-01 2013-04-19 3244 days

[2 rows x 3 columns]

1.20.2 API changes

• Add -NaN and -nan to the default set of NA values (GH5952). See NA Values.
• Added Series.str.get_dummies vectorized string method (GH6021), to extract dummy/indicator vari-
ables for separated string columns:
In [23]: s = Series(['a', 'a|b', np.nan, 'a|c'])

In [24]: s.str.get_dummies(sep='|')

1.20. v0.13.1 (February 3, 2014) 301

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Out[24]:
a b c
0 1 0 0
1 1 1 0
2 0 0 0
3 1 0 1

[4 rows x 3 columns]

• Added the NDFrame.equals() method to compare if two NDFrames are equal have equal axes, dtypes, and
values. Added the array_equivalent function to compare if two ndarrays are equal. NaNs in identical
locations are treated as equal. (GH5283) See also the docs for a motivating example.
In [25]: df = DataFrame({'col':['foo', 0, np.nan]})

In [26]: df2 = DataFrame({'col':[np.nan, 0, 'foo']}, index=[2,1,0])

In [27]: df.equals(df2)
Out[27]: False

In [28]: df.equals(df2.sort_index())
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[28]: True

In [29]: import pandas.core.common as com

In [30]: com.array_equivalent(np.array([0, np.nan]), np.array([0, np.nan]))

Out[30]: True

In [31]: np.array_equal(np.array([0, np.nan]), np.array([0, np.nan]))

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[31]: False

• DataFrame.apply will use the reduce argument to determine whether a Series or a DataFrame
should be returned when the DataFrame is empty (GH6007).
Previously, calling DataFrame.apply an empty DataFrame would return either a DataFrame if there
were no columns, or the function being applied would be called with an empty Series to guess whether a
Series or DataFrame should be returned:
In [32]: def applied_func(col):
....: print("Apply function being called with: ", col)
....: return col.sum()
....:

In [33]: empty = DataFrame(columns=['a', 'b'])

In [34]: empty.apply(applied_func)
Apply function being called with: Series([], Length: 0, dtype: float64)
Out[34]:
a NaN
b NaN
Length: 2, dtype: float64

Now, when apply is called on an empty DataFrame: if the reduce argument is True a Series will
returned, if it is False a DataFrame will be returned, and if it is None (the default) the function being
applied will be called with an empty series to try and guess the return type.
In [35]: empty.apply(applied_func, reduce=True)
Out[35]:

302 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

a NaN
b NaN
Length: 2, dtype: float64

In [36]: empty.apply(applied_func, reduce=False)

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[36]:
Empty DataFrame
Columns: [a, b]
Index: []

[0 rows x 2 columns]

1.20.3 Prior Version Deprecations/Changes

There are no announced changes in 0.13 or prior that are taking effect as of 0.13.1

1.20.4 Deprecations

There are no deprecations of prior behavior in 0.13.1

1.20.5 Enhancements

• pd.read_csv and pd.to_datetime learned a new infer_datetime_format keyword which greatly

improves parsing perf in many cases. Thanks to @lexual for suggesting and @danbirken for rapidly implement-
ing. (GH5490, GH6021)
If parse_dates is enabled and this flag is set, pandas will attempt to infer the format of the datetime strings
in the columns, and if it can be inferred, switch to a faster method of parsing them. In some cases this can
increase the parsing speed by ~5-10x.

# Try to infer the format for the index column

df = pd.read_csv('foo.csv', index_col=0, parse_dates=True,
infer_datetime_format=True)

• date_format and datetime_format keywords can now be specified when writing to excel files
(GH4133)
• MultiIndex.from_product convenience function for creating a MultiIndex from the cartesian product of
a set of iterables (GH6055):

In [37]: shades = ['light', 'dark']

In [38]: colors = ['red', 'green', 'blue']

In [39]: MultiIndex.from_product([shades, colors], names=['shade', 'color'])

Out[39]:
MultiIndex(levels=[['dark', 'light'], ['blue', 'green', 'red']],
labels=[[1, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0], [2, 1, 0, 2, 1, 0]],
names=['shade', 'color'])

• Panel apply() will work on non-ufuncs. See the docs.

1.20. v0.13.1 (February 3, 2014) 303

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [40]: import pandas.util.testing as tm

In [41]: panel = tm.makePanel(5)

In [42]: panel
Out[42]:
<class 'pandas.core.panel.Panel'>
Dimensions: 3 (items) x 5 (major_axis) x 4 (minor_axis)
Items axis: ItemA to ItemC
Major_axis axis: 2000-01-03 00:00:00 to 2000-01-07 00:00:00
Minor_axis axis: A to D

In [43]: panel['ItemA']
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

A B C D
2000-01-03 0.694103 1.893534 -1.735349 -0.850346
2000-01-04 0.678630 0.639633 1.210384 1.176812
2000-01-05 0.239556 -0.962029 0.797435 -0.524336
2000-01-06 0.151227 -2.085266 -0.379811 0.700908
2000-01-07 0.816127 1.930247 0.702562 0.984188

[5 rows x 4 columns]

Specifying an apply that operates on a Series (to return a single element)

In [44]: panel.apply(lambda x: x.dtype, axis='items')
Out[44]:
A B C D
2000-01-03 float64 float64 float64 float64
2000-01-04 float64 float64 float64 float64
2000-01-05 float64 float64 float64 float64
2000-01-06 float64 float64 float64 float64
2000-01-07 float64 float64 float64 float64

[5 rows x 4 columns]

A similar reduction type operation

In [45]: panel.apply(lambda x: x.sum(), axis='major_axis')
Out[45]:
ItemA ItemB ItemC
A 2.579643 3.062757 0.379252
B 1.416120 -1.960855 0.923558
C 0.595222 -1.079772 -3.118269
D 1.487226 -0.734611 -1.979310

[4 rows x 3 columns]

This is equivalent to
In [46]: panel.sum('major_axis')
Out[46]:
ItemA ItemB ItemC
A 2.579643 3.062757 0.379252
B 1.416120 -1.960855 0.923558
C 0.595222 -1.079772 -3.118269
D 1.487226 -0.734611 -1.979310

304 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

[4 rows x 3 columns]

A transformation operation that returns a Panel, but is computing the z-score across the major_axis

In [47]: result = panel.apply(

....: lambda x: (x-x.mean())/x.std(),
....: axis='major_axis')
....:

In [48]: result
Out[48]:
<class 'pandas.core.panel.Panel'>
Dimensions: 3 (items) x 5 (major_axis) x 4 (minor_axis)
Items axis: ItemA to ItemC
Major_axis axis: 2000-01-03 00:00:00 to 2000-01-07 00:00:00
Minor_axis axis: A to D

In [49]: result['ItemA']
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

A B C D
2000-01-03 0.595800 0.907552 -1.556260 -1.244875
2000-01-04 0.544058 0.200868 0.915883 0.953747
2000-01-05 -0.924165 -0.701810 0.569325 -0.891290
2000-01-06 -1.219530 -1.334852 -0.418654 0.437589
2000-01-07 1.003837 0.928242 0.489705 0.744830

[5 rows x 4 columns]

• Panel apply() operating on cross-sectional slabs. (GH1148)

In [50]: f = lambda x: ((x.T-x.mean(1))/x.std(1)).T

In [51]: result = panel.apply(f, axis = ['items','major_axis'])

In [52]: result
Out[52]:
<class 'pandas.core.panel.Panel'>
Dimensions: 4 (items) x 5 (major_axis) x 3 (minor_axis)
Items axis: A to D
Major_axis axis: 2000-01-03 00:00:00 to 2000-01-07 00:00:00
Minor_axis axis: ItemA to ItemC

In [53]: result.loc[:,:,'ItemA']
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

A B C D
2000-01-03 0.331409 1.071034 -0.914540 -0.510587
2000-01-04 -0.741017 -0.118794 0.383277 0.537212
2000-01-05 0.065042 -0.767353 0.655436 0.069467
2000-01-06 0.027932 -0.569477 0.908202 0.610585
2000-01-07 1.116434 1.133591 0.871287 1.004064

[5 rows x 4 columns]

This is equivalent to the following

1.20. v0.13.1 (February 3, 2014) 305

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [54]: result = Panel(dict([ (ax,f(panel.loc[:,:,ax]))

....: for ax in panel.minor_axis ]))
....:

In [55]: result
Out[55]:
<class 'pandas.core.panel.Panel'>
Dimensions: 4 (items) x 5 (major_axis) x 3 (minor_axis)
Items axis: A to D
Major_axis axis: 2000-01-03 00:00:00 to 2000-01-07 00:00:00
Minor_axis axis: ItemA to ItemC

In [56]: result.loc[:,:,'ItemA']
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

A B C D
2000-01-03 0.331409 1.071034 -0.914540 -0.510587
2000-01-04 -0.741017 -0.118794 0.383277 0.537212
2000-01-05 0.065042 -0.767353 0.655436 0.069467
2000-01-06 0.027932 -0.569477 0.908202 0.610585
2000-01-07 1.116434 1.133591 0.871287 1.004064

[5 rows x 4 columns]

1.20.6 Performance

Performance improvements for 0.13.1

• Series datetime/timedelta binary operations (GH5801)
• DataFrame count/dropna for axis=1
• Series.str.contains now has a regex=False keyword which can be faster for plain (non-regex) string patterns.
(GH5879)
• Series.str.extract (GH5944)
• dtypes/ftypes methods (GH5968)
• indexing with object dtypes (GH5968)
• DataFrame.apply (GH6013)
• Regression in JSON IO (GH5765)
• Index construction from Series (GH6150)

1.20.7 Experimental

There are no experimental changes in 0.13.1

1.20.8 Bug Fixes

See V0.13.1 Bug Fixes for an extensive list of bugs that have been fixed in 0.13.1.
See the full release notes or issue tracker on GitHub for a complete list of all API changes, Enhancements and Bug
Fixes.

306 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

1.21 v0.13.0 (January 3, 2014)

This is a major release from 0.12.0 and includes a number of API changes, several new features and enhancements
along with a large number of bug fixes.
Highlights include:
• support for a new index type Float64Index, and other Indexing enhancements
• HDFStore has a new string based syntax for query specification
• support for new methods of interpolation
• updated timedelta operations
• a new string manipulation method extract
• Nanosecond support for Offsets
• isin for DataFrames
Several experimental features are added, including:
• new eval/query methods for expression evaluation
• support for msgpack serialization
• an i/o interface to Google’s BigQuery
Their are several new or updated docs sections including:
• Comparison with SQL, which should be useful for those familiar with SQL but still learning pandas.
• Comparison with R, idiom translations from R to pandas.
• Enhancing Performance, ways to enhance pandas performance with eval/query.

Warning: In 0.13.0 Series has internally been refactored to no longer sub-class ndarray but instead subclass
NDFrame, similar to the rest of the pandas containers. This should be a transparent change with only very limited
API implications. See Internal Refactoring

1.21.1 API changes

• read_excel now supports an integer in its sheetname argument giving the index of the sheet to read in
(GH4301).
• Text parser now treats anything that reads like inf (“inf”, “Inf”, “-Inf”, “iNf”, etc.) as infinity. (GH4220,
GH4219), affecting read_table, read_csv, etc.
• pandas now is Python 2/3 compatible without the need for 2to3 thanks to @jtratner. As a result, pandas now
uses iterators more extensively. This also led to the introduction of substantive parts of the Benjamin Peterson’s
six library into compat. (GH4384, GH4375, GH4372)
• pandas.util.compat and pandas.util.py3compat have been merged into pandas.compat.
pandas.compat now includes many functions allowing 2/3 compatibility. It contains both list and itera-
tor versions of range, filter, map and zip, plus other necessary elements for Python 3 compatibility. lmap,
lzip, lrange and lfilter all produce lists instead of iterators, for compatibility with numpy, subscripting
and pandas constructors.(GH4384, GH4375, GH4372)
• Series.get with negative indexers now returns the same as [] (GH4390)

1.21. v0.13.0 (January 3, 2014) 307

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Changes to how Index and MultiIndex handle metadata (levels, labels, and names) (GH4039):

# previously, you would have set levels or labels directly

index.levels = [[1, 2, 3, 4], [1, 2, 4, 4]]

# now, you use the set_levels or set_labels methods

index = index.set_levels([[1, 2, 3, 4], [1, 2, 4, 4]])

# similarly, for names, you can rename the object

# but setting names is not deprecated
index = index.set_names(["bob", "cranberry"])

# and all methods take an inplace kwarg - but return None

index.set_names(["bob", "cranberry"], inplace=True)

• All division with NDFrame objects is now truedivision, regardless of the future import. This means that operat-
ing on pandas objects will by default use floating point division, and return a floating point dtype. You can use
// and floordiv to do integer division.
Integer division

In [3]: arr = np.array([1, 2, 3, 4])

In [4]: arr2 = np.array([5, 3, 2, 1])

In [5]: arr / arr2

Out[5]: array([0, 0, 1, 4])

In [6]: Series(arr) // Series(arr2)

Out[6]:
0 0
1 0
2 1
3 4
dtype: int64

True Division

In [7]: pd.Series(arr) / pd.Series(arr2) # no future import required

Out[7]:
0 0.200000
1 0.666667
2 1.500000
3 4.000000
dtype: float64

• Infer and downcast dtype if downcast='infer' is passed to fillna/ffill/bfill (GH4604)

• __nonzero__ for all NDFrame objects, will now raise a ValueError, this reverts back to (GH1073,
GH4633) behavior. See gotchas for a more detailed discussion.
This prevents doing boolean comparison on entire pandas objects, which is inherently ambiguous. These all
will raise a ValueError.

if df:
....
df1 and df2
s1 and s2

308 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Added the .bool() method to NDFrame objects to facilitate evaluating of single-element boolean Series:

In [1]: Series([True]).bool()
Out[1]: True

In [2]: Series([False]).bool()
\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[2]: False

In [3]: DataFrame([[True]]).bool()
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[3]: True

In [4]: DataFrame([[False]]).bool()
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[4]: False

• All non-Index NDFrames (Series, DataFrame, Panel, Panel4D, SparsePanel, etc.), now support the
entire set of arithmetic operators and arithmetic flex methods (add, sub, mul, etc.). SparsePanel does not
support pow or mod with non-scalars. (GH3765)
• Series and DataFrame now have a mode() method to calculate the statistical mode(s) by axis/Series.
(GH5367)
• Chained assignment will now by default warn if the user is assigning to a copy. This can be changed with the
option mode.chained_assignment, allowed options are raise/warn/None. See the docs.

In [5]: dfc = DataFrame({'A':['aaa','bbb','ccc'],'B':[1,2,3]})

In [6]: pd.set_option('chained_assignment','warn')

The following warning / exception will show if this is attempted.

In [7]: dfc.loc[0]['A'] = 1111

Traceback (most recent call last)

...
SettingWithCopyWarning:
A value is trying to be set on a copy of a slice from a DataFrame.
Try using .loc[row_index,col_indexer] = value instead

Here is the correct method of assignment.

In [8]: dfc.loc[0,'A'] = 11

In [9]: dfc
Out[9]:
A B
0 11 1
1 bbb 2
2 ccc 3

[3 rows x 2 columns]

• Panel.reindex has the following call signature Panel.reindex(items=None, major_axis=None, minor_ax

to conform with other NDFrame objects. See Internal Refactoring for more information.
• Series.argmin and Series.argmax are now aliased to Series.idxmin and Series.idxmax. These return the i
min or max element respectively. Prior to 0.13.0 these would return the position of the min / max element.
(GH6214)

1.21. v0.13.0 (January 3, 2014) 309

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

1.21.2 Prior Version Deprecations/Changes

These were announced changes in 0.12 or prior that are taking effect as of 0.13.0
• Remove deprecated Factor (GH3650)
• Remove deprecated set_printoptions/reset_printoptions (GH3046)
• Remove deprecated _verbose_info (GH3215)
• Remove deprecated read_clipboard/to_clipboard/ExcelFile/ExcelWriter from pandas.
io.parsers (GH3717) These are available as functions in the main pandas namespace (e.g. pd.
read_clipboard)
• default for tupleize_cols is now False for both to_csv and read_csv. Fair warning in 0.12
(GH3604)
• default for display.max_seq_len is now 100 rather then None. This activates truncated display (”...”) of long
sequences in various places. (GH3391)

1.21.3 Deprecations

Deprecated in 0.13.0
• deprecated iterkv, which will be removed in a future release (this was an alias of iteritems used to bypass
2to3‘s changes). (GH4384, GH4375, GH4372)
• deprecated the string method match, whose role is now performed more idiomatically by extract. In a
future release, the default behavior of match will change to become analogous to contains, which returns
a boolean indexer. (Their distinction is strictness: match relies on re.match while contains relies on
re.search.) In this release, the deprecated behavior is the default, but the new behavior is available through
the keyword argument as_indexer=True.

1.21.4 Indexing API Changes

Prior to 0.13, it was impossible to use a label indexer (.loc/.ix) to set a value that was not contained in the index
of a particular axis. (GH2578). See the docs
In the Series case this is effectively an appending operation

In [10]: s = Series([1,2,3])

In [11]: s
Out[11]:
0 1
1 2
2 3
Length: 3, dtype: int64

In [12]: s[5] = 5.

In [13]: s
Out[13]:
0 1.0
1 2.0
2 3.0
5 5.0
Length: 4, dtype: float64

310 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [14]: dfi = DataFrame(np.arange(6).reshape(3,2),

....: columns=['A','B'])
....:

In [15]: dfi
Out[15]:
A B
0 0 1
1 2 3
2 4 5

[3 rows x 2 columns]

This would previously KeyError

In [16]: dfi.loc[:,'C'] = dfi.loc[:,'A']

In [17]: dfi
Out[17]:
A B C
0 0 1 0
1 2 3 2
2 4 5 4

[3 rows x 3 columns]

This is like an append operation.

In [18]: dfi.loc[3] = 5

In [19]: dfi
Out[19]:
A B C
0 0 1 0
1 2 3 2
2 4 5 4
3 5 5 5

[4 rows x 3 columns]

A Panel setting operation on an arbitrary axis aligns the input to the Panel
In [20]: p = pd.Panel(np.arange(16).reshape(2,4,2),
....: items=['Item1','Item2'],
....: major_axis=pd.date_range('2001/1/12',periods=4),
....: minor_axis=['A','B'],dtype='float64')
....:

In [21]: p
Out[21]:
<class 'pandas.core.panel.Panel'>
Dimensions: 2 (items) x 4 (major_axis) x 2 (minor_axis)
Items axis: Item1 to Item2
Major_axis axis: 2001-01-12 00:00:00 to 2001-01-15 00:00:00
Minor_axis axis: A to B

In [22]: p.loc[:,:,'C'] = Series([30,32],index=p.items)

1.21. v0.13.0 (January 3, 2014) 311

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [23]: p
Out[23]:
<class 'pandas.core.panel.Panel'>
Dimensions: 2 (items) x 4 (major_axis) x 3 (minor_axis)
Items axis: Item1 to Item2
Major_axis axis: 2001-01-12 00:00:00 to 2001-01-15 00:00:00
Minor_axis axis: A to C

In [24]: p.loc[:,:,'C']
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

Item1 Item2
2001-01-12 30.0 32.0
2001-01-13 30.0 32.0
2001-01-14 30.0 32.0
2001-01-15 30.0 32.0

[4 rows x 2 columns]

1.21.5 Float64Index API Change

• Added a new index type, Float64Index. This will be automatically created when passing floating values in
index creation. This enables a pure label-based slicing paradigm that makes [],ix,loc for scalar indexing
and slicing work exactly the same. See the docs, (GH263)
Construction is by default for floating type values.

In [25]: index = Index([1.5, 2, 3, 4.5, 5])

In [26]: index
Out[26]: Float64Index([1.5, 2.0, 3.0, 4.5, 5.0], dtype='float64')

In [27]: s = Series(range(5),index=index)

In [28]: s
Out[28]:
1.5 0
2.0 1
3.0 2
4.5 3
5.0 4
Length: 5, dtype: int64

Scalar selection for [],.ix,.loc will always be label based. An integer will match an equal float index (e.g.
3 is equivalent to 3.0)

In [29]: s[3]
Out[29]: 2

In [30]: s.loc[3]
\\\\\\\\\\\Out[30]: 2

The only positional indexing is via iloc

In [31]: s.iloc[3]
Out[31]: 3

312 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

A scalar index that is not found will raise KeyError

Slicing is ALWAYS on the values of the index, for [],ix,loc and ALWAYS positional with iloc

In [32]: s[2:4]
Out[32]:
2.0 1
3.0 2
Length: 2, dtype: int64

In [33]: s.loc[2:4]
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[33]:
2.0 1
3.0 2
Length: 2, dtype: int64

In [34]: s.iloc[2:4]
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

3.0 2
4.5 3
Length: 2, dtype: int64

In float indexes, slicing using floats are allowed

In [35]: s[2.1:4.6]
Out[35]:
3.0 2
4.5 3
Length: 2, dtype: int64

In [36]: s.loc[2.1:4.6]
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[36]:
3.0 2
4.5 3
Length: 2, dtype: int64

• Indexing on other index types are preserved (and positional fallback for [],ix), with the exception, that floating
point slicing on indexes on non Float64Index will now raise a TypeError.

In [1]: Series(range(5))[3.5]
TypeError: the label [3.5] is not a proper indexer for this index type
˓→(Int64Index)

In [1]: Series(range(5))[3.5:4.5]
TypeError: the slice start [3.5] is not a proper indexer for this index type
˓→(Int64Index)

Using a scalar float indexer will be deprecated in a future version, but is allowed for now.

In [3]: Series(range(5))[3.0]
Out[3]: 3

1.21.6 HDFStore API Changes

• Query Format Changes. A much more string-like query format is now supported. See the docs.

1.21. v0.13.0 (January 3, 2014) 313

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [37]: path = 'test.h5'

In [38]: dfq = DataFrame(randn(10,4),

....: columns=list('ABCD'),
....: index=date_range('20130101',periods=10))
....:

In [39]: dfq.to_hdf(path,'dfq',format='table',data_columns=True)

Use boolean expressions, with in-line function evaluation.

In [40]: read_hdf(path,'dfq',
....: where="index>Timestamp('20130104') & columns=['A', 'B']")
....:
Out[40]:
A B
2013-01-05 1.057633 -0.791489
2013-01-06 1.910759 0.787965
2013-01-07 1.043945 2.107785
2013-01-08 0.749185 -0.675521
2013-01-09 -0.276646 1.924533
2013-01-10 0.226363 -2.078618

[6 rows x 2 columns]

Use an inline column reference

In [41]: read_hdf(path,'dfq',
....: where="A>0 or C>0")
....:
Out[41]:
A B C D
2013-01-01 -0.414505 -1.425795 0.209395 -0.592886
2013-01-02 -1.473116 -0.896581 1.104352 -0.431550
2013-01-03 -0.161137 0.889157 0.288377 -1.051539
2013-01-04 -0.319561 -0.619993 0.156998 -0.571455
2013-01-05 1.057633 -0.791489 -0.524627 0.071878
2013-01-06 1.910759 0.787965 0.513082 -0.546416
2013-01-07 1.043945 2.107785 1.459927 1.015405
2013-01-08 0.749185 -0.675521 0.440266 0.688972
2013-01-09 -0.276646 1.924533 0.411204 0.890765
2013-01-10 0.226363 -2.078618 -0.387886 -0.087107

[10 rows x 4 columns]

• the format keyword now replaces the table keyword; allowed values are fixed(f) or table(t) the
same defaults as prior < 0.13.0 remain, e.g. put implies fixed format and append implies table format.
This default format can be set as an option by setting io.hdf.default_format.
In [42]: path = 'test.h5'

In [43]: df = pd.DataFrame(np.random.randn(10,2))

In [44]: df.to_hdf(path,'df_table',format='table')

In [45]: df.to_hdf(path,'df_table2',append=True)

In [46]: df.to_hdf(path,'df_fixed')

314 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [47]: with pd.HDFStore(path) as store:

....: print(store)
....:
<class 'pandas.io.pytables.HDFStore'>
File path: test.h5

• Significant table writing performance improvements

• handle a passed Series in table format (GH4330)
• can now serialize a timedelta64[ns] dtype in a table (GH3577), See the docs.
• added an is_open property to indicate if the underlying file handle is_open; a closed store will now report
‘CLOSED’ when viewing the store (rather than raising an error) (GH4409)
• a close of a HDFStore now will close that instance of the HDFStore but will only close the actual file if
the ref count (by PyTables) w.r.t. all of the open handles are 0. Essentially you have a local instance of
HDFStore referenced by a variable. Once you close it, it will report closed. Other references (to the same
file) will continue to operate until they themselves are closed. Performing an action on a closed file will raise
ClosedFileError

In [48]: path = 'test.h5'

In [49]: df = DataFrame(randn(10,2))

In [50]: store1 = HDFStore(path)

In [51]: store2 = HDFStore(path)

In [52]: store1.append('df',df)

In [53]: store2.append('df2',df)

In [54]: store1
Out[54]:
<class 'pandas.io.pytables.HDFStore'>
File path: test.h5

In [55]: store2
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[55]:
<class 'pandas.io.pytables.HDFStore'>
File path: test.h5

In [56]: store1.close()

In [57]: store2
Out[57]:
<class 'pandas.io.pytables.HDFStore'>
File path: test.h5

In [58]: store2.close()

In [59]: store2
Out[59]:
<class 'pandas.io.pytables.HDFStore'>
File path: test.h5

• removed the _quiet attribute, replace by a DuplicateWarning if retrieving duplicate rows from a table

1.21. v0.13.0 (January 3, 2014) 315

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

(GH4367)
• removed the warn argument from open. Instead a PossibleDataLossError exception will be raised if
you try to use mode='w' with an OPEN file handle (GH4367)
• allow a passed locations array or mask as a where condition (GH4467). See the docs for an example.
• add the keyword dropna=True to append to change whether ALL nan rows are not written to the store
(default is True, ALL nan rows are NOT written), also settable via the option io.hdf.dropna_table
(GH4625)
• pass thru store creation arguments; can be used to support in-memory stores

1.21.7 DataFrame repr Changes

The HTML and plain text representations of DataFrame now show a truncated view of the table once it exceeds
a certain size, rather than switching to the short info view (GH4886, GH5550). This makes the representation more
consistent as small DataFrames get larger.

To get the info view, call DataFrame.info(). If you prefer the info view as the repr for large DataFrames, you
can set this by running set_option('display.large_repr', 'info').

1.21.8 Enhancements

• df.to_clipboard() learned a new excel keyword that let’s you paste df data directly into excel (enabled
by default). (GH5070).
• read_html now raises a URLError instead of catching and raising a ValueError (GH4303, GH4305)
• Added a test for read_clipboard() and to_clipboard() (GH4282)
• Clipboard functionality now works with PySide (GH4282)
• Added a more informative error message when plot arguments contain overlapping color and style arguments
(GH4402)
• to_dict now takes records as a possible outtype. Returns an array of column-keyed dictionaries. (GH4936)
• NaN handing in get_dummies (GH4446) with dummy_na

# previously, nan was erroneously counted as 2 here

# now it is not counted at all
In [60]: get_dummies([1, 2, np.nan])
Out[60]:
1.0 2.0
0 1 0
1 0 1

316 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

2 0 0

[3 rows x 2 columns]

# unless requested
In [61]: get_dummies([1, 2, np.nan], dummy_na=True)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[61]:
˓→

1.0 2.0 NaN

0 1 0 0
1 0 1 0
2 0 0 1

[3 rows x 3 columns]

• timedelta64[ns] operations. See the docs.

Warning: Most of these operations require numpy >= 1.7

Using the new top-level to_timedelta, you can convert a scalar or array from the standard timedelta format
(produced by to_csv) into a timedelta type (np.timedelta64 in nanoseconds).
In [62]: to_timedelta('1 days 06:05:01.00003')
Out[62]: Timedelta('1 days 06:05:01.000030')

In [63]: to_timedelta('15.5us')
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[63]: Timedelta('0 days 00:00:00.
˓→000015')

In [64]: to_timedelta(['1 days 06:05:01.00003','15.5us','nan'])

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[64
˓→TimedeltaIndex(['1 days 06:05:01.000030', '0 days 00:00:00.000015', NaT], dtype=

˓→'timedelta64[ns]', freq=None)

In [65]: to_timedelta(np.arange(5),unit='s')
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→TimedeltaIndex(['00:00:00', '00:00:01', '00:00:02', '00:00:03', '00:00:04'],

˓→dtype='timedelta64[ns]', freq=None)

In [66]: to_timedelta(np.arange(5),unit='d')
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→TimedeltaIndex(['0 days', '1 days', '2 days', '3 days', '4 days'], dtype=

˓→'timedelta64[ns]', freq=None)

A Series of dtype timedelta64[ns] can now be divided by another timedelta64[ns] object, or

astyped to yield a float64 dtyped Series. This is frequency conversion. See the docs for the docs.
In [67]: from datetime import timedelta

In [68]: td = Series(date_range('20130101',periods=4))-Series(date_range('20121201
˓→',periods=4))

In [69]: td[2] += np.timedelta64(timedelta(minutes=5,seconds=3))

In [70]: td[3] = np.nan

1.21. v0.13.0 (January 3, 2014) 317

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [71]: td
Out[71]:
0 31 days 00:00:00
1 31 days 00:00:00
2 31 days 00:05:03
3 NaT
Length: 4, dtype: timedelta64[ns]

# to days
In [72]: td / np.timedelta64(1,'D')
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

0 31.000000
1 31.000000
2 31.003507
3 NaN
Length: 4, dtype: float64

In [73]: td.astype('timedelta64[D]')
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

0 31.0
1 31.0
2 31.0
3 NaN
Length: 4, dtype: float64

# to seconds
In [74]: td / np.timedelta64(1,'s')
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

0 2678400.0
1 2678400.0
2 2678703.0
3 NaN
Length: 4, dtype: float64

In [75]: td.astype('timedelta64[s]')
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

0 2678400.0
1 2678400.0
2 2678703.0
3 NaN
Length: 4, dtype: float64

Dividing or multiplying a timedelta64[ns] Series by an integer or integer Series

In [76]: td * -1
Out[76]:
0 -31 days +00:00:00
1 -31 days +00:00:00
2 -32 days +23:54:57
3 NaT
Length: 4, dtype: timedelta64[ns]

In [77]: td * Series([1,2,3,4])
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

318 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

0 31 days 00:00:00
1 62 days 00:00:00
2 93 days 00:15:09
3 NaT
Length: 4, dtype: timedelta64[ns]

Absolute DateOffset objects can act equivalently to timedeltas

In [78]: from pandas import offsets

In [79]: td + offsets.Minute(5) + offsets.Milli(5)

Out[79]:
0 31 days 00:05:00.005000
1 31 days 00:05:00.005000
2 31 days 00:10:03.005000
3 NaT
Length: 4, dtype: timedelta64[ns]

Fillna is now supported for timedeltas

In [80]: td.fillna(0)
Out[80]:
0 31 days 00:00:00
1 31 days 00:00:00
2 31 days 00:05:03
3 0 days 00:00:00
Length: 4, dtype: timedelta64[ns]

In [81]: td.fillna(timedelta(days=1,seconds=5))
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

0 31 days 00:00:00
1 31 days 00:00:00
2 31 days 00:05:03
3 1 days 00:00:05
Length: 4, dtype: timedelta64[ns]

You can do numeric reduction operations on timedeltas.

In [82]: td.mean()
Out[82]: Timedelta('31 days 00:01:41')

In [83]: td.quantile(.1)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[83]: Timedelta('31 days 00:00:00')

• plot(kind='kde') now accepts the optional parameters bw_method and ind, passed to
scipy.stats.gaussian_kde() (for scipy >= 0.11.0) to set the bandwidth, and to gkde.evaluate() to specify the in-
dices at which it is evaluated, respectively. See scipy docs. (GH4298)
• DataFrame constructor now accepts a numpy masked record array (GH3478)
• The new vectorized string method extract return regular expression matches more conveniently.

In [84]: Series(['a1', 'b2', 'c3']).str.extract('[ab](\d)')

Out[84]:
0 1
1 2

1.21. v0.13.0 (January 3, 2014) 319

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

2 NaN
Length: 3, dtype: object

Elements that do not match return NaN. Extracting a regular expression with more than one group returns a
DataFrame with one column per group.

In [85]: Series(['a1', 'b2', 'c3']).str.extract('([ab])(\d)')

Out[85]:
0 1
0 a 1
1 b 2
2 NaN NaN

[3 rows x 2 columns]

Elements that do not match return a row of NaN. Thus, a Series of messy strings can be converted into a like-
indexed Series or DataFrame of cleaned-up or more useful strings, without necessitating get() to access tuples
or re.match objects.
Named groups like

In [86]: Series(['a1', 'b2', 'c3']).str.extract(

....: '(?P<letter>[ab])(?P<digit>\d)')
....:
Out[86]:
letter digit
0 a 1
1 b 2
2 NaN NaN

[3 rows x 2 columns]

and optional groups can also be used.

In [87]: Series(['a1', 'b2', '3']).str.extract(

....: '(?P<letter>[ab])?(?P<digit>\d)')
....:
Out[87]:
letter digit
0 a 1
1 b 2
2 NaN 3

[3 rows x 2 columns]

• read_stata now accepts Stata 13 format (GH4291)

• read_fwf now infers the column specifications from the first 100 rows of the file if the data has correctly
separated and properly aligned columns using the delimiter provided to the function (GH4488).
• support for nanosecond times as an offset

Warning: These operations require numpy >= 1.7

Period conversions in the range of seconds and below were reworked and extended up to nanoseconds. Periods
in the nanosecond range are now available.

320 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [88]: date_range('2013-01-01', periods=5, freq='5N')

Out[88]:
DatetimeIndex(['2013-01-01', '2013-01-01', '2013-01-01', '2013-01-01',
'2013-01-01'],
dtype='datetime64[ns]', freq='5N')

or with frequency as offset

In [89]: date_range('2013-01-01', periods=5, freq=pd.offsets.Nano(5))

Out[89]:
DatetimeIndex(['2013-01-01', '2013-01-01', '2013-01-01', '2013-01-01',
'2013-01-01'],
dtype='datetime64[ns]', freq='5N')

Timestamps can be modified in the nanosecond range

In [90]: t = Timestamp('20130101 09:01:02')

In [91]: t + pd.tseries.offsets.Nano(123)
Out[91]: Timestamp('2013-01-01 09:01:02.000000123')

• A new method, isin for DataFrames, which plays nicely with boolean indexing. The argument to isin, what
we’re comparing the DataFrame to, can be a DataFrame, Series, dict, or array of values. See the docs for more.
To get the rows where any of the conditions are met:

In [92]: dfi = DataFrame({'A': [1, 2, 3, 4], 'B': ['a', 'b', 'f', 'n']})

In [93]: dfi
Out[93]:
A B
0 1 a
1 2 b
2 3 f
3 4 n

[4 rows x 2 columns]

In [94]: other = DataFrame({'A': [1, 3, 3, 7], 'B': ['e', 'f', 'f', 'e']})

In [95]: mask = dfi.isin(other)

In [96]: mask
Out[96]:
A B
0 True False
1 False False
2 True True
3 False False

[4 rows x 2 columns]

In [97]: dfi[mask.any(1)]
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

A B
0 1 a
2 3 f

1.21. v0.13.0 (January 3, 2014) 321

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

[2 rows x 2 columns]

• Series now supports a to_frame method to convert it to a single-column DataFrame (GH5164)

• All R datasets listed here http://stat.ethz.ch/R-manual/R-devel/library/datasets/html/00Index.html can now be
loaded into Pandas objects
# note that pandas.rpy was deprecated in v0.16.0
import pandas.rpy.common as com
com.load_data('Titanic')

• tz_localize can infer a fall daylight savings transition based on the structure of the unlocalized data
(GH4230), see the docs
• DatetimeIndex is now in the API documentation, see the docs
• json_normalize() is a new method to allow you to create a flat table from semi-structured JSON data. See
the docs (GH1067)
• Added PySide support for the qtpandas DataFrameModel and DataFrameWidget.
• Python csv parser now supports usecols (GH4335)
• Frequencies gained several new offsets:
– LastWeekOfMonth (GH4637)
– FY5253, and FY5253Quarter (GH4511)
• DataFrame has a new interpolate method, similar to Series (GH4434, GH1892)
In [98]: df = DataFrame({'A': [1, 2.1, np.nan, 4.7, 5.6, 6.8],
....: 'B': [.25, np.nan, np.nan, 4, 12.2, 14.4]})
....:

In [99]: df.interpolate()
Out[99]:
A B
0 1.0 0.25
1 2.1 1.50
2 3.4 2.75
3 4.7 4.00
4 5.6 12.20
5 6.8 14.40

[6 rows x 2 columns]

Additionally, the method argument to interpolate has been expanded to include 'nearest',
'zero', 'slinear', 'quadratic', 'cubic', 'barycentric', 'krogh',
'piecewise_polynomial', 'pchip', `polynomial`, 'spline' The new methods re-
quire scipy. Consult the Scipy reference guide and documentation for more information about when the various
methods are appropriate. See the docs.
Interpolate now also accepts a limit keyword argument. This works similar to fillna‘s limit:
In [100]: ser = Series([1, 3, np.nan, np.nan, np.nan, 11])

In [101]: ser.interpolate(limit=2)
Out[101]:
0 1.0

322 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

1 3.0
2 5.0
3 7.0
4 NaN
5 11.0
Length: 6, dtype: float64

• Added wide_to_long panel data convenience function. See the docs.

In [102]: np.random.seed(123)

In [103]: df = pd.DataFrame({"A1970" : {0 : "a", 1 : "b", 2 : "c"},

.....: "A1980" : {0 : "d", 1 : "e", 2 : "f"},
.....: "B1970" : {0 : 2.5, 1 : 1.2, 2 : .7},
.....: "B1980" : {0 : 3.2, 1 : 1.3, 2 : .1},
.....: "X" : dict(zip(range(3), np.random.randn(3)))
.....: })
.....:

In [104]: df["id"] = df.index

In [105]: df
Out[105]:
A1970 A1980 B1970 B1980 X id
0 a d 2.5 3.2 -1.085631 0
1 b e 1.2 1.3 0.997345 1
2 c f 0.7 0.1 0.282978 2

[3 rows x 6 columns]

In [106]: wide_to_long(df, ["A", "B"], i="id", j="year")

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

X A B
id year
0 1970 -1.085631 a 2.5
1 1970 0.997345 b 1.2
2 1970 0.282978 c 0.7
0 1980 -1.085631 d 3.2
1 1980 0.997345 e 1.3
2 1980 0.282978 f 0.1

[6 rows x 3 columns]

• to_csv now takes a date_format keyword argument that specifies how output datetime objects should
be formatted. Datetimes encountered in the index, columns, and values will all have this formatting applied.
(GH4313)
• DataFrame.plot will scatter plot x versus y by passing kind='scatter' (GH2215)
• Added support for Google Analytics v3 API segment IDs that also supports v2 IDs. (GH5271)

1.21.9 Experimental

• The new eval() function implements expression evaluation using numexpr behind the scenes. This results
in large speedups for complicated expressions involving large DataFrames/Series. For example,

1.21. v0.13.0 (January 3, 2014) 323

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [107]: nrows, ncols = 20000, 100

In [108]: df1, df2, df3, df4 = [DataFrame(randn(nrows, ncols))

.....: for _ in range(4)]
.....:

# eval with NumExpr backend

In [109]: %timeit pd.eval('df1 + df2 + df3 + df4')
8.36 ms +- 271 us per loop (mean +- std. dev. of 7 runs, 100 loops each)

# pure Python evaluation

In [110]: %timeit df1 + df2 + df3 + df4
12 ms +- 507 us per loop (mean +- std. dev. of 7 runs, 100 loops each)

For more details, see the the docs

• Similar to pandas.eval, DataFrame has a new DataFrame.eval method that evaluates an expression
in the context of the DataFrame. For example,

In [111]: df = DataFrame(randn(10, 2), columns=['a', 'b'])

In [112]: df.eval('a + b')

Out[112]:
0 -0.685204
1 1.589745
2 0.325441
3 -1.784153
4 -0.432893
5 0.171850
6 1.895919
7 3.065587
8 -0.092759
9 1.391365
Length: 10, dtype: float64

• query() method has been added that allows you to select elements of a DataFrame using a natural query
syntax nearly identical to Python syntax. For example,

In [113]: n = 20

In [114]: df = DataFrame(np.random.randint(n, size=(n, 3)), columns=['a', 'b', 'c

˓→'])

In [115]: df.query('a < b < c')

Out[115]:
a b c
11 1 5 8
15 8 16 19

[2 rows x 3 columns]

selects all the rows of df where a < b < c evaluates to True. For more details see the the docs.
• pd.read_msgpack() and pd.to_msgpack() are now a supported method of serialization of arbitrary
pandas (and python objects) in a lightweight portable binary format. See the docs

324 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Warning: Since this is an EXPERIMENTAL LIBRARY, the storage format may not be stable until a future
release.

In [116]: df = DataFrame(np.random.rand(5,2),columns=list('AB'))

In [117]: df.to_msgpack('foo.msg')

In [118]: pd.read_msgpack('foo.msg')
Out[118]:
A B
0 0.251082 0.017357
1 0.347915 0.929879
2 0.546233 0.203368
3 0.064942 0.031722
4 0.355309 0.524575

[5 rows x 2 columns]

In [119]: s = Series(np.random.rand(5),index=date_range('20130101',periods=5))

In [120]: pd.to_msgpack('foo.msg', df, s)

In [121]: pd.read_msgpack('foo.msg')
Out[121]:
[ A B
0 0.251082 0.017357
1 0.347915 0.929879
2 0.546233 0.203368
3 0.064942 0.031722
4 0.355309 0.524575

[5 rows x 2 columns], 2013-01-01 0.022321

2013-01-02 0.227025
2013-01-03 0.383282
2013-01-04 0.193225
2013-01-05 0.110977
Freq: D, Length: 5, dtype: float64]

You can pass iterator=True to iterator over the unpacked results

In [122]: for o in pd.read_msgpack('foo.msg',iterator=True):
.....: print(o)
.....:
A B
0 0.251082 0.017357
1 0.347915 0.929879
2 0.546233 0.203368
3 0.064942 0.031722
4 0.355309 0.524575

[5 rows x 2 columns]
2013-01-01 0.022321
2013-01-02 0.227025
2013-01-03 0.383282
2013-01-04 0.193225
2013-01-05 0.110977
Freq: D, Length: 5, dtype: float64

1.21. v0.13.0 (January 3, 2014) 325

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• pandas.io.gbq provides a simple way to extract from, and load data into, Google’s BigQuery Data Sets by
way of pandas DataFrames. BigQuery is a high performance SQL-like database service, useful for performing
ad-hoc queries against extremely large datasets. See the docs

from pandas.io import gbq

# A query to select the average monthly temperatures in the

# in the year 2000 across the USA. The dataset,
# publicata:samples.gsod, is available on all BigQuery accounts,
# and is based on NOAA gsod data.

query = """SELECT station_number as STATION,

month as MONTH, AVG(mean_temp) as MEAN_TEMP
FROM publicdata:samples.gsod
WHERE YEAR = 2000
GROUP BY STATION, MONTH
ORDER BY STATION, MONTH ASC"""

# Fetch the result set for this query

# Your Google BigQuery Project ID

# To find this, see your dashboard:
# https://console.developers.google.com/iam-admin/projects?authuser=0
projectid = xxxxxxxxx;

df = gbq.read_gbq(query, project_id = projectid)

# Use pandas to process and reshape the dataset

df2 = df.pivot(index='STATION', columns='MONTH', values='MEAN_TEMP')

df3 = pandas.concat([df2.min(), df2.mean(), df2.max()],
axis=1,keys=["Min Tem", "Mean Temp", "Max Temp"])

The resulting DataFrame is:

> df3
Min Tem Mean Temp Max Temp
MONTH
1 -53.336667 39.827892 89.770968
2 -49.837500 43.685219 93.437932
3 -77.926087 48.708355 96.099998
4 -82.892858 55.070087 97.317240
5 -92.378261 61.428117 102.042856
6 -77.703334 65.858888 102.900000
7 -87.821428 68.169663 106.510714
8 -89.431999 68.614215 105.500000
9 -86.611112 63.436935 107.142856
10 -78.209677 56.880838 92.103333
11 -50.125000 48.861228 94.996428
12 -50.332258 42.286879 94.396774

Warning: To use this module, you will need a BigQuery account. See <https://cloud.google.com/products/
big-query> for details.
As of 10/10/13, there is a bug in Google’s API preventing result sets from being larger than 100,000 rows.

326 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

A patch is scheduled for the week of 10/14/13.

1.21.10 Internal Refactoring

In 0.13.0 there is a major refactor primarily to subclass Series from NDFrame, which is the base class currently
for DataFrame and Panel, to unify methods and behaviors. Series formerly subclassed directly from ndarray.
(GH4080, GH3862, GH816)

Warning: There are two potential incompatibilities from < 0.13.0

• Using certain numpy functions would previously return a Series if passed a Series as an argument.
This seems only to affect np.ones_like, np.empty_like, np.diff and np.where. These now
return ndarrays.
In [123]: s = Series([1,2,3,4])

Numpy Usage
In [124]: np.ones_like(s)
Out[124]: array([1, 1, 1, 1])

In [125]: np.diff(s)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[125]: array([1, 1, 1])

In [126]: np.where(s>1,s,np.nan)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[126]: array([nan,
˓→ 2., 3., 4.])

Pandonic Usage
In [127]: Series(1,index=s.index)
Out[127]:
0 1
1 1
2 1
3 1
Length: 4, dtype: int64

In [128]: s.diff()
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[128]:
0 NaN
1 1.0
2 1.0
3 1.0
Length: 4, dtype: float64

In [129]: s.where(s>1)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

0 NaN
1 2.0
2 3.0
3 4.0
Length: 4, dtype: float64

1.21. v0.13.0 (January 3, 2014) 327

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Passing a Series directly to a cython function expecting an ndarray type will no long work directly, you
must pass Series.values, See Enhancing Performance
• Series(0.5) would previously return the scalar 0.5, instead this will return a 1-element Series
• This change breaks rpy2<=2.3.8. an Issue has been opened against rpy2 and a workaround is detailed in
GH5698. Thanks @JanSchulz.

• Pickle compatibility is preserved for pickles created prior to 0.13. These must be unpickled with pd.
read_pickle, see Pickling.
• Refactor of series.py/frame.py/panel.py to move common code to generic.py
– added _setup_axes to created generic NDFrame structures
– moved methods

* from_axes,_wrap_array,axes,ix,loc,iloc,shape,empty,swapaxes,
transpose,pop

* __iter__,keys,__contains__,__len__,__neg__,__invert__
* convert_objects,as_blocks,as_matrix,values
* __getstate__,__setstate__ (compat remains in frame/panel)
* __getattr__,__setattr__
* _indexed_same,reindex_like,align,where,mask
* fillna,replace (Series replace is now consistent with DataFrame)
* filter (also added axis argument to selectively filter on a different axis)
* reindex,reindex_axis,take
* truncate (moved to become part of NDFrame)
• These are API changes which make Panel more consistent with DataFrame
– swapaxes on a Panel with the same axes specified now return a copy
– support attribute access for setting
– filter supports the same API as the original DataFrame filter
• Reindex called with no arguments will now return a copy of the input object
• TimeSeries is now an alias for Series. the property is_time_series can be used to distinguish (if
desired)
• Refactor of Sparse objects to use BlockManager
– Created a new block type in internals, SparseBlock, which can hold multi-dtypes and is non-
consolidatable. SparseSeries and SparseDataFrame now inherit more methods from there hi-
erarchy (Series/DataFrame), and no longer inherit from SparseArray (which instead is the object of
the SparseBlock)
– Sparse suite now supports integration with non-sparse data. Non-float sparse data is supportable (partially
implemented)
– Operations on sparse structures within DataFrames should preserve sparseness, merging type operations
will convert to dense (and back to sparse), so might be somewhat inefficient
– enable setitem on SparseSeries for boolean/integer/slices
– SparsePanels implementation is unchanged (e.g. not using BlockManager, needs work)

328 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• added ftypes method to Series/DataFrame, similar to dtypes, but indicates if the underlying is sparse/dense
(as well as the dtype)
• All NDFrame objects can now use __finalize__() to specify various values to propagate to new objects
from an existing one (e.g. name in Series will follow more automatically now)
• Internal type checking is now done via a suite of generated classes, allowing isinstance(value, klass)
without having to directly import the klass, courtesy of @jtratner
• Bug in Series update where the parent frame is not updating its cache based on changes (GH4080) or types
(GH3217), fillna (GH3386)
• Indexing with dtype conversions fixed (GH4463, GH4204)
• Refactor Series.reindex to core/generic.py (GH4604, GH4618), allow method= in reindexing on a Se-
ries to work
• Series.copy no longer accepts the order parameter and is now consistent with NDFrame copy
• Refactor rename methods to core/generic.py; fixes Series.rename for (GH4605), and adds rename with
the same signature for Panel
• Refactor clip methods to core/generic.py (GH4798)
• Refactor of _get_numeric_data/_get_bool_data to core/generic.py, allowing Series/Panel function-
ality
• Series (for index) / Panel (for items) now allow attribute access to its elements (GH1903)

In [130]: s = Series([1,2,3],index=list('abc'))

In [131]: s.b
Out[131]: 2

In [132]: s.a = 5

In [133]: s
Out[133]:
a 5
b 2
c 3
Length: 3, dtype: int64

1.21.11 Bug Fixes

See V0.13.0 Bug Fixes for an extensive list of bugs that have been fixed in 0.13.0.
See the full release notes or issue tracker on GitHub for a complete list of all API changes, Enhancements and Bug
Fixes.

1.22 v0.12.0 (July 24, 2013)

This is a major release from 0.11.0 and includes several new features and enhancements along with a large number of
bug fixes.
Highlights include a consistent I/O API naming scheme, routines to read html, write multi-indexes to csv files, read
& write STATA data files, read & write JSON format files, Python 3 support for HDFStore, filtering of groupby
expressions via filter, and a revamped replace routine that accepts regular expressions.

1.22. v0.12.0 (July 24, 2013) 329

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

1.22.1 API changes

• The I/O API is now much more consistent with a set of top level reader functions accessed like pd.
read_csv() that generally return a pandas object.
– read_csv
– read_excel
– read_hdf
– read_sql
– read_json
– read_html
– read_stata
– read_clipboard
The corresponding writer functions are object methods that are accessed like df.to_csv()
– to_csv
– to_excel
– to_hdf
– to_sql
– to_json
– to_html
– to_stata
– to_clipboard
• Fix modulo and integer division on Series,DataFrames to act similary to float dtypes to return np.nan
or np.inf as appropriate (GH3590). This correct a numpy bug that treats integer and float dtypes
differently.
In [1]: p = DataFrame({ 'first' : [4,5,8], 'second' : [0,0,3] })

In [2]: p % 0
Out[2]:
first second
0 NaN NaN
1 NaN NaN
2 NaN NaN

[3 rows x 2 columns]

In [3]: p % p
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

first second
0 0.0 NaN
1 0.0 NaN
2 0.0 0.0

[3 rows x 2 columns]

In [4]: p / p

330 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

first second
0 1.0 NaN
1 1.0 NaN
2 1.0 1.0

[3 rows x 2 columns]

In [5]: p / 0
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

first second
0 inf NaN
1 inf NaN
2 inf inf

[3 rows x 2 columns]

• Add squeeze keyword to groupby to allow reduction from DataFrame -> Series if groups are unique. This
is a Regression from 0.10.1. We are reverting back to the prior behavior. This means groupby will return the
same shaped objects whether the groups are unique or not. Revert this issue (GH2893) with (GH3596).

In [6]: df2 = DataFrame([{"val1": 1, "val2" : 20}, {"val1":1, "val2": 19},

...: {"val1":1, "val2": 27}, {"val1":1, "val2": 12}])
...:

In [7]: def func(dataf):

...: return dataf["val2"] - dataf["val2"].mean()
...:

# squeezing the result frame to a series (because we have unique groups)

In [8]: df2.groupby("val1", squeeze=True).apply(func)
Out[8]:
0 0.5
1 -0.5
2 7.5
3 -7.5
Name: 1, Length: 4, dtype: float64

# no squeezing (the default, and behavior in 0.10.1)

In [9]: df2.groupby("val1").apply(func)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[9]:
˓→

val2 0 1 2 3
val1
1 0.5 -0.5 7.5 -7.5

[1 rows x 4 columns]

• Raise on iloc when boolean indexing with a label based indexer mask e.g. a boolean Series, even with integer
labels, will raise. Since iloc is purely positional based, the labels on the Series are not alignable (GH3631)
This case is rarely used, and there are plently of alternatives. This preserves the iloc API to be purely positional
based.

In [10]: df = DataFrame(lrange(5), list('ABCDE'), columns=['a'])

1.22. v0.12.0 (July 24, 2013) 331

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [11]: mask = (df.a%2 == 0)

In [12]: mask
Out[12]:
A True
B False
C True
D False
E True
Name: a, Length: 5, dtype: bool

# this is what you should use

In [13]: df.loc[mask]
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

a
A 0
C 2
E 4

[3 rows x 1 columns]

# this will work as well

In [14]: df.iloc[mask.values]
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

a
A 0
C 2
E 4

[3 rows x 1 columns]

df.iloc[mask] will raise a ValueError

• The raise_on_error argument to plotting functions is removed. Instead, plotting functions raise a
TypeError when the dtype of the object is object to remind you to avoid object arrays whenever
possible and thus you should cast to an appropriate numeric dtype if you need to plot something.
• Add colormap keyword to DataFrame plotting methods. Accepts either a matplotlib colormap object (ie,
matplotlib.cm.jet) or a string name of such an object (ie, ‘jet’). The colormap is sampled to select the color for
each column. Please see Colormaps for more information. (GH3860)
• DataFrame.interpolate() is now deprecated. Please use DataFrame.fillna() and
DataFrame.replace() instead. (GH3582, GH3675, GH3676)
• the method and axis arguments of DataFrame.replace() are deprecated
• DataFrame.replace ‘s infer_types parameter is removed and now performs conversion by default.
(GH3907)
• Add the keyword allow_duplicates to DataFrame.insert to allow a duplicate column to be inserted
if True, default is False (same as prior to 0.12) (GH3679)
• Implement __nonzero__ for NDFrame objects (GH3691, GH3696)
• IO api
– added top-level function read_excel to replace the following, The original API is deprecated and will
be removed in a future version

332 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

from pandas.io.parsers import ExcelFile

xls = ExcelFile('path_to_file.xls')
xls.parse('Sheet1', index_col=None, na_values=['NA'])

With

import pandas as pd
pd.read_excel('path_to_file.xls', 'Sheet1', index_col=None, na_values=['NA'])

– added top-level function read_sql that is equivalent to the following

from pandas.io.sql import read_frame

read_frame(....)

• DataFrame.to_html and DataFrame.to_latex now accept a path for their first argument (GH3702)
• Do not allow astypes on datetime64[ns] except to object, and timedelta64[ns] to object/int
(GH3425)
• The behavior of datetime64 dtypes has changed with respect to certain so-called reduction operations
(GH3726). The following operations now raise a TypeError when perfomed on a Series and return an
empty Series when performed on a DataFrame similar to performing these operations on, for example, a
DataFrame of slice objects:
– sum, prod, mean, std, var, skew, kurt, corr, and cov
• read_html now defaults to None when reading, and falls back on bs4 + html5lib when lxml fails to
parse. a list of parsers to try until success is also valid
• The internal pandas class hierarchy has changed (slightly). The previous PandasObject now is called
PandasContainer and a new PandasObject has become the baseclass for PandasContainer as well
as Index, Categorical, GroupBy, SparseList, and SparseArray (+ their base classes). Currently,
PandasObject provides string methods (from StringMixin). (GH4090, GH4092)
• New StringMixin that, given a __unicode__ method, gets python 2 and python 3 compatible string
methods (__str__, __bytes__, and __repr__). Plus string safety throughout. Now employed in many
places throughout the pandas library. (GH4090, GH4092)

1.22.2 I/O Enhancements

• pd.read_html() can now parse HTML strings, files or urls and return DataFrames, courtesy of @cpcloud.
(GH3477, GH3605, GH3606, GH3616). It works with a single parser backend: BeautifulSoup4 + html5lib See
the docs
You can use pd.read_html() to read the output from DataFrame.to_html() like so

In [15]: df = DataFrame({'a': range(3), 'b': list('abc')})

In [16]: print(df)
a b
0 0 a
1 1 b
2 2 c

[3 rows x 2 columns]

In [17]: html = df.to_html()

1.22. v0.12.0 (July 24, 2013) 333

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [18]: alist = pd.read_html(html, index_col=0)

In [19]: print(df == alist[0])

a b
0 True True
1 True True
2 True True

[3 rows x 2 columns]

Note that alist here is a Python list so pd.read_html() and DataFrame.to_html() are not in-
verses.
– pd.read_html() no longer performs hard conversion of date strings (GH3656).

Warning: You may have to install an older version of BeautifulSoup4, See the installation docs

• Added module for reading and writing Stata files: pandas.io.stata (GH1512) accessable via
read_stata top-level function for reading, and to_stata DataFrame method for writing, See the docs
• Added module for reading and writing json format files: pandas.io.json accessable via read_json top-
level function for reading, and to_json DataFrame method for writing, See the docs various issues (GH1226,
GH3804, GH3876, GH3867, GH1305)
• MultiIndex column support for reading and writing csv format files
– The header option in read_csv now accepts a list of the rows from which to read the index.
– The option, tupleize_cols can now be specified in both to_csv and read_csv, to provide com-
patiblity for the pre 0.12 behavior of writing and reading MultIndex columns via a list of tuples. The
default in 0.12 is to write lists of tuples and not interpret list of tuples as a MultiIndex column.
Note: The default behavior in 0.12 remains unchanged from prior versions, but starting with 0.13, the
default to write and read MultiIndex columns will be in the new format. (GH3571, GH1651, GH3141)
– If an index_col is not specified (e.g. you don’t have an index, or wrote it with df.to_csv(...,
index=False), then any names on the columns index will be lost.

In [20]: from pandas.util.testing import makeCustomDataframe as mkdf

In [21]: df = mkdf(5, 3, r_idx_nlevels=2, c_idx_nlevels=4)

In [22]: df.to_csv('mi.csv')

In [23]: print(open('mi.csv').read())
C0,,C_l0_g0,C_l0_g1,C_l0_g2
C1,,C_l1_g0,C_l1_g1,C_l1_g2
C2,,C_l2_g0,C_l2_g1,C_l2_g2
C3,,C_l3_g0,C_l3_g1,C_l3_g2
R0,R1,,,
R_l0_g0,R_l1_g0,R0C0,R0C1,R0C2
R_l0_g1,R_l1_g1,R1C0,R1C1,R1C2
R_l0_g2,R_l1_g2,R2C0,R2C1,R2C2
R_l0_g3,R_l1_g3,R3C0,R3C1,R3C2
R_l0_g4,R_l1_g4,R4C0,R4C1,R4C2

In [24]: pd.read_csv('mi.csv', header=[0,1,2,3], index_col=[0,1])

334 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

C0 C_l0_g0 C_l0_g1 C_l0_g2

C1 C_l1_g0 C_l1_g1 C_l1_g2
C2 C_l2_g0 C_l2_g1 C_l2_g2
C3 C_l3_g0 C_l3_g1 C_l3_g2
R0 R1
R_l0_g0 R_l1_g0 R0C0 R0C1 R0C2
R_l0_g1 R_l1_g1 R1C0 R1C1 R1C2
R_l0_g2 R_l1_g2 R2C0 R2C1 R2C2
R_l0_g3 R_l1_g3 R3C0 R3C1 R3C2
R_l0_g4 R_l1_g4 R4C0 R4C1 R4C2

[5 rows x 3 columns]

• Support for HDFStore (via PyTables 3.0.0) on Python3

• Iterator support via read_hdf that automatically opens and closes the store when iteration is finished. This is
only for tables

In [25]: path = 'store_iterator.h5'

In [26]: DataFrame(randn(10,2)).to_hdf(path,'df',table=True)

In [27]: for df in read_hdf(path,'df', chunksize=3):

....: print df
....:
0 1
0 0.713216 -0.778461
1 -0.661062 0.862877
2 0.344342 0.149565
0 1
3 -0.626968 -0.875772
4 -0.930687 -0.218983
5 0.949965 -0.442354
0 1
6 -0.402985 1.111358
7 -0.241527 -0.670477
8 0.049355 0.632633
0 1
9 -1.502767 -1.225492

• read_csv will now throw a more informative error message when a file contains no columns, e.g., all newline
characters

1.22.3 Other Enhancements

• DataFrame.replace() now allows regular expressions on contained Series with object dtype. See the
examples section in the regular docs Replacing via String Expression
For example you can do

In [25]: df = DataFrame({'a': list('ab..'), 'b': [1, 2, 3, 4]})

In [26]: df.replace(regex=r'\s*\.\s*', value=np.nan)

Out[26]:
a b

1.22. v0.12.0 (July 24, 2013) 335

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

0 a 1
1 b 2
2 NaN 3
3 NaN 4

[4 rows x 2 columns]

to replace all occurrences of the string '.' with zero or more instances of surrounding whitespace with NaN.
Regular string replacement still works as expected. For example, you can do
In [27]: df.replace('.', np.nan)
Out[27]:
a b
0 a 1
1 b 2
2 NaN 3
3 NaN 4

[4 rows x 2 columns]

to replace all occurrences of the string '.' with NaN.

• pd.melt() now accepts the optional parameters var_name and value_name to specify custom column
names of the returned DataFrame.
• pd.set_option() now allows N option, value pairs (GH3667).
Let’s say that we had an option 'a.b' and another option 'b.c'. We can set them at the same
time:
In [28]: pd.get_option('a.b')
Out[28]: 2

In [29]: pd.get_option('b.c')
\\\\\\\\\\\Out[29]: 3

In [30]: pd.set_option('a.b', 1, 'b.c', 4)

In [31]: pd.get_option('a.b')
Out[31]: 1

In [32]: pd.get_option('b.c')
\\\\\\\\\\\Out[32]: 4

• The filter method for group objects returns a subset of the original object. Suppose we want to take only
elements that belong to groups with a group sum greater than 2.
In [33]: sf = Series([1, 1, 2, 3, 3, 3])

In [34]: sf.groupby(sf).filter(lambda x: x.sum() > 2)

Out[34]:
3 3
4 3
5 3
Length: 3, dtype: int64

The argument of filter must a function that, applied to the group as a whole, returns True or False.
Another useful operation is filtering out elements that belong to groups with only a couple members.

336 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [35]: dff = DataFrame({'A': np.arange(8), 'B': list('aabbbbcc')})

In [36]: dff.groupby('B').filter(lambda x: len(x) > 2)

Out[36]:
A B
2 2 b
3 3 b
4 4 b
5 5 b

[4 rows x 2 columns]

Alternatively, instead of dropping the offending groups, we can return a like-indexed objects where the groups
that do not pass the filter are filled with NaNs.

In [37]: dff.groupby('B').filter(lambda x: len(x) > 2, dropna=False)

Out[37]:
A B
0 NaN NaN
1 NaN NaN
2 2.0 b
3 3.0 b
4 4.0 b
5 5.0 b
6 NaN NaN
7 NaN NaN

[8 rows x 2 columns]

• Series and DataFrame hist methods now take a figsize argument (GH3834)
• DatetimeIndexes no longer try to convert mixed-integer indexes during join operations (GH3877)
• Timestamp.min and Timestamp.max now represent valid Timestamp instances instead of the default date-
time.min and datetime.max (respectively), thanks @SleepingPills
• read_html now raises when no tables are found and BeautifulSoup==4.2.0 is detected (GH4214)

1.22.4 Experimental Features

• Added experimental CustomBusinessDay class to support DateOffsets with custom holiday calendars
and custom weekmasks. (GH2301)

Note: This uses the numpy.busdaycalendar API introduced in Numpy 1.7 and therefore requires Numpy
1.7.0 or newer.

In [38]: from pandas.tseries.offsets import CustomBusinessDay

In [39]: from datetime import datetime

# As an interesting example, let's look at Egypt where

# a Friday-Saturday weekend is observed.
In [40]: weekmask_egypt = 'Sun Mon Tue Wed Thu'

# They also observe International Workers' Day so let's

1.22. v0.12.0 (July 24, 2013) 337

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

# add that for a couple of years

In [41]: holidays = ['2012-05-01', datetime(2013, 5, 1), np.datetime64('2014-05-01
˓→')]

In [42]: bday_egypt = CustomBusinessDay(holidays=holidays, weekmask=weekmask_

˓→egypt)

In [43]: dt = datetime(2013, 4, 30)

In [44]: print(dt + 2 * bday_egypt)

2013-05-05 00:00:00

In [45]: dts = date_range(dt, periods=5, freq=bday_egypt)

In [46]: print(Series(dts.weekday, dts).map(Series('Mon Tue Wed Thu Fri Sat Sun'.

˓→split())))

2013-04-30 Tue
2013-05-02 Thu
2013-05-05 Sun
2013-05-06 Mon
2013-05-07 Tue
Freq: C, Length: 5, dtype: object

1.22.5 Bug Fixes

• Plotting functions now raise a TypeError before trying to plot anything if the associated objects have have a
dtype of object (GH1818, GH3572, GH3911, GH3912), but they will try to convert object arrays to numeric
arrays if possible so that you can still plot, for example, an object array with floats. This happens before any
drawing takes place which elimnates any spurious plots from showing up.
• fillna methods now raise a TypeError if the value parameter is a list or tuple.
• Series.str now supports iteration (GH3638). You can iterate over the individual elements of each string in
the Series. Each iteration yields yields a Series with either a single character at each index of the original
Series or NaN. For example,
In [47]: strs = 'go', 'bow', 'joe', 'slow'

In [48]: ds = Series(strs)

In [49]: for s in ds.str:

....: print(s)
....:
0 g
1 b
2 j
3 s
Length: 4, dtype: object
0 o
1 o
2 o
3 l
Length: 4, dtype: object
0 NaN
1 w
2 e
3 o

338 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Length: 4, dtype: object

0 NaN
1 NaN
2 NaN
3 w
Length: 4, dtype: object

In [50]: s
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

0 NaN
1 NaN
2 NaN
3 w
Length: 4, dtype: object

In [51]: s.dropna().values.item() == 'w'

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→True

The last element yielded by the iterator will be a Series containing the last element of the longest string in
the Series with all other elements being NaN. Here since 'slow' is the longest string and there are no other
strings with the same length 'w' is the only non-null string in the yielded Series.
• HDFStore
– will retain index attributes (freq,tz,name) on recreation (GH3499)
– will warn with a AttributeConflictWarning if you are attempting to append an index with a
different frequency than the existing, or attempting to append an index with a different name than the
existing
– support datelike columns with a timezone as data_columns (GH2852)
• Non-unique index support clarified (GH3468).
– Fix assigning a new index to a duplicate index in a DataFrame would fail (GH3468)
– Fix construction of a DataFrame with a duplicate index
– ref_locs support to allow duplicative indices across dtypes, allows iget support to always find the index
(even across dtypes) (GH2194)
– applymap on a DataFrame with a non-unique index now works (removed warning) (GH2786), and fix
(GH3230)
– Fix to_csv to handle non-unique columns (GH3495)
– Duplicate indexes with getitem will return items in the correct order (GH3455, GH3457) and handle miss-
ing elements like unique indices (GH3561)
– Duplicate indexes with and empty DataFrame.from_records will return a correct frame (GH3562)
– Concat to produce a non-unique columns when duplicates are across dtypes is fixed (GH3602)
– Allow insert/delete to non-unique columns (GH3679)
– Non-unique indexing with a slice via loc and friends fixed (GH3659)
– Allow insert/delete to non-unique columns (GH3679)
– Extend reindex to correctly deal with non-unique indices (GH3679)
– DataFrame.itertuples() now works with frames with duplicate column names (GH3873)

1.22. v0.12.0 (July 24, 2013) 339

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

– Bug in non-unique indexing via iloc (GH4017); added takeable argument to reindex for location-
based taking
– Allow non-unique indexing in series via .ix/.loc and __getitem__ (GH4246)
– Fixed non-unique indexing memory allocation issue with .ix/.loc (GH4280)
• DataFrame.from_records did not accept empty recarrays (GH3682)
• read_html now correctly skips tests (GH3741)
• Fixed a bug where DataFrame.replace with a compiled regular expression in the to_replace argument
wasn’t working (GH3907)
• Improved network test decorator to catch IOError (and therefore URLError as well). Added
with_connectivity_check decorator to allow explicitly checking a website as a proxy for seeing if there
is network connectivity. Plus, new optional_args decorator factory for decorators. (GH3910, GH3914)
• Fixed testing issue where too many sockets where open thus leading to a connection reset issue (GH3982,
GH3985, GH4028, GH4054)
• Fixed failing tests in test_yahoo, test_google where symbols were not retrieved but were being accessed
(GH3982, GH3985, GH4028, GH4054)
• Series.hist will now take the figure from the current environment if one is not passed
• Fixed bug where a 1xN DataFrame would barf on a 1xN mask (GH4071)
• Fixed running of tox under python3 where the pickle import was getting rewritten in an incompatible way
(GH4062, GH4063)
• Fixed bug where sharex and sharey were not being passed to grouped_hist (GH4089)
• Fixed bug in DataFrame.replace where a nested dict wasn’t being iterated over when regex=False
(GH4115)
• Fixed bug in the parsing of microseconds when using the format argument in to_datetime (GH4152)
• Fixed bug in PandasAutoDateLocator where invert_xaxis triggered incorrectly
MilliSecondLocator (GH3990)
• Fixed bug in plotting that wasn’t raising on invalid colormap for matplotlib 1.1.1 (GH4215)
• Fixed the legend displaying in DataFrame.plot(kind='kde') (GH4216)
• Fixed bug where Index slices weren’t carrying the name attribute (GH4226)
• Fixed bug in initializing DatetimeIndex with an array of strings in a certain time zone (GH4229)
• Fixed bug where html5lib wasn’t being properly skipped (GH4265)
• Fixed bug where get_data_famafrench wasn’t using the correct file edges (GH4281)
See the full release notes or issue tracker on GitHub for a complete list.

1.23 v0.11.0 (April 22, 2013)

This is a major release from 0.10.1 and includes many new features and enhancements along with a large number of
bug fixes. The methods of Selecting Data have had quite a number of additions, and Dtype support is now full-fledged.
There are also a number of important API changes that long-time pandas users should pay close attention to.
There is a new section in the documentation, 10 Minutes to Pandas, primarily geared to new users.

340 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

There is a new section in the documentation, Cookbook, a collection of useful recipes in pandas (and that we want
contributions!).
There are several libraries that are now Recommended Dependencies

1.23.1 Selection Choices

Starting in 0.11.0, object selection has had a number of user-requested additions in order to support more explicit
location based indexing. Pandas now supports three types of multi-axis indexing.
• .loc is strictly label based, will raise KeyError when the items are not found, allowed inputs are:
– A single label, e.g. 5 or 'a', (note that 5 is interpreted as a label of the index. This use is not an integer
position along the index)
– A list or array of labels ['a', 'b', 'c']
– A slice object with labels 'a':'f', (note that contrary to usual python slices, both the start and the stop
are included!)
– A boolean array
See more at Selection by Label
• .iloc is strictly integer position based (from 0 to length-1 of the axis), will raise IndexError when the
requested indicies are out of bounds. Allowed inputs are:
– An integer e.g. 5
– A list or array of integers [4, 3, 0]
– A slice object with ints 1:7
– A boolean array
See more at Selection by Position
• .ix supports mixed integer and label based access. It is primarily label based, but will fallback to integer
positional access. .ix is the most general and will support any of the inputs to .loc and .iloc, as well as
support for floating point label schemes. .ix is especially useful when dealing with mixed positional and label
based hierarchial indexes.
As using integer slices with .ix have different behavior depending on whether the slice is interpreted as position
based or label based, it’s usually better to be explicit and use .iloc or .loc.
See more at Advanced Indexing and Advanced Hierarchical.

1.23.2 Selection Deprecations

Starting in version 0.11.0, these methods may be deprecated in future versions.

• irow
• icol
• iget_value
See the section Selection by Position for substitutes.

1.23. v0.11.0 (April 22, 2013) 341

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

1.23.3 Dtypes

Numeric dtypes will propagate and can coexist in DataFrames. If a dtype is passed (either directly via the dtype
keyword, a passed ndarray, or a passed Series, then it will be preserved in DataFrame operations. Furthermore,
different numeric dtypes will NOT be combined. The following example will give you a taste.

In [1]: df1 = DataFrame(randn(8, 1), columns = ['A'], dtype = 'float32')

In [2]: df1
Out[2]:
A
0 1.392665
1 -0.123497
2 -0.402761
3 -0.246604
4 -0.288433
5 -0.763434
6 2.069526
7 -1.203569

[8 rows x 1 columns]

In [3]: df1.dtypes
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

A float32
Length: 1, dtype: object

In [4]: df2 = DataFrame(dict( A = Series(randn(8),dtype='float16'),

...: B = Series(randn(8)),
...: C = Series(randn(8),dtype='uint8') ))
...:

In [5]: df2
Out[5]:
A B C
0 0.591797 -0.038605 0
1 0.841309 -0.460478 1
2 -0.500977 -0.310458 0
3 -0.816406 0.866493 254
4 -0.207031 0.245972 0
5 -0.664062 0.319442 1
6 0.580566 1.378512 1
7 -0.965820 0.292502 255

[8 rows x 3 columns]

In [6]: df2.dtypes
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

A float16
B float64
C uint8
Length: 3, dtype: object

# here you get some upcasting

In [7]: df3 = df1.reindex_like(df2).fillna(value=0.0) + df2

342 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [8]: df3
Out[8]:
A B C
0 1.984462 -0.038605 0.0
1 0.717812 -0.460478 1.0
2 -0.903737 -0.310458 0.0
3 -1.063011 0.866493 254.0
4 -0.495465 0.245972 0.0
5 -1.427497 0.319442 1.0
6 2.650092 1.378512 1.0
7 -2.169390 0.292502 255.0

[8 rows x 3 columns]

In [9]: df3.dtypes
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

A float32
B float64
C float64
Length: 3, dtype: object

1.23.4 Dtype Conversion

This is lower-common-denomicator upcasting, meaning you get the dtype which can accomodate all of the types

In [10]: df3.values.dtype
Out[10]: dtype('float64')

Conversion

In [11]: df3.astype('float32').dtypes
Out[11]:
A float32
B float32
C float32
Length: 3, dtype: object

Mixed Conversion

In [12]: df3['D'] = '1.'

In [13]: df3['E'] = '1'

In [14]: df3.convert_objects(convert_numeric=True).dtypes
Out[14]:
A float32
B float64
C float64
D float64
E int64
Length: 5, dtype: object

# same, but specific dtype conversion

In [15]: df3['D'] = df3['D'].astype('float16')

1.23. v0.11.0 (April 22, 2013) 343

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [16]: df3['E'] = df3['E'].astype('int32')

In [17]: df3.dtypes
Out[17]:
A float32
B float64
C float64
D float16
E int32
Length: 5, dtype: object

Forcing Date coercion (and setting NaT when not datelike)

In [18]: from datetime import datetime

In [19]: s = Series([datetime(2001,1,1,0,0), 'foo', 1.0, 1,

....: Timestamp('20010104'), '20010105'],dtype='O')
....:

In [20]: s.convert_objects(convert_dates='coerce')
Out[20]:
0 2001-01-01
1 NaT
2 NaT
3 NaT
4 2001-01-04
5 2001-01-05
Length: 6, dtype: datetime64[ns]

1.23.5 Dtype Gotchas

Platform Gotchas
Starting in 0.11.0, construction of DataFrame/Series will use default dtypes of int64 and float64, regardless
of platform. This is not an apparent change from earlier versions of pandas. If you specify dtypes, they WILL be
respected, however (GH2837)
The following will all result in int64 dtypes

In [21]: DataFrame([1,2],columns=['a']).dtypes
Out[21]:
a int64
Length: 1, dtype: object

In [22]: DataFrame({'a' : [1,2] }).dtypes

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[22]:
a int64
Length: 1, dtype: object

In [23]: DataFrame({'a' : 1 }, index=range(2)).dtypes

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[23]:
˓→

a int64
Length: 1, dtype: object

Keep in mind that DataFrame(np.array([1,2])) WILL result in int32 on 32-bit platforms!

344 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Upcasting Gotchas
Performing indexing operations on integer type data can easily upcast the data. The dtype of the input data will be
preserved in cases where nans are not introduced.

In [24]: dfi = df3.astype('int32')

In [25]: dfi['D'] = dfi['D'].astype('int64')

In [26]: dfi
Out[26]:
A B C D E
0 1 0 0 1 1
1 0 0 1 1 1
2 0 0 0 1 1
3 -1 0 254 1 1
4 0 0 0 1 1
5 -1 0 1 1 1
6 2 1 1 1 1
7 -2 0 255 1 1

[8 rows x 5 columns]

In [27]: dfi.dtypes
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

A int32
B int32
C int32
D int64
E int32
Length: 5, dtype: object

In [28]: casted = dfi[dfi>0]

In [29]: casted
Out[29]:
A B C D E
0 1.0 NaN NaN 1 1
1 NaN NaN 1.0 1 1
2 NaN NaN NaN 1 1
3 NaN NaN 254.0 1 1
4 NaN NaN NaN 1 1
5 NaN NaN 1.0 1 1
6 2.0 1.0 1.0 1 1
7 NaN NaN 255.0 1 1

[8 rows x 5 columns]

In [30]: casted.dtypes
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

A float64
B float64
C float64
D int64
E int32
Length: 5, dtype: object

1.23. v0.11.0 (April 22, 2013) 345

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

While float dtypes are unchanged.

In [31]: df4 = df3.copy()

In [32]: df4['A'] = df4['A'].astype('float32')

In [33]: df4.dtypes
Out[33]:
A float32
B float64
C float64
D float16
E int32
Length: 5, dtype: object

In [34]: casted = df4[df4>0]

In [35]: casted
Out[35]:
A B C D E
0 1.984462 NaN NaN 1.0 1
1 0.717812 NaN 1.0 1.0 1
2 NaN NaN NaN 1.0 1
3 NaN 0.866493 254.0 1.0 1
4 NaN 0.245972 NaN 1.0 1
5 NaN 0.319442 1.0 1.0 1
6 2.650092 1.378512 1.0 1.0 1
7 NaN 0.292502 255.0 1.0 1

[8 rows x 5 columns]

In [36]: casted.dtypes
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

A float32
B float64
C float64
D float16
E int32
Length: 5, dtype: object

1.23.6 Datetimes Conversion

Datetime64[ns] columns in a DataFrame (or a Series) allow the use of np.nan to indicate a nan value, in ad-
dition to the traditional NaT, or not-a-time. This allows convenient nan setting in a generic way. Furthermore
datetime64[ns] columns are created by default, when passed datetimelike objects (this change was introduced in
0.10.1) (GH2809, GH2810)
In [37]: df = DataFrame(randn(6,2),date_range('20010102',periods=6),columns=['A','B'])

In [38]: df['timestamp'] = Timestamp('20010103')

In [39]: df
Out[39]:
A B timestamp
2001-01-02 1.023958 0.660103 2001-01-03
2001-01-03 1.236475 -2.170629 2001-01-03

346 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

2001-01-04 -0.270630 -1.685677 2001-01-03

2001-01-05 -0.440747 -0.115070 2001-01-03
2001-01-06 -0.632102 -0.585977 2001-01-03
2001-01-07 -1.444787 -0.201135 2001-01-03

[6 rows x 3 columns]

# datetime64[ns] out of the box

In [40]: df.get_dtype_counts()
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

datetime64[ns] 1
float64 2
Length: 2, dtype: int64

# use the traditional nan, which is mapped to NaT internally

In [41]: df.loc[df.index[2:4], ['A','timestamp']] = np.nan

In [42]: df
Out[42]:
A B timestamp
2001-01-02 1.023958 0.660103 2001-01-03
2001-01-03 1.236475 -2.170629 2001-01-03
2001-01-04 NaN -1.685677 NaT
2001-01-05 NaN -0.115070 NaT
2001-01-06 -0.632102 -0.585977 2001-01-03
2001-01-07 -1.444787 -0.201135 2001-01-03

[6 rows x 3 columns]

Astype conversion on datetime64[ns] to object, implicity converts NaT to np.nan

In [43]: import datetime

In [44]: s = Series([datetime.datetime(2001, 1, 2, 0, 0) for i in range(3)])

In [45]: s.dtype
Out[45]: dtype('<M8[ns]')

In [46]: s[1] = np.nan

In [47]: s
Out[47]:
0 2001-01-02
1 NaT
2 2001-01-02
Length: 3, dtype: datetime64[ns]

In [48]: s.dtype
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[48]:
˓→dtype('<M8[ns]')

In [49]: s = s.astype('O')

In [50]: s
Out[50]:
0 2001-01-02 00:00:00
1 NaT

1.23. v0.11.0 (April 22, 2013) 347

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

2 2001-01-02 00:00:00
Length: 3, dtype: object

In [51]: s.dtype
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→dtype('O')

1.23.7 API changes

• Added to_series() method to indicies, to facilitate the creation of indexers (GH3275)

• HDFStore
– added the method select_column to select a single column from a table as a Series.
– deprecated the unique method, can be replicated by select_column(key,column).unique()
– min_itemsize parameter to append will now automatically create data_columns for passed keys

1.23.8 Enhancements

• Improved performance of df.to_csv() by up to 10x in some cases. (GH3059)

• Numexpr is now a Recommended Dependencies, to accelerate certain types of numerical and boolean operations
• Bottleneck is now a Recommended Dependencies, to accelerate certain types of nan operations
• HDFStore
– support read_hdf/to_hdf API similar to read_csv/to_csv
In [52]: df = DataFrame(dict(A=lrange(5), B=lrange(5)))

In [53]: df.to_hdf('store.h5','table',append=True)

In [54]: read_hdf('store.h5', 'table', where = ['index>2'])

Out[54]:
A B
3 3 3
4 4 4

[2 rows x 2 columns]

– provide dotted attribute access to get from stores, e.g. store.df == store['df']
– new keywords iterator=boolean, and chunksize=number_in_a_chunk are provided to sup-
port iteration on select and select_as_multiple (GH3076)
• You can now select timestamps from an unordered timeseries similarly to an ordered timeseries (GH2437)
• You can now select with a string from a DataFrame with a datelike index, in a similar way to a Series (GH3070)
In [55]: idx = date_range("2001-10-1", periods=5, freq='M')

In [56]: ts = Series(np.random.rand(len(idx)),index=idx)

In [57]: ts['2001']
Out[57]:
2001-10-31 0.663256

348 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

2001-11-30 0.079126
2001-12-31 0.587699
Freq: M, Length: 3, dtype: float64

In [58]: df = DataFrame(dict(A = ts))

In [59]: df['2001']
Out[59]:
A
2001-10-31 0.663256
2001-11-30 0.079126
2001-12-31 0.587699

[3 rows x 1 columns]

• Squeeze to possibly remove length 1 dimensions from an object.

In [60]: p = Panel(randn(3,4,4),items=['ItemA','ItemB','ItemC'],
....: major_axis=date_range('20010102',periods=4),
....: minor_axis=['A','B','C','D'])
....:

In [61]: p
Out[61]:
<class 'pandas.core.panel.Panel'>
Dimensions: 3 (items) x 4 (major_axis) x 4 (minor_axis)
Items axis: ItemA to ItemC
Major_axis axis: 2001-01-02 00:00:00 to 2001-01-05 00:00:00
Minor_axis axis: A to D

In [62]: p.reindex(items=['ItemA']).squeeze()
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

A B C D
2001-01-02 -1.203403 0.425882 -0.436045 -0.982462
2001-01-03 0.348090 -0.969649 0.121731 0.202798
2001-01-04 1.215695 -0.218549 -0.631381 -0.337116
2001-01-05 0.404238 0.907213 -0.865657 0.483186

[4 rows x 4 columns]

In [63]: p.reindex(items=['ItemA'],minor=['B']).squeeze()
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

2001-01-02 0.425882
2001-01-03 -0.969649
2001-01-04 -0.218549
2001-01-05 0.907213
Freq: D, Name: B, Length: 4, dtype: float64

• In pd.io.data.Options,
– Fix bug when trying to fetch data for the current month when already past expiry.
– Now using lxml to scrape html instead of BeautifulSoup (lxml was faster).
– New instance variables for calls and puts are automatically created when a method that creates them is
called. This works for current month where the instance variables are simply calls and puts. Also
works for future expiry months and save the instance variable as callsMMYY or putsMMYY, where

1.23. v0.11.0 (April 22, 2013) 349

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

MMYY are, respectively, the month and year of the option’s expiry.
– Options.get_near_stock_price now allows the user to specify the month for which to get rele-
vant options data.
– Options.get_forward_data now has optional kwargs near and above_below. This allows the
user to specify if they would like to only return forward looking data for options near the current stock
price. This just obtains the data from Options.get_near_stock_price instead of Options.get_xxx_data()
(GH2758).
• Cursor coordinate information is now displayed in time-series plots.
• added option display.max_seq_items to control the number of elements printed per sequence pprinting it.
(GH2979)
• added option display.chop_threshold to control display of small numerical values. (GH2739)
• added option display.max_info_rows to prevent verbose_info from being calculated for frames above 1M rows
(configurable). (GH2807, GH2918)
• value_counts() now accepts a “normalize” argument, for normalized histograms. (GH2710).
• DataFrame.from_records now accepts not only dicts but any instance of the collections.Mapping ABC.
• added option display.mpl_style providing a sleeker visual style for plots. Based on https://gist.github.com/
huyng/816622 (GH3075).
• Treat boolean values as integers (values 1 and 0) for numeric operations. (GH2641)
• to_html() now accepts an optional “escape” argument to control reserved HTML character escaping (enabled
by default) and escapes &, in addition to < and >. (GH2919)
See the full release notes or issue tracker on GitHub for a complete list.

1.24 v0.10.1 (January 22, 2013)

This is a minor release from 0.10.0 and includes new features, enhancements, and bug fixes. In particular, there is
substantial new HDFStore functionality contributed by Jeff Reback.
An undesired API breakage with functions taking the inplace option has been reverted and deprecation warnings
added.

1.24.1 API changes

• Functions taking an inplace option return the calling object as before. A deprecation message has been added
• Groupby aggregations Max/Min no longer exclude non-numeric data (GH2700)
• Resampling an empty DataFrame now returns an empty DataFrame instead of raising an exception (GH2640)
• The file reader will now raise an exception when NA values are found in an explicitly specified integer column
instead of converting the column to float (GH2631)
• DatetimeIndex.unique now returns a DatetimeIndex with the same name and
• timezone instead of an array (GH2563)

350 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

1.24.2 New features

• MySQL support for database (contribution from Dan Allan)

1.24.3 HDFStore

You may need to upgrade your existing data files. Please visit the compatibility section in the main docs.
You can designate (and index) certain columns that you want to be able to perform queries on a table, by passing a list
to data_columns

In [1]: store = HDFStore('store.h5')

In [2]: df = DataFrame(randn(8, 3), index=date_range('1/1/2000', periods=8),

...: columns=['A', 'B', 'C'])
...:

In [3]: df['string'] = 'foo'

In [4]: df.loc[df.index[4:6], 'string'] = np.nan

In [5]: df.loc[df.index[7:9], 'string'] = 'bar'

In [6]: df['string2'] = 'cool'

In [7]: df
Out[7]:
A B C string string2
2000-01-01 1.885136 -0.183873 2.550850 foo cool
2000-01-02 0.180759 -1.117089 0.061462 foo cool
2000-01-03 -0.294467 -0.591411 -0.876691 foo cool
2000-01-04 3.127110 1.451130 0.045152 foo cool
2000-01-05 -0.242846 1.195819 1.533294 NaN cool
2000-01-06 0.820521 -0.281201 1.651561 NaN cool
2000-01-07 -0.034086 0.252394 -0.498772 foo cool
2000-01-08 -2.290958 -1.601262 -0.256718 bar cool

[8 rows x 5 columns]

# on-disk operations
In [8]: store.append('df', df, data_columns = ['B','C','string','string2'])

In [9]: store.select('df', "B>0 and string=='foo'")

Out[9]:
A B C string string2
2000-01-04 3.127110 1.451130 0.045152 foo cool
2000-01-07 -0.034086 0.252394 -0.498772 foo cool

[2 rows x 5 columns]

# this is in-memory version of this type of selection

In [10]: df[(df.B > 0) & (df.string == 'foo')]
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

A B C string string2
2000-01-04 3.127110 1.451130 0.045152 foo cool
2000-01-07 -0.034086 0.252394 -0.498772 foo cool

1.24. v0.10.1 (January 22, 2013) 351

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

[2 rows x 5 columns]

Retrieving unique values in an indexable or data column.

# note that this is deprecated as of 0.14.0
# can be replicated by: store.select_column('df','index').unique()
store.unique('df','index')
store.unique('df','string')

You can now store datetime64 in data columns

In [11]: df_mixed = df.copy()

In [12]: df_mixed['datetime64'] = Timestamp('20010102')

In [13]: df_mixed.loc[df_mixed.index[3:4], ['A','B']] = np.nan

In [14]: store.append('df_mixed', df_mixed)

In [15]: df_mixed1 = store.select('df_mixed')

In [16]: df_mixed1
Out[16]:
A B C string string2 datetime64
2000-01-01 1.885136 -0.183873 2.550850 foo cool 2001-01-02
2000-01-02 0.180759 -1.117089 0.061462 foo cool 2001-01-02
2000-01-03 -0.294467 -0.591411 -0.876691 foo cool 2001-01-02
2000-01-04 NaN NaN 0.045152 foo cool 2001-01-02
2000-01-05 -0.242846 1.195819 1.533294 NaN cool 2001-01-02
2000-01-06 0.820521 -0.281201 1.651561 NaN cool 2001-01-02
2000-01-07 -0.034086 0.252394 -0.498772 foo cool 2001-01-02
2000-01-08 -2.290958 -1.601262 -0.256718 bar cool 2001-01-02

[8 rows x 6 columns]

In [17]: df_mixed1.get_dtype_counts()
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

datetime64[ns] 1
float64 3
object 2
Length: 3, dtype: int64

You can pass columns keyword to select to filter a list of the return columns, this is equivalent to passing a
Term('columns',list_of_columns_to_filter)
In [18]: store.select('df',columns = ['A','B'])
Out[18]:
A B
2000-01-01 1.885136 -0.183873
2000-01-02 0.180759 -1.117089
2000-01-03 -0.294467 -0.591411
2000-01-04 3.127110 1.451130
2000-01-05 -0.242846 1.195819
2000-01-06 0.820521 -0.281201
2000-01-07 -0.034086 0.252394
2000-01-08 -2.290958 -1.601262

352 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

[8 rows x 2 columns]

HDFStore now serializes multi-index dataframes when appending tables.

In [19]: index = MultiIndex(levels=[['foo', 'bar', 'baz', 'qux'],

....: ['one', 'two', 'three']],
....: labels=[[0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 2, 2, 3, 3, 3],
....: [0, 1, 2, 0, 1, 1, 2, 0, 1, 2]],
....: names=['foo', 'bar'])
....:

In [20]: df = DataFrame(np.random.randn(10, 3), index=index,

....: columns=['A', 'B', 'C'])
....:

In [21]: df
Out[21]:
A B C
foo bar
foo one 0.239369 0.174122 -1.131794
two -1.948006 0.980347 -0.674429
three -0.361633 -0.761218 1.768215
bar one 0.152288 -0.862613 -0.210968
two -0.859278 1.498195 0.462413
baz two -0.647604 1.511487 -0.727189
three -0.342928 -0.007364 1.427674
qux one 0.104020 2.052171 -1.230963
two -0.019240 -1.713238 0.838912
three -0.637855 0.215109 -1.515362

[10 rows x 3 columns]

In [22]: store.append('mi',df)

In [23]: store.select('mi')
Out[23]:
A B C
foo bar
foo one 0.239369 0.174122 -1.131794
two -1.948006 0.980347 -0.674429
three -0.361633 -0.761218 1.768215
bar one 0.152288 -0.862613 -0.210968
two -0.859278 1.498195 0.462413
baz two -0.647604 1.511487 -0.727189
three -0.342928 -0.007364 1.427674
qux one 0.104020 2.052171 -1.230963
two -0.019240 -1.713238 0.838912
three -0.637855 0.215109 -1.515362

[10 rows x 3 columns]

# the levels are automatically included as data columns

In [24]: store.select('mi', "foo='bar'")
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

A B C
foo bar

1.24. v0.10.1 (January 22, 2013) 353

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

bar one 0.152288 -0.862613 -0.210968

two -0.859278 1.498195 0.462413

[2 rows x 3 columns]

Multi-table creation via append_to_multiple and selection via select_as_multiple can create/select from
multiple tables and return a combined result, by using where on a selector table.
In [25]: df_mt = DataFrame(randn(8, 6), index=date_range('1/1/2000', periods=8),
....: columns=['A', 'B', 'C', 'D', 'E', 'F'])
....:

In [26]: df_mt['foo'] = 'bar'

# you can also create the tables individually

In [27]: store.append_to_multiple({ 'df1_mt' : ['A','B'], 'df2_mt' : None }, df_mt,
˓→selector = 'df1_mt')

In [28]: store
Out[28]:
<class 'pandas.io.pytables.HDFStore'>
File path: store.h5

# indiviual tables were created

In [29]: store.select('df1_mt')
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[29]:
A B
2000-01-01 1.586924 -0.447974
2000-01-02 -0.102206 0.870302
2000-01-03 1.249874 1.458210
2000-01-04 -0.616293 0.150468
2000-01-05 -0.431163 0.016640
2000-01-06 0.800353 -0.451572
2000-01-07 1.239198 0.185437
2000-01-08 -0.040863 0.290110

[8 rows x 2 columns]

In [30]: store.select('df2_mt')
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

C D E F foo
2000-01-01 -1.573998 0.630925 -0.071659 -1.277640 bar
2000-01-02 1.275280 -1.199212 1.060780 1.673018 bar
2000-01-03 -0.710542 0.825392 1.557329 1.993441 bar
2000-01-04 0.132104 0.580923 -0.128750 1.445964 bar
2000-01-05 0.904578 -1.645852 -0.688741 0.228006 bar
2000-01-06 0.831767 0.228760 0.932498 -2.200069 bar
2000-01-07 -0.540770 -0.370038 1.298390 1.662964 bar
2000-01-08 -0.096145 1.717830 -0.462446 -0.112019 bar

[8 rows x 5 columns]

# as a multiple
In [31]: store.select_as_multiple(['df1_mt','df2_mt'], where = [ 'A>0','B>0' ],
˓→selector = 'df1_mt')

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

354 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

A B C D E F foo
2000-01-03 1.249874 1.458210 -0.710542 0.825392 1.557329 1.993441 bar
2000-01-07 1.239198 0.185437 -0.540770 -0.370038 1.298390 1.662964 bar

[2 rows x 7 columns]

Enhancements
• HDFStore now can read native PyTables table format tables
• You can pass nan_rep = 'my_nan_rep' to append, to change the default nan representation on disk
(which converts to/from np.nan), this defaults to nan.
• You can pass index to append. This defaults to True. This will automagically create indicies on the
indexables and data columns of the table
• You can pass chunksize=an integer to append, to change the writing chunksize (default is 50000).
This will signficantly lower your memory usage on writing.
• You can pass expectedrows=an integer to the first append, to set the TOTAL number of expectedrows
that PyTables will expected. This will optimize read/write performance.
• Select now supports passing start and stop to provide selection space limiting in selection.
• Greatly improved ISO8601 (e.g., yyyy-mm-dd) date parsing for file parsers (GH2698)
• Allow DataFrame.merge to handle combinatorial sizes too large for 64-bit integer (GH2690)
• Series now has unary negation (-series) and inversion (~series) operators (GH2686)
• DataFrame.plot now includes a logx parameter to change the x-axis to log scale (GH2327)
• Series arithmetic operators can now handle constant and ndarray input (GH2574)
• ExcelFile now takes a kind argument to specify the file type (GH2613)
• A faster implementation for Series.str methods (GH2602)
Bug Fixes
• HDFStore tables can now store float32 types correctly (cannot be mixed with float64 however)
• Fixed Google Analytics prefix when specifying request segment (GH2713).
• Function to reset Google Analytics token store so users can recover from improperly setup client secrets
(GH2687).
• Fixed groupby bug resulting in segfault when passing in MultiIndex (GH2706)
• Fixed bug where passing a Series with datetime64 values into to_datetime results in bogus output values
(GH2699)
• Fixed bug in pattern in HDFStore expressions when pattern is not a valid regex (GH2694)
• Fixed performance issues while aggregating boolean data (GH2692)
• When given a boolean mask key and a Series of new values, Series __setitem__ will now align the incoming
values with the original Series (GH2686)
• Fixed MemoryError caused by performing counting sort on sorting MultiIndex levels with a very large number
of combinatorial values (GH2684)
• Fixed bug that causes plotting to fail when the index is a DatetimeIndex with a fixed-offset timezone (GH2683)
• Corrected businessday subtraction logic when the offset is more than 5 bdays and the starting date is on a
weekend (GH2680)

1.24. v0.10.1 (January 22, 2013) 355

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Fixed C file parser behavior when the file has more columns than data (GH2668)
• Fixed file reader bug that misaligned columns with data in the presence of an implicit column and a specified
usecols value
• DataFrames with numerical or datetime indices are now sorted prior to plotting (GH2609)
• Fixed DataFrame.from_records error when passed columns, index, but empty records (GH2633)
• Several bug fixed for Series operations when dtype is datetime64 (GH2689, GH2629, GH2626)
See the full release notes or issue tracker on GitHub for a complete list.

1.25 v0.10.0 (December 17, 2012)

This is a major release from 0.9.1 and includes many new features and enhancements along with a large number of
bug fixes. There are also a number of important API changes that long-time pandas users should pay close attention
to.

1.25.1 File parsing new features

The delimited file parsing engine (the guts of read_csv and read_table) has been rewritten from the ground up
and now uses a fraction the amount of memory while parsing, while being 40% or more faster in most use cases (in
some cases much faster).
There are also many new features:
• Much-improved Unicode handling via the encoding option.
• Column filtering (usecols)
• Dtype specification (dtype argument)
• Ability to specify strings to be recognized as True/False
• Ability to yield NumPy record arrays (as_recarray)
• High performance delim_whitespace option
• Decimal format (e.g. European format) specification
• Easier CSV dialect options: escapechar, lineterminator, quotechar, etc.
• More robust handling of many exceptional kinds of files observed in the wild

1.25.2 API changes

Deprecated DataFrame BINOP TimeSeries special case behavior

The default behavior of binary operations between a DataFrame and a Series has always been to align on the
DataFrame’s columns and broadcast down the rows, except in the special case that the DataFrame contains time
series. Since there are now method for each binary operator enabling you to specify how you want to broadcast, we
are phasing out this special case (Zen of Python: Special cases aren’t special enough to break the rules). Here’s what
I’m talking about:
In [1]: import pandas as pd

In [2]: df = pd.DataFrame(np.random.randn(6, 4),

...: index=pd.date_range('1/1/2000', periods=6))

356 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

...:

In [3]: df
Out[3]:
0 1 2 3
2000-01-01 -0.134024 -0.205969 1.348944 -1.198246
2000-01-02 -1.626124 0.982041 0.059493 -0.460111
2000-01-03 -1.565401 -0.025706 0.942864 2.502156
2000-01-04 -0.302741 0.261551 -0.066342 0.897097
2000-01-05 0.268766 -1.225092 0.582752 -1.490764
2000-01-06 -0.639757 -0.952750 -0.892402 0.505987

[6 rows x 4 columns]

# deprecated now
In [4]: df - df[0]
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

2000-01-01 00:00:00 2000-01-02 00:00:00 2000-01-03 00:00:00 \

2000-01-01 NaN NaN NaN
2000-01-02 NaN NaN NaN
2000-01-03 NaN NaN NaN
2000-01-04 NaN NaN NaN
2000-01-05 NaN NaN NaN
2000-01-06 NaN NaN NaN

2000-01-04 00:00:00 2000-01-05 00:00:00 2000-01-06 00:00:00 0 \

2000-01-01 NaN NaN NaN NaN
2000-01-02 NaN NaN NaN NaN
2000-01-03 NaN NaN NaN NaN
2000-01-04 NaN NaN NaN NaN
2000-01-05 NaN NaN NaN NaN
2000-01-06 NaN NaN NaN NaN

1 2 3
2000-01-01 NaN NaN NaN
2000-01-02 NaN NaN NaN
2000-01-03 NaN NaN NaN
2000-01-04 NaN NaN NaN
2000-01-05 NaN NaN NaN
2000-01-06 NaN NaN NaN

[6 rows x 10 columns]

# Change your code to

In [5]: df.sub(df[0], axis=0) # align on axis 0 (rows)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

0 1 2 3
2000-01-01 0.0 -0.071946 1.482967 -1.064223
2000-01-02 0.0 2.608165 1.685618 1.166013
2000-01-03 0.0 1.539695 2.508265 4.067556
2000-01-04 0.0 0.564293 0.236399 1.199839
2000-01-05 0.0 -1.493857 0.313986 -1.759530
2000-01-06 0.0 -0.312993 -0.252645 1.145744

[6 rows x 4 columns]

1.25. v0.10.0 (December 17, 2012) 357

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

You will get a deprecation warning in the 0.10.x series, and the deprecated functionality will be removed in 0.11 or
later.
Altered resample default behavior
The default time series resample binning behavior of daily D and higher frequencies has been changed to
closed='left', label='left'. Lower nfrequencies are unaffected. The prior defaults were causing a great
deal of confusion for users, especially resampling data to daily frequency (which labeled the aggregated group with
the end of the interval: the next day).

In [1]: dates = pd.date_range('1/1/2000', '1/5/2000', freq='4h')

In [2]: series = Series(np.arange(len(dates)), index=dates)

In [3]: series
Out[3]:
2000-01-01 00:00:00 0
2000-01-01 04:00:00 1
2000-01-01 08:00:00 2
2000-01-01 12:00:00 3
2000-01-01 16:00:00 4
2000-01-01 20:00:00 5
2000-01-02 00:00:00 6
2000-01-02 04:00:00 7
2000-01-02 08:00:00 8
2000-01-02 12:00:00 9
2000-01-02 16:00:00 10
2000-01-02 20:00:00 11
2000-01-03 00:00:00 12
2000-01-03 04:00:00 13
2000-01-03 08:00:00 14
2000-01-03 12:00:00 15
2000-01-03 16:00:00 16
2000-01-03 20:00:00 17
2000-01-04 00:00:00 18
2000-01-04 04:00:00 19
2000-01-04 08:00:00 20
2000-01-04 12:00:00 21
2000-01-04 16:00:00 22
2000-01-04 20:00:00 23
2000-01-05 00:00:00 24
Freq: 4H, dtype: int64

In [4]: series.resample('D', how='sum')

Out[4]:
2000-01-01 15
2000-01-02 51
2000-01-03 87
2000-01-04 123
2000-01-05 24
Freq: D, dtype: int64

In [5]: # old behavior

In [6]: series.resample('D', how='sum', closed='right', label='right')
Out[6]:
2000-01-01 0
2000-01-02 21
2000-01-03 57
2000-01-04 93

358 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

2000-01-05 129
Freq: D, dtype: int64

• Infinity and negative infinity are no longer treated as NA by isnull and notnull. That they ever were was
a relic of early pandas. This behavior can be re-enabled globally by the mode.use_inf_as_null option:

In [6]: s = pd.Series([1.5, np.inf, 3.4, -np.inf])

In [7]: pd.isnull(s)
Out[7]:
0 False
1 False
2 False
3 False
Length: 4, dtype: bool

In [8]: s.fillna(0)
Out[8]:
0 1.500000
1 inf
2 3.400000
3 -inf
Length: 4, dtype: float64

In [9]: pd.set_option('use_inf_as_null', True)

In [10]: pd.isnull(s)
Out[10]:
0 False
1 True
2 False
3 True
Length: 4, dtype: bool

In [11]: s.fillna(0)
Out[11]:
0 1.5
1 0.0
2 3.4
3 0.0
Length: 4, dtype: float64

In [12]: pd.reset_option('use_inf_as_null')

• Methods with the inplace option now all return None instead of the calling object. E.g. code written like
df = df.fillna(0, inplace=True) may stop working. To fix, simply delete the unnecessary variable
assignment.
• pandas.merge no longer sorts the group keys (sort=False) by default. This was done for performance
reasons: the group-key sorting is often one of the more expensive parts of the computation and is often unnec-
essary.
• The default column names for a file with no header have been changed to the integers 0 through N - 1. This
is to create consistency with the DataFrame constructor with no columns specified. The v0.9.0 behavior (names
X0, X1, ...) can be reproduced by specifying prefix='X':

In [6]: data= 'a,b,c\n1,Yes,2\n3,No,4'

1.25. v0.10.0 (December 17, 2012) 359

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [7]: print(data)
a,b,c
1,Yes,2
3,No,4

In [8]: pd.read_csv(StringIO(data), header=None)

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[8]:
0 1 2
0 a b c
1 1 Yes 2
2 3 No 4

[3 rows x 3 columns]

In [9]: pd.read_csv(StringIO(data), header=None, prefix='X')

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

X0 X1 X2
0 a b c
1 1 Yes 2
2 3 No 4

[3 rows x 3 columns]

• Values like 'Yes' and 'No' are not interpreted as boolean by default, though this can be controlled by new
true_values and false_values arguments:

In [10]: print(data)
a,b,c
1,Yes,2
3,No,4

In [11]: pd.read_csv(StringIO(data))
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[11]:
a b c
0 1 Yes 2
1 3 No 4

[2 rows x 3 columns]

In [12]: pd.read_csv(StringIO(data), true_values=['Yes'], false_values=['No'])

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[12]:
˓→

a b c
0 1 True 2
1 3 False 4

[2 rows x 3 columns]

• The file parsers will not recognize non-string values arising from a converter function as NA if passed in the
na_values argument. It’s better to do post-processing using the replace function instead.
• Calling fillna on Series or DataFrame with no arguments is no longer valid code. You must either specify a
fill value or an interpolation method:

In [13]: s = Series([np.nan, 1., 2., np.nan, 4])

In [14]: s

360 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Out[14]:
0 NaN
1 1.0
2 2.0
3 NaN
4 4.0
Length: 5, dtype: float64

In [15]: s.fillna(0)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[15]:
˓→

0 0.0
1 1.0
2 2.0
3 0.0
4 4.0
Length: 5, dtype: float64

In [16]: s.fillna(method='pad')
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

0 NaN
1 1.0
2 2.0
3 2.0
4 4.0
Length: 5, dtype: float64

Convenience methods ffill and bfill have been added:

In [17]: s.ffill()
Out[17]:
0 NaN
1 1.0
2 2.0
3 2.0
4 4.0
Length: 5, dtype: float64

• Series.apply will now operate on a returned value from the applied function, that is itself a series, and
possibly upcast the result to a DataFrame
In [18]: def f(x):
....: return Series([ x, x**2 ], index = ['x', 'x^2'])
....:

In [19]: s = Series(np.random.rand(5))

In [20]: s
Out[20]:
0 0.717478
1 0.815199
2 0.452478
3 0.848385
4 0.235477
Length: 5, dtype: float64

In [21]: s.apply(f)

1.25. v0.10.0 (December 17, 2012) 361

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

x x^2
0 0.717478 0.514775
1 0.815199 0.664550
2 0.452478 0.204737
3 0.848385 0.719757
4 0.235477 0.055449

[5 rows x 2 columns]

• New API functions for working with pandas options (GH2097):

– get_option / set_option - get/set the value of an option. Partial names are accepted. -
reset_option - reset one or more options to their default value. Partial names are accepted. -
describe_option - print a description of one or more options. When called with no arguments.
print all registered options.
Note: set_printoptions/ reset_printoptions are now deprecated (but functioning), the print op-
tions now live under “display.XYZ”. For example:

In [22]: get_option("display.max_rows")
Out[22]: 15

• to_string() methods now always return unicode strings (GH2224).

1.25.3 New features

1.25.4 Wide DataFrame Printing

Instead of printing the summary information, pandas now splits the string representation across multiple rows by
default:

In [23]: wide_frame = DataFrame(randn(5, 16))

In [24]: wide_frame
Out[24]:
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 \
0 -0.681624 0.191356 1.180274 -0.834179 0.703043 0.166568 -0.583599
1 0.441522 -0.316864 -0.017062 1.570114 -0.360875 -0.880096 0.235532
2 -0.412451 -0.462580 0.422194 0.288403 -0.487393 -0.777639 0.055865
3 -0.277255 1.331263 0.585174 -0.568825 -0.719412 1.191340 -0.456362
4 -1.642511 0.432560 1.218080 -0.564705 -0.581790 0.286071 0.048725

7 8 9 10 11 12 13 \
0 -1.201796 -1.422811 -0.882554 1.209871 -0.941235 0.863067 -0.336232
1 0.207232 -1.983857 -1.702547 -1.621234 -0.906840 1.014601 -0.475108
2 1.383381 0.085638 0.246392 0.965887 0.246354 -0.727728 -0.094414
3 0.089931 0.776079 0.752889 -1.195795 -1.425911 -0.548829 0.774225
4 1.002440 1.276582 0.054399 0.241963 -0.471786 0.314510 -0.059986

14 15
0 -0.976847 0.033862
1 -0.358944 1.262942
2 -0.276854 0.158399
3 0.740501 1.510263

362 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

4 -2.069319 -1.115104

[5 rows x 16 columns]

The old behavior of printing out summary information can be achieved via the ‘expand_frame_repr’ print option:

In [25]: pd.set_option('expand_frame_repr', False)

In [26]: wide_frame
Out[26]:
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
˓→ 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
0 -0.681624 0.191356 1.180274 -0.834179 0.703043 0.166568 -0.583599 -1.201796 -1.
˓→422811 -0.882554 1.209871 -0.941235 0.863067 -0.336232 -0.976847 0.033862
1 0.441522 -0.316864 -0.017062 1.570114 -0.360875 -0.880096 0.235532 0.207232 -1.
˓→983857 -1.702547 -1.621234 -0.906840 1.014601 -0.475108 -0.358944 1.262942
2 -0.412451 -0.462580 0.422194 0.288403 -0.487393 -0.777639 0.055865 1.383381 0.
˓→085638 0.246392 0.965887 0.246354 -0.727728 -0.094414 -0.276854 0.158399
3 -0.277255 1.331263 0.585174 -0.568825 -0.719412 1.191340 -0.456362 0.089931 0.
˓→776079 0.752889 -1.195795 -1.425911 -0.548829 0.774225 0.740501 1.510263
4 -1.642511 0.432560 1.218080 -0.564705 -0.581790 0.286071 0.048725 1.002440 1.
˓→276582 0.054399 0.241963 -0.471786 0.314510 -0.059986 -2.069319 -1.115104

[5 rows x 16 columns]

The width of each line can be changed via ‘line_width’ (80 by default):

In [27]: pd.set_option('line_width', 40)

In [28]: wide_frame
Out[28]:
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 \
0 -0.681624 0.191356 1.180274 -0.834179 0.703043 0.166568 -0.583599
1 0.441522 -0.316864 -0.017062 1.570114 -0.360875 -0.880096 0.235532
2 -0.412451 -0.462580 0.422194 0.288403 -0.487393 -0.777639 0.055865
3 -0.277255 1.331263 0.585174 -0.568825 -0.719412 1.191340 -0.456362
4 -1.642511 0.432560 1.218080 -0.564705 -0.581790 0.286071 0.048725

7 8 9 10 11 12 13 \
0 -1.201796 -1.422811 -0.882554 1.209871 -0.941235 0.863067 -0.336232
1 0.207232 -1.983857 -1.702547 -1.621234 -0.906840 1.014601 -0.475108
2 1.383381 0.085638 0.246392 0.965887 0.246354 -0.727728 -0.094414
3 0.089931 0.776079 0.752889 -1.195795 -1.425911 -0.548829 0.774225
4 1.002440 1.276582 0.054399 0.241963 -0.471786 0.314510 -0.059986

14 15
0 -0.976847 0.033862
1 -0.358944 1.262942
2 -0.276854 0.158399
3 0.740501 1.510263
4 -2.069319 -1.115104

[5 rows x 16 columns]

1.25. v0.10.0 (December 17, 2012) 363

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

1.25.5 Updated PyTables Support

Docs for PyTables Table format & several enhancements to the api. Here is a taste of what to expect.

In [29]: store = HDFStore('store.h5')

In [30]: df = DataFrame(randn(8, 3), index=date_range('1/1/2000', periods=8),

....: columns=['A', 'B', 'C'])
....:

In [31]: df
Out[31]:
A B C
2000-01-01 -0.369325 -1.502617 -0.376280
2000-01-02 0.511936 -0.116412 -0.625256
2000-01-03 -0.550627 1.261433 -0.552429
2000-01-04 1.695803 -1.025917 -0.910942
2000-01-05 0.426805 -0.131749 0.432600
2000-01-06 0.044671 -0.341265 1.844536
2000-01-07 -2.036047 0.000830 -0.955697
2000-01-08 -0.898872 -0.725411 0.059904

[8 rows x 3 columns]

# appending data frames

In [32]: df1 = df[0:4]

In [33]: df2 = df[4:]

In [34]: store.append('df', df1)

In [35]: store.append('df', df2)

In [36]: store
Out[36]:
<class 'pandas.io.pytables.HDFStore'>
File path: store.h5

# selecting the entire store

In [37]: store.select('df')
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[37]:
A B C
2000-01-01 -0.369325 -1.502617 -0.376280
2000-01-02 0.511936 -0.116412 -0.625256
2000-01-03 -0.550627 1.261433 -0.552429
2000-01-04 1.695803 -1.025917 -0.910942
2000-01-05 0.426805 -0.131749 0.432600
2000-01-06 0.044671 -0.341265 1.844536
2000-01-07 -2.036047 0.000830 -0.955697
2000-01-08 -0.898872 -0.725411 0.059904

[8 rows x 3 columns]

In [38]: wp = Panel(randn(2, 5, 4), items=['Item1', 'Item2'],

....: major_axis=date_range('1/1/2000', periods=5),
....: minor_axis=['A', 'B', 'C', 'D'])
....:

364 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [39]: wp
Out[39]:
<class 'pandas.core.panel.Panel'>
Dimensions: 2 (items) x 5 (major_axis) x 4 (minor_axis)
Items axis: Item1 to Item2
Major_axis axis: 2000-01-01 00:00:00 to 2000-01-05 00:00:00
Minor_axis axis: A to D

# storing a panel
In [40]: store.append('wp',wp)

# selecting via A QUERY

In [41]: store.select('wp', "major_axis>20000102 and minor_axis=['A','B']")
Out[41]:
<class 'pandas.core.panel.Panel'>
Dimensions: 2 (items) x 3 (major_axis) x 2 (minor_axis)
Items axis: Item1 to Item2
Major_axis axis: 2000-01-03 00:00:00 to 2000-01-05 00:00:00
Minor_axis axis: A to B

# removing data from tables

In [42]: store.remove('wp', "major_axis>20000103")
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→8

In [43]: store.select('wp')
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

<class 'pandas.core.panel.Panel'>
Dimensions: 2 (items) x 3 (major_axis) x 4 (minor_axis)
Items axis: Item1 to Item2
Major_axis axis: 2000-01-01 00:00:00 to 2000-01-03 00:00:00
Minor_axis axis: A to D

# deleting a store
In [44]: del store['df']

In [45]: store
Out[45]:
<class 'pandas.io.pytables.HDFStore'>
File path: store.h5

Enhancements
• added ability to hierarchical keys

In [46]: store.put('foo/bar/bah', df)

In [47]: store.append('food/orange', df)

In [48]: store.append('food/apple', df)

In [49]: store
Out[49]:
<class 'pandas.io.pytables.HDFStore'>
File path: store.h5

# remove all nodes under this level

1.25. v0.10.0 (December 17, 2012) 365

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [50]: store.remove('food')

In [51]: store
Out[51]:
<class 'pandas.io.pytables.HDFStore'>
File path: store.h5

• added mixed-dtype support!

In [52]: df['string'] = 'string'

In [53]: df['int'] = 1

In [54]: store.append('df',df)

In [55]: df1 = store.select('df')

In [56]: df1
Out[56]:
A B C string int
2000-01-01 -0.369325 -1.502617 -0.376280 string 1
2000-01-02 0.511936 -0.116412 -0.625256 string 1
2000-01-03 -0.550627 1.261433 -0.552429 string 1
2000-01-04 1.695803 -1.025917 -0.910942 string 1
2000-01-05 0.426805 -0.131749 0.432600 string 1
2000-01-06 0.044671 -0.341265 1.844536 string 1
2000-01-07 -2.036047 0.000830 -0.955697 string 1
2000-01-08 -0.898872 -0.725411 0.059904 string 1

[8 rows x 5 columns]

In [57]: df1.get_dtype_counts()
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

float64 3
int64 1
object 1
Length: 3, dtype: int64

• performance improvments on table writing

• support for arbitrarily indexed dimensions
• SparseSeries now has a density property (GH2384)
• enable Series.str.strip/lstrip/rstrip methods to take an input argument to strip arbitrary char-
acters (GH2411)
• implement value_vars in melt to limit values to certain columns and add melt to pandas namespace
(GH2412)
Bug Fixes
• added Term method of specifying where conditions (GH1996).
• del store['df'] now call store.remove('df') for store deletion
• deleting of consecutive rows is much faster than before
• min_itemsize parameter can be specified in table creation to force a minimum size for indexing columns
(the previous implementation would set the column size based on the first append)

366 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• indexing support via create_table_index (requires PyTables >= 2.3) (GH698).

• appending on a store would fail if the table was not first created via put
• fixed issue with missing attributes after loading a pickled dataframe (GH2431)
• minor change to select and remove: require a table ONLY if where is also provided (and not None)
Compatibility
0.10 of HDFStore is backwards compatible for reading tables created in a prior version of pandas, however, query
terms using the prior (undocumented) methodology are unsupported. You must read in the entire file and write it out
using the new format to take advantage of the updates.

1.25.6 N Dimensional Panels (Experimental)

Adding experimental support for Panel4D and factory functions to create n-dimensional named panels. Docs for
NDim. Here is a taste of what to expect.

In [58]: p4d = Panel4D(randn(2, 2, 5, 4),

....: labels=['Label1','Label2'],
....: items=['Item1', 'Item2'],
....: major_axis=date_range('1/1/2000', periods=5),
....: minor_axis=['A', 'B', 'C', 'D'])
....:

In [59]: p4d
Out[59]:
<class 'pandas.core.panelnd.Panel4D'>
Dimensions: 2 (labels) x 2 (items) x 5 (major_axis) x 4 (minor_axis)
Labels axis: Label1 to Label2
Items axis: Item1 to Item2
Major_axis axis: 2000-01-01 00:00:00 to 2000-01-05 00:00:00
Minor_axis axis: A to D

See the full release notes or issue tracker on GitHub for a complete list.

1.26 v0.9.1 (November 14, 2012)

This is a bugfix release from 0.9.0 and includes several new features and enhancements along with a large number of
bug fixes. The new features include by-column sort order for DataFrame and Series, improved NA handling for the
rank method, masking functions for DataFrame, and intraday time-series filtering for DataFrame.

1.26.1 New features

• Series.sort, DataFrame.sort, and DataFrame.sort_index can now be specified in a per-column manner to support
multiple sort orders (GH928)

In [2]: df = DataFrame(np.random.randint(0, 2, (6, 3)), columns=['A', 'B', 'C'])

In [3]: df.sort(['A', 'B'], ascending=[1, 0])

Out[3]:
A B C
3 0 1 1

1.26. v0.9.1 (November 14, 2012) 367

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

4 0 1 1
2 0 0 1
0 1 0 0
1 1 0 0
5 1 0 0

• DataFrame.rank now supports additional argument values for the na_option parameter so missing values can
be assigned either the largest or the smallest rank (GH1508, GH2159)

In [1]: df = DataFrame(np.random.randn(6, 3), columns=['A', 'B', 'C'])

In [2]: df.loc[2:4] = np.nan

In [3]: df.rank()
Out[3]:
A B C
0 3.0 1.0 3.0
1 2.0 2.0 1.0
2 NaN NaN NaN
3 NaN NaN NaN
4 NaN NaN NaN
5 1.0 3.0 2.0

[6 rows x 3 columns]

In [4]: df.rank(na_option='top')
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

A B C
0 6.0 4.0 6.0
1 5.0 5.0 4.0
2 2.0 2.0 2.0
3 2.0 2.0 2.0
4 2.0 2.0 2.0
5 4.0 6.0 5.0

[6 rows x 3 columns]

In [5]: df.rank(na_option='bottom')
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

A B C
0 3.0 1.0 3.0
1 2.0 2.0 1.0
2 5.0 5.0 5.0
3 5.0 5.0 5.0
4 5.0 5.0 5.0
5 1.0 3.0 2.0

[6 rows x 3 columns]

• DataFrame has new where and mask methods to select values according to a given boolean mask (GH2109,
GH2151)
DataFrame currently supports slicing via a boolean vector the same length as the DataFrame (inside
the []). The returned DataFrame has the same number of columns as the original, but is sliced on its
index.

368 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [6]: df = DataFrame(np.random.randn(5, 3), columns = ['A','B','C'])

In [7]: df
Out[7]:
A B C
0 1.744738 -0.356939 0.092791
1 1.222637 1.909179 0.195946
2 0.481559 -0.404023 -1.115882
3 2.093925 0.010808 -1.775758
4 1.303175 0.025683 -1.795489

[5 rows x 3 columns]

In [8]: df[df['A'] > 0]

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

A B C
0 1.744738 -0.356939 0.092791
1 1.222637 1.909179 0.195946
2 0.481559 -0.404023 -1.115882
3 2.093925 0.010808 -1.775758
4 1.303175 0.025683 -1.795489

[5 rows x 3 columns]

If a DataFrame is sliced with a DataFrame based boolean condition (with the same size as the original
DataFrame), then a DataFrame the same size (index and columns) as the original is returned, with
elements that do not meet the boolean condition as NaN. This is accomplished via the new method
DataFrame.where. In addition, where takes an optional other argument for replacement.
In [9]: df[df>0]
Out[9]:
A B C
0 1.744738 NaN 0.092791
1 1.222637 1.909179 0.195946
2 0.481559 NaN NaN
3 2.093925 0.010808 NaN
4 1.303175 0.025683 NaN

[5 rows x 3 columns]

In [10]: df.where(df>0)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

A B C
0 1.744738 NaN 0.092791
1 1.222637 1.909179 0.195946
2 0.481559 NaN NaN
3 2.093925 0.010808 NaN
4 1.303175 0.025683 NaN

[5 rows x 3 columns]

In [11]: df.where(df>0,-df)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

A B C
0 1.744738 0.356939 0.092791

1.26. v0.9.1 (November 14, 2012) 369

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

1 1.222637 1.909179 0.195946

2 0.481559 0.404023 1.115882
3 2.093925 0.010808 1.775758
4 1.303175 0.025683 1.795489

[5 rows x 3 columns]

Furthermore, where now aligns the input boolean condition (ndarray or DataFrame), such that partial
selection with setting is possible. This is analagous to partial setting via .ix (but on the contents rather
than the axis labels)

In [12]: df2 = df.copy()

In [13]: df2[ df2[1:4] > 0 ] = 3

In [14]: df2
Out[14]:
A B C
0 1.744738 -0.356939 0.092791
1 3.000000 3.000000 3.000000
2 3.000000 -0.404023 -1.115882
3 3.000000 3.000000 -1.775758
4 1.303175 0.025683 -1.795489

[5 rows x 3 columns]

DataFrame.mask is the inverse boolean operation of where.

In [15]: df.mask(df<=0)
Out[15]:
A B C
0 1.744738 NaN 0.092791
1 1.222637 1.909179 0.195946
2 0.481559 NaN NaN
3 2.093925 0.010808 NaN
4 1.303175 0.025683 NaN

[5 rows x 3 columns]

• Enable referencing of Excel columns by their column names (GH1936)

In [16]: xl = ExcelFile('data/test.xls')

In [17]: xl.parse('Sheet1', index_col=0, parse_dates=True,

....: parse_cols='A:D')
....:
Out[17]:
A B C D
2000-01-03 0.980269 3.685731 -0.364217 -1.159738
2000-01-04 1.047916 -0.041232 -0.161812 0.212549
2000-01-05 0.498581 0.731168 -0.537677 1.346270
2000-01-06 1.120202 1.567621 0.003641 0.675253
2000-01-07 -0.487094 0.571455 -1.611639 0.103469
2000-01-10 0.836649 0.246462 0.588543 1.062782
2000-01-11 -0.157161 1.340307 1.195778 -1.097007

[7 rows x 4 columns]

370 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Added option to disable pandas-style tick locators and formatters using series.plot(x_compat=True) or pan-
das.plot_params[’x_compat’] = True (GH2205)
• Existing TimeSeries methods at_time and between_time were added to DataFrame (GH2149)
• DataFrame.dot can now accept ndarrays (GH2042)
• DataFrame.drop now supports non-unique indexes (GH2101)
• Panel.shift now supports negative periods (GH2164)
• DataFrame now support unary ~ operator (GH2110)

1.26.2 API changes

• Upsampling data with a PeriodIndex will result in a higher frequency TimeSeries that spans the original time
window

In [1]: prng = period_range('2012Q1', periods=2, freq='Q')

In [2]: s = Series(np.random.randn(len(prng)), prng)

In [4]: s.resample('M')
Out[4]:
2012-01 -1.471992
2012-02 NaN
2012-03 NaN
2012-04 -0.493593
2012-05 NaN
2012-06 NaN
Freq: M, dtype: float64

• Period.end_time now returns the last nanosecond in the time interval (GH2124, GH2125, GH1764)

In [18]: p = Period('2012')

In [19]: p.end_time
Out[19]: Timestamp('2012-12-31 23:59:59.999999999')

• File parsers no longer coerce to float or bool for columns that have custom converters specified (GH2184)

In [20]: data = 'A,B,C\n00001,001,5\n00002,002,6'

In [21]: read_csv(StringIO(data), converters={'A' : lambda x: x.strip()})

Out[21]:
A B C
0 00001 1 5
1 00002 2 6

[2 rows x 3 columns]

See the full release notes or issue tracker on GitHub for a complete list.

1.27 v0.9.0 (October 7, 2012)

This is a major release from 0.8.1 and includes several new features and enhancements along with a large number of
bug fixes. New features include vectorized unicode encoding/decoding for Series.str, to_latex method to DataFrame,

1.27. v0.9.0 (October 7, 2012) 371

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

more flexible parsing of boolean values, and enabling the download of options data from Yahoo! Finance.

1.27.1 New features

• Add encode and decode for unicode handling to vectorized string processing methods in Series.str (GH1706)
• Add DataFrame.to_latex method (GH1735)
• Add convenient expanding window equivalents of all rolling_* ops (GH1785)
• Add Options class to pandas.io.data for fetching options data from Yahoo! Finance (GH1748, GH1739)
• More flexible parsing of boolean values (Yes, No, TRUE, FALSE, etc) (GH1691, GH1295)
• Add level parameter to Series.reset_index
• TimeSeries.between_time can now select times across midnight (GH1871)
• Series constructor can now handle generator as input (GH1679)
• DataFrame.dropna can now take multiple axes (tuple/list) as input (GH924)
• Enable skip_footer parameter in ExcelFile.parse (GH1843)

1.27.2 API changes

• The default column names when header=None and no columns names passed to functions like read_csv
has changed to be more Pythonic and amenable to attribute access:

In [1]: data = '0,0,1\n1,1,0\n0,1,0'

In [2]: df = read_csv(StringIO(data), header=None)

In [3]: df
Out[3]:
0 1 2
0 0 0 1
1 1 1 0
2 0 1 0

[3 rows x 3 columns]

• Creating a Series from another Series, passing an index, will cause reindexing to happen inside rather than treat-
ing the Series like an ndarray. Technically improper usages like Series(df[col1], index=df[col2])
that worked before “by accident” (this was never intended) will lead to all NA Series in some cases. To be per-
fectly clear:

In [4]: s1 = Series([1, 2, 3])

In [5]: s1
Out[5]:
0 1
1 2
2 3
Length: 3, dtype: int64

In [6]: s2 = Series(s1, index=['foo', 'bar', 'baz'])

In [7]: s2

372 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Out[7]:
foo NaN
bar NaN
baz NaN
Length: 3, dtype: float64

• Deprecated day_of_year API removed from PeriodIndex, use dayofyear (GH1723)

• Don’t modify NumPy suppress printoption to True at import time
• The internal HDF5 data arrangement for DataFrames has been transposed. Legacy files will still be readable by
HDFStore (GH1834, GH1824)
• Legacy cruft removed: pandas.stats.misc.quantileTS
• Use ISO8601 format for Period repr: monthly, daily, and on down (GH1776)
• Empty DataFrame columns are now created as object dtype. This will prevent a class of TypeErrors that was
occurring in code where the dtype of a column would depend on the presence of data or not (e.g. a SQL query
having results) (GH1783)
• Setting parts of DataFrame/Panel using ix now aligns input Series/DataFrame (GH1630)
• first and last methods in GroupBy no longer drop non-numeric columns (GH1809)
• Resolved inconsistencies in specifying custom NA values in text parser. na_values of type dict no longer
override default NAs unless keep_default_na is set to false explicitly (GH1657)
• DataFrame.dot will not do data alignment, and also work with Series (GH1915)
See the full release notes or issue tracker on GitHub for a complete list.

1.28 v0.8.1 (July 22, 2012)

This release includes a few new features, performance enhancements, and over 30 bug fixes from 0.8.0. New features
include notably NA friendly string processing functionality and a series of new plot types and options.

1.28.1 New features

• Add vectorized string processing methods accessible via Series.str (GH620)

• Add option to disable adjustment in EWMA (GH1584)
• Radviz plot (GH1566)
• Parallel coordinates plot
• Bootstrap plot
• Per column styles and secondary y-axis plotting (GH1559)
• New datetime converters millisecond plotting (GH1599)
• Add option to disable “sparse” display of hierarchical indexes (GH1538)
• Series/DataFrame’s set_index method can append levels to an existing Index/MultiIndex (GH1569,
GH1577)

1.28. v0.8.1 (July 22, 2012) 373

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

1.28.2 Performance improvements

• Improved implementation of rolling min and max (thanks to Bottleneck !)

• Add accelerated 'median' GroupBy option (GH1358)
• Significantly improve the performance of parsing ISO8601-format date strings with DatetimeIndex or
to_datetime (GH1571)
• Improve the performance of GroupBy on single-key aggregations and use with Categorical types
• Significant datetime parsing performance improvments

1.29 v0.8.0 (June 29, 2012)

This is a major release from 0.7.3 and includes extensive work on the time series handling and processing infrastructure
as well as a great deal of new functionality throughout the library. It includes over 700 commits from more than 20
distinct authors. Most pandas 0.7.3 and earlier users should not experience any issues upgrading, but due to the
migration to the NumPy datetime64 dtype, there may be a number of bugs and incompatibilities lurking. Lingering
incompatibilities will be fixed ASAP in a 0.8.1 release if necessary. See the full release notes or issue tracker on
GitHub for a complete list.

1.29.1 Support for non-unique indexes

All objects can now work with non-unique indexes. Data alignment / join operations work according to SQL join
semantics (including, if application, index duplication in many-to-many joins)

1.29.2 NumPy datetime64 dtype and 1.6 dependency

Time series data are now represented using NumPy’s datetime64 dtype; thus, pandas 0.8.0 now requires at least NumPy
1.6. It has been tested and verified to work with the development version (1.7+) of NumPy as well which includes some
significant user-facing API changes. NumPy 1.6 also has a number of bugs having to do with nanosecond resolution
data, so I recommend that you steer clear of NumPy 1.6’s datetime64 API functions (though limited as they are) and
only interact with this data using the interface that pandas provides.
See the end of the 0.8.0 section for a “porting” guide listing potential issues for users migrating legacy codebases from
pandas 0.7 or earlier to 0.8.0.
Bug fixes to the 0.7.x series for legacy NumPy < 1.6 users will be provided as they arise. There will be no more further
development in 0.7.x beyond bug fixes.

1.29.3 Time series changes and improvements

Note: With this release, legacy scikits.timeseries users should be able to port their code to use pandas.

Note: See documentation for overview of pandas timeseries API.

• New datetime64 representation speeds up join operations and data alignment, reduces memory usage, and
improve serialization / deserialization performance significantly over datetime.datetime

374 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• High performance and flexible resample method for converting from high-to-low and low-to-high frequency.
Supports interpolation, user-defined aggregation functions, and control over how the intervals and result labeling
are defined. A suite of high performance Cython/C-based resampling functions (including Open-High-Low-
Close) have also been implemented.
• Revamp of frequency aliases and support for frequency shortcuts like ‘15min’, or ‘1h30min’
• New DatetimeIndex class supports both fixed frequency and irregular time series. Replaces now deprecated
DateRange class
• New PeriodIndex and Period classes for representing time spans and performing calendar logic, in-
cluding the 12 fiscal quarterly frequencies <timeseries.quarterly>. This is a partial port of, and a substantial
enhancement to, elements of the scikits.timeseries codebase. Support for conversion between PeriodIndex and
DatetimeIndex
• New Timestamp data type subclasses datetime.datetime, providing the same interface while enabling working
with nanosecond-resolution data. Also provides easy time zone conversions.
• Enhanced support for time zones. Add tz_convert and tz_lcoalize methods to TimeSeries and DataFrame.
All timestamps are stored as UTC; Timestamps from DatetimeIndex objects with time zone set will be localized
to localtime. Time zone conversions are therefore essentially free. User needs to know very little about pytz
library now; only time zone names as as strings are required. Time zone-aware timestamps are equal if and only
if their UTC timestamps match. Operations between time zone-aware time series with different time zones will
result in a UTC-indexed time series.
• Time series string indexing conveniences / shortcuts: slice years, year and month, and index values with strings
• Enhanced time series plotting; adaptation of scikits.timeseries matplotlib-based plotting code
• New date_range, bdate_range, and period_range factory functions
• Robust frequency inference function infer_freq and inferred_freq property of DatetimeIndex, with option
to infer frequency on construction of DatetimeIndex
• to_datetime function efficiently parses array of strings to DatetimeIndex. DatetimeIndex will parse array or
list of strings to datetime64
• Optimized support for datetime64-dtype data in Series and DataFrame columns
• New NaT (Not-a-Time) type to represent NA in timestamp arrays
• Optimize Series.asof for looking up “as of” values for arrays of timestamps
• Milli, Micro, Nano date offset objects
• Can index time series with datetime.time objects to select all data at particular time of day (TimeSeries.
at_time) or between two times (TimeSeries.between_time)
• Add tshift method for leading/lagging using the frequency (if any) of the index, as opposed to a naive lead/lag
using shift

1.29.4 Other new features

• New cut and qcut functions (like R’s cut function) for computing a categorical variable from a continuous
variable by binning values either into value-based (cut) or quantile-based (qcut) bins
• Rename Factor to Categorical and add a number of usability features
• Add limit argument to fillna/reindex
• More flexible multiple function application in GroupBy, and can pass list (name, function) tuples to get result in
particular order with given names

1.29. v0.8.0 (June 29, 2012) 375

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Add flexible replace method for efficiently substituting values

• Enhanced read_csv/read_table for reading time series data and converting multiple columns to dates
• Add comments option to parser functions: read_csv, etc.
• Add :ref‘dayfirst <io.dayfirst>‘ option to parser functions for parsing international DD/MM/YYYY dates
• Allow the user to specify the CSV reader dialect to control quoting etc.
• Handling thousands separators in read_csv to improve integer parsing.
• Enable unstacking of multiple levels in one shot. Alleviate pivot_table bugs (empty columns being intro-
duced)
• Move to klib-based hash tables for indexing; better performance and less memory usage than Python’s dict
• Add first, last, min, max, and prod optimized GroupBy functions
• New ordered_merge function
• Add flexible comparison instance methods eq, ne, lt, gt, etc. to DataFrame, Series
• Improve scatter_matrix plotting function and add histogram or kernel density estimates to diagonal
• Add ‘kde’ plot option for density plots
• Support for converting DataFrame to R data.frame through rpy2
• Improved support for complex numbers in Series and DataFrame
• Add pct_change method to all data structures
• Add max_colwidth configuration option for DataFrame console output
• Interpolate Series values using index values
• Can select multiple columns from GroupBy
• Add update methods to Series/DataFrame for updating values in place
• Add any and all method to DataFrame

1.29.5 New plotting methods

Series.plot now supports a secondary_y option:

In [1]: plt.figure()
Out[1]: <matplotlib.figure.Figure at 0x1298a9a58>

In [2]: fx['FR'].plot(style='g')
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[2]: <matplotlib.axes._subplots.
˓→AxesSubplot at 0x12b046ba8>

In [3]: fx['IT'].plot(style='k--', secondary_y=True)

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→<matplotlib.axes._subplots.AxesSubplot at 0x129c83f98>

Vytautas Jancauskas, the 2012 GSOC participant, has added many new plot types. For example, 'kde' is a new
option:

In [4]: s = Series(np.concatenate((np.random.randn(1000),
...: np.random.randn(1000) * 0.5 + 3)))
...:

376 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [5]: plt.figure()
Out[5]: <matplotlib.figure.Figure at 0x1207ff9e8>

In [6]: s.hist(normed=True, alpha=0.2)

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[6]: <matplotlib.axes._subplots.
˓→AxesSubplot at 0x1298a9668>

In [7]: s.plot(kind='kde')
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→<matplotlib.axes._subplots.AxesSubplot at 0x1298a9668>

See the plotting page for much more.

1.29.6 Other API changes

• Deprecation of offset, time_rule, and timeRule arguments names in time series functions. Warnings
will be printed until pandas 0.9 or 1.0.

1.29.7 Potential porting issues for pandas <= 0.7.3 users

The major change that may affect you in pandas 0.8.0 is that time series indexes use NumPy’s datetime64 data
type instead of dtype=object arrays of Python’s built-in datetime.datetime objects. DateRange has been
replaced by DatetimeIndex but otherwise behaved identically. But, if you have code that converts DateRange
or Index objects that used to contain datetime.datetime values to plain NumPy arrays, you may have bugs
lurking with code using scalar values because you are handing control over to NumPy:
In [8]: import datetime

In [9]: rng = date_range('1/1/2000', periods=10)

In [10]: rng[5]
Out[10]: Timestamp('2000-01-06 00:00:00', freq='D')

In [11]: isinstance(rng[5], datetime.datetime)

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[11]: True

In [12]: rng_asarray = np.asarray(rng)

In [13]: scalar_val = rng_asarray[5]

In [14]: type(scalar_val)
Out[14]: numpy.datetime64

pandas’s Timestamp object is a subclass of datetime.datetime that has nanosecond support (the
nanosecond field store the nanosecond value between 0 and 999). It should substitute directly into any code that
used datetime.datetime values before. Thus, I recommend not casting DatetimeIndex to regular NumPy
arrays.
If you have code that requires an array of datetime.datetime objects, you have a couple of options. First, the
asobject property of DatetimeIndex produces an array of Timestamp objects:
In [15]: stamp_array = rng.asobject

In [16]: stamp_array

1.29. v0.8.0 (June 29, 2012) 377

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Out[16]:
Index([2000-01-01 00:00:00, 2000-01-02 00:00:00, 2000-01-03 00:00:00,
2000-01-04 00:00:00, 2000-01-05 00:00:00, 2000-01-06 00:00:00,
2000-01-07 00:00:00, 2000-01-08 00:00:00, 2000-01-09 00:00:00,
2000-01-10 00:00:00],
dtype='object')

In [17]: stamp_array[5]
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→Timestamp('2000-01-06 00:00:00', freq='D')

To get an array of proper datetime.datetime objects, use the to_pydatetime method:

In [18]: dt_array = rng.to_pydatetime()

In [19]: dt_array
Out[19]:
array([datetime.datetime(2000, 1, 1, 0, 0),
datetime.datetime(2000, 1, 2, 0, 0),
datetime.datetime(2000, 1, 3, 0, 0),
datetime.datetime(2000, 1, 4, 0, 0),
datetime.datetime(2000, 1, 5, 0, 0),
datetime.datetime(2000, 1, 6, 0, 0),
datetime.datetime(2000, 1, 7, 0, 0),
datetime.datetime(2000, 1, 8, 0, 0),
datetime.datetime(2000, 1, 9, 0, 0),
datetime.datetime(2000, 1, 10, 0, 0)], dtype=object)

In [20]: dt_array[5]
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→datetime.datetime(2000, 1, 6, 0, 0)

matplotlib knows how to handle datetime.datetime but not Timestamp objects. While I recommend that you
plot time series using TimeSeries.plot, you can either use to_pydatetime or register a converter for the
Timestamp type. See matplotlib documentation for more on this.

Warning: There are bugs in the user-facing API with the nanosecond datetime64 unit in NumPy 1.6. In particular,
the string version of the array shows garbage values, and conversion to dtype=object is similarly broken.
In [21]: rng = date_range('1/1/2000', periods=10)

In [22]: rng
Out[22]:
DatetimeIndex(['2000-01-01', '2000-01-02', '2000-01-03', '2000-01-04',
'2000-01-05', '2000-01-06', '2000-01-07', '2000-01-08',
'2000-01-09', '2000-01-10'],
dtype='datetime64[ns]', freq='D')

In [23]: np.asarray(rng)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

array(['2000-01-01T00:00:00.000000000', '2000-01-02T00:00:00.000000000',
'2000-01-03T00:00:00.000000000', '2000-01-04T00:00:00.000000000',
'2000-01-05T00:00:00.000000000', '2000-01-06T00:00:00.000000000',
'2000-01-07T00:00:00.000000000', '2000-01-08T00:00:00.000000000',
'2000-01-09T00:00:00.000000000', '2000-01-10T00:00:00.000000000'], dtype=
˓→'datetime64[ns]')

In [24]: converted = np.asarray(rng, dtype=object)

378
In [25]: converted[5]
Chapter 1. What’s New
Out[25]: 947116800000000000
 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Trust me: don’t panic. If you are using NumPy 1.6 and restrict your interaction with datetime64 values to
pandas’s API you will be just fine. There is nothing wrong with the data-type (a 64-bit integer internally); all of the
important data processing happens in pandas and is heavily tested. I strongly recommend that you do not work
directly with datetime64 arrays in NumPy 1.6 and only use the pandas API.

Support for non-unique indexes: In the latter case, you may have code inside a try:... catch: block that
failed due to the index not being unique. In many cases it will no longer fail (some method like append still check for
uniqueness unless disabled). However, all is not lost: you can inspect index.is_unique and raise an exception
explicitly if it is False or go to a different code branch.

1.30 v.0.7.3 (April 12, 2012)

This is a minor release from 0.7.2 and fixes many minor bugs and adds a number of nice new features. There are
also a couple of API changes to note; these should not affect very many users, and we are inclined to call them “bug
fixes” even though they do constitute a change in behavior. See the full release notes or issue tracker on GitHub for a
complete list.

1.30.1 New features

• New fixed width file reader, read_fwf

• New scatter_matrix function for making a scatter plot matrix

from pandas.tools.plotting import scatter_matrix

scatter_matrix(df, alpha=0.2)

1.30. v.0.7.3 (April 12, 2012) 379

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Add stacked argument to Series and DataFrame’s plot method for stacked bar plots.

df.plot(kind='bar', stacked=True)

380 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

df.plot(kind='barh', stacked=True)

• Add log x and y scaling options to DataFrame.plot and Series.plot

• Add kurt methods to Series and DataFrame for computing kurtosis

1.30.2 NA Boolean Comparison API Change

Reverted some changes to how NA values (represented typically as NaN or None) are handled in non-numeric Series:
In [1]: series = Series(['Steve', np.nan, 'Joe'])

In [2]: series == 'Steve'

Out[2]:
0 True
1 False
2 False
Length: 3, dtype: bool

In [3]: series != 'Steve'

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[3]:
0 False
1 True
2 True
Length: 3, dtype: bool

In comparisons, NA / NaN will always come through as False except with != which is True. Be very careful with
boolean arithmetic, especially negation, in the presence of NA data. You may wish to add an explicit NA filter into
boolean array operations if you are worried about this:
In [4]: mask = series == 'Steve'

In [5]: series[mask & series.notnull()]

Out[5]:
0 Steve
Length: 1, dtype: object

1.30. v.0.7.3 (April 12, 2012) 381

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

While propagating NA in comparisons may seem like the right behavior to some users (and you could argue on purely
technical grounds that this is the right thing to do), the evaluation was made that propagating NA everywhere, including
in numerical arrays, would cause a large amount of problems for users. Thus, a “practicality beats purity” approach
was taken. This issue may be revisited at some point in the future.

1.30.3 Other API Changes

When calling apply on a grouped Series, the return value will also be a Series, to be more consistent with the
groupby behavior with DataFrame:

In [6]: df = DataFrame({'A' : ['foo', 'bar', 'foo', 'bar',

...: 'foo', 'bar', 'foo', 'foo'],
...: 'B' : ['one', 'one', 'two', 'three',
...: 'two', 'two', 'one', 'three'],
...: 'C' : np.random.randn(8), 'D' : np.random.randn(8)})
...:

In [7]: df
Out[7]:
A B C D
0 foo one 1.075059 -0.449141
1 bar one 0.785676 1.443014
2 foo two 0.958157 0.612324
3 bar three 1.477773 -0.178818
4 foo two -1.006023 0.133072
5 bar two -1.506997 -0.550981
6 foo one 1.218042 -2.043335
7 foo three -0.565878 0.753539

[8 rows x 4 columns]

In [8]: grouped = df.groupby('A')['C']

In [9]: grouped.describe()
Out[9]:
count mean std min 25% 50% 75% \
A
bar 3.0 0.252151 1.562274 -1.506997 -0.360661 0.785676 1.131724
foo 5.0 0.335871 1.039915 -1.006023 -0.565878 0.958157 1.075059

max
A
bar 1.477773
foo 1.218042

[2 rows x 8 columns]

In [10]: grouped.apply(lambda x: x.sort_values()[-2:]) # top 2 values

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

A
bar 1 0.785676
3 1.477773
foo 0 1.075059
6 1.218042
Name: C, Length: 4, dtype: float64

382 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

1.31 v.0.7.2 (March 16, 2012)

This release targets bugs in 0.7.1, and adds a few minor features.

1.31.1 New features

• Add additional tie-breaking methods in DataFrame.rank (GH874)

• Add ascending parameter to rank in Series, DataFrame (GH875)
• Add coerce_float option to DataFrame.from_records (GH893)
• Add sort_columns parameter to allow unsorted plots (GH918)
• Enable column access via attributes on GroupBy (GH882)
• Can pass dict of values to DataFrame.fillna (GH661)
• Can select multiple hierarchical groups by passing list of values in .ix (GH134)
• Add axis option to DataFrame.fillna (GH174)
• Add level keyword to drop for dropping values from a level (GH159)

1.31.2 Performance improvements

• Use khash for Series.value_counts, add raw function to algorithms.py (GH861)

• Intercept __builtin__.sum in groupby (GH885)

1.32 v.0.7.1 (February 29, 2012)

This release includes a few new features and addresses over a dozen bugs in 0.7.0.

1.32.1 New features

• Add to_clipboard function to pandas namespace for writing objects to the system clipboard (GH774)
• Add itertuples method to DataFrame for iterating through the rows of a dataframe as tuples (GH818)
• Add ability to pass fill_value and method to DataFrame and Series align method (GH806, GH807)
• Add fill_value option to reindex, align methods (GH784)
• Enable concat to produce DataFrame from Series (GH787)
• Add between method to Series (GH802)
• Add HTML representation hook to DataFrame for the IPython HTML notebook (GH773)
• Support for reading Excel 2007 XML documents using openpyxl

1.32.2 Performance improvements

• Improve performance and memory usage of fillna on DataFrame

• Can concatenate a list of Series along axis=1 to obtain a DataFrame (GH787)

1.31. v.0.7.2 (March 16, 2012) 383

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

1.33 v.0.7.0 (February 9, 2012)

1.33.1 New features

• New unified merge function for efficiently performing full gamut of database / relational-algebra operations.
Refactored existing join methods to use the new infrastructure, resulting in substantial performance gains
(GH220, GH249, GH267)
• New unified concatenation function for concatenating Series, DataFrame or Panel objects along an axis. Can
form union or intersection of the other axes. Improves performance of Series.append and DataFrame.
append (GH468, GH479, GH273)
• Can pass multiple DataFrames to DataFrame.append to concatenate (stack) and multiple Series to Series.
append too
• Can pass list of dicts (e.g., a list of JSON objects) to DataFrame constructor (GH526)
• You can now set multiple columns in a DataFrame via __getitem__, useful for transformation (GH342)
• Handle differently-indexed output values in DataFrame.apply (GH498)

In [1]: df = DataFrame(randn(10, 4))

In [2]: df.apply(lambda x: x.describe())

Out[2]:
0 1 2 3
count 10.000000 10.000000 10.000000 10.000000
mean -0.409608 0.539495 0.163276 0.051646
std 1.397779 0.968808 0.874489 0.719651
min -2.539411 -0.737206 -1.202276 -1.050435
25% -1.202202 0.021308 -0.368812 -0.383608
50% -0.384480 0.306124 0.211431 0.165586
75% 0.186280 1.024039 0.730744 0.494457
max 2.524998 2.533114 1.334428 1.147396

[8 rows x 4 columns]

• Add reorder_levels method to Series and DataFrame (GH534)

• Add dict-like get function to DataFrame and Panel (GH521)
• Add DataFrame.iterrows method for efficiently iterating through the rows of a DataFrame
• Add DataFrame.to_panel with code adapted from LongPanel.to_long
• Add reindex_axis method added to DataFrame
• Add level option to binary arithmetic functions on DataFrame and Series
• Add level option to the reindex and align methods on Series and DataFrame for broadcasting values
across a level (GH542, GH552, others)
• Add attribute-based item access to Panel and add IPython completion (GH563)
• Add logy option to Series.plot for log-scaling on the Y axis
• Add index and header options to DataFrame.to_string
• Can pass multiple DataFrames to DataFrame.join to join on index (GH115)
• Can pass multiple Panels to Panel.join (GH115)
• Added justify argument to DataFrame.to_string to allow different alignment of column headers

384 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Add sort option to GroupBy to allow disabling sorting of the group keys for potential speedups (GH595)
• Can pass MaskedArray to Series constructor (GH563)
• Add Panel item access via attributes and IPython completion (GH554)
• Implement DataFrame.lookup, fancy-indexing analogue for retrieving values given a sequence of row and
column labels (GH338)
• Can pass a list of functions to aggregate with groupby on a DataFrame, yielding an aggregated result with
hierarchical columns (GH166)
• Can call cummin and cummax on Series and DataFrame to get cumulative minimum and maximum, respec-
tively (GH647)
• value_range added as utility function to get min and max of a dataframe (GH288)
• Added encoding argument to read_csv, read_table, to_csv and from_csv for non-ascii text
(GH717)
• Added abs method to pandas objects
• Added crosstab function for easily computing frequency tables
• Added isin method to index objects
• Added level argument to xs method of DataFrame.

1.33.2 API Changes to integer indexing

One of the potentially riskiest API changes in 0.7.0, but also one of the most important, was a complete review of how
integer indexes are handled with regard to label-based indexing. Here is an example:

In [3]: s = Series(randn(10), index=range(0, 20, 2))

In [4]: s
Out[4]:
0 -0.543429
2 1.425447
4 -0.408795
6 -1.489348
8 -1.166408
10 -0.481205
12 -0.810355
14 -0.985491
16 -0.336246
18 -0.629058
Length: 10, dtype: float64

In [5]: s[0]
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→-0.54342898765020686

In [6]: s[2]
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→1.4254474252163707

In [7]: s[4]
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→-0.40879476802408349

1.33. v.0.7.0 (February 9, 2012) 385

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

This is all exactly identical to the behavior before. However, if you ask for a key not contained in the Series, in
versions 0.6.1 and prior, Series would fall back on a location-based lookup. This now raises a KeyError:

In [2]: s[1]
KeyError: 1

This change also has the same impact on DataFrame:

In [3]: df = DataFrame(randn(8, 4), index=range(0, 16, 2))

In [4]: df
0 1 2 3
0 0.88427 0.3363 -0.1787 0.03162
2 0.14451 -0.1415 0.2504 0.58374
4 -1.44779 -0.9186 -1.4996 0.27163
6 -0.26598 -2.4184 -0.2658 0.11503
8 -0.58776 0.3144 -0.8566 0.61941
10 0.10940 -0.7175 -1.0108 0.47990
12 -1.16919 -0.3087 -0.6049 -0.43544
14 -0.07337 0.3410 0.0424 -0.16037

In [5]: df.ix[3]
KeyError: 3

In order to support purely integer-based indexing, the following methods have been added:
Method Description
Series.iget_value(i) Retrieve value stored at location i
Series.iget(i) Alias for iget_value
DataFrame.irow(i) Retrieve the i-th row
DataFrame.icol(j) Retrieve the j-th column
DataFrame.iget_value(i, j) Retrieve the value at row i and column j

1.33.3 API tweaks regarding label-based slicing

Label-based slicing using ix now requires that the index be sorted (monotonic) unless both the start and endpoint are
contained in the index:

In [1]: s = Series(randn(6), index=list('gmkaec'))

In [2]: s
Out[2]:
g -1.182230
m -0.276183
k -0.243550
a 1.628992
e 0.073308
c -0.539890
dtype: float64

Then this is OK:

In [3]: s.ix['k':'e']
Out[3]:
k -0.243550
a 1.628992

386 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

e 0.073308
dtype: float64

But this is not:

In [12]: s.ix['b':'h']
KeyError 'b'

If the index had been sorted, the “range selection” would have been possible:

In [4]: s2 = s.sort_index()

In [5]: s2
Out[5]:
a 1.628992
c -0.539890
e 0.073308
g -1.182230
k -0.243550
m -0.276183
dtype: float64

In [6]: s2.ix['b':'h']
Out[6]:
c -0.539890
e 0.073308
g -1.182230
dtype: float64

1.33.4 Changes to Series [] operator

As as notational convenience, you can pass a sequence of labels or a label slice to a Series when getting and setting
values via [] (i.e. the __getitem__ and __setitem__ methods). The behavior will be the same as passing
similar input to ix except in the case of integer indexing:

In [8]: s = Series(randn(6), index=list('acegkm'))

In [9]: s
Out[9]:
a -0.297788
c 0.499769
e 0.810531
g 0.414649
k -1.551478
m 1.012459
Length: 6, dtype: float64

In [10]: s[['m', 'a', 'c', 'e']]

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

m 1.012459
a -0.297788
c 0.499769
e 0.810531
Length: 4, dtype: float64

1.33. v.0.7.0 (February 9, 2012) 387

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [11]: s['b':'l']
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

c 0.499769
e 0.810531
g 0.414649
k -1.551478
Length: 4, dtype: float64

In [12]: s['c':'k']
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

c 0.499769
e 0.810531
g 0.414649
k -1.551478
Length: 4, dtype: float64

In the case of integer indexes, the behavior will be exactly as before (shadowing ndarray):

In [13]: s = Series(randn(6), index=range(0, 12, 2))

In [14]: s[[4, 0, 2]]

Out[14]:
4 0.928877
0 1.171752
2 0.026488
Length: 3, dtype: float64

In [15]: s[1:5]
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[15]:
˓→

2 0.026488
4 0.928877
6 -1.264991
8 0.419449
Length: 4, dtype: float64

If you wish to do indexing with sequences and slicing on an integer index with label semantics, use ix.

1.33.5 Other API Changes

• The deprecated LongPanel class has been completely removed

• If Series.sort is called on a column of a DataFrame, an exception will now be raised. Before it was
possible to accidentally mutate a DataFrame’s column by doing df[col].sort() instead of the side-effect
free method df[col].order() (GH316)
• Miscellaneous renames and deprecations which will (harmlessly) raise FutureWarning
• drop added as an optional parameter to DataFrame.reset_index (GH699)

1.33.6 Performance improvements

• Cythonized GroupBy aggregations no longer presort the data, thus achieving a significant speedup (GH93).
GroupBy aggregations with Python functions significantly sped up by clever manipulation of the ndarray data

388 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

type in Cython (GH496).

• Better error message in DataFrame constructor when passed column labels don’t match data (GH497)
• Substantially improve performance of multi-GroupBy aggregation when a Python function is passed, reuse
ndarray object in Cython (GH496)
• Can store objects indexed by tuples and floats in HDFStore (GH492)
• Don’t print length by default in Series.to_string, add length option (GH489)
• Improve Cython code for multi-groupby to aggregate without having to sort the data (GH93)
• Improve MultiIndex reindexing speed by storing tuples in the MultiIndex, test for backwards unpickling com-
patibility
• Improve column reindexing performance by using specialized Cython take function
• Further performance tweaking of Series.__getitem__ for standard use cases
• Avoid Index dict creation in some cases (i.e. when getting slices, etc.), regression from prior versions
• Friendlier error message in setup.py if NumPy not installed
• Use common set of NA-handling operations (sum, mean, etc.) in Panel class also (GH536)
• Default name assignment when calling reset_index on DataFrame with a regular (non-hierarchical) index
(GH476)
• Use Cythonized groupers when possible in Series/DataFrame stat ops with level parameter passed (GH545)
• Ported skiplist data structure to C to speed up rolling_median by about 5-10x in most typical use cases
(GH374)

1.34 v.0.6.1 (December 13, 2011)

1.34.1 New features

• Can append single rows (as Series) to a DataFrame

• Add Spearman and Kendall rank correlation options to Series.corr and DataFrame.corr (GH428)
• Added get_value and set_value methods to Series, DataFrame, and Panel for very low-overhead access
(>2x faster in many cases) to scalar elements (GH437, GH438). set_value is capable of producing an
enlarged object.
• Add PyQt table widget to sandbox (GH435)
• DataFrame.align can accept Series arguments and an axis option (GH461)
• Implement new SparseArray and SparseList data structures. SparseSeries now derives from SparseArray
(GH463)
• Better console printing options (GH453)
• Implement fast data ranking for Series and DataFrame, fast versions of scipy.stats.rankdata (GH428)
• Implement DataFrame.from_items alternate constructor (GH444)
• DataFrame.convert_objects method for inferring better dtypes for object columns (GH302)
• Add rolling_corr_pairwise function for computing Panel of correlation matrices (GH189)
• Add margins option to pivot_table for computing subgroup aggregates (GH114)

1.34. v.0.6.1 (December 13, 2011) 389

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Add Series.from_csv function (GH482)

• Can pass DataFrame/DataFrame and DataFrame/Series to rolling_corr/rolling_cov (GH #462)
• MultiIndex.get_level_values can accept the level name

1.34.2 Performance improvements

• Improve memory usage of DataFrame.describe (do not copy data unnecessarily) (PR #425)
• Optimize scalar value lookups in the general case by 25% or more in Series and DataFrame
• Fix performance regression in cross-sectional count in DataFrame, affecting DataFrame.dropna speed
• Column deletion in DataFrame copies no data (computes views on blocks) (GH #158)

1.35 v.0.6.0 (November 25, 2011)

1.35.1 New Features

• Added melt function to pandas.core.reshape

• Added level parameter to group by level in Series and DataFrame descriptive statistics (GH313)
• Added head and tail methods to Series, analogous to to DataFrame (GH296)
• Added Series.isin function which checks if each value is contained in a passed sequence (GH289)
• Added float_format option to Series.to_string
• Added skip_footer (GH291) and converters (GH343) options to read_csv and read_table
• Added drop_duplicates and duplicated functions for removing duplicate DataFrame rows and check-
ing for duplicate rows, respectively (GH319)
• Implemented operators ‘&’, ‘|’, ‘^’, ‘-‘ on DataFrame (GH347)
• Added Series.mad, mean absolute deviation
• Added QuarterEnd DateOffset (GH321)
• Added dot to DataFrame (GH65)
• Added orient option to Panel.from_dict (GH359, GH301)
• Added orient option to DataFrame.from_dict
• Added passing list of tuples or list of lists to DataFrame.from_records (GH357)
• Added multiple levels to groupby (GH103)
• Allow multiple columns in by argument of DataFrame.sort_index (GH92, GH362)
• Added fast get_value and put_value methods to DataFrame (GH360)
• Added cov instance methods to Series and DataFrame (GH194, GH362)
• Added kind='bar' option to DataFrame.plot (GH348)
• Added idxmin and idxmax to Series and DataFrame (GH286)
• Added read_clipboard function to parse DataFrame from clipboard (GH300)
• Added nunique function to Series for counting unique elements (GH297)

390 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Made DataFrame constructor use Series name if no columns passed (GH373)

• Support regular expressions in read_table/read_csv (GH364)
• Added DataFrame.to_html for writing DataFrame to HTML (GH387)
• Added support for MaskedArray data in DataFrame, masked values converted to NaN (GH396)
• Added DataFrame.boxplot function (GH368)
• Can pass extra args, kwds to DataFrame.apply (GH376)
• Implement DataFrame.join with vector on argument (GH312)
• Added legend boolean flag to DataFrame.plot (GH324)
• Can pass multiple levels to stack and unstack (GH370)
• Can pass multiple values columns to pivot_table (GH381)
• Use Series name in GroupBy for result index (GH363)
• Added raw option to DataFrame.apply for performance if only need ndarray (GH309)
• Added proper, tested weighted least squares to standard and panel OLS (GH303)

1.35.2 Performance Enhancements

• VBENCH Cythonized cache_readonly, resulting in substantial micro-performance enhancements through-

out the codebase (GH361)
• VBENCH Special Cython matrix iterator for applying arbitrary reduction operations with 3-5x better perfor-
mance than np.apply_along_axis (GH309)
• VBENCH Improved performance of MultiIndex.from_tuples
• VBENCH Special Cython matrix iterator for applying arbitrary reduction operations
• VBENCH + DOCUMENT Add raw option to DataFrame.apply for getting better performance when
• VBENCH Faster cythonized count by level in Series and DataFrame (GH341)
• VBENCH? Significant GroupBy performance enhancement with multiple keys with many “empty” combina-
tions
• VBENCH New Cython vectorized function map_infer speeds up Series.apply and Series.map sig-
nificantly when passed elementwise Python function, motivated by (GH355)
• VBENCH Significantly improved performance of Series.order, which also makes np.unique called on a
Series faster (GH327)
• VBENCH Vastly improved performance of GroupBy on axes with a MultiIndex (GH299)

1.36 v.0.5.0 (October 24, 2011)

1.36.1 New Features

• Added DataFrame.align method with standard join options

• Added parse_dates option to read_csv and read_table methods to optionally try to parse dates in the
index columns

1.36. v.0.5.0 (October 24, 2011) 391

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Added nrows, chunksize, and iterator arguments to read_csv and read_table. The last two
return a new TextParser class capable of lazily iterating through chunks of a flat file (GH242)
• Added ability to join on multiple columns in DataFrame.join (GH214)
• Added private _get_duplicates function to Index for identifying duplicate values more easily (ENH5c)
• Added column attribute access to DataFrame.
• Added Python tab completion hook for DataFrame columns. (GH233, GH230)
• Implemented Series.describe for Series containing objects (GH241)
• Added inner join option to DataFrame.join when joining on key(s) (GH248)
• Implemented selecting DataFrame columns by passing a list to __getitem__ (GH253)
• Implemented & and | to intersect / union Index objects, respectively (GH261)
• Added pivot_table convenience function to pandas namespace (GH234)
• Implemented Panel.rename_axis function (GH243)
• DataFrame will show index level names in console output (GH334)
• Implemented Panel.take
• Added set_eng_float_format for alternate DataFrame floating point string formatting (ENH61)
• Added convenience set_index function for creating a DataFrame index from its existing columns
• Implemented groupby hierarchical index level name (GH223)
• Added support for different delimiters in DataFrame.to_csv (GH244)
• TODO: DOCS ABOUT TAKE METHODS

1.36.2 Performance Enhancements

• VBENCH Major performance improvements in file parsing functions read_csv and read_table
• VBENCH Added Cython function for converting tuples to ndarray very fast. Speeds up many MultiIndex-related
operations
• VBENCH Refactored merging / joining code into a tidy class and disabled unnecessary computations in the
float/object case, thus getting about 10% better performance (GH211)
• VBENCH Improved speed of DataFrame.xs on mixed-type DataFrame objects by about 5x, regression from
0.3.0 (GH215)
• VBENCH With new DataFrame.align method, speeding up binary operations between differently-indexed
DataFrame objects by 10-25%.
• VBENCH Significantly sped up conversion of nested dict into DataFrame (GH212)
• VBENCH Significantly speed up DataFrame __repr__ and count on large mixed-type DataFrame objects

1.37 v.0.4.3 through v0.4.1 (September 25 - October 9, 2011)

1.37.1 New Features

• Added Python 3 support using 2to3 (GH200)

392 Chapter 1. What’s New

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Added name attribute to Series, now prints as part of Series.__repr__

• Added instance methods isnull and notnull to Series (GH209, GH203)
• Added Series.align method for aligning two series with choice of join method (ENH56)
• Added method get_level_values to MultiIndex (GH188)
• Set values in mixed-type DataFrame objects via .ix indexing attribute (GH135)
• Added new DataFrame methods get_dtype_counts and property dtypes (ENHdc)
• Added ignore_index option to DataFrame.append to stack DataFrames (ENH1b)
• read_csv tries to sniff delimiters using csv.Sniffer (GH146)
• read_csv can read multiple columns into a MultiIndex; DataFrame’s to_csv method writes out a cor-
responding MultiIndex (GH151)
• DataFrame.rename has a new copy parameter to rename a DataFrame in place (ENHed)
• Enable unstacking by name (GH142)
• Enable sortlevel to work by level (GH141)

1.37.2 Performance Enhancements

• Altered binary operations on differently-indexed SparseSeries objects to use the integer-based (dense) alignment
logic which is faster with a larger number of blocks (GH205)
• Wrote faster Cython data alignment / merging routines resulting in substantial speed increases
• Improved performance of isnull and notnull, a regression from v0.3.0 (GH187)
• Refactored code related to DataFrame.join so that intermediate aligned copies of the data in each
DataFrame argument do not need to be created. Substantial performance increases result (GH176)
• Substantially improved performance of generic Index.intersection and Index.union
• Implemented BlockManager.take resulting in significantly faster take performance on mixed-type
DataFrame objects (GH104)
• Improved performance of Series.sort_index
• Significant groupby performance enhancement: removed unnecessary integrity checks in DataFrame internals
that were slowing down slicing operations to retrieve groups
• Optimized _ensure_index function resulting in performance savings in type-checking Index objects
• Wrote fast time series merging / joining methods in Cython. Will be integrated later into DataFrame.join and
related functions

1.37. v.0.4.3 through v0.4.1 (September 25 - October 9, 2011) 393

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

394 Chapter 1. What’s New

 CHAPTER

TWO

INSTALLATION

The easiest way for the majority of users to install pandas is to install it as part of the Anaconda distribution, a cross
platform distribution for data analysis and scientific computing. This is the recommended installation method for most
users.
Instructions for installing from source, PyPI, various Linux distributions, or a development version are also provided.

2.1 Python version support

Officially Python 2.7, 3.5, and 3.6.

2.2 Installing pandas

2.2.1 Installing pandas with Anaconda

Installing pandas and the rest of the NumPy and SciPy stack can be a little difficult for inexperienced users.
The simplest way to install not only pandas, but Python and the most popular packages that make up the SciPy
stack (IPython, NumPy, Matplotlib, ...) is with Anaconda, a cross-platform (Linux, Mac OS X, Windows) Python
distribution for data analytics and scientific computing.
After running a simple installer, the user will have access to pandas and the rest of the SciPy stack without needing to
install anything else, and without needing to wait for any software to be compiled.
Installation instructions for Anaconda can be found here.
A full list of the packages available as part of the Anaconda distribution can be found here.
An additional advantage of installing with Anaconda is that you don’t require admin rights to install it, it will install
in the user’s home directory, and this also makes it trivial to delete Anaconda at a later date (just delete that folder).

2.2.2 Installing pandas with Miniconda

The previous section outlined how to get pandas installed as part of the Anaconda distribution. However this approach
means you will install well over one hundred packages and involves downloading the installer which is a few hundred
megabytes in size.
If you want to have more control on which packages, or have a limited internet bandwidth, then installing pandas with
Miniconda may be a better solution.
Conda is the package manager that the Anaconda distribution is built upon. It is a package manager that is both
cross-platform and language agnostic (it can play a similar role to a pip and virtualenv combination).

395
pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Miniconda allows you to create a minimal self contained Python installation, and then use the Conda command to
install additional packages.
First you will need Conda to be installed and downloading and running the Miniconda will do this for you. The
installer can be found here
The next step is to create a new conda environment (these are analogous to a virtualenv but they also allow you to
specify precisely which Python version to install also). Run the following commands from a terminal window:

conda create -n name_of_my_env python

This will create a minimal environment with only Python installed in it. To put your self inside this environment run:

source activate name_of_my_env

On Windows the command is:

activate name_of_my_env

The final step required is to install pandas. This can be done with the following command:

conda install pandas

To install a specific pandas version:

conda install pandas=0.20.3

To install other packages, IPython for example:

conda install ipython

To install the full Anaconda distribution:

conda install anaconda

If you require any packages that are available to pip but not conda, simply install pip, and use pip to install these
packages:

conda install pip

pip install django

2.2.3 Installing from PyPI

pandas can be installed via pip from PyPI.

pip install pandas

This will likely require the installation of a number of dependencies, including NumPy, will require a compiler to
compile required bits of code, and can take a few minutes to complete.

2.2.4 Installing using your Linux distribution’s package manager.

The commands in this table will install pandas for Python 2 from your distribution. To install pandas for Python 3 you
may need to use the package python3-pandas.

396 Chapter 2. Installation

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Distri- Status Download / Repository Link Install method

bution
Debian stable official Debian repository sudo apt-get
install
python-pandas
Debian unstable NeuroDebian sudo apt-get
& (latest install
Ubuntu packages) python-pandas
Ubuntu stable official Ubuntu repository sudo apt-get
install
python-pandas
Ubuntu unstable PythonXY PPA; activate by: sudo sudo apt-get
(daily add-apt-repository install
builds) ppa:pythonxy/pythonxy-devel && sudo python-pandas
apt-get update
Open- stable OpenSuse Repository zypper in
Suse python-pandas
Fedora stable official Fedora repository dnf install
python-pandas
Cen- stable EPEL repository yum install
tos/RHEL python-pandas

2.2.5 Installing from source

See the contributing documentation for complete instructions on building from the git source tree. Further, see creating
a development environment if you wish to create a pandas development environment.

2.2.6 Running the test suite

pandas is equipped with an exhaustive set of unit tests covering about 97% of the codebase as of this writing. To run it
on your machine to verify that everything is working (and you have all of the dependencies, soft and hard, installed),
make sure you have pytest and run:

>>> import pandas as pd

>>> pd.test()
running: pytest --skip-slow --skip-network C:\Users\TP\Anaconda3\envs\py36\lib\site-
˓→packages\pandas

============================= test session starts =============================

platform win32 -- Python 3.6.2, pytest-3.2.1, py-1.4.34, pluggy-0.4.0
rootdir: C:\Users\TP\Documents\Python\pandasdev\pandas, inifile: setup.cfg
collected 12145 items / 3 skipped

..................................................................S......
........S................................................................
.........................................................................

==================== 12130 passed, 12 skipped in 368.339 seconds =====================

2.3 Dependencies

• setuptools

2.3. Dependencies 397

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• NumPy: 1.9.0 or higher

• python-dateutil: 1.5 or higher
• pytz: Needed for time zone support

2.3.1 Recommended Dependencies

• numexpr: for accelerating certain numerical operations. numexpr uses multiple cores as well as smart chunk-
ing and caching to achieve large speedups. If installed, must be Version 2.4.6 or higher.
• bottleneck: for accelerating certain types of nan evaluations. bottleneck uses specialized cython routines
to achieve large speedups. If installed, must be Version 1.0.0 or higher.

Note: You are highly encouraged to install these libraries, as they provide large speedups, especially if working with
large data sets.

2.3.2 Optional Dependencies

• Cython: Only necessary to build development version. Version 0.23 or higher.

• SciPy: miscellaneous statistical functions, Version 0.14.0 or higher
• xarray: pandas like handling for > 2 dims, needed for converting Panels to xarray objects. Version 0.7.0 or
higher is recommended.
• PyTables: necessary for HDF5-based storage. Version 3.0.0 or higher required, Version 3.2.1 or higher highly
recommended.
• Feather Format: necessary for feather-based storage, version 0.3.1 or higher.
• Apache Parquet, either pyarrow (>= 0.4.1) or fastparquet (>= 0.0.6) for parquet-based storage. The snappy and
brotli are available for compression support.
• SQLAlchemy: for SQL database support. Version 0.8.1 or higher recommended. Besides SQLAlchemy, you
also need a database specific driver. You can find an overview of supported drivers for each SQL dialect in the
SQLAlchemy docs. Some common drivers are:
– psycopg2: for PostgreSQL
– pymysql: for MySQL.
– SQLite: for SQLite, this is included in Python’s standard library by default.
• matplotlib: for plotting, Version 1.4.3 or higher.
• For Excel I/O:
– xlrd/xlwt: Excel reading (xlrd) and writing (xlwt)
– openpyxl: openpyxl version 1.6.1 or higher (but lower than 2.0.0), or version 2.2 or higher, for writing
.xlsx files (xlrd >= 0.9.0)
– XlsxWriter: Alternative Excel writer
• Jinja2: Template engine for conditional HTML formatting.
• s3fs: necessary for Amazon S3 access (s3fs >= 0.0.7).
• blosc: for msgpack compression using blosc

398 Chapter 2. Installation

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• One of PyQt4, PySide, pygtk, xsel, or xclip: necessary to use read_clipboard(). Most package managers
on Linux distributions will have xclip and/or xsel immediately available for installation.
• For Google BigQuery I/O - see here
• Backports.lzma: Only for Python 2, for writing to and/or reading from an xz compressed DataFrame in CSV;
Python 3 support is built into the standard library.
• One of the following combinations of libraries is needed to use the top-level read_html() function:
– BeautifulSoup4 and html5lib (Any recent version of html5lib is okay.)
– BeautifulSoup4 and lxml
– BeautifulSoup4 and html5lib and lxml
– Only lxml, although see HTML Table Parsing for reasons as to why you should probably not take this
approach.

Warning:
– if you install BeautifulSoup4 you must install either lxml or html5lib or both. read_html() will
not work with only BeautifulSoup4 installed.
– You are highly encouraged to read HTML Table Parsing gotchas. It explains issues surrounding the
installation and usage of the above three libraries.
– You may need to install an older version of BeautifulSoup4: Versions 4.2.1, 4.1.3 and 4.0.2 have been
confirmed for 64 and 32-bit Ubuntu/Debian

Note:
– if you’re on a system with apt-get you can do

sudo apt-get build-dep python-lxml

to get the necessary dependencies for installation of lxml. This will prevent further headaches down the
line.

Note: Without the optional dependencies, many useful features will not work. Hence, it is highly recommended that
you install these. A packaged distribution like Anaconda, or Enthought Canopy may be worth considering.

2.3. Dependencies 399

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

400 Chapter 2. Installation

 CHAPTER

THREE

CONTRIBUTING TO PANDAS

Table of contents:

• Where to start?
• Bug reports and enhancement requests
• Working with the code
– Version control, Git, and GitHub
– Getting started with Git
– Forking
– Creating a branch
– Creating a development environment
– Creating a Windows development environment
– Making changes
• Contributing to the documentation
– About the pandas documentation
– How to build the pandas documentation

* Requirements
* Building the documentation
* Building master branch documentation
• Contributing to the code base
– Code standards

* C (cpplint)
* Python (PEP8)
* Backwards Compatibility
– Testing With Continuous Integration
– Test-driven development/code writing

* Writing tests
* Transitioning to pytest

401
pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

* Using pytest
– Running the test suite
– Running the performance test suite
– Documenting your code
• Contributing your changes to pandas
– Committing your code
– Combining commits
– Pushing your changes
– Review your code
– Finally, make the pull request
– Delete your merged branch (optional)

3.1 Where to start?

All contributions, bug reports, bug fixes, documentation improvements, enhancements and ideas are welcome.
If you are simply looking to start working with the pandas codebase, navigate to the GitHub “issues” tab and start
looking through interesting issues. There are a number of issues listed under Docs and Difficulty Novice where you
could start out.
Or maybe through using pandas you have an idea of your own or are looking for something in the documentation and
thinking ‘this can be improved’...you can do something about it!
Feel free to ask questions on the mailing list or on Gitter.

3.2 Bug reports and enhancement requests

Bug reports are an important part of making pandas more stable. Having a complete bug report will allow others to
reproduce the bug and provide insight into fixing. Because many versions of pandas are supported, knowing version
information will also identify improvements made since previous versions. Trying the bug-producing code out on the
master branch is often a worthwhile exercise to confirm the bug still exists. It is also worth searching existing bug
reports and pull requests to see if the issue has already been reported and/or fixed.
Bug reports must:
1. Include a short, self-contained Python snippet reproducing the problem. You can format the code nicely by
using GitHub Flavored Markdown:
```python
>>> from pandas import DataFrame
>>> df = DataFrame(...)
...
```

2. Include the full version string of pandas and its dependencies. You can use the built in function:
>>> import pandas as pd
>>> pd.show_versions()

402 Chapter 3. Contributing to pandas

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

3. Explain why the current behavior is wrong/not desired and what you expect instead.
The issue will then show up to the pandas community and be open to comments/ideas from others.

3.3 Working with the code

Now that you have an issue you want to fix, enhancement to add, or documentation to improve, you need to learn how
to work with GitHub and the pandas code base.

3.3.1 Version control, Git, and GitHub

To the new user, working with Git is one of the more daunting aspects of contributing to pandas. It can very quickly
become overwhelming, but sticking to the guidelines below will help keep the process straightforward and mostly
trouble free. As always, if you are having difficulties please feel free to ask for help.
The code is hosted on GitHub. To contribute you will need to sign up for a free GitHub account. We use Git for
version control to allow many people to work together on the project.
Some great resources for learning Git:
• the GitHub help pages.
• the NumPy’s documentation.
• Matthew Brett’s Pydagogue.

3.3.2 Getting started with Git

GitHub has instructions for installing git, setting up your SSH key, and configuring git. All these steps need to be
completed before you can work seamlessly between your local repository and GitHub.

3.3.3 Forking

You will need your own fork to work on the code. Go to the pandas project page and hit the Fork button. You will
want to clone your fork to your machine:

git clone https://github.com/your-user-name/pandas.git pandas-yourname

cd pandas-yourname
git remote add upstream git://github.com/pandas-dev/pandas.git

This creates the directory pandas-yourname and connects your repository to the upstream (main project) pandas
repository.

3.3.4 Creating a branch

You want your master branch to reflect only production-ready code, so create a feature branch for making your changes.
For example:

git branch shiny-new-feature

git checkout shiny-new-feature

The above can be simplified to:

3.3. Working with the code 403

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

git checkout -b shiny-new-feature

This changes your working directory to the shiny-new-feature branch. Keep any changes in this branch specific to one
bug or feature so it is clear what the branch brings to pandas. You can have many shiny-new-features and switch in
between them using the git checkout command.
To update this branch, you need to retrieve the changes from the master branch:

git fetch upstream

git rebase upstream/master

This will replay your commits on top of the latest pandas git master. If this leads to merge conflicts, you must resolve
these before submitting your pull request. If you have uncommitted changes, you will need to stash them prior to
updating. This will effectively store your changes and they can be reapplied after updating.

3.3.5 Creating a development environment

An easy way to create a pandas development environment is as follows.

• Install either Anaconda or miniconda
• Make sure that you have cloned the repository
• cd to the pandas source directory
Tell conda to create a new environment, named pandas_dev, or any other name you would like for this environment,
by running:

conda create -n pandas_dev --file ci/requirements_dev.txt

For a python 3 environment:

conda create -n pandas_dev python=3 --file ci/requirements_dev.txt

Warning: If you are on Windows, see here for a fully compliant Windows environment.

This will create the new environment, and not touch any of your existing environments, nor any existing python
installation. It will install all of the basic dependencies of pandas, as well as the development and testing tools. If you
would like to install other dependencies, you can install them as follows:

conda install -n pandas_dev -c pandas pytables scipy

To install all pandas dependencies you can do the following:

conda install -n pandas_dev -c conda-forge --file ci/requirements_all.txt

To work in this environment, Windows users should activate it as follows:

activate pandas_dev

Mac OSX / Linux users should use:

source activate pandas_dev

404 Chapter 3. Contributing to pandas

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

You will then see a confirmation message to indicate you are in the new development environment.
To view your environments:

conda info -e

To return to your home root environment in Windows:

deactivate

To return to your home root environment in OSX / Linux:

source deactivate

See the full conda docs here.

At this point you can easily do an in-place install, as detailed in the next section.

3.3.6 Creating a Windows development environment

To build on Windows, you need to have compilers installed to build the extensions. You will need to install the
appropriate Visual Studio compilers, VS 2008 for Python 2.7, VS 2010 for 3.4, and VS 2015 for Python 3.5 and 3.6.
For Python 2.7, you can install the mingw compiler which will work equivalently to VS 2008:

conda install -n pandas_dev libpython

or use the Microsoft Visual Studio VC++ compiler for Python. Note that you have to check the x64 box to install the
x64 extension building capability as this is not installed by default.
For Python 3.4, you can download and install the Windows 7.1 SDK. Read the references below as there may be
various gotchas during the installation.
For Python 3.5 and 3.6, you can download and install the Visual Studio 2015 Community Edition.
Here are some references and blogs:
• https://blogs.msdn.microsoft.com/pythonengineering/2016/04/11/unable-to-find-vcvarsall-bat/
• https://github.com/conda/conda-recipes/wiki/Building-from-Source-on-Windows-32-bit-and-64-bit
• https://cowboyprogrammer.org/building-python-wheels-for-windows/
• https://blog.ionelmc.ro/2014/12/21/compiling-python-extensions-on-windows/
• https://support.enthought.com/hc/en-us/articles/204469260-Building-Python-extensions-with-Canopy

3.3.7 Making changes

Before making your code changes, it is often necessary to build the code that was just checked out. There are two
primary methods of doing this.
1. The best way to develop pandas is to build the C extensions in-place by running:

python setup.py build_ext --inplace

If you startup the Python interpreter in the pandas source directory you will call the built C extensions
2. Another very common option is to do a develop install of pandas:

3.3. Working with the code 405

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

python setup.py develop

This makes a symbolic link that tells the Python interpreter to import pandas from your development directory.
Thus, you can always be using the development version on your system without being inside the clone directory.

3.4 Contributing to the documentation

If you’re not the developer type, contributing to the documentation is still of huge value. You don’t even have to be an
expert on pandas to do so! Something as simple as rewriting small passages for clarity as you reference the docs is a
simple but effective way to contribute. The next person to read that passage will be in your debt!
In fact, there are sections of the docs that are worse off after being written by experts. If something in the docs doesn’t
make sense to you, updating the relevant section after you figure it out is a simple way to ensure it will help the next
person.

Documentation:

• About the pandas documentation

• How to build the pandas documentation
– Requirements
– Building the documentation
– Building master branch documentation

3.4.1 About the pandas documentation

The documentation is written in reStructuredText, which is almost like writing in plain English, and built using
Sphinx. The Sphinx Documentation has an excellent introduction to reST. Review the Sphinx docs to perform more
complex changes to the documentation as well.
Some other important things to know about the docs:
• The pandas documentation consists of two parts: the docstrings in the code itself and the docs in this folder
pandas/doc/.
The docstrings provide a clear explanation of the usage of the individual functions, while the documentation
in this folder consists of tutorial-like overviews per topic together with some other information (what’s new,
installation, etc).
• The docstrings follow the Numpy Docstring Standard, which is used widely in the Scientific Python com-
munity. This standard specifies the format of the different sections of the docstring. See this document for a
detailed explanation, or look at some of the existing functions to extend it in a similar manner.
• The tutorials make heavy use of the ipython directive sphinx extension. This directive lets you put code in the
documentation which will be run during the doc build. For example:

.. ipython:: python

x = 2
x**3

will be rendered as:

406 Chapter 3. Contributing to pandas

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [1]: x = 2

In [2]: x**3
Out[2]: 8

Almost all code examples in the docs are run (and the output saved) during the doc build. This approach means
that code examples will always be up to date, but it does make the doc building a bit more complex.

Note: The .rst files are used to automatically generate Markdown and HTML versions of the docs. For this reason,
please do not edit CONTRIBUTING.md directly, but instead make any changes to doc/source/contributing.
rst. Then, to generate CONTRIBUTING.md, use pandoc with the following command:

pandoc doc/source/contributing.rst -t markdown_github > CONTRIBUTING.md

The utility script scripts/api_rst_coverage.py can be used to compare the list of methods documented in
doc/source/api.rst (which is used to generate the API Reference page) and the actual public methods. This
will identify methods documented in in doc/source/api.rst that are not actually class methods, and existing
methods that are not documented in doc/source/api.rst.

3.4.2 How to build the pandas documentation

3.4.2.1 Requirements

First, you need to have a development environment to be able to build pandas (see the docs on creating a development
environment above). Further, to build the docs, there are some extra requirements: you will need to have sphinx and
ipython installed. numpydoc is used to parse the docstrings that follow the Numpy Docstring Standard (see above),
but you don’t need to install this because a local copy of numpydoc is included in the pandas source code. nbsphinx
is required to build the Jupyter notebooks included in the documentation.
If you have a conda environment named pandas_dev, you can install the extra requirements with:

conda install -n pandas_dev sphinx ipython nbconvert nbformat

conda install -n pandas_dev -c conda-forge nbsphinx

Furthermore, it is recommended to have all optional dependencies. installed. This is not strictly necessary, but be
aware that you will see some error messages when building the docs. This happens because all the code in the
documentation is executed during the doc build, and so code examples using optional dependencies will generate
errors. Run pd.show_versions() to get an overview of the installed version of all dependencies.

Warning: You need to have sphinx version >= 1.3.2.

3.4.2.2 Building the documentation

So how do you build the docs? Navigate to your local pandas/doc/ directory in the console and run:

python make.py html

Then you can find the HTML output in the folder pandas/doc/build/html/.
The first time you build the docs, it will take quite a while because it has to run all the code examples and build all the
generated docstring pages. In subsequent evocations, sphinx will try to only build the pages that have been modified.

3.4. Contributing to the documentation 407

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

If you want to do a full clean build, do:

python make.py clean

python make.py html

Starting with pandas 0.13.1 you can tell make.py to compile only a single section of the docs, greatly reducing the
turn-around time for checking your changes. You will be prompted to delete .rst files that aren’t required. This
is okay because the prior versions of these files can be checked out from git. However, you must make sure not to
commit the file deletions to your Git repository!

#omit autosummary and API section

python make.py clean
python make.py --no-api

# compile the docs with only a single

# section, that which is in indexing.rst
python make.py clean
python make.py --single indexing

For comparison, a full documentation build may take 10 minutes, a -no-api build may take 3 minutes and a single
section may take 15 seconds. Subsequent builds, which only process portions you have changed, will be faster. Open
the following file in a web browser to see the full documentation you just built:

pandas/docs/build/html/index.html

And you’ll have the satisfaction of seeing your new and improved documentation!

3.4.2.3 Building master branch documentation

When pull requests are merged into the pandas master branch, the main parts of the documentation are also built by
Travis-CI. These docs are then hosted here, see also the Continuous Integration section.

3.5 Contributing to the code base

Code Base:

• Code standards
– C (cpplint)
– Python (PEP8)
– Backwards Compatibility
• Testing With Continuous Integration
• Test-driven development/code writing
– Writing tests
– Transitioning to pytest
– Using pytest
• Running the test suite

408 Chapter 3. Contributing to pandas

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Running the performance test suite

• Documenting your code

3.5.1 Code standards

Writing good code is not just about what you write. It is also about how you write it. During Continuous Integration
testing, several tools will be run to check your code for stylistic errors. Generating any warnings will cause the test to
fail. Thus, good style is a requirement for submitting code to pandas.
In addition, because a lot of people use our library, it is important that we do not make sudden changes to the code
that could have the potential to break a lot of user code as a result, that is, we need it to be as backwards compatible as
possible to avoid mass breakages.
Additional standards are outlined on the code style wiki page.

3.5.1.1 C (cpplint)

pandas uses the Google standard. Google provides an open source style checker called cpplint, but we use a fork
of it that can be found here. Here are some of the more common cpplint issues:
• we restrict line-length to 80 characters to promote readability
• every header file must include a header guard to avoid name collisions if re-included
Continuous Integration. will run the cpplint tool and report any stylistic errors in your code. Therefore, it is helpful
before submitting code to run the check yourself:

cpplint --extensions=c,h --headers=h --filter=-readability/casting,-runtime/int,-

˓→build/include_subdir modified-c-file

You can also run this command on an entire directory if necessary:

cpplint --extensions=c,h --headers=h --filter=-readability/casting,-runtime/int,-

˓→build/include_subdir --recursive modified-c-directory

To make your commits compliant with this standard, you can install the ClangFormat tool, which can be downloaded
here. To configure, in your home directory, run the following command:

clang-format style=google -dump-config > .clang-format

Then modify the file to ensure that any indentation width parameters are at least four. Once configured, you can run
the tool as follows:

clang-format modified-c-file

This will output what your file will look like if the changes are made, and to apply them, just run the following
command:

clang-format -i modified-c-file

To run the tool on an entire directory, you can run the following analogous commands:

clang-format modified-c-directory/*.c modified-c-directory/*.h

clang-format -i modified-c-directory/*.c modified-c-directory/*.h

3.5. Contributing to the code base 409

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Do note that this tool is best-effort, meaning that it will try to correct as many errors as possible, but it may not correct
all of them. Thus, it is recommended that you run cpplint to double check and make any other style fixes manually.

3.5.1.2 Python (PEP8)

pandas uses the PEP8 standard. There are several tools to ensure you abide by this standard. Here are some of the
more common PEP8 issues:
• we restrict line-length to 79 characters to promote readability
• passing arguments should have spaces after commas, e.g. foo(arg1, arg2, kw1='bar')
Continuous Integration will run the flake8 tool and report any stylistic errors in your code. Therefore, it is helpful
before submitting code to run the check yourself on the diff:

git diff master -u -- "*.py" | flake8 --diff

This command will catch any stylistic errors in your changes specifically, but be beware it may not catch all of them.
For example, if you delete the only usage of an imported function, it is stylistically incorrect to import an unused
function. However, style-checking the diff will not catch this because the actual import is not part of the diff. Thus,
for completeness, you should run this command, though it will take longer:

git diff master --name-only -- "*.py" | grep "pandas/" | xargs -r flake8

Note that on OSX, the -r flag is not available, so you have to omit it and run this slightly modified command:

git diff master --name-only -- "*.py" | grep "pandas/" | xargs flake8

Note that on Windows, these commands are unfortunately not possible because commands like grep and xargs are
not available natively. To imitate the behavior with the commands above, you should run:

git diff master --name-only -- "*.py"

This will list all of the Python files that have been modified. The only ones that matter during linting are any whose
directory filepath begins with “pandas.” For each filepath, copy and paste it after the flake8 command as shown
below:
flake8 <python-filepath>
Alternatively, you can install the grep and xargs commands via the MinGW toolchain, and it will allow you to run
the commands above.

3.5.1.3 Backwards Compatibility

Please try to maintain backward compatibility. pandas has lots of users with lots of existing code, so don’t break it if
at all possible. If you think breakage is required, clearly state why as part of the pull request. Also, be careful when
changing method signatures and add deprecation warnings where needed.

3.5.2 Testing With Continuous Integration

The pandas test suite will run automatically on Travis-CI, Appveyor, and Circle CI continuous integration services,
once your pull request is submitted. However, if you wish to run the test suite on a branch prior to submitting the pull
request, then the continuous integration services need to be hooked to your GitHub repository. Instructions are here
for Travis-CI, Appveyor , and CircleCI.

410 Chapter 3. Contributing to pandas

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

A pull-request will be considered for merging when you have an all ‘green’ build. If any tests are failing, then you
will get a red ‘X’, where you can click through to see the individual failed tests. This is an example of a green build.

Note: Each time you push to your fork, a new run of the tests will be triggered on the CI. Appveyor will auto-cancel
any non-currently-running tests for that same pull-request. You can enable the auto-cancel feature for Travis-CI here
and for CircleCI here.

3.5.3 Test-driven development/code writing

pandas is serious about testing and strongly encourages contributors to embrace test-driven development (TDD). This
development process “relies on the repetition of a very short development cycle: first the developer writes an (initially
failing) automated test case that defines a desired improvement or new function, then produces the minimum amount
of code to pass that test.” So, before actually writing any code, you should write your tests. Often the test can
be taken from the original GitHub issue. However, it is always worth considering additional use cases and writing
corresponding tests.
Adding tests is one of the most common requests after code is pushed to pandas. Therefore, it is worth getting in the
habit of writing tests ahead of time so this is never an issue.
Like many packages, pandas uses pytest and the convenient extensions in numpy.testing.

Note: The earliest supported pytest version is 3.1.0.

3.5.3.1 Writing tests

All tests should go into the tests subdirectory of the specific package. This folder contains many current examples of
tests, and we suggest looking to these for inspiration. If your test requires working with files or network connectivity,
there is more information on the testing page of the wiki.

3.5. Contributing to the code base 411

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

The pandas.util.testing module has many special assert functions that make it easier to make statements
about whether Series or DataFrame objects are equivalent. The easiest way to verify that your code is correct is to
explicitly construct the result you expect, then compare the actual result to the expected correct result:

def test_pivot(self):
data = {
'index' : ['A', 'B', 'C', 'C', 'B', 'A'],
'columns' : ['One', 'One', 'One', 'Two', 'Two', 'Two'],
'values' : [1., 2., 3., 3., 2., 1.]
}

frame = DataFrame(data)
pivoted = frame.pivot(index='index', columns='columns', values='values')

expected = DataFrame({
'One' : {'A' : 1., 'B' : 2., 'C' : 3.},
'Two' : {'A' : 1., 'B' : 2., 'C' : 3.}
})

assert_frame_equal(pivoted, expected)

3.5.3.2 Transitioning to pytest

pandas existing test structure is mostly classed based, meaning that you will typically find tests wrapped in a class.

class TestReallyCoolFeature(object):
....

Going forward, we are moving to a more functional style using the pytest framework, which offers a richer testing
framework that will facilitate testing and developing. Thus, instead of writing test classes, we will write test functions
like this:

def test_really_cool_feature():
....

3.5.3.3 Using pytest

Here is an example of a self-contained set of tests that illustrate multiple features that we like to use.
• functional style: tests are like test_* and only take arguments that are either fixtures or parameters
• pytest.mark can be used to set metadata on test functions, e.g. skip or xfail.
• using parametrize: allow testing of multiple cases
• to set a mark on a parameter, pytest.param(..., marks=...) syntax should be used
• fixture, code for object construction, on a per-test basis
• using bare assert for scalars and truth-testing
• tm.assert_series_equal (and its counter part tm.assert_frame_equal), for pandas object com-
parisons.
• the typical pattern of constructing an expected and comparing versus the result
We would name this file test_cool_feature.py and put in an appropriate place in the pandas/tests/
structure.

412 Chapter 3. Contributing to pandas

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

import pytest
import numpy as np
import pandas as pd
from pandas.util import testing as tm

@pytest.mark.parametrize('dtype', ['int8', 'int16', 'int32', 'int64'])

def test_dtypes(dtype):
assert str(np.dtype(dtype)) == dtype

@pytest.mark.parametrize('dtype', ['float32',
pytest.param('int16', marks=pytest.mark.skip),
pytest.param('int32',
marks=pytest.mark.xfail(reason='to show how it works'))])
def test_mark(dtype):
assert str(np.dtype(dtype)) == 'float32'

@pytest.fixture
def series():
return pd.Series([1, 2, 3])

@pytest.fixture(params=['int8', 'int16', 'int32', 'int64'])

def dtype(request):
return request.param

def test_series(series, dtype):

result = series.astype(dtype)
assert result.dtype == dtype

expected = pd.Series([1, 2, 3], dtype=dtype)

tm.assert_series_equal(result, expected)

A test run of this yields

((pandas) bash-3.2$ pytest test_cool_feature.py -v
=========================== test session starts ===========================
platform darwin -- Python 3.6.2, pytest-3.2.1, py-1.4.31, pluggy-0.4.0
collected 11 items

tester.py::test_dtypes[int8] PASSED
tester.py::test_dtypes[int16] PASSED
tester.py::test_dtypes[int32] PASSED
tester.py::test_dtypes[int64] PASSED
tester.py::test_mark[float32] PASSED
tester.py::test_mark[int16] SKIPPED
tester.py::test_mark[int32] xfail
tester.py::test_series[int8] PASSED
tester.py::test_series[int16] PASSED
tester.py::test_series[int32] PASSED
tester.py::test_series[int64] PASSED

Tests that we have parametrized are now accessible via the test name, for example we could run these with -k
int8 to sub-select only those tests which match int8.
((pandas) bash-3.2$ pytest test_cool_feature.py -v -k int8
=========================== test session starts ===========================
platform darwin -- Python 3.6.2, pytest-3.2.1, py-1.4.31, pluggy-0.4.0
collected 11 items

3.5. Contributing to the code base 413

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

test_cool_feature.py::test_dtypes[int8] PASSED
test_cool_feature.py::test_series[int8] PASSED

3.5.4 Running the test suite

The tests can then be run directly inside your Git clone (without having to install pandas) by typing:

pytest pandas

The tests suite is exhaustive and takes around 20 minutes to run. Often it is worth running only a subset of tests first
around your changes before running the entire suite.
The easiest way to do this is with:

pytest pandas/path/to/test.py -k regex_matching_test_name

Or with one of the following constructs:

pytest pandas/tests/[test-module].py
pytest pandas/tests/[test-module].py::[TestClass]
pytest pandas/tests/[test-module].py::[TestClass]::[test_method]

Using pytest-xdist, one can speed up local testing on multicore machines. To use this feature, you will need to install
pytest-xdist via:

pip install pytest-xdist

Two scripts are provided to assist with this. These scripts distribute testing across 4 threads.
On Unix variants, one can type:

test_fast.sh

On Windows, one can type:

test_fast.bat

This can significantly reduce the time it takes to locally run tests before submitting a pull request.
For more, see the pytest documentation.
New in version 0.20.0.
Furthermore one can run

pd.test()

with an imported pandas to run tests similarly.

3.5.5 Running the performance test suite

Performance matters and it is worth considering whether your code has introduced performance regressions. pandas
is in the process of migrating to asv benchmarks to enable easy monitoring of the performance of critical pandas
operations. These benchmarks are all found in the pandas/asv_bench directory. asv supports both python2 and
python3.

414 Chapter 3. Contributing to pandas

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

To use all features of asv, you will need either conda or virtualenv. For more details please check the asv
installation webpage.
To install asv:
pip install git+https://github.com/spacetelescope/asv

If you need to run a benchmark, change your directory to asv_bench/ and run:
asv continuous -f 1.1 upstream/master HEAD

You can replace HEAD with the name of the branch you are working on, and report benchmarks that changed by
more than 10%. The command uses conda by default for creating the benchmark environments. If you want to use
virtualenv instead, write:
asv continuous -f 1.1 -E virtualenv upstream/master HEAD

The -E virtualenv option should be added to all asv commands that run benchmarks. The default value is
defined in asv.conf.json.
Running the full test suite can take up to one hour and use up to 3GB of RAM. Usually it is sufficient to paste only
a subset of the results into the pull request to show that the committed changes do not cause unexpected performance
regressions. You can run specific benchmarks using the -b flag, which takes a regular expression. For example, this
will only run tests from a pandas/asv_bench/benchmarks/groupby.py file:
asv continuous -f 1.1 upstream/master HEAD -b ^groupby

If you want to only run a specific group of tests from a file, you can do it using . as a separator. For example:
asv continuous -f 1.1 upstream/master HEAD -b groupby.groupby_agg_builtins

will only run the groupby_agg_builtins benchmark defined in groupby.py.

You can also run the benchmark suite using the version of pandas already installed in your current Python envi-
ronment. This can be useful if you do not have virtualenv or conda, or are using the setup.py develop ap-
proach discussed above; for the in-place build you need to set PYTHONPATH, e.g. PYTHONPATH="$PWD/.."
asv [remaining arguments]. You can run benchmarks using an existing Python environment by:
asv run -e -E existing

or, to use a specific Python interpreter,:

asv run -e -E existing:python3.5

This will display stderr from the benchmarks, and use your local python that comes from your $PATH.
Information on how to write a benchmark and how to use asv can be found in the asv documentation.

3.5.6 Documenting your code

Changes should be reflected in the release notes located in doc/source/whatsnew/vx.y.z.txt. This file
contains an ongoing change log for each release. Add an entry to this file to document your fix, enhancement or
(unavoidable) breaking change. Make sure to include the GitHub issue number when adding your entry (using ‘‘
GH1234 ‘‘ where 1234 is the issue/pull request number).
If your code is an enhancement, it is most likely necessary to add usage examples to the existing documentation. This
can be done following the section regarding documentation above. Further, to let users know when this feature was
added, the versionadded directive is used. The sphinx syntax for that is:

3.5. Contributing to the code base 415

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

.. versionadded:: 0.17.0

This will put the text New in version 0.17.0 wherever you put the sphinx directive. This should also be put in the
docstring when adding a new function or method (example) or a new keyword argument (example).

3.6 Contributing your changes to pandas

3.6.1 Committing your code

Keep style fixes to a separate commit to make your pull request more readable.
Once you’ve made changes, you can see them by typing:

git status

If you have created a new file, it is not being tracked by git. Add it by typing:

git add path/to/file-to-be-added.py

Doing ‘git status’ again should give something like:

# On branch shiny-new-feature
#
# modified: /relative/path/to/file-you-added.py
#

Finally, commit your changes to your local repository with an explanatory message. Pandas uses a convention for
commit message prefixes and layout. Here are some common prefixes along with general guidelines for when to use
them:
• ENH: Enhancement, new functionality
• BUG: Bug fix
• DOC: Additions/updates to documentation
• TST: Additions/updates to tests
• BLD: Updates to the build process/scripts
• PERF: Performance improvement
• CLN: Code cleanup
The following defines how a commit message should be structured. Please reference the relevant GitHub issues in
your commit message using GH1234 or #1234. Either style is fine, but the former is generally preferred:
• a subject line with < 80 chars.
• One blank line.
• Optionally, a commit message body.
Now you can commit your changes in your local repository:

git commit -m

416 Chapter 3. Contributing to pandas

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

3.6.2 Combining commits

If you have multiple commits, you may want to combine them into one commit, often referred to as “squashing” or
“rebasing”. This is a common request by package maintainers when submitting a pull request as it maintains a more
compact commit history. To rebase your commits:

git rebase -i HEAD~#

Where # is the number of commits you want to combine. Then you can pick the relevant commit message and discard
others.
To squash to the master branch do:

git rebase -i master

Use the s option on a commit to squash, meaning to keep the commit messages, or f to fixup, meaning to merge
the commit messages.
Then you will need to push the branch (see below) forcefully to replace the current commits with the new ones:

git push origin shiny-new-feature -f

3.6.3 Pushing your changes

When you want your changes to appear publicly on your GitHub page, push your forked feature branch’s commits:

git push origin shiny-new-feature

Here origin is the default name given to your remote repository on GitHub. You can see the remote repositories:

git remote -v

If you added the upstream repository as described above you will see something like:

origin [email protected]:yourname/pandas.git (fetch)

origin [email protected]:yourname/pandas.git (push)
upstream git://github.com/pandas-dev/pandas.git (fetch)
upstream git://github.com/pandas-dev/pandas.git (push)

Now your code is on GitHub, but it is not yet a part of the pandas project. For that to happen, a pull request needs to
be submitted on GitHub.

3.6.4 Review your code

When you’re ready to ask for a code review, file a pull request. Before you do, once again make sure that you have
followed all the guidelines outlined in this document regarding code style, tests, performance tests, and documentation.
You should also double check your branch changes against the branch it was based on:
1. Navigate to your repository on GitHub – https://github.com/your-user-name/pandas
2. Click on Branches
3. Click on the Compare button for your feature branch
4. Select the base and compare branches, if necessary. This will be master and shiny-new-feature,
respectively.

3.6. Contributing your changes to pandas 417

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

3.6.5 Finally, make the pull request

If everything looks good, you are ready to make a pull request. A pull request is how code from a local repository
becomes available to the GitHub community and can be looked at and eventually merged into the master version. This
pull request and its associated changes will eventually be committed to the master branch and available in the next
release. To submit a pull request:
1. Navigate to your repository on GitHub
2. Click on the Pull Request button
3. You can then click on Commits and Files Changed to make sure everything looks okay one last time
4. Write a description of your changes in the Preview Discussion tab
5. Click Send Pull Request.
This request then goes to the repository maintainers, and they will review the code. If you need to make more changes,
you can make them in your branch, push them to GitHub, and the pull request will be automatically updated. Pushing
them to GitHub again is done by:

git push -f origin shiny-new-feature

This will automatically update your pull request with the latest code and restart the Continuous Integration tests.

3.6.6 Delete your merged branch (optional)

Once your feature branch is accepted into upstream, you’ll probably want to get rid of the branch. First, merge
upstream master into your branch so git knows it is safe to delete your branch:

git fetch upstream

git checkout master
git merge upstream/master

Then you can just do:

git branch -d shiny-new-feature

Make sure you use a lower-case -d, or else git won’t warn you if your feature branch has not actually been merged.
The branch will still exist on GitHub, so to delete it there do:

git push origin --delete shiny-new-feature

418 Chapter 3. Contributing to pandas

 CHAPTER

FOUR

PACKAGE OVERVIEW

pandas is an open source, BSD-licensed library providing high-performance, easy-to-use data structures and data
analysis tools for the Python programming language.
pandas consists of the following elements
• A set of labeled array data structures, the primary of which are Series and DataFrame
• Index objects enabling both simple axis indexing and multi-level / hierarchical axis indexing
• An integrated group by engine for aggregating and transforming data sets
• Date range generation (date_range) and custom date offsets enabling the implementation of customized frequen-
cies
• Input/Output tools: loading tabular data from flat files (CSV, delimited, Excel 2003), and saving and loading
pandas objects from the fast and efficient PyTables/HDF5 format.
• Memory-efficient “sparse” versions of the standard data structures for storing data that is mostly missing or
mostly constant (some fixed value)
• Moving window statistics (rolling mean, rolling standard deviation, etc.)

4.1 Data Structures

Dimen- Name Description

sions
1 Series 1D labeled homogeneously-typed array
2 DataFrame General 2D labeled, size-mutable tabular structure with potentially
heterogeneously-typed column

4.1.1 Why more than one data structure?

The best way to think about the pandas data structures is as flexible containers for lower dimensional data. For
example, DataFrame is a container for Series, and Series is a container for scalars. We would like to be able to insert
and remove objects from these containers in a dictionary-like fashion.
Also, we would like sensible default behaviors for the common API functions which take into account the typical
orientation of time series and cross-sectional data sets. When using ndarrays to store 2- and 3-dimensional data, a
burden is placed on the user to consider the orientation of the data set when writing functions; axes are considered
more or less equivalent (except when C- or Fortran-contiguousness matters for performance). In pandas, the axes are
intended to lend more semantic meaning to the data; i.e., for a particular data set there is likely to be a “right” way to
orient the data. The goal, then, is to reduce the amount of mental effort required to code up data transformations in
downstream functions.

419
pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

For example, with tabular data (DataFrame) it is more semantically helpful to think of the index (the rows) and the
columns rather than axis 0 and axis 1. And iterating through the columns of the DataFrame thus results in more
readable code:

for col in df.columns:

series = df[col]
# do something with series

4.2 Mutability and copying of data

All pandas data structures are value-mutable (the values they contain can be altered) but not always size-mutable. The
length of a Series cannot be changed, but, for example, columns can be inserted into a DataFrame. However, the vast
majority of methods produce new objects and leave the input data untouched. In general, though, we like to favor
immutability where sensible.

4.3 Getting Support

The first stop for pandas issues and ideas is the Github Issue Tracker. If you have a general question, pandas community
experts can answer through Stack Overflow.

4.4 Community

pandas is actively supported today by a community of like-minded individuals around the world who contribute their
valuable time and energy to help make open source pandas possible. Thanks to all of our contributors.
If you’re interested in contributing, please visit Contributing to pandas webpage.
pandas is a NUMFocus sponsored project. This will help ensure the success of development of pandas as a world-class
open-source project, and makes it possible to donate to the project.

4.5 Project Governance

The governance process that pandas project has used informally since its inception in 2008 is formalized in Project
Governance documents . The documents clarify how decisions are made and how the various elements of our commu-
nity interact, including the relationship between open source collaborative development and work that may be funded
by for-profit or non-profit entities.
Wes McKinney is the Benevolent Dictator for Life (BDFL).

4.6 Development Team

The list of the Core Team members and more detailed information can be found on the people’s page of the governance
repo.

420 Chapter 4. Package overview

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

4.7 Institutional Partners

The information about current institutional partners can be found on pandas website page

4.8 License

BSD 3-Clause License

Copyright (c) 2008-2012, AQR Capital Management, LLC, Lambda Foundry, Inc. and PyData
˓→Development Team

All rights reserved.

Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without

modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met:

* Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice, this
list of conditions and the following disclaimer.

* Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice,

this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation
and/or other materials provided with the distribution.

* Neither the name of the copyright holder nor the names of its
contributors may be used to endorse or promote products derived from
this software without specific prior written permission.

THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS"
AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE
IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE
DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE COPYRIGHT HOLDER OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE
FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL
DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR
SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER
CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY,
OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE
OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE.

4.7. Institutional Partners 421

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

422 Chapter 4. Package overview

 CHAPTER

FIVE

10 MINUTES TO PANDAS

This is a short introduction to pandas, geared mainly for new users. You can see more complex recipes in the Cookbook
Customarily, we import as follows:
In [1]: import pandas as pd

In [2]: import numpy as np

In [3]: import matplotlib.pyplot as plt

5.1 Object Creation

See the Data Structure Intro section

Creating a Series by passing a list of values, letting pandas create a default integer index:
In [4]: s = pd.Series([1,3,5,np.nan,6,8])

In [5]: s
Out[5]:
0 1.0
1 3.0
2 5.0
3 NaN
4 6.0
5 8.0
dtype: float64

Creating a DataFrame by passing a numpy array, with a datetime index and labeled columns:
In [6]: dates = pd.date_range('20130101', periods=6)

In [7]: dates
Out[7]:
DatetimeIndex(['2013-01-01', '2013-01-02', '2013-01-03', '2013-01-04',
'2013-01-05', '2013-01-06'],
dtype='datetime64[ns]', freq='D')

In [8]: df = pd.DataFrame(np.random.randn(6,4), index=dates, columns=list('ABCD'))

In [9]: df
Out[9]:
A B C D

423
pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

2013-01-01 0.469112 -0.282863 -1.509059 -1.135632

2013-01-02 1.212112 -0.173215 0.119209 -1.044236
2013-01-03 -0.861849 -2.104569 -0.494929 1.071804
2013-01-04 0.721555 -0.706771 -1.039575 0.271860
2013-01-05 -0.424972 0.567020 0.276232 -1.087401
2013-01-06 -0.673690 0.113648 -1.478427 0.524988

Creating a DataFrame by passing a dict of objects that can be converted to series-like.

In [10]: df2 = pd.DataFrame({ 'A' : 1.,

....: 'B' : pd.Timestamp('20130102'),
....: 'C' : pd.Series(1,index=list(range(4)),dtype='float32'),
....: 'D' : np.array([3] * 4,dtype='int32'),
....: 'E' : pd.Categorical(["test","train","test","train"]),
....: 'F' : 'foo' })
....:

In [11]: df2
Out[11]:
A B C D E F
0 1.0 2013-01-02 1.0 3 test foo
1 1.0 2013-01-02 1.0 3 train foo
2 1.0 2013-01-02 1.0 3 test foo
3 1.0 2013-01-02 1.0 3 train foo

Having specific dtypes

In [12]: df2.dtypes
Out[12]:
A float64
B datetime64[ns]
C float32
D int32
E category
F object
dtype: object

If you’re using IPython, tab completion for column names (as well as public attributes) is automatically enabled.
Here’s a subset of the attributes that will be completed:

In [13]: df2.<TAB>
df2.A df2.bool
df2.abs df2.boxplot
df2.add df2.C
df2.add_prefix df2.clip
df2.add_suffix df2.clip_lower
df2.align df2.clip_upper
df2.all df2.columns
df2.any df2.combine
df2.append df2.combine_first
df2.apply df2.compound
df2.applymap df2.consolidate
df2.D

As you can see, the columns A, B, C, and D are automatically tab completed. E is there as well; the rest of the attributes
have been truncated for brevity.

424 Chapter 5. 10 Minutes to pandas

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

5.2 Viewing Data

See the Basics section

See the top & bottom rows of the frame

In [14]: df.head()
Out[14]:
A B C D
2013-01-01 0.469112 -0.282863 -1.509059 -1.135632
2013-01-02 1.212112 -0.173215 0.119209 -1.044236
2013-01-03 -0.861849 -2.104569 -0.494929 1.071804
2013-01-04 0.721555 -0.706771 -1.039575 0.271860
2013-01-05 -0.424972 0.567020 0.276232 -1.087401

In [15]: df.tail(3)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

A B C D
2013-01-04 0.721555 -0.706771 -1.039575 0.271860
2013-01-05 -0.424972 0.567020 0.276232 -1.087401
2013-01-06 -0.673690 0.113648 -1.478427 0.524988

Display the index, columns, and the underlying numpy data

In [16]: df.index
Out[16]:
DatetimeIndex(['2013-01-01', '2013-01-02', '2013-01-03', '2013-01-04',
'2013-01-05', '2013-01-06'],
dtype='datetime64[ns]', freq='D')

In [17]: df.columns
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→Index(['A', 'B', 'C', 'D'], dtype='object')

In [18]: df.values
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

array([[ 0.4691, -0.2829, -1.5091, -1.1356],

[ 1.2121, -0.1732, 0.1192, -1.0442],
[-0.8618, -2.1046, -0.4949, 1.0718],
[ 0.7216, -0.7068, -1.0396, 0.2719],
[-0.425 , 0.567 , 0.2762, -1.0874],
[-0.6737, 0.1136, -1.4784, 0.525 ]])

Describe shows a quick statistic summary of your data

In [19]: df.describe()
Out[19]:
A B C D
count 6.000000 6.000000 6.000000 6.000000
mean 0.073711 -0.431125 -0.687758 -0.233103
std 0.843157 0.922818 0.779887 0.973118
min -0.861849 -2.104569 -1.509059 -1.135632
25% -0.611510 -0.600794 -1.368714 -1.076610
50% 0.022070 -0.228039 -0.767252 -0.386188
75% 0.658444 0.041933 -0.034326 0.461706
max 1.212112 0.567020 0.276232 1.071804

5.2. Viewing Data 425

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Transposing your data

In [20]: df.T
Out[20]:
2013-01-01 2013-01-02 2013-01-03 2013-01-04 2013-01-05 2013-01-06
A 0.469112 1.212112 -0.861849 0.721555 -0.424972 -0.673690
B -0.282863 -0.173215 -2.104569 -0.706771 0.567020 0.113648
C -1.509059 0.119209 -0.494929 -1.039575 0.276232 -1.478427
D -1.135632 -1.044236 1.071804 0.271860 -1.087401 0.524988

Sorting by an axis
In [21]: df.sort_index(axis=1, ascending=False)
Out[21]:
D C B A
2013-01-01 -1.135632 -1.509059 -0.282863 0.469112
2013-01-02 -1.044236 0.119209 -0.173215 1.212112
2013-01-03 1.071804 -0.494929 -2.104569 -0.861849
2013-01-04 0.271860 -1.039575 -0.706771 0.721555
2013-01-05 -1.087401 0.276232 0.567020 -0.424972
2013-01-06 0.524988 -1.478427 0.113648 -0.673690

Sorting by values
In [22]: df.sort_values(by='B')
Out[22]:
A B C D
2013-01-03 -0.861849 -2.104569 -0.494929 1.071804
2013-01-04 0.721555 -0.706771 -1.039575 0.271860
2013-01-01 0.469112 -0.282863 -1.509059 -1.135632
2013-01-02 1.212112 -0.173215 0.119209 -1.044236
2013-01-06 -0.673690 0.113648 -1.478427 0.524988
2013-01-05 -0.424972 0.567020 0.276232 -1.087401

5.3 Selection

Note: While standard Python / Numpy expressions for selecting and setting are intuitive and come in handy for
interactive work, for production code, we recommend the optimized pandas data access methods, .at, .iat, .loc,
.iloc and .ix.

See the indexing documentation Indexing and Selecting Data and MultiIndex / Advanced Indexing

5.3.1 Getting

Selecting a single column, which yields a Series, equivalent to df.A

In [23]: df['A']
Out[23]:
2013-01-01 0.469112
2013-01-02 1.212112
2013-01-03 -0.861849
2013-01-04 0.721555
2013-01-05 -0.424972

426 Chapter 5. 10 Minutes to pandas

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

2013-01-06 -0.673690
Freq: D, Name: A, dtype: float64

Selecting via [], which slices the rows.

In [24]: df[0:3]
Out[24]:
A B C D
2013-01-01 0.469112 -0.282863 -1.509059 -1.135632
2013-01-02 1.212112 -0.173215 0.119209 -1.044236
2013-01-03 -0.861849 -2.104569 -0.494929 1.071804

In [25]: df['20130102':'20130104']
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

A B C D
2013-01-02 1.212112 -0.173215 0.119209 -1.044236
2013-01-03 -0.861849 -2.104569 -0.494929 1.071804
2013-01-04 0.721555 -0.706771 -1.039575 0.271860

5.3.2 Selection by Label

See more in Selection by Label

For getting a cross section using a label

In [26]: df.loc[dates[0]]
Out[26]:
A 0.469112
B -0.282863
C -1.509059
D -1.135632
Name: 2013-01-01 00:00:00, dtype: float64

Selecting on a multi-axis by label

In [27]: df.loc[:,['A','B']]
Out[27]:
A B
2013-01-01 0.469112 -0.282863
2013-01-02 1.212112 -0.173215
2013-01-03 -0.861849 -2.104569
2013-01-04 0.721555 -0.706771
2013-01-05 -0.424972 0.567020
2013-01-06 -0.673690 0.113648

Showing label slicing, both endpoints are included

In [28]: df.loc['20130102':'20130104',['A','B']]
Out[28]:
A B
2013-01-02 1.212112 -0.173215
2013-01-03 -0.861849 -2.104569
2013-01-04 0.721555 -0.706771

Reduction in the dimensions of the returned object

5.3. Selection 427

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [29]: df.loc['20130102',['A','B']]
Out[29]:
A 1.212112
B -0.173215
Name: 2013-01-02 00:00:00, dtype: float64

For getting a scalar value

In [30]: df.loc[dates[0],'A']
Out[30]: 0.46911229990718628

For getting fast access to a scalar (equiv to the prior method)

In [31]: df.at[dates[0],'A']
Out[31]: 0.46911229990718628

5.3.3 Selection by Position

See more in Selection by Position

Select via the position of the passed integers

In [32]: df.iloc[3]
Out[32]:
A 0.721555
B -0.706771
C -1.039575
D 0.271860
Name: 2013-01-04 00:00:00, dtype: float64

By integer slices, acting similar to numpy/python

In [33]: df.iloc[3:5,0:2]
Out[33]:
A B
2013-01-04 0.721555 -0.706771
2013-01-05 -0.424972 0.567020

By lists of integer position locations, similar to the numpy/python style

In [34]: df.iloc[[1,2,4],[0,2]]
Out[34]:
A C
2013-01-02 1.212112 0.119209
2013-01-03 -0.861849 -0.494929
2013-01-05 -0.424972 0.276232

For slicing rows explicitly

In [35]: df.iloc[1:3,:]
Out[35]:
A B C D
2013-01-02 1.212112 -0.173215 0.119209 -1.044236
2013-01-03 -0.861849 -2.104569 -0.494929 1.071804

For slicing columns explicitly

428 Chapter 5. 10 Minutes to pandas

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [36]: df.iloc[:,1:3]
Out[36]:
B C
2013-01-01 -0.282863 -1.509059
2013-01-02 -0.173215 0.119209
2013-01-03 -2.104569 -0.494929
2013-01-04 -0.706771 -1.039575
2013-01-05 0.567020 0.276232
2013-01-06 0.113648 -1.478427

For getting a value explicitly

In [37]: df.iloc[1,1]
Out[37]: -0.17321464905330858

For getting fast access to a scalar (equiv to the prior method)

In [38]: df.iat[1,1]
Out[38]: -0.17321464905330858

5.3.4 Boolean Indexing

Using a single column’s values to select data.

In [39]: df[df.A > 0]

Out[39]:
A B C D
2013-01-01 0.469112 -0.282863 -1.509059 -1.135632
2013-01-02 1.212112 -0.173215 0.119209 -1.044236
2013-01-04 0.721555 -0.706771 -1.039575 0.271860

Selecting values from a DataFrame where a boolean condition is met.

In [40]: df[df > 0]

Out[40]:
A B C D
2013-01-01 0.469112 NaN NaN NaN
2013-01-02 1.212112 NaN 0.119209 NaN
2013-01-03 NaN NaN NaN 1.071804
2013-01-04 0.721555 NaN NaN 0.271860
2013-01-05 NaN 0.567020 0.276232 NaN
2013-01-06 NaN 0.113648 NaN 0.524988

Using the isin() method for filtering:

In [41]: df2 = df.copy()

In [42]: df2['E'] = ['one', 'one','two','three','four','three']

In [43]: df2
Out[43]:
A B C D E
2013-01-01 0.469112 -0.282863 -1.509059 -1.135632 one
2013-01-02 1.212112 -0.173215 0.119209 -1.044236 one
2013-01-03 -0.861849 -2.104569 -0.494929 1.071804 two
2013-01-04 0.721555 -0.706771 -1.039575 0.271860 three

5.3. Selection 429

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

2013-01-05 -0.424972 0.567020 0.276232 -1.087401 four

2013-01-06 -0.673690 0.113648 -1.478427 0.524988 three

In [44]: df2[df2['E'].isin(['two','four'])]
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

A B C D E
2013-01-03 -0.861849 -2.104569 -0.494929 1.071804 two
2013-01-05 -0.424972 0.567020 0.276232 -1.087401 four

5.3.5 Setting

Setting a new column automatically aligns the data by the indexes

In [45]: s1 = pd.Series([1,2,3,4,5,6], index=pd.date_range('20130102', periods=6))

In [46]: s1
Out[46]:
2013-01-02 1
2013-01-03 2
2013-01-04 3
2013-01-05 4
2013-01-06 5
2013-01-07 6
Freq: D, dtype: int64

In [47]: df['F'] = s1

Setting values by label

In [48]: df.at[dates[0],'A'] = 0

Setting values by position

In [49]: df.iat[0,1] = 0

Setting by assigning with a numpy array

In [50]: df.loc[:,'D'] = np.array([5] * len(df))

The result of the prior setting operations

In [51]: df
Out[51]:
A B C D F
2013-01-01 0.000000 0.000000 -1.509059 5 NaN
2013-01-02 1.212112 -0.173215 0.119209 5 1.0
2013-01-03 -0.861849 -2.104569 -0.494929 5 2.0
2013-01-04 0.721555 -0.706771 -1.039575 5 3.0
2013-01-05 -0.424972 0.567020 0.276232 5 4.0
2013-01-06 -0.673690 0.113648 -1.478427 5 5.0

A where operation with setting.

In [52]: df2 = df.copy()

430 Chapter 5. 10 Minutes to pandas

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [53]: df2[df2 > 0] = -df2

In [54]: df2
Out[54]:
A B C D F
2013-01-01 0.000000 0.000000 -1.509059 -5 NaN
2013-01-02 -1.212112 -0.173215 -0.119209 -5 -1.0
2013-01-03 -0.861849 -2.104569 -0.494929 -5 -2.0
2013-01-04 -0.721555 -0.706771 -1.039575 -5 -3.0
2013-01-05 -0.424972 -0.567020 -0.276232 -5 -4.0
2013-01-06 -0.673690 -0.113648 -1.478427 -5 -5.0

5.4 Missing Data

pandas primarily uses the value np.nan to represent missing data. It is by default not included in computations. See
the Missing Data section
Reindexing allows you to change/add/delete the index on a specified axis. This returns a copy of the data.

In [55]: df1 = df.reindex(index=dates[0:4], columns=list(df.columns) + ['E'])

In [56]: df1.loc[dates[0]:dates[1],'E'] = 1

In [57]: df1
Out[57]:
A B C D F E
2013-01-01 0.000000 0.000000 -1.509059 5 NaN 1.0
2013-01-02 1.212112 -0.173215 0.119209 5 1.0 1.0
2013-01-03 -0.861849 -2.104569 -0.494929 5 2.0 NaN
2013-01-04 0.721555 -0.706771 -1.039575 5 3.0 NaN

To drop any rows that have missing data.

In [58]: df1.dropna(how='any')
Out[58]:
A B C D F E
2013-01-02 1.212112 -0.173215 0.119209 5 1.0 1.0

Filling missing data

In [59]: df1.fillna(value=5)
Out[59]:
A B C D F E
2013-01-01 0.000000 0.000000 -1.509059 5 5.0 1.0
2013-01-02 1.212112 -0.173215 0.119209 5 1.0 1.0
2013-01-03 -0.861849 -2.104569 -0.494929 5 2.0 5.0
2013-01-04 0.721555 -0.706771 -1.039575 5 3.0 5.0

To get the boolean mask where values are nan

In [60]: pd.isna(df1)
Out[60]:
A B C D F E
2013-01-01 False False False False True False
2013-01-02 False False False False False False

5.4. Missing Data 431

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

2013-01-03 False False False False False True

2013-01-04 False False False False False True

5.5 Operations

See the Basic section on Binary Ops

5.5.1 Stats

Operations in general exclude missing data.

Performing a descriptive statistic

In [61]: df.mean()
Out[61]:
A -0.004474
B -0.383981
C -0.687758
D 5.000000
F 3.000000
dtype: float64

Same operation on the other axis

In [62]: df.mean(1)
Out[62]:
2013-01-01 0.872735
2013-01-02 1.431621
2013-01-03 0.707731
2013-01-04 1.395042
2013-01-05 1.883656
2013-01-06 1.592306
Freq: D, dtype: float64

Operating with objects that have different dimensionality and need alignment. In addition, pandas automatically
broadcasts along the specified dimension.

In [63]: s = pd.Series([1,3,5,np.nan,6,8], index=dates).shift(2)

In [64]: s
Out[64]:
2013-01-01 NaN
2013-01-02 NaN
2013-01-03 1.0
2013-01-04 3.0
2013-01-05 5.0
2013-01-06 NaN
Freq: D, dtype: float64

In [65]: df.sub(s, axis='index')

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

A B C D F
2013-01-01 NaN NaN NaN NaN NaN

432 Chapter 5. 10 Minutes to pandas

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

2013-01-02 NaN NaN NaN NaN NaN

2013-01-03 -1.861849 -3.104569 -1.494929 4.0 1.0
2013-01-04 -2.278445 -3.706771 -4.039575 2.0 0.0
2013-01-05 -5.424972 -4.432980 -4.723768 0.0 -1.0
2013-01-06 NaN NaN NaN NaN NaN

5.5.2 Apply

Applying functions to the data

In [66]: df.apply(np.cumsum)
Out[66]:
A B C D F
2013-01-01 0.000000 0.000000 -1.509059 5 NaN
2013-01-02 1.212112 -0.173215 -1.389850 10 1.0
2013-01-03 0.350263 -2.277784 -1.884779 15 3.0
2013-01-04 1.071818 -2.984555 -2.924354 20 6.0
2013-01-05 0.646846 -2.417535 -2.648122 25 10.0
2013-01-06 -0.026844 -2.303886 -4.126549 30 15.0

In [67]: df.apply(lambda x: x.max() - x.min())

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

A 2.073961
B 2.671590
C 1.785291
D 0.000000
F 4.000000
dtype: float64

5.5.3 Histogramming

See more at Histogramming and Discretization

In [68]: s = pd.Series(np.random.randint(0, 7, size=10))

In [69]: s
Out[69]:
0 4
1 2
2 1
3 2
4 6
5 4
6 4
7 6
8 4
9 4
dtype: int64

In [70]: s.value_counts()
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[70]:
˓→

4 5
6 2

5.5. Operations 433

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

2 2
1 1
dtype: int64

5.5.4 String Methods

Series is equipped with a set of string processing methods in the str attribute that make it easy to operate on each
element of the array, as in the code snippet below. Note that pattern-matching in str generally uses regular expressions
by default (and in some cases always uses them). See more at Vectorized String Methods.
In [71]: s = pd.Series(['A', 'B', 'C', 'Aaba', 'Baca', np.nan, 'CABA', 'dog', 'cat'])

In [72]: s.str.lower()
Out[72]:
0 a
1 b
2 c
3 aaba
4 baca
5 NaN
6 caba
7 dog
8 cat
dtype: object

5.6 Merge

5.6.1 Concat

pandas provides various facilities for easily combining together Series, DataFrame, and Panel objects with various
kinds of set logic for the indexes and relational algebra functionality in the case of join / merge-type operations.
See the Merging section
Concatenating pandas objects together with concat():
In [73]: df = pd.DataFrame(np.random.randn(10, 4))

In [74]: df
Out[74]:
0 1 2 3
0 -0.548702 1.467327 -1.015962 -0.483075
1 1.637550 -1.217659 -0.291519 -1.745505
2 -0.263952 0.991460 -0.919069 0.266046
3 -0.709661 1.669052 1.037882 -1.705775
4 -0.919854 -0.042379 1.247642 -0.009920
5 0.290213 0.495767 0.362949 1.548106
6 -1.131345 -0.089329 0.337863 -0.945867
7 -0.932132 1.956030 0.017587 -0.016692
8 -0.575247 0.254161 -1.143704 0.215897
9 1.193555 -0.077118 -0.408530 -0.862495

# break it into pieces

In [75]: pieces = [df[:3], df[3:7], df[7:]]

434 Chapter 5. 10 Minutes to pandas

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [76]: pd.concat(pieces)
Out[76]:
0 1 2 3
0 -0.548702 1.467327 -1.015962 -0.483075
1 1.637550 -1.217659 -0.291519 -1.745505
2 -0.263952 0.991460 -0.919069 0.266046
3 -0.709661 1.669052 1.037882 -1.705775
4 -0.919854 -0.042379 1.247642 -0.009920
5 0.290213 0.495767 0.362949 1.548106
6 -1.131345 -0.089329 0.337863 -0.945867
7 -0.932132 1.956030 0.017587 -0.016692
8 -0.575247 0.254161 -1.143704 0.215897
9 1.193555 -0.077118 -0.408530 -0.862495

5.6.2 Join

SQL style merges. See the Database style joining

In [77]: left = pd.DataFrame({'key': ['foo', 'foo'], 'lval': [1, 2]})

In [78]: right = pd.DataFrame({'key': ['foo', 'foo'], 'rval': [4, 5]})

In [79]: left
Out[79]:
key lval
0 foo 1
1 foo 2

In [80]: right
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[80]:
key rval
0 foo 4
1 foo 5

In [81]: pd.merge(left, right, on='key')

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out
˓→

key lval rval

0 foo 1 4
1 foo 1 5
2 foo 2 4
3 foo 2 5

Another example that can be given is:

In [82]: left = pd.DataFrame({'key': ['foo', 'bar'], 'lval': [1, 2]})

In [83]: right = pd.DataFrame({'key': ['foo', 'bar'], 'rval': [4, 5]})

In [84]: left
Out[84]:
key lval
0 foo 1
1 bar 2

5.6. Merge 435

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [85]: right
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[85]:
key rval
0 foo 4
1 bar 5

In [86]: pd.merge(left, right, on='key')

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out
˓→

key lval rval

0 foo 1 4
1 bar 2 5

5.6.3 Append

Append rows to a dataframe. See the Appending

In [87]: df = pd.DataFrame(np.random.randn(8, 4), columns=['A','B','C','D'])

In [88]: df
Out[88]:
A B C D
0 1.346061 1.511763 1.627081 -0.990582
1 -0.441652 1.211526 0.268520 0.024580
2 -1.577585 0.396823 -0.105381 -0.532532
3 1.453749 1.208843 -0.080952 -0.264610
4 -0.727965 -0.589346 0.339969 -0.693205
5 -0.339355 0.593616 0.884345 1.591431
6 0.141809 0.220390 0.435589 0.192451
7 -0.096701 0.803351 1.715071 -0.708758

In [89]: s = df.iloc[3]

In [90]: df.append(s, ignore_index=True)

Out[90]:
A B C D
0 1.346061 1.511763 1.627081 -0.990582
1 -0.441652 1.211526 0.268520 0.024580
2 -1.577585 0.396823 -0.105381 -0.532532
3 1.453749 1.208843 -0.080952 -0.264610
4 -0.727965 -0.589346 0.339969 -0.693205
5 -0.339355 0.593616 0.884345 1.591431
6 0.141809 0.220390 0.435589 0.192451
7 -0.096701 0.803351 1.715071 -0.708758
8 1.453749 1.208843 -0.080952 -0.264610

5.7 Grouping

By “group by” we are referring to a process involving one or more of the following steps
• Splitting the data into groups based on some criteria
• Applying a function to each group independently
• Combining the results into a data structure

436 Chapter 5. 10 Minutes to pandas

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

See the Grouping section

In [91]: df = pd.DataFrame({'A' : ['foo', 'bar', 'foo', 'bar',

....: 'foo', 'bar', 'foo', 'foo'],
....: 'B' : ['one', 'one', 'two', 'three',
....: 'two', 'two', 'one', 'three'],
....: 'C' : np.random.randn(8),
....: 'D' : np.random.randn(8)})
....:

In [92]: df
Out[92]:
A B C D
0 foo one -1.202872 -0.055224
1 bar one -1.814470 2.395985
2 foo two 1.018601 1.552825
3 bar three -0.595447 0.166599
4 foo two 1.395433 0.047609
5 bar two -0.392670 -0.136473
6 foo one 0.007207 -0.561757
7 foo three 1.928123 -1.623033

Grouping and then applying a function sum to the resulting groups.

In [93]: df.groupby('A').sum()
Out[93]:
C D
A
bar -2.802588 2.42611
foo 3.146492 -0.63958

Grouping by multiple columns forms a hierarchical index, which we then apply the function.

In [94]: df.groupby(['A','B']).sum()
Out[94]:
C D
A B
bar one -1.814470 2.395985
three -0.595447 0.166599
two -0.392670 -0.136473
foo one -1.195665 -0.616981
three 1.928123 -1.623033
two 2.414034 1.600434

5.8 Reshaping

See the sections on Hierarchical Indexing and Reshaping.

5.8.1 Stack

In [95]: tuples = list(zip(*[['bar', 'bar', 'baz', 'baz',

....: 'foo', 'foo', 'qux', 'qux'],
....: ['one', 'two', 'one', 'two',
....: 'one', 'two', 'one', 'two']]))

5.8. Reshaping 437

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

....:

In [96]: index = pd.MultiIndex.from_tuples(tuples, names=['first', 'second'])

In [97]: df = pd.DataFrame(np.random.randn(8, 2), index=index, columns=['A', 'B'])

In [98]: df2 = df[:4]

In [99]: df2
Out[99]:
A B
first second
bar one 0.029399 -0.542108
two 0.282696 -0.087302
baz one -1.575170 1.771208
two 0.816482 1.100230

The stack() method “compresses” a level in the DataFrame’s columns.

In [100]: stacked = df2.stack()

In [101]: stacked
Out[101]:
first second
bar one A 0.029399
B -0.542108
two A 0.282696
B -0.087302
baz one A -1.575170
B 1.771208
two A 0.816482
B 1.100230
dtype: float64

With a “stacked” DataFrame or Series (having a MultiIndex as the index), the inverse operation of stack() is
unstack(), which by default unstacks the last level:
In [102]: stacked.unstack()
Out[102]:
A B
first second
bar one 0.029399 -0.542108
two 0.282696 -0.087302
baz one -1.575170 1.771208
two 0.816482 1.100230

In [103]: stacked.unstack(1)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

second one two

first
bar A 0.029399 0.282696
B -0.542108 -0.087302
baz A -1.575170 0.816482
B 1.771208 1.100230

In [104]: stacked.unstack(0)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

438 Chapter 5. 10 Minutes to pandas

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

first bar baz

second
one A 0.029399 -1.575170
B -0.542108 1.771208
two A 0.282696 0.816482
B -0.087302 1.100230

5.8.2 Pivot Tables

See the section on Pivot Tables.

In [105]: df = pd.DataFrame({'A' : ['one', 'one', 'two', 'three'] * 3,

.....: 'B' : ['A', 'B', 'C'] * 4,
.....: 'C' : ['foo', 'foo', 'foo', 'bar', 'bar', 'bar'] * 2,
.....: 'D' : np.random.randn(12),
.....: 'E' : np.random.randn(12)})
.....:

In [106]: df
Out[106]:
A B C D E
0 one A foo 1.418757 -0.179666
1 one B foo -1.879024 1.291836
2 two C foo 0.536826 -0.009614
3 three A bar 1.006160 0.392149
4 one B bar -0.029716 0.264599
5 one C bar -1.146178 -0.057409
6 two A foo 0.100900 -1.425638
7 three B foo -1.035018 1.024098
8 one C foo 0.314665 -0.106062
9 one A bar -0.773723 1.824375
10 two B bar -1.170653 0.595974
11 three C bar 0.648740 1.167115

We can produce pivot tables from this data very easily:

In [107]: pd.pivot_table(df, values='D', index=['A', 'B'], columns=['C'])

Out[107]:
C bar foo
A B
one A -0.773723 1.418757
B -0.029716 -1.879024
C -1.146178 0.314665
three A 1.006160 NaN
B NaN -1.035018
C 0.648740 NaN
two A NaN 0.100900
B -1.170653 NaN
C NaN 0.536826

5.9 Time Series

pandas has simple, powerful, and efficient functionality for performing resampling operations during frequency con-
version (e.g., converting secondly data into 5-minutely data). This is extremely common in, but not limited to, financial

5.9. Time Series 439

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

applications. See the Time Series section

In [108]: rng = pd.date_range('1/1/2012', periods=100, freq='S')

In [109]: ts = pd.Series(np.random.randint(0, 500, len(rng)), index=rng)

In [110]: ts.resample('5Min').sum()
Out[110]:
2012-01-01 25083
Freq: 5T, dtype: int64

Time zone representation

In [111]: rng = pd.date_range('3/6/2012 00:00', periods=5, freq='D')

In [112]: ts = pd.Series(np.random.randn(len(rng)), rng)

In [113]: ts
Out[113]:
2012-03-06 0.464000
2012-03-07 0.227371
2012-03-08 -0.496922
2012-03-09 0.306389
2012-03-10 -2.290613
Freq: D, dtype: float64

In [114]: ts_utc = ts.tz_localize('UTC')

In [115]: ts_utc
Out[115]:
2012-03-06 00:00:00+00:00 0.464000
2012-03-07 00:00:00+00:00 0.227371
2012-03-08 00:00:00+00:00 -0.496922
2012-03-09 00:00:00+00:00 0.306389
2012-03-10 00:00:00+00:00 -2.290613
Freq: D, dtype: float64

Convert to another time zone

In [116]: ts_utc.tz_convert('US/Eastern')
Out[116]:
2012-03-05 19:00:00-05:00 0.464000
2012-03-06 19:00:00-05:00 0.227371
2012-03-07 19:00:00-05:00 -0.496922
2012-03-08 19:00:00-05:00 0.306389
2012-03-09 19:00:00-05:00 -2.290613
Freq: D, dtype: float64

Converting between time span representations

In [117]: rng = pd.date_range('1/1/2012', periods=5, freq='M')

In [118]: ts = pd.Series(np.random.randn(len(rng)), index=rng)

In [119]: ts
Out[119]:
2012-01-31 -1.134623
2012-02-29 -1.561819
2012-03-31 -0.260838

440 Chapter 5. 10 Minutes to pandas

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

2012-04-30 0.281957
2012-05-31 1.523962
Freq: M, dtype: float64

In [120]: ps = ts.to_period()

In [121]: ps
Out[121]:
2012-01 -1.134623
2012-02 -1.561819
2012-03 -0.260838
2012-04 0.281957
2012-05 1.523962
Freq: M, dtype: float64

In [122]: ps.to_timestamp()
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

2012-01-01 -1.134623
2012-02-01 -1.561819
2012-03-01 -0.260838
2012-04-01 0.281957
2012-05-01 1.523962
Freq: MS, dtype: float64

Converting between period and timestamp enables some convenient arithmetic functions to be used. In the following
example, we convert a quarterly frequency with year ending in November to 9am of the end of the month following
the quarter end:

In [123]: prng = pd.period_range('1990Q1', '2000Q4', freq='Q-NOV')

In [124]: ts = pd.Series(np.random.randn(len(prng)), prng)

In [125]: ts.index = (prng.asfreq('M', 'e') + 1).asfreq('H', 's') + 9

In [126]: ts.head()
Out[126]:
1990-03-01 09:00 -0.902937
1990-06-01 09:00 0.068159
1990-09-01 09:00 -0.057873
1990-12-01 09:00 -0.368204
1991-03-01 09:00 -1.144073
Freq: H, dtype: float64

5.10 Categoricals

pandas can include categorical data in a DataFrame. For full docs, see the categorical introduction and the API
documentation.

In [127]: df = pd.DataFrame({"id":[1,2,3,4,5,6], "raw_grade":['a', 'b', 'b', 'a', 'a',

˓→ 'e']})

Convert the raw grades to a categorical data type.

5.10. Categoricals 441

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [128]: df["grade"] = df["raw_grade"].astype("category")

In [129]: df["grade"]
Out[129]:
0 a
1 b
2 b
3 a
4 a
5 e
Name: grade, dtype: category
Categories (3, object): [a, b, e]

Rename the categories to more meaningful names (assigning to Series.cat.categories is inplace!)

In [130]: df["grade"].cat.categories = ["very good", "good", "very bad"]

Reorder the categories and simultaneously add the missing categories (methods under Series .cat return a new
Series per default).

In [131]: df["grade"] = df["grade"].cat.set_categories(["very bad", "bad", "medium",

˓→"good", "very good"])

In [132]: df["grade"]
Out[132]:
0 very good
1 good
2 good
3 very good
4 very good
5 very bad
Name: grade, dtype: category
Categories (5, object): [very bad, bad, medium, good, very good]

Sorting is per order in the categories, not lexical order.

In [133]: df.sort_values(by="grade")
Out[133]:
id raw_grade grade
5 6 e very bad
1 2 b good
2 3 b good
0 1 a very good
3 4 a very good
4 5 a very good

Grouping by a categorical column shows also empty categories.

In [134]: df.groupby("grade").size()
Out[134]:
grade
very bad 1
bad 0
medium 0
good 2
very good 3
dtype: int64

442 Chapter 5. 10 Minutes to pandas

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

5.11 Plotting

Plotting docs.

In [135]: ts = pd.Series(np.random.randn(1000), index=pd.date_range('1/1/2000',

˓→periods=1000))

In [136]: ts = ts.cumsum()

In [137]: ts.plot()
Out[137]: <matplotlib.axes._subplots.AxesSubplot at 0x1108045c0>

On DataFrame, plot() is a convenience to plot all of the columns with labels:

In [138]: df = pd.DataFrame(np.random.randn(1000, 4), index=ts.index,

.....: columns=['A', 'B', 'C', 'D'])
.....:

In [139]: df = df.cumsum()

In [140]: plt.figure(); df.plot(); plt.legend(loc='best')

Out[140]: <matplotlib.legend.Legend at 0x115427080>

5.11. Plotting 443

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

5.12 Getting Data In/Out

5.12.1 CSV

Writing to a csv file

In [141]: df.to_csv('foo.csv')

Reading from a csv file

In [142]: pd.read_csv('foo.csv')
Out[142]:
Unnamed: 0 A B C D
0 2000-01-01 0.266457 -0.399641 -0.219582 1.186860
1 2000-01-02 -1.170732 -0.345873 1.653061 -0.282953
2 2000-01-03 -1.734933 0.530468 2.060811 -0.515536
3 2000-01-04 -1.555121 1.452620 0.239859 -1.156896
4 2000-01-05 0.578117 0.511371 0.103552 -2.428202
5 2000-01-06 0.478344 0.449933 -0.741620 -1.962409
6 2000-01-07 1.235339 -0.091757 -1.543861 -1.084753
.. ... ... ... ... ...
993 2002-09-20 -10.628548 -9.153563 -7.883146 28.313940
994 2002-09-21 -10.390377 -8.727491 -6.399645 30.914107
995 2002-09-22 -8.985362 -8.485624 -4.669462 31.367740
996 2002-09-23 -9.558560 -8.781216 -4.499815 30.518439
997 2002-09-24 -9.902058 -9.340490 -4.386639 30.105593

444 Chapter 5. 10 Minutes to pandas

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

998 2002-09-25 -10.216020 -9.480682 -3.933802 29.758560

999 2002-09-26 -11.856774 -10.671012 -3.216025 29.369368

[1000 rows x 5 columns]

5.12.2 HDF5

Reading and writing to HDFStores

Writing to a HDF5 Store

In [143]: df.to_hdf('foo.h5','df')

Reading from a HDF5 Store

In [144]: pd.read_hdf('foo.h5','df')
Out[144]:
A B C D
2000-01-01 0.266457 -0.399641 -0.219582 1.186860
2000-01-02 -1.170732 -0.345873 1.653061 -0.282953
2000-01-03 -1.734933 0.530468 2.060811 -0.515536
2000-01-04 -1.555121 1.452620 0.239859 -1.156896
2000-01-05 0.578117 0.511371 0.103552 -2.428202
2000-01-06 0.478344 0.449933 -0.741620 -1.962409
2000-01-07 1.235339 -0.091757 -1.543861 -1.084753
... ... ... ... ...
2002-09-20 -10.628548 -9.153563 -7.883146 28.313940
2002-09-21 -10.390377 -8.727491 -6.399645 30.914107
2002-09-22 -8.985362 -8.485624 -4.669462 31.367740
2002-09-23 -9.558560 -8.781216 -4.499815 30.518439
2002-09-24 -9.902058 -9.340490 -4.386639 30.105593
2002-09-25 -10.216020 -9.480682 -3.933802 29.758560
2002-09-26 -11.856774 -10.671012 -3.216025 29.369368

[1000 rows x 4 columns]

5.12.3 Excel

Reading and writing to MS Excel

Writing to an excel file

In [145]: df.to_excel('foo.xlsx', sheet_name='Sheet1')

Reading from an excel file

In [146]: pd.read_excel('foo.xlsx', 'Sheet1', index_col=None, na_values=['NA'])

Out[146]:
A B C D
2000-01-01 0.266457 -0.399641 -0.219582 1.186860
2000-01-02 -1.170732 -0.345873 1.653061 -0.282953
2000-01-03 -1.734933 0.530468 2.060811 -0.515536
2000-01-04 -1.555121 1.452620 0.239859 -1.156896
2000-01-05 0.578117 0.511371 0.103552 -2.428202
2000-01-06 0.478344 0.449933 -0.741620 -1.962409

5.12. Getting Data In/Out 445

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

2000-01-07 1.235339 -0.091757 -1.543861 -1.084753

... ... ... ... ...
2002-09-20 -10.628548 -9.153563 -7.883146 28.313940
2002-09-21 -10.390377 -8.727491 -6.399645 30.914107
2002-09-22 -8.985362 -8.485624 -4.669462 31.367740
2002-09-23 -9.558560 -8.781216 -4.499815 30.518439
2002-09-24 -9.902058 -9.340490 -4.386639 30.105593
2002-09-25 -10.216020 -9.480682 -3.933802 29.758560
2002-09-26 -11.856774 -10.671012 -3.216025 29.369368

[1000 rows x 4 columns]

5.13 Gotchas

If you are trying an operation and you see an exception like:

>>> if pd.Series([False, True, False]):

print("I was true")
Traceback
...
ValueError: The truth value of an array is ambiguous. Use a.empty, a.any() or a.all().

See Comparisons for an explanation and what to do.

See Gotchas as well.

446 Chapter 5. 10 Minutes to pandas

 CHAPTER

SIX

TUTORIALS

This is a guide to many pandas tutorials, geared mainly for new users.

6.1 Internal Guides

pandas own 10 Minutes to pandas

More complex recipes are in the Cookbook

6.2 pandas Cookbook

The goal of this cookbook (by Julia Evans) is to give you some concrete examples for getting started with pandas.
These are examples with real-world data, and all the bugs and weirdness that that entails.
Here are links to the v0.1 release. For an up-to-date table of contents, see the pandas-cookbook GitHub repository. To
run the examples in this tutorial, you’ll need to clone the GitHub repository and get IPython Notebook running. See
How to use this cookbook.
• A quick tour of the IPython Notebook: Shows off IPython’s awesome tab completion and magic functions.
• Chapter 1: Reading your data into pandas is pretty much the easiest thing. Even when the encoding is wrong!
• Chapter 2: It’s not totally obvious how to select data from a pandas dataframe. Here we explain the basics (how
to take slices and get columns)
• Chapter 3: Here we get into serious slicing and dicing and learn how to filter dataframes in complicated ways,
really fast.
• Chapter 4: Groupby/aggregate is seriously my favorite thing about pandas and I use it all the time. You should
probably read this.
• Chapter 5: Here you get to find out if it’s cold in Montreal in the winter (spoiler: yes). Web scraping with pandas
is fun! Here we combine dataframes.
• Chapter 6: Strings with pandas are great. It has all these vectorized string operations and they’re the best. We
will turn a bunch of strings containing “Snow” into vectors of numbers in a trice.
• Chapter 7: Cleaning up messy data is never a joy, but with pandas it’s easier.
• Chapter 8: Parsing Unix timestamps is confusing at first but it turns out to be really easy.

447
pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

6.3 Lessons for New pandas Users

For more resources, please visit the main repository.

• 01 - Lesson: - Importing libraries - Creating data sets - Creating data frames - Reading from CSV - Exporting
to CSV - Finding maximums - Plotting data
• 02 - Lesson: - Reading from TXT - Exporting to TXT - Selecting top/bottom records - Descriptive statistics -
Grouping/sorting data
• 03 - Lesson: - Creating functions - Reading from EXCEL - Exporting to EXCEL - Outliers - Lambda functions
- Slice and dice data
• 04 - Lesson: - Adding/deleting columns - Index operations
• 05 - Lesson: - Stack/Unstack/Transpose functions
• 06 - Lesson: - GroupBy function
• 07 - Lesson: - Ways to calculate outliers
• 08 - Lesson: - Read from Microsoft SQL databases
• 09 - Lesson: - Export to CSV/EXCEL/TXT
• 10 - Lesson: - Converting between different kinds of formats
• 11 - Lesson: - Combining data from various sources

6.4 Practical data analysis with Python

This guide is a comprehensive introduction to the data analysis process using the Python data ecosystem and an
interesting open dataset. There are four sections covering selected topics as follows:
• Munging Data
• Aggregating Data
• Visualizing Data
• Time Series

6.5 Exercises for New Users

Practice your skills with real data sets and exercises. For more resources, please visit the main repository.
• 01 - Getting & Knowing Your Data
• 02 - Filtering & Sorting
• 03 - Grouping
• 04 - Apply
• 05 - Merge
• 06 - Stats
• 07 - Visualization
• 08 - Creating Series and DataFrames

448 Chapter 6. Tutorials

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• 09 - Time Series
• 10 - Deleting

6.6 Modern Pandas

• Modern Pandas
• Method Chaining
• Indexes
• Performance
• Tidy Data
• Visualization

6.7 Excel charts with pandas, vincent and xlsxwriter

• Using Pandas and XlsxWriter to create Excel charts

6.8 Various Tutorials

• Wes McKinney’s (pandas BDFL) blog

• Statistical analysis made easy in Python with SciPy and pandas DataFrames, by Randal Olson
• Statistical Data Analysis in Python, tutorial videos, by Christopher Fonnesbeck from SciPy 2013
• Financial analysis in python, by Thomas Wiecki
• Intro to pandas data structures, by Greg Reda
• Pandas and Python: Top 10, by Manish Amde
• Pandas Tutorial, by Mikhail Semeniuk
• Pandas DataFrames Tutorial, by Karlijn Willems
• A concise tutorial with real life examples

6.6. Modern Pandas 449

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

450 Chapter 6. Tutorials

 CHAPTER

SEVEN

COOKBOOK

This is a repository for short and sweet examples and links for useful pandas recipes. We encourage users to add to
this documentation.
Adding interesting links and/or inline examples to this section is a great First Pull Request.
Simplified, condensed, new-user friendly, in-line examples have been inserted where possible to augment the Stack-
Overflow and GitHub links. Many of the links contain expanded information, above what the in-line examples offer.
Pandas (pd) and Numpy (np) are the only two abbreviated imported modules. The rest are kept explicitly imported for
newer users.
These examples are written for python 3.4. Minor tweaks might be necessary for earlier python versions.

7.1 Idioms

These are some neat pandas idioms

if-then/if-then-else on one column, and assignment to another one or more columns:

In [1]: df = pd.DataFrame(
...: {'AAA' : [4,5,6,7], 'BBB' : [10,20,30,40],'CCC' : [100,50,-30,-50]}); df
...:
Out[1]:
AAA BBB CCC
0 4 10 100
1 5 20 50
2 6 30 -30
3 7 40 -50

7.1.1 if-then...

An if-then on one column

In [2]: df.loc[df.AAA >= 5,'BBB'] = -1; df

Out[2]:
AAA BBB CCC
0 4 10 100
1 5 -1 50
2 6 -1 -30
3 7 -1 -50

An if-then with assignment to 2 columns:

451
pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [3]: df.loc[df.AAA >= 5,['BBB','CCC']] = 555; df

Out[3]:
AAA BBB CCC
0 4 10 100
1 5 555 555
2 6 555 555
3 7 555 555

Add another line with different logic, to do the -else

In [4]: df.loc[df.AAA < 5,['BBB','CCC']] = 2000; df

Out[4]:
AAA BBB CCC
0 4 2000 2000
1 5 555 555
2 6 555 555
3 7 555 555

Or use pandas where after you’ve set up a mask

In [5]: df_mask = pd.DataFrame({'AAA' : [True] * 4, 'BBB' : [False] * 4,'CCC' : [True,

˓→False] * 2})

In [6]: df.where(df_mask,-1000)
Out[6]:
AAA BBB CCC
0 4 -1000 2000
1 5 -1000 -1000
2 6 -1000 555
3 7 -1000 -1000

if-then-else using numpy’s where()

In [7]: df = pd.DataFrame(
...: {'AAA' : [4,5,6,7], 'BBB' : [10,20,30,40],'CCC' : [100,50,-30,-50]}); df
...:
Out[7]:
AAA BBB CCC
0 4 10 100
1 5 20 50
2 6 30 -30
3 7 40 -50

In [8]: df['logic'] = np.where(df['AAA'] > 5,'high','low'); df

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[8]:
˓→

AAA BBB CCC logic

0 4 10 100 low
1 5 20 50 low
2 6 30 -30 high
3 7 40 -50 high

7.1.2 Splitting

Split a frame with a boolean criterion

452 Chapter 7. Cookbook

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [9]: df = pd.DataFrame(
...: {'AAA' : [4,5,6,7], 'BBB' : [10,20,30,40],'CCC' : [100,50,-30,-50]}); df
...:
Out[9]:
AAA BBB CCC
0 4 10 100
1 5 20 50
2 6 30 -30
3 7 40 -50

In [10]: dflow = df[df.AAA <= 5]; dflow

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[10]
˓→

AAA BBB CCC

0 4 10 100
1 5 20 50

In [11]: dfhigh = df[df.AAA > 5]; dfhigh

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

AAA BBB CCC

2 6 30 -30
3 7 40 -50

7.1.3 Building Criteria

Select with multi-column criteria

In [12]: df = pd.DataFrame(
....: {'AAA' : [4,5,6,7], 'BBB' : [10,20,30,40],'CCC' : [100,50,-30,-50]}); df
....:
Out[12]:
AAA BBB CCC
0 4 10 100
1 5 20 50
2 6 30 -30
3 7 40 -50

...and (without assignment returns a Series)

In [13]: newseries = df.loc[(df['BBB'] < 25) & (df['CCC'] >= -40), 'AAA']; newseries
Out[13]:
0 4
1 5
Name: AAA, dtype: int64

...or (without assignment returns a Series)

In [14]: newseries = df.loc[(df['BBB'] > 25) | (df['CCC'] >= -40), 'AAA']; newseries;

...or (with assignment modifies the DataFrame.)

In [15]: df.loc[(df['BBB'] > 25) | (df['CCC'] >= 75), 'AAA'] = 0.1; df

Out[15]:
AAA BBB CCC
0 0.1 10 100

7.1. Idioms 453

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

1 5.0 20 50
2 0.1 30 -30
3 0.1 40 -50

Select rows with data closest to certain value using argsort

In [16]: df = pd.DataFrame(
....: {'AAA' : [4,5,6,7], 'BBB' : [10,20,30,40],'CCC' : [100,50,-30,-50]}); df
....:
Out[16]:
AAA BBB CCC
0 4 10 100
1 5 20 50
2 6 30 -30
3 7 40 -50

In [17]: aValue = 43.0

In [18]: df.loc[(df.CCC-aValue).abs().argsort()]
Out[18]:
AAA BBB CCC
1 5 20 50
0 4 10 100
2 6 30 -30
3 7 40 -50

Dynamically reduce a list of criteria using a binary operators

In [19]: df = pd.DataFrame(
....: {'AAA' : [4,5,6,7], 'BBB' : [10,20,30,40],'CCC' : [100,50,-30,-50]}); df
....:
Out[19]:
AAA BBB CCC
0 4 10 100
1 5 20 50
2 6 30 -30
3 7 40 -50

In [20]: Crit1 = df.AAA <= 5.5

In [21]: Crit2 = df.BBB == 10.0

In [22]: Crit3 = df.CCC > -40.0

One could hard code:

In [23]: AllCrit = Crit1 & Crit2 & Crit3

...Or it can be done with a list of dynamically built criteria

In [24]: CritList = [Crit1,Crit2,Crit3]

In [25]: AllCrit = functools.reduce(lambda x,y: x & y, CritList)

In [26]: df[AllCrit]
Out[26]:
AAA BBB CCC
0 4 10 100

454 Chapter 7. Cookbook

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

7.2 Selection

7.2.1 DataFrames

The indexing docs.

Using both row labels and value conditionals
In [27]: df = pd.DataFrame(
....: {'AAA' : [4,5,6,7], 'BBB' : [10,20,30,40],'CCC' : [100,50,-30,-50]}); df
....:
Out[27]:
AAA BBB CCC
0 4 10 100
1 5 20 50
2 6 30 -30
3 7 40 -50

In [28]: df[(df.AAA <= 6) & (df.index.isin([0,2,4]))]

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[28
˓→

AAA BBB CCC

0 4 10 100
2 6 30 -30

Use loc for label-oriented slicing and iloc positional slicing

In [29]: data = {'AAA' : [4,5,6,7], 'BBB' : [10,20,30,40],'CCC' : [100,50,-30,-50]}

In [30]: df = pd.DataFrame(data=data,index=['foo','bar','boo','kar']); df
Out[30]:
AAA BBB CCC
foo 4 10 100
bar 5 20 50
boo 6 30 -30
kar 7 40 -50

There are 2 explicit slicing methods, with a third general case

1. Positional-oriented (Python slicing style : exclusive of end)
2. Label-oriented (Non-Python slicing style : inclusive of end)
3. General (Either slicing style : depends on if the slice contains labels or positions)
In [31]: df.loc['bar':'kar'] #Label
Out[31]:
AAA BBB CCC
bar 5 20 50
boo 6 30 -30
kar 7 40 -50

# Generic
In [32]: df.iloc[0:3]
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[32]:
˓→

AAA BBB CCC

foo 4 10 100
bar 5 20 50

7.2. Selection 455

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

boo 6 30 -30

In [33]: df.loc['bar':'kar']
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

AAA BBB CCC

bar 5 20 50
boo 6 30 -30
kar 7 40 -50

Ambiguity arises when an index consists of integers with a non-zero start or non-unit increment.

In [34]: df2 = pd.DataFrame(data=data,index=[1,2,3,4]); #Note index starts at 1.

In [35]: df2.iloc[1:3] #Position-oriented

Out[35]:
AAA BBB CCC
2 5 20 50
3 6 30 -30

In [36]: df2.loc[1:3] #Label-oriented

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[36]:
AAA BBB CCC
1 4 10 100
2 5 20 50
3 6 30 -30

Using inverse operator (~) to take the complement of a mask

In [37]: df = pd.DataFrame(
....: {'AAA' : [4,5,6,7], 'BBB' : [10,20,30,40], 'CCC' : [100,50,-30,-50]});
˓→df

....:
Out[37]:
AAA BBB CCC
0 4 10 100
1 5 20 50
2 6 30 -30
3 7 40 -50

In [38]: df[~((df.AAA <= 6) & (df.index.isin([0,2,4])))]

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[38
˓→

AAA BBB CCC

1 5 20 50
3 7 40 -50

7.2.2 Panels

Extend a panel frame by transposing, adding a new dimension, and transposing back to the original dimensions

In [39]: rng = pd.date_range('1/1/2013',periods=100,freq='D')

In [40]: data = np.random.randn(100, 4)

In [41]: cols = ['A','B','C','D']

456 Chapter 7. Cookbook

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [42]: df1, df2, df3 = pd.DataFrame(data, rng, cols), pd.DataFrame(data, rng, cols),
˓→ pd.DataFrame(data, rng, cols)

In [43]: pf = pd.Panel({'df1':df1,'df2':df2,'df3':df3});pf
Out[43]:
<class 'pandas.core.panel.Panel'>
Dimensions: 3 (items) x 100 (major_axis) x 4 (minor_axis)
Items axis: df1 to df3
Major_axis axis: 2013-01-01 00:00:00 to 2013-04-10 00:00:00
Minor_axis axis: A to D

In [44]: pf.loc[:,:,'F'] = pd.DataFrame(data, rng, cols);pf

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

<class 'pandas.core.panel.Panel'>
Dimensions: 3 (items) x 100 (major_axis) x 5 (minor_axis)
Items axis: df1 to df3
Major_axis axis: 2013-01-01 00:00:00 to 2013-04-10 00:00:00
Minor_axis axis: A to F

Mask a panel by using np.where and then reconstructing the panel with the new masked values

7.2.3 New Columns

Efficiently and dynamically creating new columns using applymap

In [45]: df = pd.DataFrame(
....: {'AAA' : [1,2,1,3], 'BBB' : [1,1,2,2], 'CCC' : [2,1,3,1]}); df
....:
Out[45]:
AAA BBB CCC
0 1 1 2
1 2 1 1
2 1 2 3
3 3 2 1

In [46]: source_cols = df.columns # or some subset would work too.

In [47]: new_cols = [str(x) + "_cat" for x in source_cols]

In [48]: categories = {1 : 'Alpha', 2 : 'Beta', 3 : 'Charlie' }

In [49]: df[new_cols] = df[source_cols].applymap(categories.get);df

Out[49]:
AAA BBB CCC AAA_cat BBB_cat CCC_cat
0 1 1 2 Alpha Alpha Beta
1 2 1 1 Beta Alpha Alpha
2 1 2 3 Alpha Beta Charlie
3 3 2 1 Charlie Beta Alpha

Keep other columns when using min() with groupby

In [50]: df = pd.DataFrame(
....: {'AAA' : [1,1,1,2,2,2,3,3], 'BBB' : [2,1,3,4,5,1,2,3]}); df
....:
Out[50]:

7.2. Selection 457

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

AAA BBB
0 1 2
1 1 1
2 1 3
3 2 4
4 2 5
5 2 1
6 3 2
7 3 3

Method 1 : idxmin() to get the index of the mins

In [51]: df.loc[df.groupby("AAA")["BBB"].idxmin()]
Out[51]:
AAA BBB
1 1 1
5 2 1
6 3 2

Method 2 : sort then take first of each

In [52]: df.sort_values(by="BBB").groupby("AAA", as_index=False).first()

Out[52]:
AAA BBB
0 1 1
1 2 1
2 3 2

Notice the same results, with the exception of the index.

7.3 MultiIndexing

The multindexing docs.

Creating a multi-index from a labeled frame

In [53]: df = pd.DataFrame({'row' : [0,1,2],

....: 'One_X' : [1.1,1.1,1.1],
....: 'One_Y' : [1.2,1.2,1.2],
....: 'Two_X' : [1.11,1.11,1.11],
....: 'Two_Y' : [1.22,1.22,1.22]}); df
....:
Out[53]:
One_X One_Y Two_X Two_Y row
0 1.1 1.2 1.11 1.22 0
1 1.1 1.2 1.11 1.22 1
2 1.1 1.2 1.11 1.22 2

# As Labelled Index
In [54]: df = df.set_index('row');df
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

One_X One_Y Two_X Two_Y

row
0 1.1 1.2 1.11 1.22
1 1.1 1.2 1.11 1.22

458 Chapter 7. Cookbook

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

2 1.1 1.2 1.11 1.22

# With Hierarchical Columns

In [55]: df.columns = pd.MultiIndex.from_tuples([tuple(c.split('_')) for c in df.
˓→columns]);df

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

One Two
X Y X Y
row
0 1.1 1.2 1.11 1.22
1 1.1 1.2 1.11 1.22
2 1.1 1.2 1.11 1.22

# Now stack & Reset

In [56]: df = df.stack(0).reset_index(1);df
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

level_1 X Y
row
0 One 1.10 1.20
0 Two 1.11 1.22
1 One 1.10 1.20
1 Two 1.11 1.22
2 One 1.10 1.20
2 Two 1.11 1.22

# And fix the labels (Notice the label 'level_1' got added automatically)
In [57]: df.columns = ['Sample','All_X','All_Y'];df
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

Sample All_X All_Y

row
0 One 1.10 1.20
0 Two 1.11 1.22
1 One 1.10 1.20
1 Two 1.11 1.22
2 One 1.10 1.20
2 Two 1.11 1.22

7.3.1 Arithmetic

Performing arithmetic with a multi-index that needs broadcasting

In [58]: cols = pd.MultiIndex.from_tuples([ (x,y) for x in ['A','B','C'] for y in ['O
˓→','I']])

In [59]: df = pd.DataFrame(np.random.randn(2,6),index=['n','m'],columns=cols); df
Out[59]:
A B C
O I O I O I
n 1.920906 -0.388231 -2.314394 0.665508 0.402562 0.399555
m -1.765956 0.850423 0.388054 0.992312 0.744086 -0.739776

In [60]: df = df.div(df['C'],level=1); df
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

7.3. MultiIndexing 459

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

A B C
O I O I O I
n 4.771702 -0.971660 -5.749162 1.665625 1.0 1.0
m -2.373321 -1.149568 0.521518 -1.341367 1.0 1.0

7.3.2 Slicing

Slicing a multi-index with xs

In [61]: coords = [('AA','one'),('AA','six'),('BB','one'),('BB','two'),('BB','six')]

In [62]: index = pd.MultiIndex.from_tuples(coords)

In [63]: df = pd.DataFrame([11,22,33,44,55],index,['MyData']); df
Out[63]:
MyData
AA one 11
six 22
BB one 33
two 44
six 55

To take the cross section of the 1st level and 1st axis the index:

In [64]: df.xs('BB',level=0,axis=0) #Note : level and axis are optional, and default
˓→to zero

Out[64]:
MyData
one 33
two 44
six 55

...and now the 2nd level of the 1st axis.

In [65]: df.xs('six',level=1,axis=0)
Out[65]:
MyData
AA 22
BB 55

Slicing a multi-index with xs, method #2

In [66]: index = list(itertools.product(['Ada','Quinn','Violet'],['Comp','Math','Sci

˓→']))

In [67]: headr = list(itertools.product(['Exams','Labs'],['I','II']))

In [68]: indx = pd.MultiIndex.from_tuples(index,names=['Student','Course'])

In [69]: cols = pd.MultiIndex.from_tuples(headr) #Notice these are un-named

In [70]: data = [[70+x+y+(x*y)%3 for x in range(4)] for y in range(9)]

In [71]: df = pd.DataFrame(data,indx,cols); df
Out[71]:
Exams Labs

460 Chapter 7. Cookbook

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

I II I II
Student Course
Ada Comp 70 71 72 73
Math 71 73 75 74
Sci 72 75 75 75
Quinn Comp 73 74 75 76
Math 74 76 78 77
Sci 75 78 78 78
Violet Comp 76 77 78 79
Math 77 79 81 80
Sci 78 81 81 81

In [72]: All = slice(None)

In [73]: df.loc['Violet']
Out[73]:
Exams Labs
I II I II
Course
Comp 76 77 78 79
Math 77 79 81 80
Sci 78 81 81 81

In [74]: df.loc[(All,'Math'),All]
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

Exams Labs
I II I II
Student Course
Ada Math 71 73 75 74
Quinn Math 74 76 78 77
Violet Math 77 79 81 80

In [75]: df.loc[(slice('Ada','Quinn'),'Math'),All]
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

Exams Labs
I II I II
Student Course
Ada Math 71 73 75 74
Quinn Math 74 76 78 77

In [76]: df.loc[(All,'Math'),('Exams')]
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

I II
Student Course
Ada Math 71 73
Quinn Math 74 76
Violet Math 77 79

In [77]: df.loc[(All,'Math'),(All,'II')]
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

Exams Labs
II II
Student Course
Ada Math 73 74

7.3. MultiIndexing 461

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Quinn Math 76 77
Violet Math 79 80

Setting portions of a multi-index with xs

7.3.3 Sorting

Sort by specific column or an ordered list of columns, with a multi-index

In [78]: df.sort_values(by=('Labs', 'II'), ascending=False)

Out[78]:
Exams Labs
I II I II
Student Course
Violet Sci 78 81 81 81
Math 77 79 81 80
Comp 76 77 78 79
Quinn Sci 75 78 78 78
Math 74 76 78 77
Comp 73 74 75 76
Ada Sci 72 75 75 75
Math 71 73 75 74
Comp 70 71 72 73

Partial Selection, the need for sortedness;

7.3.4 Levels

Prepending a level to a multiindex

Flatten Hierarchical columns

7.3.5 panelnd

The panelnd docs.

Construct a 5D panelnd

7.4 Missing Data

The missing data docs.

Fill forward a reversed timeseries

In [79]: df = pd.DataFrame(np.random.randn(6,1), index=pd.date_range('2013-08-01',

˓→periods=6, freq='B'), columns=list('A'))

In [80]: df.loc[df.index[3], 'A'] = np.nan

In [81]: df
Out[81]:
A
2013-08-01 -1.054874

462 Chapter 7. Cookbook

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

2013-08-02 -0.179642
2013-08-05 0.639589
2013-08-06 NaN
2013-08-07 1.906684
2013-08-08 0.104050

In [82]: df.reindex(df.index[::-1]).ffill()
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

A
2013-08-08 0.104050
2013-08-07 1.906684
2013-08-06 1.906684
2013-08-05 0.639589
2013-08-02 -0.179642
2013-08-01 -1.054874

cumsum reset at NaN values

7.4.1 Replace

Using replace with backrefs

7.5 Grouping

The grouping docs.

Basic grouping with apply
Unlike agg, apply’s callable is passed a sub-DataFrame which gives you access to all the columns

In [83]: df = pd.DataFrame({'animal': 'cat dog cat fish dog cat cat'.split(),

....: 'size': list('SSMMMLL'),
....: 'weight': [8, 10, 11, 1, 20, 12, 12],
....: 'adult' : [False] * 5 + [True] * 2}); df
....:
Out[83]:
adult animal size weight
0 False cat S 8
1 False dog S 10
2 False cat M 11
3 False fish M 1
4 False dog M 20
5 True cat L 12
6 True cat L 12

#List the size of the animals with the highest weight.

In [84]: df.groupby('animal').apply(lambda subf: subf['size'][subf['weight'].
˓→idxmax()])

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

animal
cat L
dog M

7.5. Grouping 463

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

fish M
dtype: object

Using get_group
In [85]: gb = df.groupby(['animal'])

In [86]: gb.get_group('cat')
Out[86]:
adult animal size weight
0 False cat S 8
2 False cat M 11
5 True cat L 12
6 True cat L 12

Apply to different items in a group

In [87]: def GrowUp(x):
....: avg_weight = sum(x[x['size'] == 'S'].weight * 1.5)
....: avg_weight += sum(x[x['size'] == 'M'].weight * 1.25)
....: avg_weight += sum(x[x['size'] == 'L'].weight)
....: avg_weight /= len(x)
....: return pd.Series(['L',avg_weight,True], index=['size', 'weight', 'adult'])
....:

In [88]: expected_df = gb.apply(GrowUp)

In [89]: expected_df
Out[89]:
size weight adult
animal
cat L 12.4375 True
dog L 20.0000 True
fish L 1.2500 True

Expanding Apply
In [90]: S = pd.Series([i / 100.0 for i in range(1,11)])

In [91]: def CumRet(x,y):

....: return x * (1 + y)
....:

In [92]: def Red(x):

....: return functools.reduce(CumRet,x,1.0)
....:

In [93]: S.expanding().apply(Red)
Out[93]:
0 1.010000
1 1.030200
2 1.061106
3 1.103550
4 1.158728
5 1.228251
6 1.314229
7 1.419367
8 1.547110

464 Chapter 7. Cookbook

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

9 1.701821
dtype: float64

Replacing some values with mean of the rest of a group

In [94]: df = pd.DataFrame({'A' : [1, 1, 2, 2], 'B' : [1, -1, 1, 2]})

In [95]: gb = df.groupby('A')

In [96]: def replace(g):

....: mask = g < 0
....: g.loc[mask] = g[~mask].mean()
....: return g
....:

In [97]: gb.transform(replace)
Out[97]:
B
0 1.0
1 1.0
2 1.0
3 2.0

Sort groups by aggregated data

In [98]: df = pd.DataFrame({'code': ['foo', 'bar', 'baz'] * 2,
....: 'data': [0.16, -0.21, 0.33, 0.45, -0.59, 0.62],
....: 'flag': [False, True] * 3})
....:

In [99]: code_groups = df.groupby('code')

In [100]: agg_n_sort_order = code_groups[['data']].transform(sum).sort_values(by='data

˓→')

In [101]: sorted_df = df.loc[agg_n_sort_order.index]

In [102]: sorted_df
Out[102]:
code data flag
1 bar -0.21 True
4 bar -0.59 False
0 foo 0.16 False
3 foo 0.45 True
2 baz 0.33 False
5 baz 0.62 True

Create multiple aggregated columns

In [103]: rng = pd.date_range(start="2014-10-07",periods=10,freq='2min')

In [104]: ts = pd.Series(data = list(range(10)), index = rng)

In [105]: def MyCust(x):

.....: if len(x) > 2:
.....: return x[1] * 1.234
.....: return pd.NaT
.....:

7.5. Grouping 465

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [106]: mhc = {'Mean' : np.mean, 'Max' : np.max, 'Custom' : MyCust}

In [107]: ts.resample("5min").apply(mhc)
Out[107]:
Custom 2014-10-07 00:00:00 1.234
2014-10-07 00:05:00 NaT
2014-10-07 00:10:00 7.404
2014-10-07 00:15:00 NaT
Max 2014-10-07 00:00:00 2
2014-10-07 00:05:00 4
2014-10-07 00:10:00 7
2014-10-07 00:15:00 9
Mean 2014-10-07 00:00:00 1
2014-10-07 00:05:00 3.5
2014-10-07 00:10:00 6
2014-10-07 00:15:00 8.5
dtype: object

In [108]: ts
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

2014-10-07 00:00:00 0
2014-10-07 00:02:00 1
2014-10-07 00:04:00 2
2014-10-07 00:06:00 3
2014-10-07 00:08:00 4
2014-10-07 00:10:00 5
2014-10-07 00:12:00 6
2014-10-07 00:14:00 7
2014-10-07 00:16:00 8
2014-10-07 00:18:00 9
Freq: 2T, dtype: int64

Create a value counts column and reassign back to the DataFrame

In [109]: df = pd.DataFrame({'Color': 'Red Red Red Blue'.split(),

.....: 'Value': [100, 150, 50, 50]}); df
.....:
Out[109]:
Color Value
0 Red 100
1 Red 150
2 Red 50
3 Blue 50

In [110]: df['Counts'] = df.groupby(['Color']).transform(len)

In [111]: df
Out[111]:
Color Value Counts
0 Red 100 3
1 Red 150 3
2 Red 50 3
3 Blue 50 1

Shift groups of the values in a column based on the index

466 Chapter 7. Cookbook

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [112]: df = pd.DataFrame(
.....: {u'line_race': [10, 10, 8, 10, 10, 8],
.....: u'beyer': [99, 102, 103, 103, 88, 100]},
.....: index=[u'Last Gunfighter', u'Last Gunfighter', u'Last Gunfighter',
.....: u'Paynter', u'Paynter', u'Paynter']); df
.....:
Out[112]:
beyer line_race
Last Gunfighter 99 10
Last Gunfighter 102 10
Last Gunfighter 103 8
Paynter 103 10
Paynter 88 10
Paynter 100 8

In [113]: df['beyer_shifted'] = df.groupby(level=0)['beyer'].shift(1)

In [114]: df
Out[114]:
beyer line_race beyer_shifted
Last Gunfighter 99 10 NaN
Last Gunfighter 102 10 99.0
Last Gunfighter 103 8 102.0
Paynter 103 10 NaN
Paynter 88 10 103.0
Paynter 100 8 88.0

Select row with maximum value from each group

In [115]: df = pd.DataFrame({'host':['other','other','that','this','this'],
.....: 'service':['mail','web','mail','mail','web'],
.....: 'no':[1, 2, 1, 2, 1]}).set_index(['host', 'service'])
.....:

In [116]: mask = df.groupby(level=0).agg('idxmax')

In [117]: df_count = df.loc[mask['no']].reset_index()

In [118]: df_count
Out[118]:
host service no
0 other web 2
1 that mail 1
2 this mail 2

Grouping like Python’s itertools.groupby

In [119]: df = pd.DataFrame([0, 1, 0, 1, 1, 1, 0, 1, 1], columns=['A'])

In [120]: df.A.groupby((df.A != df.A.shift()).cumsum()).groups

Out[120]:
{1: Int64Index([0], dtype='int64'),
2: Int64Index([1], dtype='int64'),
3: Int64Index([2], dtype='int64'),
4: Int64Index([3, 4, 5], dtype='int64'),
5: Int64Index([6], dtype='int64'),
6: Int64Index([7, 8], dtype='int64')}

7.5. Grouping 467

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [121]: df.A.groupby((df.A != df.A.shift()).cumsum()).cumsum()

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

0 0
1 1
2 0
3 1
4 2
5 3
6 0
7 1
8 2
Name: A, dtype: int64

7.5.1 Expanding Data

Alignment and to-date

Rolling Computation window based on values instead of counts
Rolling Mean by Time Interval

7.5.2 Splitting

Splitting a frame
Create a list of dataframes, split using a delineation based on logic included in rows.

In [122]: df = pd.DataFrame(data={'Case' : ['A','A','A','B','A','A','B','A','A'],

.....: 'Data' : np.random.randn(9)})
.....:

In [123]: dfs = list(zip(*df.groupby((1*(df['Case']=='B')).cumsum().rolling(window=3,

˓→min_periods=1).median())))[-1]

In [124]: dfs[0]
Out[124]:
Case Data
0 A 0.174068
1 A -0.439461
2 A -0.741343
3 B -0.079673

In [125]: dfs[1]
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[1
˓→

Case Data
4 A -0.922875
5 A 0.303638
6 B -0.917368

In [126]: dfs[2]
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

Case Data

468 Chapter 7. Cookbook

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

7 A -1.624062
8 A -0.758514

7.5.3 Pivot

The Pivot docs.

Partial sums and subtotals
In [127]: df = pd.DataFrame(data={'Province' : ['ON','QC','BC','AL','AL','MN','ON'],
.....: 'City' : ['Toronto','Montreal','Vancouver','Calgary
˓→','Edmonton','Winnipeg','Windsor'],

.....: 'Sales' : [13,6,16,8,4,3,1]})

.....:

In [128]: table = pd.pivot_table(df,values=['Sales'],index=['Province'],columns=['City

˓→'],aggfunc=np.sum,margins=True)

In [129]: table.stack('City')
Out[129]:
Sales
Province City
AL All 12.0
Calgary 8.0
Edmonton 4.0
BC All 16.0
Vancouver 16.0
MN All 3.0
Winnipeg 3.0
... ...
All Calgary 8.0
Edmonton 4.0
Montreal 6.0
Toronto 13.0
Vancouver 16.0
Windsor 1.0
Winnipeg 3.0

[20 rows x 1 columns]

Frequency table like plyr in R

In [130]: grades = [48,99,75,80,42,80,72,68,36,78]

In [131]: df = pd.DataFrame( {'ID': ["x%d" % r for r in range(10)],

.....: 'Gender' : ['F', 'M', 'F', 'M', 'F', 'M', 'F', 'M', 'M',
˓→ 'M'],

.....: 'ExamYear': ['2007','2007','2007','2008','2008','2008',

˓→'2008','2009','2009','2009'],

.....: 'Class': ['algebra', 'stats', 'bio', 'algebra', 'algebra

˓→', 'stats', 'stats', 'algebra', 'bio', 'bio'],

.....: 'Participated': ['yes','yes','yes','yes','no','yes','yes

˓→','yes','yes','yes'],

.....: 'Passed': ['yes' if x > 50 else 'no' for x in grades],

.....: 'Employed': [True,True,True,False,False,False,False,
˓→True,True,False],

.....: 'Grade': grades})

7.5. Grouping 469

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

.....:

In [132]: df.groupby('ExamYear').agg({'Participated': lambda x: x.value_counts()['yes

˓→'],

.....: 'Passed': lambda x: sum(x == 'yes'),

.....: 'Employed' : lambda x : sum(x),
.....: 'Grade' : lambda x : sum(x) / len(x)})
.....:
Out[132]:
Participated Passed Employed Grade
ExamYear
2007 3 2 3 74.000000
2008 3 3 0 68.500000
2009 3 2 2 60.666667

Plot pandas DataFrame with year over year data

To create year and month crosstabulation:

In [133]: df = pd.DataFrame({'value': np.random.randn(36)},

.....: index=pd.date_range('2011-01-01', freq='M', periods=36))
.....:

In [134]: pd.pivot_table(df, index=df.index.month, columns=df.index.year,

.....: values='value', aggfunc='sum')
.....:
Out[134]:
2011 2012 2013
1 -0.560859 0.120930 0.516870
2 -0.589005 -0.210518 0.343125
3 -1.070678 -0.931184 2.137827
4 -1.681101 0.240647 0.452429
5 0.403776 -0.027462 0.483103
6 0.609862 0.033113 0.061495
7 0.387936 -0.658418 0.240767
8 1.815066 0.324102 0.782413
9 0.705200 -1.403048 0.628462
10 -0.668049 -0.581967 -0.880627
11 0.242501 -1.233862 0.777575
12 0.313421 -3.520876 -0.779367

7.5.4 Apply

Rolling Apply to Organize - Turning embedded lists into a multi-index frame

In [135]: df = pd.DataFrame(data={'A' : [[2,4,8,16],[100,200],[10,20,30]], 'B' : [['a

˓→','b','c'],['jj','kk'],['ccc']]},index=['I','II','III'])

In [136]: def SeriesFromSubList(aList):

.....: return pd.Series(aList)
.....:

In [137]: df_orgz = pd.concat(dict([ (ind,row.apply(SeriesFromSubList)) for ind,row

˓→in df.iterrows() ]))

Rolling Apply with a DataFrame returning a Series

470 Chapter 7. Cookbook

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Rolling Apply to multiple columns where function calculates a Series before a Scalar from the Series is returned

In [138]: df = pd.DataFrame(data=np.random.randn(2000,2)/10000,
.....: index=pd.date_range('2001-01-01',periods=2000),
.....: columns=['A','B']); df
.....:
Out[138]:
A B
2001-01-01 0.000032 -0.000004
2001-01-02 -0.000001 0.000207
2001-01-03 0.000120 -0.000220
2001-01-04 -0.000083 -0.000165
2001-01-05 -0.000047 0.000156
2001-01-06 0.000027 0.000104
2001-01-07 0.000041 -0.000101
... ... ...
2006-06-17 -0.000034 0.000034
2006-06-18 0.000002 0.000166
2006-06-19 0.000023 -0.000081
2006-06-20 -0.000061 0.000012
2006-06-21 -0.000111 0.000027
2006-06-22 -0.000061 -0.000009
2006-06-23 0.000074 -0.000138

[2000 rows x 2 columns]

In [139]: def gm(aDF,Const):

.....: v = ((((aDF.A+aDF.B)+1).cumprod())-1)*Const
.....: return (aDF.index[0],v.iloc[-1])
.....:

In [140]: S = pd.Series(dict([ gm(df.iloc[i:min(i+51,len(df)-1)],5) for i in

˓→range(len(df)-50) ])); S

Out[140]:
2001-01-01 -0.001373
2001-01-02 -0.001705
2001-01-03 -0.002885
2001-01-04 -0.002987
2001-01-05 -0.002384
2001-01-06 -0.004700
2001-01-07 -0.005500
...
2006-04-28 -0.002682
2006-04-29 -0.002436
2006-04-30 -0.002602
2006-05-01 -0.001785
2006-05-02 -0.001799
2006-05-03 -0.000605
2006-05-04 -0.000541
Length: 1950, dtype: float64

Rolling apply with a DataFrame returning a Scalar

Rolling Apply to multiple columns where function returns a Scalar (Volume Weighted Average Price)

In [141]: rng = pd.date_range(start = '2014-01-01',periods = 100)

In [142]: df = pd.DataFrame({'Open' : np.random.randn(len(rng)),

.....: 'Close' : np.random.randn(len(rng)),

7.5. Grouping 471

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

.....: 'Volume' : np.random.randint(100,2000,len(rng))},

˓→index=rng); df
.....:
Out[142]:
Close Open Volume
2014-01-01 -0.653039 0.011174 1581
2014-01-02 1.314205 0.214258 1707
2014-01-03 -0.341915 -1.046922 1768
2014-01-04 -1.303586 -0.752902 836
2014-01-05 0.396288 -0.410793 694
2014-01-06 -0.548006 0.648401 796
2014-01-07 0.481380 0.737320 265
... ... ... ...
2014-04-04 -2.548128 0.120378 564
2014-04-05 0.223346 0.231661 1908
2014-04-06 1.228841 0.952664 1090
2014-04-07 0.552784 -0.176090 1813
2014-04-08 -0.795389 1.781318 1103
2014-04-09 -0.018815 -0.753493 1456
2014-04-10 1.138197 -1.047997 1193

[100 rows x 3 columns]

In [143]: def vwap(bars): return ((bars.Close*bars.Volume).sum()/bars.Volume.sum())

In [144]: window = 5

In [145]: s = pd.concat([ (pd.Series(vwap(df.iloc[i:i+window]), index=[df.

˓→index[i+window]])) for i in range(len(df)-window) ]);

In [146]: s.round(2)
Out[146]:
2014-01-06 -0.03
2014-01-07 0.07
2014-01-08 -0.40
2014-01-09 -0.81
2014-01-10 -0.63
2014-01-11 -0.86
2014-01-12 -0.36
...
2014-04-04 -1.27
2014-04-05 -1.36
2014-04-06 -0.73
2014-04-07 0.04
2014-04-08 0.21
2014-04-09 0.07
2014-04-10 0.25
Length: 95, dtype: float64

7.6 Timeseries

Between times
Using indexer between time
Constructing a datetime range that excludes weekends and includes only certain times

472 Chapter 7. Cookbook

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Vectorized Lookup
Aggregation and plotting time series
Turn a matrix with hours in columns and days in rows into a continuous row sequence in the form of a time series.
How to rearrange a python pandas DataFrame?
Dealing with duplicates when reindexing a timeseries to a specified frequency
Calculate the first day of the month for each entry in a DatetimeIndex
In [147]: dates = pd.date_range('2000-01-01', periods=5)

In [148]: dates.to_period(freq='M').to_timestamp()
Out[148]:
DatetimeIndex(['2000-01-01', '2000-01-01', '2000-01-01', '2000-01-01',
'2000-01-01'],
dtype='datetime64[ns]', freq=None)

7.6.1 Resampling

The Resample docs.

Using Grouper instead of TimeGrouper for time grouping of values
Time grouping with some missing values
Valid frequency arguments to Grouper
Grouping using a MultiIndex
Using TimeGrouper and another grouping to create subgroups, then apply a custom function
Resampling with custom periods
Resample intraday frame without adding new days
Resample minute data
Resample with groupby

7.7 Merge

The Concat docs. The Join docs.

Append two dataframes with overlapping index (emulate R rbind)
In [149]: rng = pd.date_range('2000-01-01', periods=6)

In [150]: df1 = pd.DataFrame(np.random.randn(6, 3), index=rng, columns=['A', 'B', 'C

˓→'])

In [151]: df2 = df1.copy()

Depending on df construction, ignore_index may be needed

In [152]: df = df1.append(df2,ignore_index=True); df
Out[152]:
A B C
0 -0.480676 -1.305282 -0.212846

7.7. Merge 473

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

1 1.979901 0.363112 -0.275732

2 -1.433852 0.580237 -0.013672
3 1.776623 -0.803467 0.521517
4 -0.302508 -0.442948 -0.395768
5 -0.249024 -0.031510 2.413751
6 -0.480676 -1.305282 -0.212846
7 1.979901 0.363112 -0.275732
8 -1.433852 0.580237 -0.013672
9 1.776623 -0.803467 0.521517
10 -0.302508 -0.442948 -0.395768
11 -0.249024 -0.031510 2.413751

Self Join of a DataFrame

In [153]: df = pd.DataFrame(data={'Area' : ['A'] * 5 + ['C'] * 2,

.....: 'Bins' : [110] * 2 + [160] * 3 + [40] * 2,
.....: 'Test_0' : [0, 1, 0, 1, 2, 0, 1],
.....: 'Data' : np.random.randn(7)});df
.....:
Out[153]:
Area Bins Data Test_0
0 A 110 -0.378914 0
1 A 110 -1.032527 1
2 A 160 -1.402816 0
3 A 160 0.715333 1
4 A 160 -0.091438 2
5 C 40 1.608418 0
6 C 40 0.753207 1

In [154]: df['Test_1'] = df['Test_0'] - 1

In [155]: pd.merge(df, df, left_on=['Bins', 'Area','Test_0'], right_on=['Bins', 'Area

˓→','Test_1'],suffixes=('_L','_R'))

Out[155]:
Area Bins Data_L Test_0_L Test_1_L Data_R Test_0_R Test_1_R
0 A 110 -0.378914 0 -1 -1.032527 1 0
1 A 160 -1.402816 0 -1 0.715333 1 0
2 A 160 0.715333 1 0 -0.091438 2 1
3 C 40 1.608418 0 -1 0.753207 1 0

How to set the index and join

KDB like asof join
Join with a criteria based on the values
Using searchsorted to merge based on values inside a range

7.8 Plotting

The Plotting docs.

Make Matplotlib look like R
Setting x-axis major and minor labels
Plotting multiple charts in an ipython notebook

474 Chapter 7. Cookbook

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Creating a multi-line plot

Plotting a heatmap
Annotate a time-series plot
Annotate a time-series plot #2
Generate Embedded plots in excel files using Pandas, Vincent and xlsxwriter
Boxplot for each quartile of a stratifying variable

In [156]: df = pd.DataFrame(
.....: {u'stratifying_var': np.random.uniform(0, 100, 20),
.....: u'price': np.random.normal(100, 5, 20)})
.....:

In [157]: df[u'quartiles'] = pd.qcut(

.....: df[u'stratifying_var'],
.....: 4,
.....: labels=[u'0-25%', u'25-50%', u'50-75%', u'75-100%'])
.....:

In [158]: df.boxplot(column=u'price', by=u'quartiles')

Out[158]: <matplotlib.axes._subplots.AxesSubplot at 0x121bc60f0>

7.8. Plotting 475

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

7.9 Data In/Out

Performance comparison of SQL vs HDF5

7.9.1 CSV

The CSV docs

read_csv in action
appending to a csv
Reading a csv chunk-by-chunk
Reading only certain rows of a csv chunk-by-chunk
Reading the first few lines of a frame
Reading a file that is compressed but not by gzip/bz2 (the native compressed formats which read_csv under-
stands). This example shows a WinZipped file, but is a general application of opening the file within a context
manager and using that handle to read. See here
Inferring dtypes from a file
Dealing with bad lines
Dealing with bad lines II
Reading CSV with Unix timestamps and converting to local timezone
Write a multi-row index CSV without writing duplicates

7.9.1.1 Reading multiple files to create a single DataFrame

The best way to combine multiple files into a single DataFrame is to read the individual frames one by one, put all of
the individual frames into a list, and then combine the frames in the list using pd.concat():

In [159]: for i in range(3):

.....: data = pd.DataFrame(np.random.randn(10, 4))
.....: data.to_csv('file_{}.csv'.format(i))
.....:

In [160]: files = ['file_0.csv', 'file_1.csv', 'file_2.csv']

In [161]: result = pd.concat([pd.read_csv(f) for f in files], ignore_index=True)

You can use the same approach to read all files matching a pattern. Here is an example using glob:

In [162]: import glob

In [163]: files = glob.glob('file_*.csv')

In [164]: result = pd.concat([pd.read_csv(f) for f in files], ignore_index=True)

Finally, this strategy will work with the other pd.read_*(...) functions described in the io docs.

476 Chapter 7. Cookbook

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

7.9.1.2 Parsing date components in multi-columns

Parsing date components in multi-columns is faster with a format

In [30]: i = pd.date_range('20000101',periods=10000)

In [31]: df = pd.DataFrame(dict(year = i.year, month = i.month, day = i.day))

In [32]: df.head()
Out[32]:
day month year
0 1 1 2000
1 2 1 2000
2 3 1 2000
3 4 1 2000
4 5 1 2000

In [33]: %timeit pd.to_datetime(df.year*10000+df.month*100+df.day,format='%Y%m%d')

100 loops, best of 3: 7.08 ms per loop

# simulate combinging into a string, then parsing

In [34]: ds = df.apply(lambda x: "%04d%02d%02d" % (x['year'],x['month'],x['day']),
˓→axis=1)

In [35]: ds.head()
Out[35]:
0 20000101
1 20000102
2 20000103
3 20000104
4 20000105
dtype: object

In [36]: %timeit pd.to_datetime(ds)

1 loops, best of 3: 488 ms per loop

7.9.1.3 Skip row between header and data

In [165]: data = """;;;;

.....: ;;;;
.....: ;;;;
.....: ;;;;
.....: ;;;;
.....: ;;;;
.....: ;;;;
.....: ;;;;
.....: ;;;;
.....: ;;;;
.....: date;Param1;Param2;Param4;Param5
.....: ;m2 ;°C;m2 ;m
.....: ;;;;
.....: 01.01.1990 00:00;1;1;2;3
.....: 01.01.1990 01:00;5;3;4;5
.....: 01.01.1990 02:00;9;5;6;7
.....: 01.01.1990 03:00;13;7;8;9
.....: 01.01.1990 04:00;17;9;10;11
.....: 01.01.1990 05:00;21;11;12;13

7.9. Data In/Out 477

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

.....: """
.....:

Option 1: pass rows explicitly to skiprows

In [166]: pd.read_csv(StringIO(data), sep=';', skiprows=[11,12],

.....: index_col=0, parse_dates=True, header=10)
.....:
Out[166]:
Param1 Param2 Param4 Param5
date
1990-01-01 00:00:00 1 1 2 3
1990-01-01 01:00:00 5 3 4 5
1990-01-01 02:00:00 9 5 6 7
1990-01-01 03:00:00 13 7 8 9
1990-01-01 04:00:00 17 9 10 11
1990-01-01 05:00:00 21 11 12 13

Option 2: read column names and then data

In [167]: pd.read_csv(StringIO(data), sep=';', header=10, nrows=10).columns

Out[167]: Index(['date', 'Param1', 'Param2', 'Param4', 'Param5'], dtype='object')

In [168]: columns = pd.read_csv(StringIO(data), sep=';', header=10, nrows=10).columns

In [169]: pd.read_csv(StringIO(data), sep=';', index_col=0,

.....: header=12, parse_dates=True, names=columns)
.....:
Out[169]:
Param1 Param2 Param4 Param5
date
1990-01-01 00:00:00 1 1 2 3
1990-01-01 01:00:00 5 3 4 5
1990-01-01 02:00:00 9 5 6 7
1990-01-01 03:00:00 13 7 8 9
1990-01-01 04:00:00 17 9 10 11
1990-01-01 05:00:00 21 11 12 13

7.9.2 SQL

The SQL docs

Reading from databases with SQL

7.9.3 Excel

The Excel docs

Reading from a filelike handle
Modifying formatting in XlsxWriter output

478 Chapter 7. Cookbook

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

7.9.4 HTML

Reading HTML tables from a server that cannot handle the default request header

7.9.5 HDFStore

The HDFStores docs

Simple Queries with a Timestamp Index
Managing heterogeneous data using a linked multiple table hierarchy
Merging on-disk tables with millions of rows
Avoiding inconsistencies when writing to a store from multiple processes/threads
De-duplicating a large store by chunks, essentially a recursive reduction operation. Shows a function for taking in data
from csv file and creating a store by chunks, with date parsing as well. See here
Creating a store chunk-by-chunk from a csv file
Appending to a store, while creating a unique index
Large Data work flows
Reading in a sequence of files, then providing a global unique index to a store while appending
Groupby on a HDFStore with low group density
Groupby on a HDFStore with high group density
Hierarchical queries on a HDFStore
Counting with a HDFStore
Troubleshoot HDFStore exceptions
Setting min_itemsize with strings
Using ptrepack to create a completely-sorted-index on a store
Storing Attributes to a group node

In [170]: df = pd.DataFrame(np.random.randn(8,3))

In [171]: store = pd.HDFStore('test.h5')

In [172]: store.put('df',df)

# you can store an arbitrary python object via pickle

In [173]: store.get_storer('df').attrs.my_attribute = dict(A = 10)

In [174]: store.get_storer('df').attrs.my_attribute
Out[174]: {'A': 10}

7.9.6 Binary Files

pandas readily accepts numpy record arrays, if you need to read in a binary file consisting of an array of C structs.
For example, given this C program in a file called main.c compiled with gcc main.c -std=gnu99 on a 64-bit
machine,

7.9. Data In/Out 479

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdint.h>

typedef struct _Data

{
int32_t count;
double avg;
float scale;
} Data;

int main(int argc, const char *argv[])

{
size_t n = 10;
Data d[n];

for (int i = 0; i < n; ++i)

{
d[i].count = i;
d[i].avg = i + 1.0;
d[i].scale = (float) i + 2.0f;
}

FILE *file = fopen("binary.dat", "wb");

fwrite(&d, sizeof(Data), n, file);
fclose(file);

return 0;
}

the following Python code will read the binary file 'binary.dat' into a pandas DataFrame, where each element
of the struct corresponds to a column in the frame:

names = 'count', 'avg', 'scale'

# note that the offsets are larger than the size of the type because of
# struct padding
offsets = 0, 8, 16
formats = 'i4', 'f8', 'f4'
dt = np.dtype({'names': names, 'offsets': offsets, 'formats': formats},
align=True)
df = pd.DataFrame(np.fromfile('binary.dat', dt))

Note: The offsets of the structure elements may be different depending on the architecture of the machine on which
the file was created. Using a raw binary file format like this for general data storage is not recommended, as it is not
cross platform. We recommended either HDF5 or msgpack, both of which are supported by pandas’ IO facilities.

7.10 Computation

Numerical integration (sample-based) of a time series

480 Chapter 7. Cookbook

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

7.11 Timedeltas

The Timedeltas docs.

Using timedeltas

In [175]: s = pd.Series(pd.date_range('2012-1-1', periods=3, freq='D'))

In [176]: s - s.max()
Out[176]:
0 -2 days
1 -1 days
2 0 days
dtype: timedelta64[ns]

In [177]: s.max() - s
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[177]:
0 2 days
1 1 days
2 0 days
dtype: timedelta64[ns]

In [178]: s - datetime.datetime(2011,1,1,3,5)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

0 364 days 20:55:00

1 365 days 20:55:00
2 366 days 20:55:00
dtype: timedelta64[ns]

In [179]: s + datetime.timedelta(minutes=5)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

0 2012-01-01 00:05:00
1 2012-01-02 00:05:00
2 2012-01-03 00:05:00
dtype: datetime64[ns]

In [180]: datetime.datetime(2011,1,1,3,5) - s
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

0 -365 days +03:05:00

1 -366 days +03:05:00
2 -367 days +03:05:00
dtype: timedelta64[ns]

In [181]: datetime.timedelta(minutes=5) + s
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

0 2012-01-01 00:05:00
1 2012-01-02 00:05:00
2 2012-01-03 00:05:00
dtype: datetime64[ns]

Adding and subtracting deltas and dates

In [182]: deltas = pd.Series([ datetime.timedelta(days=i) for i in range(3) ])

7.11. Timedeltas 481

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [183]: df = pd.DataFrame(dict(A = s, B = deltas)); df

Out[183]:
A B
0 2012-01-01 0 days
1 2012-01-02 1 days
2 2012-01-03 2 days

In [184]: df['New Dates'] = df['A'] + df['B'];

In [185]: df['Delta'] = df['A'] - df['New Dates']; df

Out[185]:
A B New Dates Delta
0 2012-01-01 0 days 2012-01-01 0 days
1 2012-01-02 1 days 2012-01-03 -1 days
2 2012-01-03 2 days 2012-01-05 -2 days

In [186]: df.dtypes
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

A datetime64[ns]
B timedelta64[ns]
New Dates datetime64[ns]
Delta timedelta64[ns]
dtype: object

Another example
Values can be set to NaT using np.nan, similar to datetime

In [187]: y = s - s.shift(); y
Out[187]:
0 NaT
1 1 days
2 1 days
dtype: timedelta64[ns]

In [188]: y[1] = np.nan; y

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[188]:
0 NaT
1 NaT
2 1 days
dtype: timedelta64[ns]

7.12 Aliasing Axis Names

To globally provide aliases for axis names, one can define these 2 functions:

In [189]: def set_axis_alias(cls, axis, alias):

.....: if axis not in cls._AXIS_NUMBERS:
.....: raise Exception("invalid axis [%s] for alias [%s]" % (axis, alias))
.....: cls._AXIS_ALIASES[alias] = axis
.....:

In [190]: def clear_axis_alias(cls, axis, alias):

.....: if axis not in cls._AXIS_NUMBERS:

482 Chapter 7. Cookbook

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

.....: raise Exception("invalid axis [%s] for alias [%s]" % (axis, alias))
.....: cls._AXIS_ALIASES.pop(alias,None)
.....:

In [191]: set_axis_alias(pd.DataFrame,'columns', 'myaxis2')

In [192]: df2 = pd.DataFrame(np.random.randn(3,2),columns=['c1','c2'],index=['i1','i2

˓→','i3'])

In [193]: df2.sum(axis='myaxis2')
Out[193]:
i1 0.745167
i2 -0.176251
i3 0.014354
dtype: float64

In [194]: clear_axis_alias(pd.DataFrame,'columns', 'myaxis2')

7.13 Creating Example Data

To create a dataframe from every combination of some given values, like R’s expand.grid() function, we can
create a dict where the keys are column names and the values are lists of the data values:

In [195]: def expand_grid(data_dict):

.....: rows = itertools.product(*data_dict.values())
.....: return pd.DataFrame.from_records(rows, columns=data_dict.keys())
.....:

In [196]: df = expand_grid(
.....: {'height': [60, 70],
.....: 'weight': [100, 140, 180],
.....: 'sex': ['Male', 'Female']})
.....:

In [197]: df
Out[197]:
height weight sex
0 60 100 Male
1 60 100 Female
2 60 140 Male
3 60 140 Female
4 60 180 Male
5 60 180 Female
6 70 100 Male
7 70 100 Female
8 70 140 Male
9 70 140 Female
10 70 180 Male
11 70 180 Female

7.13. Creating Example Data 483

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

484 Chapter 7. Cookbook

 CHAPTER

EIGHT

INTRO TO DATA STRUCTURES

We’ll start with a quick, non-comprehensive overview of the fundamental data structures in pandas to get you started.
The fundamental behavior about data types, indexing, and axis labeling / alignment apply across all of the objects. To
get started, import numpy and load pandas into your namespace:

In [1]: import numpy as np

In [2]: import pandas as pd

Here is a basic tenet to keep in mind: data alignment is intrinsic. The link between labels and data will not be broken
unless done so explicitly by you.
We’ll give a brief intro to the data structures, then consider all of the broad categories of functionality and methods in
separate sections.

8.1 Series

Series is a one-dimensional labeled array capable of holding any data type (integers, strings, floating point numbers,
Python objects, etc.). The axis labels are collectively referred to as the index. The basic method to create a Series is
to call:

>>> s = pd.Series(data, index=index)

Here, data can be many different things:

• a Python dict
• an ndarray
• a scalar value (like 5)
The passed index is a list of axis labels. Thus, this separates into a few cases depending on what data is:
From ndarray
If data is an ndarray, index must be the same length as data. If no index is passed, one will be created having values
[0, ..., len(data) - 1].

In [3]: s = pd.Series(np.random.randn(5), index=['a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'e'])

In [4]: s
Out[4]:
a 0.4691
b -0.2829
c -1.5091

485
pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

d -1.1356
e 1.2121
dtype: float64

In [5]: s.index
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[5]:
˓→Index(['a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'e'], dtype='object')

In [6]: pd.Series(np.random.randn(5))
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

0 -0.1732
1 0.1192
2 -1.0442
3 -0.8618
4 -2.1046
dtype: float64

Note: pandas supports non-unique index values. If an operation that does not support duplicate index values is
attempted, an exception will be raised at that time. The reason for being lazy is nearly all performance-based (there
are many instances in computations, like parts of GroupBy, where the index is not used).

From dict
If data is a dict, if index is passed the values in data corresponding to the labels in the index will be pulled out.
Otherwise, an index will be constructed from the sorted keys of the dict, if possible.

In [7]: d = {'a' : 0., 'b' : 1., 'c' : 2.}

In [8]: pd.Series(d)
Out[8]:
a 0.0
b 1.0
c 2.0
dtype: float64

In [9]: pd.Series(d, index=['b', 'c', 'd', 'a'])

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[9]:
b 1.0
c 2.0
d NaN
a 0.0
dtype: float64

Note: NaN (not a number) is the standard missing data marker used in pandas

From scalar value If data is a scalar value, an index must be provided. The value will be repeated to match the
length of index

In [10]: pd.Series(5., index=['a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'e'])

Out[10]:
a 5.0
b 5.0
c 5.0

486 Chapter 8. Intro to Data Structures

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

d 5.0
e 5.0
dtype: float64

8.1.1 Series is ndarray-like

Series acts very similarly to a ndarray, and is a valid argument to most NumPy functions. However, things like
slicing also slice the index.
In [11]: s[0]
Out[11]: 0.46911229990718628

In [12]: s[:3]
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[12]:
a 0.4691
b -0.2829
c -1.5091
dtype: float64

In [13]: s[s > s.median()]

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[13]:
˓→

a 0.4691
e 1.2121
dtype: float64

In [14]: s[[4, 3, 1]]

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

e 1.2121
d -1.1356
b -0.2829
dtype: float64

In [15]: np.exp(s)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

a 1.5986
b 0.7536
c 0.2211
d 0.3212
e 3.3606
dtype: float64

We will address array-based indexing in a separate section.

8.1.2 Series is dict-like

A Series is like a fixed-size dict in that you can get and set values by index label:
In [16]: s['a']
Out[16]: 0.46911229990718628

In [17]: s['e'] = 12.

8.1. Series 487

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [18]: s
Out[18]:
a 0.4691
b -0.2829
c -1.5091
d -1.1356
e 12.0000
dtype: float64

In [19]: 'e' in s
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[19]:
˓→True

In [20]: 'f' in s
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→False

If a label is not contained, an exception is raised:

>>> s['f']
KeyError: 'f'

Using the get method, a missing label will return None or specified default:

In [21]: s.get('f')

In [22]: s.get('f', np.nan)

Out[22]: nan

See also the section on attribute access.

8.1.3 Vectorized operations and label alignment with Series

When doing data analysis, as with raw NumPy arrays looping through Series value-by-value is usually not necessary.
Series can also be passed into most NumPy methods expecting an ndarray.

In [23]: s + s
Out[23]:
a 0.9382
b -0.5657
c -3.0181
d -2.2713
e 24.0000
dtype: float64

In [24]: s * 2
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[24]:
˓→

a 0.9382
b -0.5657
c -3.0181
d -2.2713
e 24.0000
dtype: float64

In [25]: np.exp(s)

488 Chapter 8. Intro to Data Structures

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

a 1.5986
b 0.7536
c 0.2211
d 0.3212
e 162754.7914
dtype: float64

A key difference between Series and ndarray is that operations between Series automatically align the data based on
label. Thus, you can write computations without giving consideration to whether the Series involved have the same
labels.

In [26]: s[1:] + s[:-1]

Out[26]:
a NaN
b -0.5657
c -3.0181
d -2.2713
e NaN
dtype: float64

The result of an operation between unaligned Series will have the union of the indexes involved. If a label is not found
in one Series or the other, the result will be marked as missing NaN. Being able to write code without doing any explicit
data alignment grants immense freedom and flexibility in interactive data analysis and research. The integrated data
alignment features of the pandas data structures set pandas apart from the majority of related tools for working with
labeled data.

Note: In general, we chose to make the default result of operations between differently indexed objects yield the
union of the indexes in order to avoid loss of information. Having an index label, though the data is missing, is
typically important information as part of a computation. You of course have the option of dropping labels with
missing data via the dropna function.

8.1.4 Name attribute

Series can also have a name attribute:

In [27]: s = pd.Series(np.random.randn(5), name='something')

In [28]: s
Out[28]:
0 -0.4949
1 1.0718
2 0.7216
3 -0.7068
4 -1.0396
Name: something, dtype: float64

In [29]: s.name
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→'something'

The Series name will be assigned automatically in many cases, in particular when taking 1D slices of DataFrame as
you will see below.

8.1. Series 489

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

New in version 0.18.0.

You can rename a Series with the pandas.Series.rename() method.
In [30]: s2 = s.rename("different")

In [31]: s2.name
Out[31]: 'different'

Note that s and s2 refer to different objects.

8.2 DataFrame

DataFrame is a 2-dimensional labeled data structure with columns of potentially different types. You can think of it
like a spreadsheet or SQL table, or a dict of Series objects. It is generally the most commonly used pandas object.
Like Series, DataFrame accepts many different kinds of input:
• Dict of 1D ndarrays, lists, dicts, or Series
• 2-D numpy.ndarray
• Structured or record ndarray
• A Series
• Another DataFrame
Along with the data, you can optionally pass index (row labels) and columns (column labels) arguments. If you pass
an index and / or columns, you are guaranteeing the index and / or columns of the resulting DataFrame. Thus, a dict
of Series plus a specific index will discard all data not matching up to the passed index.
If axis labels are not passed, they will be constructed from the input data based on common sense rules.

8.2.1 From dict of Series or dicts

The result index will be the union of the indexes of the various Series. If there are any nested dicts, these will be first
converted to Series. If no columns are passed, the columns will be the sorted list of dict keys.
In [32]: d = {'one' : pd.Series([1., 2., 3.], index=['a', 'b', 'c']),
....: 'two' : pd.Series([1., 2., 3., 4.], index=['a', 'b', 'c', 'd'])}
....:

In [33]: df = pd.DataFrame(d)

In [34]: df
Out[34]:
one two
a 1.0 1.0
b 2.0 2.0
c 3.0 3.0
d NaN 4.0

In [35]: pd.DataFrame(d, index=['d', 'b', 'a'])

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[35]:
one two
d NaN 4.0
b 2.0 2.0
a 1.0 1.0

490 Chapter 8. Intro to Data Structures

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [36]: pd.DataFrame(d, index=['d', 'b', 'a'], columns=['two', 'three'])

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

two three
d 4.0 NaN
b 2.0 NaN
a 1.0 NaN

The row and column labels can be accessed respectively by accessing the index and columns attributes:

Note: When a particular set of columns is passed along with a dict of data, the passed columns override the keys in
the dict.

In [37]: df.index
Out[37]: Index(['a', 'b', 'c', 'd'], dtype='object')

In [38]: df.columns
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[38]: Index(['one', 'two'],
˓→dtype='object')

8.2.2 From dict of ndarrays / lists

The ndarrays must all be the same length. If an index is passed, it must clearly also be the same length as the arrays.
If no index is passed, the result will be range(n), where n is the array length.
In [39]: d = {'one' : [1., 2., 3., 4.],
....: 'two' : [4., 3., 2., 1.]}
....:

In [40]: pd.DataFrame(d)
Out[40]:
one two
0 1.0 4.0
1 2.0 3.0
2 3.0 2.0
3 4.0 1.0

In [41]: pd.DataFrame(d, index=['a', 'b', 'c', 'd'])

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[41]:
one two
a 1.0 4.0
b 2.0 3.0
c 3.0 2.0
d 4.0 1.0

8.2.3 From structured or record array

This case is handled identically to a dict of arrays.

In [42]: data = np.zeros((2,), dtype=[('A', 'i4'),('B', 'f4'),('C', 'a10')])

In [43]: data[:] = [(1,2.,'Hello'), (2,3.,"World")]

8.2. DataFrame 491

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [44]: pd.DataFrame(data)
Out[44]:
A B C
0 1 2.0 b'Hello'
1 2 3.0 b'World'

In [45]: pd.DataFrame(data, index=['first', 'second'])

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[45]:
A B C
first 1 2.0 b'Hello'
second 2 3.0 b'World'

In [46]: pd.DataFrame(data, columns=['C', 'A', 'B'])

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

C A B
0 b'Hello' 1 2.0
1 b'World' 2 3.0

Note: DataFrame is not intended to work exactly like a 2-dimensional NumPy ndarray.

8.2.4 From a list of dicts

In [47]: data2 = [{'a': 1, 'b': 2}, {'a': 5, 'b': 10, 'c': 20}]

In [48]: pd.DataFrame(data2)
Out[48]:
a b c
0 1 2 NaN
1 5 10 20.0

In [49]: pd.DataFrame(data2, index=['first', 'second'])

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[49]:
a b c
first 1 2 NaN
second 5 10 20.0

In [50]: pd.DataFrame(data2, columns=['a', 'b'])

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

a b
0 1 2
1 5 10

8.2.5 From a dict of tuples

You can automatically create a multi-indexed frame by passing a tuples dictionary

In [51]: pd.DataFrame({('a', 'b'): {('A', 'B'): 1, ('A', 'C'): 2},

....: ('a', 'a'): {('A', 'C'): 3, ('A', 'B'): 4},
....: ('a', 'c'): {('A', 'B'): 5, ('A', 'C'): 6},

492 Chapter 8. Intro to Data Structures

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

....: ('b', 'a'): {('A', 'C'): 7, ('A', 'B'): 8},

....: ('b', 'b'): {('A', 'D'): 9, ('A', 'B'): 10}})
....:
Out[51]:
a b
a b c a b
A B 4.0 1.0 5.0 8.0 10.0
C 3.0 2.0 6.0 7.0 NaN
D NaN NaN NaN NaN 9.0

8.2.6 From a Series

The result will be a DataFrame with the same index as the input Series, and with one column whose name is the
original name of the Series (only if no other column name provided).
Missing Data
Much more will be said on this topic in the Missing data section. To construct a DataFrame with missing data, use
np.nan for those values which are missing. Alternatively, you may pass a numpy.MaskedArray as the data
argument to the DataFrame constructor, and its masked entries will be considered missing.

8.2.7 Alternate Constructors

DataFrame.from_dict
DataFrame.from_dict takes a dict of dicts or a dict of array-like sequences and returns a DataFrame. It operates
like the DataFrame constructor except for the orient parameter which is 'columns' by default, but which can
be set to 'index' in order to use the dict keys as row labels. DataFrame.from_records
DataFrame.from_records takes a list of tuples or an ndarray with structured dtype. Works analogously to the
normal DataFrame constructor, except that index maybe be a specific field of the structured dtype to use as the
index. For example:
In [52]: data
Out[52]:
array([(1, 2., b'Hello'), (2, 3., b'World')],
dtype=[('A', '<i4'), ('B', '<f4'), ('C', 'S10')])

In [53]: pd.DataFrame.from_records(data, index='C')

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

A B
C
b'Hello' 1 2.0
b'World' 2 3.0

DataFrame.from_items
DataFrame.from_items works analogously to the form of the dict constructor that takes a sequence of (key,
value) pairs, where the keys are column (or row, in the case of orient='index') names, and the value are the
column values (or row values). This can be useful for constructing a DataFrame with the columns in a particular order
without having to pass an explicit list of columns:
In [54]: pd.DataFrame.from_items([('A', [1, 2, 3]), ('B', [4, 5, 6])])
Out[54]:
A B

8.2. DataFrame 493

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

0 1 4
1 2 5
2 3 6

If you pass orient='index', the keys will be the row labels. But in this case you must also pass the desired
column names:

In [55]: pd.DataFrame.from_items([('A', [1, 2, 3]), ('B', [4, 5, 6])],

....: orient='index', columns=['one', 'two', 'three'])
....:
Out[55]:
one two three
A 1 2 3
B 4 5 6

8.2.8 Column selection, addition, deletion

You can treat a DataFrame semantically like a dict of like-indexed Series objects. Getting, setting, and deleting
columns works with the same syntax as the analogous dict operations:

In [56]: df['one']
Out[56]:
a 1.0
b 2.0
c 3.0
d NaN
Name: one, dtype: float64

In [57]: df['three'] = df['one'] * df['two']

In [58]: df['flag'] = df['one'] > 2

In [59]: df
Out[59]:
one two three flag
a 1.0 1.0 1.0 False
b 2.0 2.0 4.0 False
c 3.0 3.0 9.0 True
d NaN 4.0 NaN False

Columns can be deleted or popped like with a dict:

In [60]: del df['two']

In [61]: three = df.pop('three')

In [62]: df
Out[62]:
one flag
a 1.0 False
b 2.0 False
c 3.0 True
d NaN False

When inserting a scalar value, it will naturally be propagated to fill the column:

494 Chapter 8. Intro to Data Structures

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [63]: df['foo'] = 'bar'

In [64]: df
Out[64]:
one flag foo
a 1.0 False bar
b 2.0 False bar
c 3.0 True bar
d NaN False bar

When inserting a Series that does not have the same index as the DataFrame, it will be conformed to the DataFrame’s
index:

In [65]: df['one_trunc'] = df['one'][:2]

In [66]: df
Out[66]:
one flag foo one_trunc
a 1.0 False bar 1.0
b 2.0 False bar 2.0
c 3.0 True bar NaN
d NaN False bar NaN

You can insert raw ndarrays but their length must match the length of the DataFrame’s index.
By default, columns get inserted at the end. The insert function is available to insert at a particular location in the
columns:

In [67]: df.insert(1, 'bar', df['one'])

In [68]: df
Out[68]:
one bar flag foo one_trunc
a 1.0 1.0 False bar 1.0
b 2.0 2.0 False bar 2.0
c 3.0 3.0 True bar NaN
d NaN NaN False bar NaN

8.2.9 Assigning New Columns in Method Chains

Inspired by dplyr’s mutate verb, DataFrame has an assign() method that allows you to easily create new columns
that are potentially derived from existing columns.

In [69]: iris = pd.read_csv('data/iris.data')

In [70]: iris.head()
Out[70]:
SepalLength SepalWidth PetalLength PetalWidth Name
0 5.1 3.5 1.4 0.2 Iris-setosa
1 4.9 3.0 1.4 0.2 Iris-setosa
2 4.7 3.2 1.3 0.2 Iris-setosa
3 4.6 3.1 1.5 0.2 Iris-setosa
4 5.0 3.6 1.4 0.2 Iris-setosa

In [71]: (iris.assign(sepal_ratio = iris['SepalWidth'] / iris['SepalLength'])

....: .head())

8.2. DataFrame 495

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

....:
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

SepalLength SepalWidth PetalLength PetalWidth Name sepal_ratio

0 5.1 3.5 1.4 0.2 Iris-setosa 0.6863
1 4.9 3.0 1.4 0.2 Iris-setosa 0.6122
2 4.7 3.2 1.3 0.2 Iris-setosa 0.6809
3 4.6 3.1 1.5 0.2 Iris-setosa 0.6739
4 5.0 3.6 1.4 0.2 Iris-setosa 0.7200

Above was an example of inserting a precomputed value. We can also pass in a function of one argument to be
evalutated on the DataFrame being assigned to.

In [72]: iris.assign(sepal_ratio = lambda x: (x['SepalWidth'] /

....: x['SepalLength'])).head()
....:
Out[72]:
SepalLength SepalWidth PetalLength PetalWidth Name sepal_ratio
0 5.1 3.5 1.4 0.2 Iris-setosa 0.6863
1 4.9 3.0 1.4 0.2 Iris-setosa 0.6122
2 4.7 3.2 1.3 0.2 Iris-setosa 0.6809
3 4.6 3.1 1.5 0.2 Iris-setosa 0.6739
4 5.0 3.6 1.4 0.2 Iris-setosa 0.7200

assign always returns a copy of the data, leaving the original DataFrame untouched.
Passing a callable, as opposed to an actual value to be inserted, is useful when you don’t have a reference to the
DataFrame at hand. This is common when using assign in chains of operations. For example, we can limit the
DataFrame to just those observations with a Sepal Length greater than 5, calculate the ratio, and plot:

In [73]: (iris.query('SepalLength > 5')

....: .assign(SepalRatio = lambda x: x.SepalWidth / x.SepalLength,
....: PetalRatio = lambda x: x.PetalWidth / x.PetalLength)
....: .plot(kind='scatter', x='SepalRatio', y='PetalRatio'))
....:
Out[73]: <matplotlib.axes._subplots.AxesSubplot at 0x122d7fba8>

496 Chapter 8. Intro to Data Structures

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Since a function is passed in, the function is computed on the DataFrame being assigned to. Importantly, this is the
DataFrame that’s been filtered to those rows with sepal length greater than 5. The filtering happens first, and then the
ratio calculations. This is an example where we didn’t have a reference to the filtered DataFrame available.
The function signature for assign is simply **kwargs. The keys are the column names for the new fields, and the
values are either a value to be inserted (for example, a Series or NumPy array), or a function of one argument to be
called on the DataFrame. A copy of the original DataFrame is returned, with the new values inserted.

Warning: Since the function signature of assign is **kwargs, a dictionary, the order of the new columns in
the resulting DataFrame cannot be guaranteed to match the order you pass in. To make things predictable, items
are inserted alphabetically (by key) at the end of the DataFrame.
All expressions are computed first, and then assigned. So you can’t refer to another column being assigned in the
same call to assign. For example:
In [74]: # Don't do this, bad reference to `C`
df.assign(C = lambda x: x['A'] + x['B'],
D = lambda x: x['A'] + x['C'])
In [2]: # Instead, break it into two assigns
(df.assign(C = lambda x: x['A'] + x['B'])
.assign(D = lambda x: x['A'] + x['C']))

8.2.10 Indexing / Selection

The basics of indexing are as follows:

8.2. DataFrame 497

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Operation Syntax Result

Select column df[col] Series
Select row by label df.loc[label] Series
Select row by integer location df.iloc[loc] Series
Slice rows df[5:10] DataFrame
Select rows by boolean vector df[bool_vec] DataFrame
Row selection, for example, returns a Series whose index is the columns of the DataFrame:

In [75]: df.loc['b']
Out[75]:
one 2
bar 2
flag False
foo bar
one_trunc 2
Name: b, dtype: object

In [76]: df.iloc[2]
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

one 3
bar 3
flag True
foo bar
one_trunc NaN
Name: c, dtype: object

For a more exhaustive treatment of more sophisticated label-based indexing and slicing, see the section on indexing.
We will address the fundamentals of reindexing / conforming to new sets of labels in the section on reindexing.

8.2.11 Data alignment and arithmetic

Data alignment between DataFrame objects automatically align on both the columns and the index (row labels).
Again, the resulting object will have the union of the column and row labels.

In [77]: df = pd.DataFrame(np.random.randn(10, 4), columns=['A', 'B', 'C', 'D'])

In [78]: df2 = pd.DataFrame(np.random.randn(7, 3), columns=['A', 'B', 'C'])

In [79]: df + df2
Out[79]:
A B C D
0 0.0457 -0.0141 1.3809 NaN
1 -0.9554 -1.5010 0.0372 NaN
2 -0.6627 1.5348 -0.8597 NaN
3 -2.4529 1.2373 -0.1337 NaN
4 1.4145 1.9517 -2.3204 NaN
5 -0.4949 -1.6497 -1.0846 NaN
6 -1.0476 -0.7486 -0.8055 NaN
7 NaN NaN NaN NaN
8 NaN NaN NaN NaN
9 NaN NaN NaN NaN

When doing an operation between DataFrame and Series, the default behavior is to align the Series index on the
DataFrame columns, thus broadcasting row-wise. For example:

498 Chapter 8. Intro to Data Structures

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [80]: df - df.iloc[0]
Out[80]:
A B C D
0 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
1 -1.3593 -0.2487 -0.4534 -1.7547
2 0.2531 0.8297 0.0100 -1.9912
3 -1.3111 0.0543 -1.7249 -1.6205
4 0.5730 1.5007 -0.6761 1.3673
5 -1.7412 0.7820 -1.2416 -2.0531
6 -1.2408 -0.8696 -0.1533 0.0004
7 -0.7439 0.4110 -0.9296 -0.2824
8 -1.1949 1.3207 0.2382 -1.4826
9 2.2938 1.8562 0.7733 -1.4465

In the special case of working with time series data, and the DataFrame index also contains dates, the broadcasting
will be column-wise:
In [81]: index = pd.date_range('1/1/2000', periods=8)

In [82]: df = pd.DataFrame(np.random.randn(8, 3), index=index, columns=list('ABC'))

In [83]: df
Out[83]:
A B C
2000-01-01 -1.2268 0.7698 -1.2812
2000-01-02 -0.7277 -0.1213 -0.0979
2000-01-03 0.6958 0.3417 0.9597
2000-01-04 -1.1103 -0.6200 0.1497
2000-01-05 -0.7323 0.6877 0.1764
2000-01-06 0.4033 -0.1550 0.3016
2000-01-07 -2.1799 -1.3698 -0.9542
2000-01-08 1.4627 -1.7432 -0.8266

In [84]: type(df['A'])
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→pandas.core.series.Series

In [85]: df - df['A']
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

2000-01-01 00:00:00 2000-01-02 00:00:00 2000-01-03 00:00:00 \

2000-01-01 NaN NaN NaN
2000-01-02 NaN NaN NaN
2000-01-03 NaN NaN NaN
2000-01-04 NaN NaN NaN
2000-01-05 NaN NaN NaN
2000-01-06 NaN NaN NaN
2000-01-07 NaN NaN NaN
2000-01-08 NaN NaN NaN

2000-01-04 00:00:00 ... 2000-01-08 00:00:00 A B C

2000-01-01 NaN ... NaN NaN NaN NaN
2000-01-02 NaN ... NaN NaN NaN NaN
2000-01-03 NaN ... NaN NaN NaN NaN
2000-01-04 NaN ... NaN NaN NaN NaN
2000-01-05 NaN ... NaN NaN NaN NaN
2000-01-06 NaN ... NaN NaN NaN NaN
2000-01-07 NaN ... NaN NaN NaN NaN

8.2. DataFrame 499

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

2000-01-08 NaN ... NaN NaN NaN NaN

[8 rows x 11 columns]

Warning:
df - df['A']

is now deprecated and will be removed in a future release. The preferred way to replicate this behavior is
df.sub(df['A'], axis=0)

For explicit control over the matching and broadcasting behavior, see the section on flexible binary operations.
Operations with scalars are just as you would expect:

In [86]: df * 5 + 2
Out[86]:
A B C
2000-01-01 -4.1341 5.8490 -4.4062
2000-01-02 -1.6385 1.3935 1.5106
2000-01-03 5.4789 3.7087 6.7986
2000-01-04 -3.5517 -1.0999 2.7487
2000-01-05 -1.6617 5.4387 2.8822
2000-01-06 4.0165 1.2252 3.5081
2000-01-07 -8.8993 -4.8492 -2.7710
2000-01-08 9.3135 -6.7158 -2.1330

In [87]: 1 / df
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

A B C
2000-01-01 -0.8151 1.2990 -0.7805
2000-01-02 -1.3742 -8.2436 -10.2163
2000-01-03 1.4372 2.9262 1.0420
2000-01-04 -0.9006 -1.6130 6.6779
2000-01-05 -1.3655 1.4540 5.6675
2000-01-06 2.4795 -6.4537 3.3154
2000-01-07 -0.4587 -0.7300 -1.0480
2000-01-08 0.6837 -0.5737 -1.2098

In [88]: df ** 4
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

A B C
2000-01-01 2.2653 0.3512 2.6948e+00
2000-01-02 0.2804 0.0002 9.1796e-05
2000-01-03 0.2344 0.0136 8.4838e-01
2000-01-04 1.5199 0.1477 5.0286e-04
2000-01-05 0.2876 0.2237 9.6924e-04
2000-01-06 0.0265 0.0006 8.2769e-03
2000-01-07 22.5795 3.5212 8.2903e-01
2000-01-08 4.5774 9.2332 4.6683e-01

Boolean operators work as well:

500 Chapter 8. Intro to Data Structures

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [89]: df1 = pd.DataFrame({'a' : [1, 0, 1], 'b' : [0, 1, 1] }, dtype=bool)

In [90]: df2 = pd.DataFrame({'a' : [0, 1, 1], 'b' : [1, 1, 0] }, dtype=bool)

In [91]: df1 & df2

Out[91]:
a b
0 False False
1 False True
2 True False

In [92]: df1 | df2

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[92]:
a b
0 True True
1 True True
2 True True

In [93]: df1 ^ df2

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

a b
0 True True
1 True False
2 False True

In [94]: -df1
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

a b
0 False True
1 True False
2 False False

8.2.12 Transposing

To transpose, access the T attribute (also the transpose function), similar to an ndarray:

# only show the first 5 rows

In [95]: df[:5].T
Out[95]:
2000-01-01 2000-01-02 2000-01-03 2000-01-04 2000-01-05
A -1.2268 -0.7277 0.6958 -1.1103 -0.7323
B 0.7698 -0.1213 0.3417 -0.6200 0.6877
C -1.2812 -0.0979 0.9597 0.1497 0.1764

8.2.13 DataFrame interoperability with NumPy functions

Elementwise NumPy ufuncs (log, exp, sqrt, ...) and various other NumPy functions can be used with no issues on
DataFrame, assuming the data within are numeric:

In [96]: np.exp(df)
Out[96]:
A B C

8.2. DataFrame 501

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

2000-01-01 0.2932 2.1593 0.2777

2000-01-02 0.4830 0.8858 0.9068
2000-01-03 2.0053 1.4074 2.6110
2000-01-04 0.3294 0.5380 1.1615
2000-01-05 0.4808 1.9892 1.1930
2000-01-06 1.4968 0.8565 1.3521
2000-01-07 0.1131 0.2541 0.3851
2000-01-08 4.3176 0.1750 0.4375

In [97]: np.asarray(df)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

array([[-1.2268, 0.7698, -1.2812],

[-0.7277, -0.1213, -0.0979],
[ 0.6958, 0.3417, 0.9597],
[-1.1103, -0.62 , 0.1497],
[-0.7323, 0.6877, 0.1764],
[ 0.4033, -0.155 , 0.3016],
[-2.1799, -1.3698, -0.9542],
[ 1.4627, -1.7432, -0.8266]])

The dot method on DataFrame implements matrix multiplication:

In [98]: df.T.dot(df)
Out[98]:
A B C
A 11.3419 -0.0598 3.0080
B -0.0598 6.5206 2.0833
C 3.0080 2.0833 4.3105

Similarly, the dot method on Series implements dot product:

In [99]: s1 = pd.Series(np.arange(5,10))

In [100]: s1.dot(s1)
Out[100]: 255

DataFrame is not intended to be a drop-in replacement for ndarray as its indexing semantics are quite different in
places from a matrix.

8.2.14 Console display

Very large DataFrames will be truncated to display them in the console. You can also get a summary using info().
(Here I am reading a CSV version of the baseball dataset from the plyr R package):

In [101]: baseball = pd.read_csv('data/baseball.csv')

In [102]: print(baseball)
id player year stint ... hbp sh sf gidp
0 88641 womacto01 2006 2 ... 0.0 3.0 0.0 0.0
1 88643 schilcu01 2006 1 ... 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
.. ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
98 89533 aloumo01 2007 1 ... 2.0 0.0 3.0 13.0
99 89534 alomasa02 2007 1 ... 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

[100 rows x 23 columns]

502 Chapter 8. Intro to Data Structures

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [103]: baseball.info()
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→<class 'pandas.core.frame.DataFrame'>

RangeIndex: 100 entries, 0 to 99

Data columns (total 23 columns):
id 100 non-null int64
player 100 non-null object
year 100 non-null int64
stint 100 non-null int64
team 100 non-null object
lg 100 non-null object
g 100 non-null int64
ab 100 non-null int64
r 100 non-null int64
h 100 non-null int64
X2b 100 non-null int64
X3b 100 non-null int64
hr 100 non-null int64
rbi 100 non-null float64
sb 100 non-null float64
cs 100 non-null float64
bb 100 non-null int64
so 100 non-null float64
ibb 100 non-null float64
hbp 100 non-null float64
sh 100 non-null float64
sf 100 non-null float64
gidp 100 non-null float64
dtypes: float64(9), int64(11), object(3)
memory usage: 18.0+ KB

However, using to_string will return a string representation of the DataFrame in tabular form, though it won’t
always fit the console width:

In [104]: print(baseball.iloc[-20:, :12].to_string())

id player year stint team lg g ab r h X2b X3b
80 89474 finlest01 2007 1 COL NL 43 94 9 17 3 0
81 89480 embreal01 2007 1 OAK AL 4 0 0 0 0 0
82 89481 edmonji01 2007 1 SLN NL 117 365 39 92 15 2
83 89482 easleda01 2007 1 NYN NL 76 193 24 54 6 0
84 89489 delgaca01 2007 1 NYN NL 139 538 71 139 30 0
85 89493 cormirh01 2007 1 CIN NL 6 0 0 0 0 0
86 89494 coninje01 2007 2 NYN NL 21 41 2 8 2 0
87 89495 coninje01 2007 1 CIN NL 80 215 23 57 11 1
88 89497 clemero02 2007 1 NYA AL 2 2 0 1 0 0
89 89498 claytro01 2007 2 BOS AL 8 6 1 0 0 0
90 89499 claytro01 2007 1 TOR AL 69 189 23 48 14 0
91 89501 cirilje01 2007 2 ARI NL 28 40 6 8 4 0
92 89502 cirilje01 2007 1 MIN AL 50 153 18 40 9 2
93 89521 bondsba01 2007 1 SFN NL 126 340 75 94 14 0
94 89523 biggicr01 2007 1 HOU NL 141 517 68 130 31 3
95 89525 benitar01 2007 2 FLO NL 34 0 0 0 0 0
96 89526 benitar01 2007 1 SFN NL 19 0 0 0 0 0
97 89530 ausmubr01 2007 1 HOU NL 117 349 38 82 16 3
98 89533 aloumo01 2007 1 NYN NL 87 328 51 112 19 1
99 89534 alomasa02 2007 1 NYN NL 8 22 1 3 1 0

8.2. DataFrame 503

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Wide DataFrames will be printed across multiple rows by default:

In [105]: pd.DataFrame(np.random.randn(3, 12))
Out[105]:
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 \
0 -0.345352 1.314232 0.690579 0.995761 2.396780 0.014871 3.357427
1 -2.182937 0.380396 0.084844 0.432390 1.519970 -0.493662 0.600178
2 0.206053 -0.251905 -2.213588 1.063327 1.266143 0.299368 -0.863838

7 8 9 10 11
0 -0.317441 -1.236269 0.896171 -0.487602 -0.082240
1 0.274230 0.132885 -0.023688 2.410179 1.450520
2 0.408204 -1.048089 -0.025747 -0.988387 0.094055

You can change how much to print on a single row by setting the display.width option:
In [106]: pd.set_option('display.width', 40) # default is 80

In [107]: pd.DataFrame(np.random.randn(3, 12))

Out[107]:
0 1 2 \
0 1.262731 1.289997 0.082423
1 1.126203 -0.977349 1.474071
2 0.758527 1.729689 -0.964980

3 4 5 \
0 -0.055758 0.536580 -0.489682
1 -0.064034 -1.282782 0.781836
2 -0.845696 -1.340896 1.846883

6 7 8 \
0 0.369374 -0.034571 -2.484478
1 -1.071357 0.441153 2.353925
2 -1.328865 1.682706 -1.717693

9 10 11
0 -0.281461 0.030711 0.109121
1 0.583787 0.221471 -0.744471
2 0.888782 0.228440 0.901805

You can adjust the max width of the individual columns by setting display.max_colwidth
In [108]: datafile={'filename': ['filename_01','filename_02'],
.....: 'path': ["media/user_name/storage/folder_01/filename_01",
.....: "media/user_name/storage/folder_02/filename_02"]}
.....:

In [109]: pd.set_option('display.max_colwidth',30)

In [110]: pd.DataFrame(datafile)
Out[110]:
filename \
0 filename_01
1 filename_02

path
0 media/user_name/storage/fo...
1 media/user_name/storage/fo...

504 Chapter 8. Intro to Data Structures

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [111]: pd.set_option('display.max_colwidth',100)

In [112]: pd.DataFrame(datafile)
Out[112]:
filename \
0 filename_01
1 filename_02

path
0 media/user_name/storage/folder_01/filename_01
1 media/user_name/storage/folder_02/filename_02

You can also disable this feature via the expand_frame_repr option. This will print the table in one block.

8.2.15 DataFrame column attribute access and IPython completion

If a DataFrame column label is a valid Python variable name, the column can be accessed like attributes:

In [113]: df = pd.DataFrame({'foo1' : np.random.randn(5),

.....: 'foo2' : np.random.randn(5)})
.....:

In [114]: df
Out[114]:
foo1 foo2
0 1.171216 -0.858447
1 0.520260 0.306996
2 -1.197071 -0.028665
3 -1.066969 0.384316
4 -0.303421 1.574159

In [115]: df.foo1
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

0 1.171216
1 0.520260
2 -1.197071
3 -1.066969
4 -0.303421
Name: foo1, dtype: float64

The columns are also connected to the IPython completion mechanism so they can be tab-completed:

In [5]: df.fo<TAB>
df.foo1 df.foo2

8.3 Panel

Warning: In 0.20.0, Panel is deprecated and will be removed in a future version. See the section Deprecate
Panel.

8.3. Panel 505

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Panel is a somewhat less-used, but still important container for 3-dimensional data. The term panel data is derived
from econometrics and is partially responsible for the name pandas: pan(el)-da(ta)-s. The names for the 3 axes are
intended to give some semantic meaning to describing operations involving panel data and, in particular, econometric
analysis of panel data. However, for the strict purposes of slicing and dicing a collection of DataFrame objects, you
may find the axis names slightly arbitrary:
• items: axis 0, each item corresponds to a DataFrame contained inside
• major_axis: axis 1, it is the index (rows) of each of the DataFrames
• minor_axis: axis 2, it is the columns of each of the DataFrames
Construction of Panels works about like you would expect:

8.3.1 From 3D ndarray with optional axis labels

In [116]: wp = pd.Panel(np.random.randn(2, 5, 4), items=['Item1', 'Item2'],

.....: major_axis=pd.date_range('1/1/2000', periods=5),
.....: minor_axis=['A', 'B', 'C', 'D'])
.....:

In [117]: wp
Out[117]:
<class 'pandas.core.panel.Panel'>
Dimensions: 2 (items) x 5 (major_axis) x 4 (minor_axis)
Items axis: Item1 to Item2
Major_axis axis: 2000-01-01 00:00:00 to 2000-01-05 00:00:00
Minor_axis axis: A to D

8.3.2 From dict of DataFrame objects

In [118]: data = {'Item1' : pd.DataFrame(np.random.randn(4, 3)),

.....: 'Item2' : pd.DataFrame(np.random.randn(4, 2))}
.....:

In [119]: pd.Panel(data)
Out[119]:
<class 'pandas.core.panel.Panel'>
Dimensions: 2 (items) x 4 (major_axis) x 3 (minor_axis)
Items axis: Item1 to Item2
Major_axis axis: 0 to 3
Minor_axis axis: 0 to 2

Note that the values in the dict need only be convertible to DataFrame. Thus, they can be any of the other valid
inputs to DataFrame as per above.
One helpful factory method is Panel.from_dict, which takes a dictionary of DataFrames as above, and the
following named parameters:
Parameter Default Description
intersect False drops elements whose indices do not align
orient items use minor to use DataFrames’ columns as panel items
For example, compare to the construction above:

506 Chapter 8. Intro to Data Structures

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [120]: pd.Panel.from_dict(data, orient='minor')

Out[120]:
<class 'pandas.core.panel.Panel'>
Dimensions: 3 (items) x 4 (major_axis) x 2 (minor_axis)
Items axis: 0 to 2
Major_axis axis: 0 to 3
Minor_axis axis: Item1 to Item2

Orient is especially useful for mixed-type DataFrames. If you pass a dict of DataFrame objects with mixed-type
columns, all of the data will get upcasted to dtype=object unless you pass orient='minor':

In [121]: df = pd.DataFrame({'a': ['foo', 'bar', 'baz'],

.....: 'b': np.random.randn(3)})
.....:

In [122]: df
Out[122]:
a b
0 foo -0.308853
1 bar -0.681087
2 baz 0.377953

In [123]: data = {'item1': df, 'item2': df}

In [124]: panel = pd.Panel.from_dict(data, orient='minor')

In [125]: panel['a']
Out[125]:
item1 item2
0 foo foo
1 bar bar
2 baz baz

In [126]: panel['b']
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[126]:
item1 item2
0 -0.308853 -0.308853
1 -0.681087 -0.681087
2 0.377953 0.377953

In [127]: panel['b'].dtypes
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

item1 float64
item2 float64
dtype: object

Note: Panel, being less commonly used than Series and DataFrame, has been slightly neglected feature-wise. A
number of methods and options available in DataFrame are not available in Panel.

8.3.3 From DataFrame using to_panel method

to_panel converts a DataFrame with a two-level index to a Panel.

8.3. Panel 507

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [128]: midx = pd.MultiIndex(levels=[['one', 'two'], ['x','y']], labels=[[1,1,0,0],

˓→[1,0,1,0]])

In [129]: df = pd.DataFrame({'A' : [1, 2, 3, 4], 'B': [5, 6, 7, 8]}, index=midx)

In [130]: df.to_panel()
Out[130]:
<class 'pandas.core.panel.Panel'>
Dimensions: 2 (items) x 2 (major_axis) x 2 (minor_axis)
Items axis: A to B
Major_axis axis: one to two
Minor_axis axis: x to y

8.3.4 Item selection / addition / deletion

Similar to DataFrame functioning as a dict of Series, Panel is like a dict of DataFrames:

In [131]: wp['Item1']
Out[131]:
A B C D
2000-01-01 1.588931 0.476720 0.473424 -0.242861
2000-01-02 -0.014805 -0.284319 0.650776 -1.461665
2000-01-03 -1.137707 -0.891060 -0.693921 1.613616
2000-01-04 0.464000 0.227371 -0.496922 0.306389
2000-01-05 -2.290613 -1.134623 -1.561819 -0.260838

In [132]: wp['Item3'] = wp['Item1'] / wp['Item2']

The API for insertion and deletion is the same as for DataFrame. And as with DataFrame, if the item is a valid python
identifier, you can access it as an attribute and tab-complete it in IPython.

8.3.5 Transposing

A Panel can be rearranged using its transpose method (which does not make a copy by default unless the data are
heterogeneous):

In [133]: wp.transpose(2, 0, 1)
Out[133]:
<class 'pandas.core.panel.Panel'>
Dimensions: 4 (items) x 3 (major_axis) x 5 (minor_axis)
Items axis: A to D
Major_axis axis: Item1 to Item3
Minor_axis axis: 2000-01-01 00:00:00 to 2000-01-05 00:00:00

8.3.6 Indexing / Selection

Operation Syntax Result

Select item wp[item] DataFrame
Get slice at major_axis label wp.major_xs(val) DataFrame
Get slice at minor_axis label wp.minor_xs(val) DataFrame
For example, using the earlier example data, we could do:

508 Chapter 8. Intro to Data Structures

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [134]: wp['Item1']
Out[134]:
A B C D
2000-01-01 1.588931 0.476720 0.473424 -0.242861
2000-01-02 -0.014805 -0.284319 0.650776 -1.461665
2000-01-03 -1.137707 -0.891060 -0.693921 1.613616
2000-01-04 0.464000 0.227371 -0.496922 0.306389
2000-01-05 -2.290613 -1.134623 -1.561819 -0.260838

In [135]: wp.major_xs(wp.major_axis[2])
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

Item1 Item2 Item3

A -1.137707 0.800193 -1.421791
B -0.891060 0.782098 -1.139320
C -0.693921 -1.069094 0.649074
D 1.613616 -1.099248 -1.467927

In [136]: wp.minor_axis
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→Index(['A', 'B', 'C', 'D'], dtype='object')

In [137]: wp.minor_xs('C')
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

Item1 Item2 Item3

2000-01-01 0.473424 -0.902937 -0.524316
2000-01-02 0.650776 -1.144073 -0.568824
2000-01-03 -0.693921 -1.069094 0.649074
2000-01-04 -0.496922 0.661084 -0.751678
2000-01-05 -1.561819 -1.056652 1.478083

8.3.7 Squeezing

Another way to change the dimensionality of an object is to squeeze a 1-len object, similar to wp['Item1']

In [138]: wp.reindex(items=['Item1']).squeeze()
Out[138]:
A B C D
2000-01-01 1.588931 0.476720 0.473424 -0.242861
2000-01-02 -0.014805 -0.284319 0.650776 -1.461665
2000-01-03 -1.137707 -0.891060 -0.693921 1.613616
2000-01-04 0.464000 0.227371 -0.496922 0.306389
2000-01-05 -2.290613 -1.134623 -1.561819 -0.260838

In [139]: wp.reindex(items=['Item1'], minor=['B']).squeeze()

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

2000-01-01 0.476720
2000-01-02 -0.284319
2000-01-03 -0.891060
2000-01-04 0.227371
2000-01-05 -1.134623
Freq: D, Name: B, dtype: float64

8.3. Panel 509

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

8.3.8 Conversion to DataFrame

A Panel can be represented in 2D form as a hierarchically indexed DataFrame. See the section hierarchical indexing
for more on this. To convert a Panel to a DataFrame, use the to_frame method:

In [140]: panel = pd.Panel(np.random.randn(3, 5, 4), items=['one', 'two', 'three'],

.....: major_axis=pd.date_range('1/1/2000', periods=5),
.....: minor_axis=['a', 'b', 'c', 'd'])
.....:

In [141]: panel.to_frame()
Out[141]:
one two three
major minor
2000-01-01 a 0.493672 1.219492 -1.290493
b -2.461467 0.062297 0.787872
c -1.553902 -0.110388 1.515707
d 2.015523 -1.184357 -0.276487
2000-01-02 a -1.833722 -0.558081 -0.223762
b 1.771740 0.077849 1.397431
c -0.670027 0.629498 1.503874
d 0.049307 -1.035260 -0.478905
2000-01-03 a -0.521493 -0.438229 -0.135950
b -3.201750 0.503703 -0.730327
c 0.792716 0.413086 -0.033277
d 0.146111 -1.139050 0.281151
2000-01-04 a 1.903247 0.660342 -1.298915
b -0.747169 0.464794 -2.819487
c -0.309038 -0.309337 -0.851985
d 0.393876 -0.649593 -1.106952
2000-01-05 a 1.861468 0.683758 -0.937731
b 0.936527 -0.643834 -1.537770
c 1.255746 0.421287 0.555759
d -2.655452 1.032814 -2.277282

8.4 Deprecate Panel

Over the last few years, pandas has increased in both breadth and depth, with new features, datatype support, and
manipulation routines. As a result, supporting efficient indexing and functional routines for Series, DataFrame
and Panel has contributed to an increasingly fragmented and difficult-to-understand codebase.
The 3-D structure of a Panel is much less common for many types of data analysis, than the 1-D of the Series or
the 2-D of the DataFrame. Going forward it makes sense for pandas to focus on these areas exclusively.
Oftentimes, one can simply use a MultiIndex DataFrame for easily working with higher dimensional data.
In additon, the xarray package was built from the ground up, specifically in order to support the multi-dimensional
analysis that is one of Panel s main usecases. Here is a link to the xarray panel-transition documentation.

In [142]: p = tm.makePanel()

In [143]: p
Out[143]:
<class 'pandas.core.panel.Panel'>
Dimensions: 3 (items) x 30 (major_axis) x 4 (minor_axis)
Items axis: ItemA to ItemC

510 Chapter 8. Intro to Data Structures

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Major_axis axis: 2000-01-03 00:00:00 to 2000-02-11 00:00:00

Minor_axis axis: A to D

Convert to a MultiIndex DataFrame

In [144]: p.to_frame()
Out[144]:
ItemA ItemB ItemC
major minor
2000-01-03 A -0.390201 -1.624062 -0.605044
B 1.562443 0.483103 0.583129
C -1.085663 0.768159 -0.273458
D 0.136235 -0.021763 -0.700648
2000-01-04 A 1.207122 -0.758514 0.878404
B 0.763264 0.061495 -0.876690
C -1.114738 0.225441 -0.335117
D 0.886313 -0.047152 -1.166607
2000-01-05 A 0.178690 -0.560859 -0.921485
B 0.162027 0.240767 -1.919354
C -0.058216 0.543294 -0.476268
D -1.350722 0.088472 -0.367236
2000-01-06 A -1.004168 -0.589005 -0.200312
B -0.902704 0.782413 -0.572707
C -0.486768 0.771931 -1.765602
D -0.886348 -0.857435 1.296674
2000-01-07 A -1.377627 -1.070678 0.522423
B 1.106010 0.628462 -1.736484
C 1.685148 -0.968145 0.578223
D -1.013316 -2.503786 0.641385
2000-01-10 A 0.499281 -1.681101 0.722511
B -0.199234 -0.880627 -1.335113
C 0.112572 -1.176383 0.242697
D 1.920906 -1.058041 -0.779432
2000-01-11 A -1.405256 0.403776 -1.702486
B 0.458265 0.777575 -1.244471
C -1.495309 -3.192716 0.208129
D -0.388231 -0.657981 0.602456
2000-01-12 A 0.162565 0.609862 -0.709535
B 0.491048 -0.779367 0.347339
... ... ... ...
2000-02-02 C -0.303961 -0.463752 -0.288962
D 0.104050 1.116086 0.506445
2000-02-03 A -2.338595 -0.581967 -0.801820
B -0.557697 -0.033731 -0.176382
C 0.625555 -0.055289 0.875359
D 0.174068 -0.443915 1.626369
2000-02-04 A -0.374279 -1.233862 -0.915751
B 0.381353 -1.108761 -1.970108
C -0.059268 -0.360853 -0.614618
D -0.439461 -0.200491 0.429518
2000-02-07 A -2.359958 -3.520876 -0.288156
B 1.337122 -0.314399 -1.044208
C 0.249698 0.728197 0.565375
D -0.741343 1.092633 0.013910
2000-02-08 A -1.157886 0.516870 -1.199945
B -1.531095 -0.860626 -0.821179
C 1.103949 1.326768 0.068184
D -0.079673 -1.675194 -0.458272

8.4. Deprecate Panel 511

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

2000-02-09 A -0.551865 0.343125 -0.072869

B 1.331458 0.370397 -1.914267
C -1.087532 0.208927 0.788871
D -0.922875 0.437234 -1.531004
2000-02-10 A 1.592673 2.137827 -1.828740
B -0.571329 -1.761442 -0.826439
C 1.998044 0.292058 -0.280343
D 0.303638 0.388254 -0.500569
2000-02-11 A 1.559318 0.452429 -1.716981
B -0.026671 -0.899454 0.124808
C -0.244548 -2.019610 0.931536
D -0.917368 0.479630 0.870690

[120 rows x 3 columns]

Alternatively, one can convert to an xarray DataArray.

In [145]: p.to_xarray()
Out[145]:
<xarray.DataArray (items: 3, major_axis: 30, minor_axis: 4)>
array([[[-0.390201, 1.562443, -1.085663, 0.136235],
[ 1.207122, 0.763264, -1.114738, 0.886313],
...,
[ 1.592673, -0.571329, 1.998044, 0.303638],
[ 1.559318, -0.026671, -0.244548, -0.917368]],

[[-1.624062, 0.483103, 0.768159, -0.021763],

[-0.758514, 0.061495, 0.225441, -0.047152],
...,
[ 2.137827, -1.761442, 0.292058, 0.388254],
[ 0.452429, -0.899454, -2.01961 , 0.47963 ]],

[[-0.605044, 0.583129, -0.273458, -0.700648],

[ 0.878404, -0.87669 , -0.335117, -1.166607],
...,
[-1.82874 , -0.826439, -0.280343, -0.500569],
[-1.716981, 0.124808, 0.931536, 0.87069 ]]])
Coordinates:
* items (items) object 'ItemA' 'ItemB' 'ItemC'
* major_axis (major_axis) datetime64[ns] 2000-01-03 2000-01-04 2000-01-05 ...
* minor_axis (minor_axis) object 'A' 'B' 'C' 'D'

You can see the full-documentation for the xarray package.

8.5 Panel4D and PanelND (Deprecated)

Warning: In 0.19.0 Panel4D and PanelND are deprecated and will be removed in a future version. The
recommended way to represent these types of n-dimensional data are with the xarray package. Pandas provides a
to_xarray() method to automate this conversion.

See the docs of a previous version for documentation on these objects.

512 Chapter 8. Intro to Data Structures

 CHAPTER

NINE

ESSENTIAL BASIC FUNCTIONALITY

Here we discuss a lot of the essential functionality common to the pandas data structures. Here’s how to create some
of the objects used in the examples from the previous section:

In [1]: index = pd.date_range('1/1/2000', periods=8)

In [2]: s = pd.Series(np.random.randn(5), index=['a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'e'])

In [3]: df = pd.DataFrame(np.random.randn(8, 3), index=index,

...: columns=['A', 'B', 'C'])
...:

In [4]: wp = pd.Panel(np.random.randn(2, 5, 4), items=['Item1', 'Item2'],

...: major_axis=pd.date_range('1/1/2000', periods=5),
...: minor_axis=['A', 'B', 'C', 'D'])
...:

9.1 Head and Tail

To view a small sample of a Series or DataFrame object, use the head() and tail() methods. The default number
of elements to display is five, but you may pass a custom number.

In [5]: long_series = pd.Series(np.random.randn(1000))

In [6]: long_series.head()
Out[6]:
0 0.229453
1 0.304418
2 0.736135
3 -0.859631
4 -0.424100
dtype: float64

In [7]: long_series.tail(3)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[7]:
˓→

997 -0.351587
998 1.136249
999 -0.448789
dtype: float64

513
pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

9.2 Attributes and the raw ndarray(s)

pandas objects have a number of attributes enabling you to access the metadata
• shape: gives the axis dimensions of the object, consistent with ndarray
• Axis labels
– Series: index (only axis)
– DataFrame: index (rows) and columns
– Panel: items, major_axis, and minor_axis
Note, these attributes can be safely assigned to!

In [8]: df[:2]
Out[8]:
A B C
2000-01-01 0.048869 -1.360687 -0.47901
2000-01-02 -0.859661 -0.231595 -0.52775

In [9]: df.columns = [x.lower() for x in df.columns]

In [10]: df
Out[10]:
a b c
2000-01-01 0.048869 -1.360687 -0.479010
2000-01-02 -0.859661 -0.231595 -0.527750
2000-01-03 -1.296337 0.150680 0.123836
2000-01-04 0.571764 1.555563 -0.823761
2000-01-05 0.535420 -1.032853 1.469725
2000-01-06 1.304124 1.449735 0.203109
2000-01-07 -1.032011 0.969818 -0.962723
2000-01-08 1.382083 -0.938794 0.669142

To get the actual data inside a data structure, one need only access the values property:

In [11]: s.values
Out[11]: array([-1.9339, 0.3773, 0.7341, 2.1416, -0.0112])

In [12]: df.values
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[12]:
array([[ 0.0489, -1.3607, -0.479 ],
[-0.8597, -0.2316, -0.5278],
[-1.2963, 0.1507, 0.1238],
[ 0.5718, 1.5556, -0.8238],
[ 0.5354, -1.0329, 1.4697],
[ 1.3041, 1.4497, 0.2031],
[-1.032 , 0.9698, -0.9627],
[ 1.3821, -0.9388, 0.6691]])

In [13]: wp.values
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

array([[[-0.4336, -0.2736, 0.6804, -0.3084],

[-0.2761, -1.8212, -1.9936, -1.9274],
[-2.0279, 1.625 , 0.5511, 3.0593],
[ 0.4553, -0.0307, 0.9357, 1.0612],
[-2.1079, 0.1999, 0.3236, -0.6416]],

514 Chapter 9. Essential Basic Functionality

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

[[-0.5875, 0.0539, 0.1949, -0.382 ],

[ 0.3186, 2.0891, -0.7283, -0.0903],
[-0.7482, 1.3189, -2.0298, 0.7927],
[ 0.461 , -0.5427, -0.3054, -0.4792],
[ 0.095 , -0.2701, -0.7071, -0.7739]]])

If a DataFrame or Panel contains homogeneously-typed data, the ndarray can actually be modified in-place, and the
changes will be reflected in the data structure. For heterogeneous data (e.g. some of the DataFrame’s columns are not
all the same dtype), this will not be the case. The values attribute itself, unlike the axis labels, cannot be assigned to.

Note: When working with heterogeneous data, the dtype of the resulting ndarray will be chosen to accommodate all
of the data involved. For example, if strings are involved, the result will be of object dtype. If there are only floats and
integers, the resulting array will be of float dtype.

9.3 Accelerated operations

pandas has support for accelerating certain types of binary numerical and boolean operations using the numexpr
library and the bottleneck libraries.
These libraries are especially useful when dealing with large data sets, and provide large speedups. numexpr uses
smart chunking, caching, and multiple cores. bottleneck is a set of specialized cython routines that are especially
fast when dealing with arrays that have nans.
Here is a sample (using 100 column x 100,000 row DataFrames):
Operation 0.11.0 (ms) Prior Version (ms) Ratio to Prior
df1 > df2 13.32 125.35 0.1063
df1 * df2 21.71 36.63 0.5928
df1 + df2 22.04 36.50 0.6039
You are highly encouraged to install both libraries. See the section Recommended Dependencies for more installation
info.
These are both enabled to be used by default, you can control this by setting the options:
New in version 0.20.0.

pd.set_option('compute.use_bottleneck', False)
pd.set_option('compute.use_numexpr', False)

9.4 Flexible binary operations

With binary operations between pandas data structures, there are two key points of interest:
• Broadcasting behavior between higher- (e.g. DataFrame) and lower-dimensional (e.g. Series) objects.
• Missing data in computations
We will demonstrate how to manage these issues independently, though they can be handled simultaneously.

9.3. Accelerated operations 515

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

9.4.1 Matching / broadcasting behavior

DataFrame has the methods add(), sub(), mul(), div() and related functions radd(), rsub(), ... for carry-
ing out binary operations. For broadcasting behavior, Series input is of primary interest. Using these functions, you
can use to either match on the index or columns via the axis keyword:

In [14]: df = pd.DataFrame({'one' : pd.Series(np.random.randn(3), index=['a', 'b', 'c

˓→']),

....: 'two' : pd.Series(np.random.randn(4), index=['a', 'b', 'c

˓→', 'd']),

....: 'three' : pd.Series(np.random.randn(3), index=['b', 'c',

˓→'d'])})

....:

In [15]: df
Out[15]:
one three two
a -1.101558 NaN 1.124472
b -0.177289 -0.634293 2.487104
c 0.462215 1.931194 -0.486066
d NaN -1.222918 -0.456288

In [16]: row = df.iloc[1]

In [17]: column = df['two']

In [18]: df.sub(row, axis='columns')

Out[18]:
one three two
a -0.924269 NaN -1.362632
b 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000
c 0.639504 2.565487 -2.973170
d NaN -0.588625 -2.943392

In [19]: df.sub(row, axis=1)

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

one three two

a -0.924269 NaN -1.362632
b 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000
c 0.639504 2.565487 -2.973170
d NaN -0.588625 -2.943392

In [20]: df.sub(column, axis='index')

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

one three two

a -2.226031 NaN 0.0
b -2.664393 -3.121397 0.0
c 0.948280 2.417260 0.0
d NaN -0.766631 0.0

In [21]: df.sub(column, axis=0)

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

one three two

a -2.226031 NaN 0.0
b -2.664393 -3.121397 0.0

516 Chapter 9. Essential Basic Functionality

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

c 0.948280 2.417260 0.0

d NaN -0.766631 0.0

Furthermore you can align a level of a multi-indexed DataFrame with a Series.

In [22]: dfmi = df.copy()

In [23]: dfmi.index = pd.MultiIndex.from_tuples([(1,'a'),(1,'b'),(1,'c'),(2,'a')],

....: names=['first','second'])
....:

In [24]: dfmi.sub(column, axis=0, level='second')

Out[24]:
one three two
first second
1 a -2.226031 NaN 0.00000
b -2.664393 -3.121397 0.00000
c 0.948280 2.417260 0.00000
2 a NaN -2.347391 -1.58076

With Panel, describing the matching behavior is a bit more difficult, so the arithmetic methods instead (and perhaps
confusingly?) give you the option to specify the broadcast axis. For example, suppose we wished to demean the data
over a particular axis. This can be accomplished by taking the mean over an axis and broadcasting over the same axis:

In [25]: major_mean = wp.mean(axis='major')

In [26]: major_mean
Out[26]:
Item1 Item2
A -0.878036 -0.092218
B -0.060128 0.529811
C 0.099453 -0.715139
D 0.248599 -0.186535

In [27]: wp.sub(major_mean, axis='major')

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

<class 'pandas.core.panel.Panel'>
Dimensions: 2 (items) x 5 (major_axis) x 4 (minor_axis)
Items axis: Item1 to Item2
Major_axis axis: 2000-01-01 00:00:00 to 2000-01-05 00:00:00
Minor_axis axis: A to D

And similarly for axis="items" and axis="minor".

Note: I could be convinced to make the axis argument in the DataFrame methods match the broadcasting behavior of
Panel. Though it would require a transition period so users can change their code...

Series and Index also support the divmod() builtin. This function takes the floor division and modulo operation at
the same time returning a two-tuple of the same type as the left hand side. For example:

In [28]: s = pd.Series(np.arange(10))

In [29]: s
Out[29]:
0 0

9.4. Flexible binary operations 517

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

1 1
2 2
3 3
4 4
5 5
6 6
7 7
8 8
9 9
dtype: int64

In [30]: div, rem = divmod(s, 3)

In [31]: div
Out[31]:
0 0
1 0
2 0
3 1
4 1
5 1
6 2
7 2
8 2
9 3
dtype: int64

In [32]: rem
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[32]:
˓→

0 0
1 1
2 2
3 0
4 1
5 2
6 0
7 1
8 2
9 0
dtype: int64

In [33]: idx = pd.Index(np.arange(10))

In [34]: idx
Out[34]: Int64Index([0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9], dtype='int64')

In [35]: div, rem = divmod(idx, 3)

In [36]: div
Out[36]: Int64Index([0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 1, 2, 2, 2, 3], dtype='int64')

In [37]: rem
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[37]:
˓→Int64Index([0, 1, 2, 0, 1, 2, 0, 1, 2, 0], dtype='int64')

We can also do elementwise divmod():

518 Chapter 9. Essential Basic Functionality

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [38]: div, rem = divmod(s, [2, 2, 3, 3, 4, 4, 5, 5, 6, 6])

In [39]: div
Out[39]:
0 0
1 0
2 0
3 1
4 1
5 1
6 1
7 1
8 1
9 1
dtype: int64

In [40]: rem
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[40]:
˓→

0 0
1 1
2 2
3 0
4 0
5 1
6 1
7 2
8 2
9 3
dtype: int64

9.4.2 Missing data / operations with fill values

In Series and DataFrame (though not yet in Panel), the arithmetic functions have the option of inputting a fill_value,
namely a value to substitute when at most one of the values at a location are missing. For example, when adding two
DataFrame objects, you may wish to treat NaN as 0 unless both DataFrames are missing that value, in which case the
result will be NaN (you can later replace NaN with some other value using fillna if you wish).

In [41]: df
Out[41]:
one three two
a -1.101558 NaN 1.124472
b -0.177289 -0.634293 2.487104
c 0.462215 1.931194 -0.486066
d NaN -1.222918 -0.456288

In [42]: df2
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

one three two

a -1.101558 1.000000 1.124472
b -0.177289 -0.634293 2.487104
c 0.462215 1.931194 -0.486066
d NaN -1.222918 -0.456288

In [43]: df + df2

9.4. Flexible binary operations 519

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

one three two

a -2.203116 NaN 2.248945
b -0.354579 -1.268586 4.974208
c 0.924429 3.862388 -0.972131
d NaN -2.445837 -0.912575

In [44]: df.add(df2, fill_value=0)

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

one three two

a -2.203116 1.000000 2.248945
b -0.354579 -1.268586 4.974208
c 0.924429 3.862388 -0.972131
d NaN -2.445837 -0.912575

9.4.3 Flexible Comparisons

Series and DataFrame have the binary comparison methods eq, ne, lt, gt, le, and ge whose behavior is analogous
to the binary arithmetic operations described above:
In [45]: df.gt(df2)
Out[45]:
one three two
a False False False
b False False False
c False False False
d False False False

In [46]: df2.ne(df)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

one three two

a False True False
b False False False
c False False False
d True False False

These operations produce a pandas object the same type as the left-hand-side input that if of dtype bool. These
boolean objects can be used in indexing operations, see here

9.4.4 Boolean Reductions

You can apply the reductions: empty, any(), all(), and bool() to provide a way to summarize a boolean result.
In [47]: (df > 0).all()
Out[47]:
one False
three False
two False
dtype: bool

In [48]: (df > 0).any()

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[48]:

520 Chapter 9. Essential Basic Functionality

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

one True
three True
two True
dtype: bool

You can reduce to a final boolean value.

In [49]: (df > 0).any().any()

Out[49]: True

You can test if a pandas object is empty, via the empty property.

In [50]: df.empty
Out[50]: False

In [51]: pd.DataFrame(columns=list('ABC')).empty
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[51]: True

To evaluate single-element pandas objects in a boolean context, use the method bool():

In [52]: pd.Series([True]).bool()
Out[52]: True

In [53]: pd.Series([False]).bool()
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[53]: False

In [54]: pd.DataFrame([[True]]).bool()
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[54]: True

In [55]: pd.DataFrame([[False]]).bool()
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[55]: False

Warning: You might be tempted to do the following:

>>> if df:
...

Or
>>> df and df2

These both will raise as you are trying to compare multiple values.
ValueError: The truth value of an array is ambiguous. Use a.empty, a.any() or a.
˓→all().

See gotchas for a more detailed discussion.

9.4.5 Comparing if objects are equivalent

Often you may find there is more than one way to compute the same result. As a simple example, consider df+df and
df*2. To test that these two computations produce the same result, given the tools shown above, you might imagine
using (df+df == df*2).all(). But in fact, this expression is False:

9.4. Flexible binary operations 521

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [56]: df+df == df*2

Out[56]:
one three two
a True False True
b True True True
c True True True
d False True True

In [57]: (df+df == df*2).all()

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

one False
three False
two True
dtype: bool

Notice that the boolean DataFrame df+df == df*2 contains some False values! That is because NaNs do not
compare as equals:
In [58]: np.nan == np.nan
Out[58]: False

So, NDFrames (such as Series, DataFrames, and Panels) have an equals() method for testing equality, with NaNs
in corresponding locations treated as equal.
In [59]: (df+df).equals(df*2)
Out[59]: True

Note that the Series or DataFrame index needs to be in the same order for equality to be True:
In [60]: df1 = pd.DataFrame({'col':['foo', 0, np.nan]})

In [61]: df2 = pd.DataFrame({'col':[np.nan, 0, 'foo']}, index=[2,1,0])

In [62]: df1.equals(df2)
Out[62]: False

In [63]: df1.equals(df2.sort_index())
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[63]: True

9.4.6 Comparing array-like objects

You can conveniently do element-wise comparisons when comparing a pandas data structure with a scalar value:
In [64]: pd.Series(['foo', 'bar', 'baz']) == 'foo'
Out[64]:
0 True
1 False
2 False
dtype: bool

In [65]: pd.Index(['foo', 'bar', 'baz']) == 'foo'

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[65]: array([ True, False,
˓→False], dtype=bool)

Pandas also handles element-wise comparisons between different array-like objects of the same length:

522 Chapter 9. Essential Basic Functionality

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [66]: pd.Series(['foo', 'bar', 'baz']) == pd.Index(['foo', 'bar', 'qux'])

Out[66]:
0 True
1 True
2 False
dtype: bool

In [67]: pd.Series(['foo', 'bar', 'baz']) == np.array(['foo', 'bar', 'qux'])

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[67]:
0 True
1 True
2 False
dtype: bool

Trying to compare Index or Series objects of different lengths will raise a ValueError:
In [55]: pd.Series(['foo', 'bar', 'baz']) == pd.Series(['foo', 'bar'])
ValueError: Series lengths must match to compare

In [56]: pd.Series(['foo', 'bar', 'baz']) == pd.Series(['foo'])

ValueError: Series lengths must match to compare

Note that this is different from the numpy behavior where a comparison can be broadcast:
In [68]: np.array([1, 2, 3]) == np.array([2])
Out[68]: array([False, True, False], dtype=bool)

or it can return False if broadcasting can not be done:

In [69]: np.array([1, 2, 3]) == np.array([1, 2])
Out[69]: False

9.4.7 Combining overlapping data sets

A problem occasionally arising is the combination of two similar data sets where values in one are preferred over the
other. An example would be two data series representing a particular economic indicator where one is considered to
be of “higher quality”. However, the lower quality series might extend further back in history or have more complete
data coverage. As such, we would like to combine two DataFrame objects where missing values in one DataFrame
are conditionally filled with like-labeled values from the other DataFrame. The function implementing this operation
is combine_first(), which we illustrate:
In [70]: df1 = pd.DataFrame({'A' : [1., np.nan, 3., 5., np.nan],
....: 'B' : [np.nan, 2., 3., np.nan, 6.]})
....:

In [71]: df2 = pd.DataFrame({'A' : [5., 2., 4., np.nan, 3., 7.],

....: 'B' : [np.nan, np.nan, 3., 4., 6., 8.]})
....:

In [72]: df1
Out[72]:
A B
0 1.0 NaN
1 NaN 2.0
2 3.0 3.0
3 5.0 NaN

9.4. Flexible binary operations 523

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

4 NaN 6.0

In [73]: df2
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[73]:
˓→

A B
0 5.0 NaN
1 2.0 NaN
2 4.0 3.0
3 NaN 4.0
4 3.0 6.0
5 7.0 8.0

In [74]: df1.combine_first(df2)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

A B
0 1.0 NaN
1 2.0 2.0
2 3.0 3.0
3 5.0 4.0
4 3.0 6.0
5 7.0 8.0

9.4.8 General DataFrame Combine

The combine_first() method above calls the more general DataFrame method combine(). This method takes
another DataFrame and a combiner function, aligns the input DataFrame and then passes the combiner function pairs
of Series (i.e., columns whose names are the same).
So, for instance, to reproduce combine_first() as above:

In [75]: combiner = lambda x, y: np.where(pd.isna(x), y, x)

In [76]: df1.combine(df2, combiner)

Out[76]:
A B
0 1.0 NaN
1 2.0 2.0
2 3.0 3.0
3 5.0 4.0
4 3.0 6.0
5 7.0 8.0

9.5 Descriptive statistics

A large number of methods for computing descriptive statistics and other related operations on Series, DataFrame,
and Panel. Most of these are aggregations (hence producing a lower-dimensional result) like sum(), mean(), and
quantile(), but some of them, like cumsum() and cumprod(), produce an object of the same size. Generally
speaking, these methods take an axis argument, just like ndarray.{sum, std, ...}, but the axis can be specified by name
or integer:
• Series: no axis argument needed

524 Chapter 9. Essential Basic Functionality

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• DataFrame: “index” (axis=0, default), “columns” (axis=1)

• Panel: “items” (axis=0), “major” (axis=1, default), “minor” (axis=2)
For example:

In [77]: df
Out[77]:
one three two
a -1.101558 NaN 1.124472
b -0.177289 -0.634293 2.487104
c 0.462215 1.931194 -0.486066
d NaN -1.222918 -0.456288

In [78]: df.mean(0)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

one -0.272211
three 0.024661
two 0.667306
dtype: float64

In [79]: df.mean(1)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

a 0.011457
b 0.558507
c 0.635781
d -0.839603
dtype: float64

All such methods have a skipna option signaling whether to exclude missing data (True by default):

In [80]: df.sum(0, skipna=False)

Out[80]:
one NaN
three NaN
two 2.669223
dtype: float64

In [81]: df.sum(axis=1, skipna=True)

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[81]:
˓→

a 0.022914
b 1.675522
c 1.907343
d -1.679206
dtype: float64

Combined with the broadcasting / arithmetic behavior, one can describe various statistical procedures, like standard-
ization (rendering data zero mean and standard deviation 1), very concisely:

In [82]: ts_stand = (df - df.mean()) / df.std()

In [83]: ts_stand.std()
Out[83]:
one 1.0
three 1.0
two 1.0

9.5. Descriptive statistics 525

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

dtype: float64

In [84]: xs_stand = df.sub(df.mean(1), axis=0).div(df.std(1), axis=0)

In [85]: xs_stand.std(1)
Out[85]:
a 1.0
b 1.0
c 1.0
d 1.0
dtype: float64

Note that methods like cumsum() and cumprod() preserve the location of NaN values. This is somewhat different
from expanding() and rolling(). For more details please see this note.

In [86]: df.cumsum()
Out[86]:
one three two
a -1.101558 NaN 1.124472
b -1.278848 -0.634293 3.611576
c -0.816633 1.296901 3.125511
d NaN 0.073983 2.669223

Here is a quick reference summary table of common functions. Each also takes an optional level parameter which
applies only if the object has a hierarchical index.
Function Description
count Number of non-NA observations
sum Sum of values
mean Mean of values
mad Mean absolute deviation
median Arithmetic median of values
min Minimum
max Maximum
mode Mode
abs Absolute Value
prod Product of values
std Bessel-corrected sample standard deviation
var Unbiased variance
sem Standard error of the mean
skew Sample skewness (3rd moment)
kurt Sample kurtosis (4th moment)
quantile Sample quantile (value at %)
cumsum Cumulative sum
cumprod Cumulative product
cummax Cumulative maximum
cummin Cumulative minimum
Note that by chance some NumPy methods, like mean, std, and sum, will exclude NAs on Series input by default:

In [87]: np.mean(df['one'])
Out[87]: -0.27221094480450114

In [88]: np.mean(df['one'].values)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[88]: nan

526 Chapter 9. Essential Basic Functionality

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Series also has a method nunique() which will return the number of unique non-NA values:
In [89]: series = pd.Series(np.random.randn(500))

In [90]: series[20:500] = np.nan

In [91]: series[10:20] = 5

In [92]: series.nunique()
Out[92]: 11

9.5.1 Summarizing data: describe

There is a convenient describe() function which computes a variety of summary statistics about a Series or the
columns of a DataFrame (excluding NAs of course):
In [93]: series = pd.Series(np.random.randn(1000))

In [94]: series[::2] = np.nan

In [95]: series.describe()
Out[95]:
count 500.000000
mean -0.032127
std 1.067484
min -3.463789
25% -0.725523
50% -0.053230
75% 0.679790
max 3.120271
dtype: float64

In [96]: frame = pd.DataFrame(np.random.randn(1000, 5), columns=['a', 'b', 'c', 'd',

˓→'e'])

In [97]: frame.iloc[::2] = np.nan

In [98]: frame.describe()
Out[98]:
a b c d e
count 500.000000 500.000000 500.000000 500.000000 500.000000
mean -0.045109 -0.052045 0.024520 0.006117 0.001141
std 1.029268 1.002320 1.042793 1.040134 1.005207
min -2.915767 -3.294023 -3.610499 -2.907036 -3.010899
25% -0.763783 -0.720389 -0.609600 -0.665896 -0.682900
50% -0.086033 -0.048843 0.006093 0.043191 -0.001651
75% 0.663399 0.620980 0.728382 0.735973 0.656439
max 3.400646 2.925597 3.416896 3.331522 3.007143

You can select specific percentiles to include in the output:

In [99]: series.describe(percentiles=[.05, .25, .75, .95])
Out[99]:
count 500.000000
mean -0.032127
std 1.067484
min -3.463789

9.5. Descriptive statistics 527

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

5% -1.733545
25% -0.725523
50% -0.053230
75% 0.679790
95% 1.854383
max 3.120271
dtype: float64

By default, the median is always included.

For a non-numerical Series object, describe() will give a simple summary of the number of unique values and
most frequently occurring values:

In [100]: s = pd.Series(['a', 'a', 'b', 'b', 'a', 'a', np.nan, 'c', 'd', 'a'])

In [101]: s.describe()
Out[101]:
count 9
unique 4
top a
freq 5
dtype: object

Note that on a mixed-type DataFrame object, describe() will restrict the summary to include only numerical
columns or, if none are, only categorical columns:

In [102]: frame = pd.DataFrame({'a': ['Yes', 'Yes', 'No', 'No'], 'b': range(4)})

In [103]: frame.describe()
Out[103]:
b
count 4.000000
mean 1.500000
std 1.290994
min 0.000000
25% 0.750000
50% 1.500000
75% 2.250000
max 3.000000

This behaviour can be controlled by providing a list of types as include/exclude arguments. The special value
all can also be used:

In [104]: frame.describe(include=['object'])
Out[104]:
a
count 4
unique 2
top Yes
freq 2

In [105]: frame.describe(include=['number'])
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[105]:
b
count 4.000000
mean 1.500000
std 1.290994
min 0.000000

528 Chapter 9. Essential Basic Functionality

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

25% 0.750000
50% 1.500000
75% 2.250000
max 3.000000

In [106]: frame.describe(include='all')
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

a b
count 4 4.000000
unique 2 NaN
top Yes NaN
freq 2 NaN
mean NaN 1.500000
std NaN 1.290994
min NaN 0.000000
25% NaN 0.750000
50% NaN 1.500000
75% NaN 2.250000
max NaN 3.000000

That feature relies on select_dtypes. Refer to there for details about accepted inputs.

9.5.2 Index of Min/Max Values

The idxmin() and idxmax() functions on Series and DataFrame compute the index labels with the minimum and
maximum corresponding values:
In [107]: s1 = pd.Series(np.random.randn(5))

In [108]: s1
Out[108]:
0 -1.649461
1 0.169660
2 1.246181
3 0.131682
4 -2.001988
dtype: float64

In [109]: s1.idxmin(), s1.idxmax()

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[1
˓→(4, 2)

In [110]: df1 = pd.DataFrame(np.random.randn(5,3), columns=['A','B','C'])

In [111]: df1
Out[111]:
A B C
0 -1.273023 0.870502 0.214583
1 0.088452 -0.173364 1.207466
2 0.546121 0.409515 -0.310515
3 0.585014 -0.490528 -0.054639
4 -0.239226 0.701089 0.228656

In [112]: df1.idxmin(axis=0)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

9.5. Descriptive statistics 529

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

A 0
B 3
C 2
dtype: int64

In [113]: df1.idxmax(axis=1)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

0 B
1 C
2 A
3 A
4 B
dtype: object

When there are multiple rows (or columns) matching the minimum or maximum value, idxmin() and idxmax()
return the first matching index:

In [114]: df3 = pd.DataFrame([2, 1, 1, 3, np.nan], columns=['A'], index=list('edcba'))

In [115]: df3
Out[115]:
A
e 2.0
d 1.0
c 1.0
b 3.0
a NaN

In [116]: df3['A'].idxmin()
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[116]: 'd'

Note: idxmin and idxmax are called argmin and argmax in NumPy.

9.5.3 Value counts (histogramming) / Mode

The value_counts() Series method and top-level function computes a histogram of a 1D array of values. It can
also be used as a function on regular arrays:

In [117]: data = np.random.randint(0, 7, size=50)

In [118]: data
Out[118]:
array([3, 3, 0, 2, 1, 0, 5, 5, 3, 6, 1, 5, 6, 2, 0, 0, 6, 3, 3, 5, 0, 4, 3,
3, 3, 0, 6, 1, 3, 5, 5, 0, 4, 0, 6, 3, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 5, 0, 1, 1,
6, 4, 1, 4])

In [119]: s = pd.Series(data)

In [120]: s.value_counts()
Out[120]:
3 11
0 9
5 8

530 Chapter 9. Essential Basic Functionality

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

6 7
1 7
4 5
2 3
dtype: int64

In [121]: pd.value_counts(data)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[121]:
˓→

3 11
0 9
5 8
6 7
1 7
4 5
2 3
dtype: int64

Similarly, you can get the most frequently occurring value(s) (the mode) of the values in a Series or DataFrame:

In [122]: s5 = pd.Series([1, 1, 3, 3, 3, 5, 5, 7, 7, 7])

In [123]: s5.mode()
Out[123]:
0 3
1 7
dtype: int64

In [124]: df5 = pd.DataFrame({"A": np.random.randint(0, 7, size=50),

.....: "B": np.random.randint(-10, 15, size=50)})
.....:

In [125]: df5.mode()
Out[125]:
A B
0 2 -5

9.5.4 Discretization and quantiling

Continuous values can be discretized using the cut() (bins based on values) and qcut() (bins based on sample
quantiles) functions:

In [126]: arr = np.random.randn(20)

In [127]: factor = pd.cut(arr, 4)

In [128]: factor
Out[128]:
[(-2.611, -1.58], (0.473, 1.499], (-2.611, -1.58], (-1.58, -0.554], (-0.554, 0.473], .
˓→.., (0.473, 1.499], (0.473, 1.499], (-0.554, 0.473], (-0.554, 0.473], (-0.554, 0.

˓→473]]

Length: 20
Categories (4, interval[float64]): [(-2.611, -1.58] < (-1.58, -0.554] < (-0.554, 0.
˓→473] <

(0.473, 1.499]]

9.5. Descriptive statistics 531

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [129]: factor = pd.cut(arr, [-5, -1, 0, 1, 5])

In [130]: factor
Out[130]:
[(-5, -1], (0, 1], (-5, -1], (-1, 0], (-1, 0], ..., (1, 5], (1, 5], (-1, 0], (-1, 0],
˓→(-1, 0]]

Length: 20
Categories (4, interval[int64]): [(-5, -1] < (-1, 0] < (0, 1] < (1, 5]]

qcut() computes sample quantiles. For example, we could slice up some normally distributed data into equal-size
quartiles like so:

In [131]: arr = np.random.randn(30)

In [132]: factor = pd.qcut(arr, [0, .25, .5, .75, 1])

In [133]: factor
Out[133]:
[(0.544, 1.976], (0.544, 1.976], (-1.255, -0.375], (0.544, 1.976], (-0.103, 0.544], ..
˓→., (-0.103, 0.544], (0.544, 1.976], (-0.103, 0.544], (-1.255, -0.375], (-0.375, -0.

˓→103]]

Length: 30
Categories (4, interval[float64]): [(-1.255, -0.375] < (-0.375, -0.103] < (-0.103, 0.
˓→544] <

(0.544, 1.976]]

In [134]: pd.value_counts(factor)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

(0.544, 1.976] 8
(-1.255, -0.375] 8
(-0.103, 0.544] 7
(-0.375, -0.103] 7
dtype: int64

We can also pass infinite values to define the bins:

In [135]: arr = np.random.randn(20)

In [136]: factor = pd.cut(arr, [-np.inf, 0, np.inf])

In [137]: factor
Out[137]:
[(0.0, inf], (0.0, inf], (0.0, inf], (0.0, inf], (-inf, 0.0], ..., (-inf, 0.0], (-inf,
˓→ 0.0], (0.0, inf], (-inf, 0.0], (0.0, inf]]

Length: 20
Categories (2, interval[float64]): [(-inf, 0.0] < (0.0, inf]]

9.6 Function application

To apply your own or another library’s functions to pandas objects, you should be aware of the three methods below.
The appropriate method to use depends on whether your function expects to operate on an entire DataFrame or
Series, row- or column-wise, or elementwise.
1. Tablewise Function Application: pipe()

532 Chapter 9. Essential Basic Functionality

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

2. Row or Column-wise Function Application: apply()

3. Aggregation API: agg() and transform()
4. Applying Elementwise Functions: applymap()

9.6.1 Tablewise Function Application

DataFrames and Series can of course just be passed into functions. However, if the function needs to be called
in a chain, consider using the pipe() method. Compare the following

# f, g, and h are functions taking and returning ``DataFrames``

>>> f(g(h(df), arg1=1), arg2=2, arg3=3)

with the equivalent

>>> (df.pipe(h)
.pipe(g, arg1=1)
.pipe(f, arg2=2, arg3=3)
)

Pandas encourages the second style, which is known as method chaining. pipe makes it easy to use your own or
another library’s functions in method chains, alongside pandas’ methods.
In the example above, the functions f, g, and h each expected the DataFrame as the first positional argument. What
if the function you wish to apply takes its data as, say, the second argument? In this case, provide pipe with a tuple
of (callable, data_keyword). .pipe will route the DataFrame to the argument specified in the tuple.
For example, we can fit a regression using statsmodels. Their API expects a formula first and a DataFrame as the
second argument, data. We pass in the function, keyword pair (sm.poisson, 'data') to pipe:

In [138]: import statsmodels.formula.api as sm

In [139]: bb = pd.read_csv('data/baseball.csv', index_col='id')

In [140]: (bb.query('h > 0')

.....: .assign(ln_h = lambda df: np.log(df.h))
.....: .pipe((sm.poisson, 'data'), 'hr ~ ln_h + year + g + C(lg)')
.....: .fit()
.....: .summary()
.....: )
.....:
Optimization terminated successfully.
Current function value: 2.116284
Iterations 24
Out[140]:
<class 'statsmodels.iolib.summary.Summary'>
"""
Poisson Regression Results
==============================================================================
Dep. Variable: hr No. Observations: 68
Model: Poisson Df Residuals: 63
Method: MLE Df Model: 4
Date: Fri, 27 Oct 2017 Pseudo R-squ.: 0.6878
Time: 10:34:06 Log-Likelihood: -143.91
converged: True LL-Null: -460.91
LLR p-value: 6.774e-136
===============================================================================

9.6. Function application 533

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

coef std err z P>|z| [0.025 0.975]

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Intercept -1267.3636 457.867 -2.768 0.006 -2164.767 -369.960
C(lg)[T.NL] -0.2057 0.101 -2.044 0.041 -0.403 -0.008
ln_h 0.9280 0.191 4.866 0.000 0.554 1.302
year 0.6301 0.228 2.762 0.006 0.183 1.077
g 0.0099 0.004 2.754 0.006 0.003 0.017
===============================================================================
"""

The pipe method is inspired by unix pipes and more recently dplyr and magrittr, which have introduced the popular
(%>%) (read pipe) operator for R. The implementation of pipe here is quite clean and feels right at home in python.
We encourage you to view the source code (pd.DataFrame.pipe?? in IPython).

9.6.2 Row or Column-wise Function Application

Arbitrary functions can be applied along the axes of a DataFrame or Panel using the apply() method, which, like
the descriptive statistics methods, take an optional axis argument:

In [141]: df.apply(np.mean)
Out[141]:
one -0.272211
three 0.024661
two 0.667306
dtype: float64

In [142]: df.apply(np.mean, axis=1)

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[142]:
˓→

a 0.011457
b 0.558507
c 0.635781
d -0.839603
dtype: float64

In [143]: df.apply(lambda x: x.max() - x.min())

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

one 1.563773
three 3.154112
two 2.973170
dtype: float64

In [144]: df.apply(np.cumsum)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

one three two

a -1.101558 NaN 1.124472
b -1.278848 -0.634293 3.611576
c -0.816633 1.296901 3.125511
d NaN 0.073983 2.669223

In [145]: df.apply(np.exp)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

one three two

534 Chapter 9. Essential Basic Functionality

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

a 0.332353 NaN 3.078592

b 0.837537 0.53031 12.026397
c 1.587586 6.89774 0.615041
d NaN 0.29437 0.633631

.apply() will also dispatch on a string method name.

In [146]: df.apply('mean')
Out[146]:
one -0.272211
three 0.024661
two 0.667306
dtype: float64

In [147]: df.apply('mean', axis=1)

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[147]:
˓→

a 0.011457
b 0.558507
c 0.635781
d -0.839603
dtype: float64

Depending on the return type of the function passed to apply(), the result will either be of lower dimension or the
same dimension.
apply() combined with some cleverness can be used to answer many questions about a data set. For example,
suppose we wanted to extract the date where the maximum value for each column occurred:
In [148]: tsdf = pd.DataFrame(np.random.randn(1000, 3), columns=['A', 'B', 'C'],
.....: index=pd.date_range('1/1/2000', periods=1000))
.....:

In [149]: tsdf.apply(lambda x: x.idxmax())

Out[149]:
A 2001-04-25
B 2002-05-31
C 2002-09-25
dtype: datetime64[ns]

You may also pass additional arguments and keyword arguments to the apply() method. For instance, consider the
following function you would like to apply:
def subtract_and_divide(x, sub, divide=1):
return (x - sub) / divide

You may then apply this function as follows:

df.apply(subtract_and_divide, args=(5,), divide=3)

Another useful feature is the ability to pass Series methods to carry out some Series operation on each column or row:
In [150]: tsdf
Out[150]:
A B C
2000-01-01 -0.720299 0.546303 -0.082042
2000-01-02 0.200295 -0.577554 -0.908402
2000-01-03 0.102533 1.653614 0.303319

9.6. Function application 535

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

2000-01-04 NaN NaN NaN

2000-01-05 NaN NaN NaN
2000-01-06 NaN NaN NaN
2000-01-07 NaN NaN NaN
2000-01-08 0.532566 0.341548 0.150493
2000-01-09 0.330418 1.761200 0.567133
2000-01-10 -0.251020 1.020099 1.893177

In [151]: tsdf.apply(pd.Series.interpolate)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

A B C
2000-01-01 -0.720299 0.546303 -0.082042
2000-01-02 0.200295 -0.577554 -0.908402
2000-01-03 0.102533 1.653614 0.303319
2000-01-04 0.188539 1.391201 0.272754
2000-01-05 0.274546 1.128788 0.242189
2000-01-06 0.360553 0.866374 0.211624
2000-01-07 0.446559 0.603961 0.181059
2000-01-08 0.532566 0.341548 0.150493
2000-01-09 0.330418 1.761200 0.567133
2000-01-10 -0.251020 1.020099 1.893177

Finally, apply() takes an argument raw which is False by default, which converts each row or column into a Series
before applying the function. When set to True, the passed function will instead receive an ndarray object, which has
positive performance implications if you do not need the indexing functionality.

9.6.3 Aggregation API

New in version 0.20.0.

The aggregation API allows one to express possibly multiple aggregation operations in a single concise way. This API
is similar across pandas objects, see groupby API, the window functions API, and the resample API. The entry point
for aggregation is the method aggregate(), or the alias agg().
We will use a similar starting frame from above:

In [152]: tsdf = pd.DataFrame(np.random.randn(10, 3), columns=['A', 'B', 'C'],

.....: index=pd.date_range('1/1/2000', periods=10))
.....:

In [153]: tsdf.iloc[3:7] = np.nan

In [154]: tsdf
Out[154]:
A B C
2000-01-01 0.170247 -0.916844 0.835024
2000-01-02 1.259919 0.801111 0.445614
2000-01-03 1.453046 2.430373 0.653093
2000-01-04 NaN NaN NaN
2000-01-05 NaN NaN NaN
2000-01-06 NaN NaN NaN
2000-01-07 NaN NaN NaN
2000-01-08 -1.874526 0.569822 -0.609644
2000-01-09 0.812462 0.565894 -1.461363
2000-01-10 -0.985475 1.388154 -0.078747

536 Chapter 9. Essential Basic Functionality

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Using a single function is equivalent to apply(); You can also pass named methods as strings. These will return a
Series of the aggregated output:

In [155]: tsdf.agg(np.sum)
Out[155]:
A 0.835673
B 4.838510
C -0.216025
dtype: float64

In [156]: tsdf.agg('sum')
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[156]:
A 0.835673
B 4.838510
C -0.216025
dtype: float64

# these are equivalent to a ``.sum()`` because we are aggregating on a single function

In [157]: tsdf.sum()
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

A 0.835673
B 4.838510
C -0.216025
dtype: float64

Single aggregations on a Series this will result in a scalar value:

In [158]: tsdf.A.agg('sum')
Out[158]: 0.83567297915820504

9.6.3.1 Aggregating with multiple functions

You can pass multiple aggregation arguments as a list. The results of each of the passed functions will be a row in the
resultant DataFrame. These are naturally named from the aggregation function.

In [159]: tsdf.agg(['sum'])
Out[159]:
A B C
sum 0.835673 4.83851 -0.216025

Multiple functions yield multiple rows:

In [160]: tsdf.agg(['sum', 'mean'])

Out[160]:
A B C
sum 0.835673 4.838510 -0.216025
mean 0.139279 0.806418 -0.036004

On a Series, multiple functions return a Series, indexed by the function names:

In [161]: tsdf.A.agg(['sum', 'mean'])

Out[161]:
sum 0.835673
mean 0.139279
Name: A, dtype: float64

9.6. Function application 537

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Passing a lambda function will yield a <lambda> named row:

In [162]: tsdf.A.agg(['sum', lambda x: x.mean()])

Out[162]:
sum 0.835673
<lambda> 0.139279
Name: A, dtype: float64

Passing a named function will yield that name for the row:

In [163]: def mymean(x):

.....: return x.mean()
.....:

In [164]: tsdf.A.agg(['sum', mymean])

Out[164]:
sum 0.835673
mymean 0.139279
Name: A, dtype: float64

9.6.3.2 Aggregating with a dict

Passing a dictionary of column names to a scalar or a list of scalars, to DataFrame.agg allows you to customize
which functions are applied to which columns. Note that the results are not in any particular order, you can use an
OrderedDict instead to guarantee ordering.

In [165]: tsdf.agg({'A': 'mean', 'B': 'sum'})

Out[165]:
A 0.139279
B 4.838510
dtype: float64

Passing a list-like will generate a DataFrame output. You will get a matrix-like output of all of the aggregators. The
output will consist of all unique functions. Those that are not noted for a particular column will be NaN:

In [166]: tsdf.agg({'A': ['mean', 'min'], 'B': 'sum'})

Out[166]:
A B
mean 0.139279 NaN
min -1.874526 NaN
sum NaN 4.83851

9.6.3.3 Mixed Dtypes

When presented with mixed dtypes that cannot aggregate, .agg will only take the valid aggregations. This is similiar
to how groupby .agg works.

In [167]: mdf = pd.DataFrame({'A': [1, 2, 3],

.....: 'B': [1., 2., 3.],
.....: 'C': ['foo', 'bar', 'baz'],
.....: 'D': pd.date_range('20130101', periods=3)})
.....:

In [168]: mdf.dtypes
Out[168]:

538 Chapter 9. Essential Basic Functionality

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

A int64
B float64
C object
D datetime64[ns]
dtype: object

In [169]: mdf.agg(['min', 'sum'])

Out[169]:
A B C D
min 1 1.0 bar 2013-01-01
sum 6 6.0 foobarbaz NaT

9.6.3.4 Custom describe

With .agg() is it possible to easily create a custom describe function, similar to the built in describe function.

In [170]: from functools import partial

In [171]: q_25 = partial(pd.Series.quantile, q=0.25)

In [172]: q_25.__name__ = '25%'

In [173]: q_75 = partial(pd.Series.quantile, q=0.75)

In [174]: q_75.__name__ = '75%'

In [175]: tsdf.agg(['count', 'mean', 'std', 'min', q_25, 'median', q_75, 'max'])

Out[175]:
A B C
count 6.000000 6.000000 6.000000
mean 0.139279 0.806418 -0.036004
std 1.323362 1.100830 0.874990
min -1.874526 -0.916844 -1.461363
25% -0.696544 0.566876 -0.476920
median 0.491354 0.685467 0.183433
75% 1.148055 1.241393 0.601223
max 1.453046 2.430373 0.835024

9.6.4 Transform API

New in version 0.20.0.

The transform() method returns an object that is indexed the same (same size) as the original. This API allows
you to provide multiple operations at the same time rather than one-by-one. Its API is quite similar to the .agg API.
Use a similar frame to the above sections.

In [176]: tsdf = pd.DataFrame(np.random.randn(10, 3), columns=['A', 'B', 'C'],

.....: index=pd.date_range('1/1/2000', periods=10))
.....:

In [177]: tsdf.iloc[3:7] = np.nan

In [178]: tsdf
Out[178]:

9.6. Function application 539

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

A B C
2000-01-01 -0.578465 -0.503335 -0.987140
2000-01-02 -0.767147 -0.266046 1.083797
2000-01-03 0.195348 0.722247 -0.894537
2000-01-04 NaN NaN NaN
2000-01-05 NaN NaN NaN
2000-01-06 NaN NaN NaN
2000-01-07 NaN NaN NaN
2000-01-08 -0.556397 0.542165 -0.308675
2000-01-09 -1.010924 -0.672504 -1.139222
2000-01-10 0.354653 0.563622 -0.365106

Transform the entire frame. .transform() allows input functions as: a numpy function, a string function name or
a user defined function.
In [179]: tsdf.transform(np.abs)
Out[179]:
A B C
2000-01-01 0.578465 0.503335 0.987140
2000-01-02 0.767147 0.266046 1.083797
2000-01-03 0.195348 0.722247 0.894537
2000-01-04 NaN NaN NaN
2000-01-05 NaN NaN NaN
2000-01-06 NaN NaN NaN
2000-01-07 NaN NaN NaN
2000-01-08 0.556397 0.542165 0.308675
2000-01-09 1.010924 0.672504 1.139222
2000-01-10 0.354653 0.563622 0.365106

In [180]: tsdf.transform('abs')
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

A B C
2000-01-01 0.578465 0.503335 0.987140
2000-01-02 0.767147 0.266046 1.083797
2000-01-03 0.195348 0.722247 0.894537
2000-01-04 NaN NaN NaN
2000-01-05 NaN NaN NaN
2000-01-06 NaN NaN NaN
2000-01-07 NaN NaN NaN
2000-01-08 0.556397 0.542165 0.308675
2000-01-09 1.010924 0.672504 1.139222
2000-01-10 0.354653 0.563622 0.365106

In [181]: tsdf.transform(lambda x: x.abs())

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

A B C
2000-01-01 0.578465 0.503335 0.987140
2000-01-02 0.767147 0.266046 1.083797
2000-01-03 0.195348 0.722247 0.894537
2000-01-04 NaN NaN NaN
2000-01-05 NaN NaN NaN
2000-01-06 NaN NaN NaN
2000-01-07 NaN NaN NaN
2000-01-08 0.556397 0.542165 0.308675
2000-01-09 1.010924 0.672504 1.139222
2000-01-10 0.354653 0.563622 0.365106

540 Chapter 9. Essential Basic Functionality

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Here .transform() received a single function; this is equivalent to a ufunc application

In [182]: np.abs(tsdf)
Out[182]:
A B C
2000-01-01 0.578465 0.503335 0.987140
2000-01-02 0.767147 0.266046 1.083797
2000-01-03 0.195348 0.722247 0.894537
2000-01-04 NaN NaN NaN
2000-01-05 NaN NaN NaN
2000-01-06 NaN NaN NaN
2000-01-07 NaN NaN NaN
2000-01-08 0.556397 0.542165 0.308675
2000-01-09 1.010924 0.672504 1.139222
2000-01-10 0.354653 0.563622 0.365106

Passing a single function to .transform() with a Series will yield a single Series in return.
In [183]: tsdf.A.transform(np.abs)
Out[183]:
2000-01-01 0.578465
2000-01-02 0.767147
2000-01-03 0.195348
2000-01-04 NaN
2000-01-05 NaN
2000-01-06 NaN
2000-01-07 NaN
2000-01-08 0.556397
2000-01-09 1.010924
2000-01-10 0.354653
Freq: D, Name: A, dtype: float64

9.6.4.1 Transform with multiple functions

Passing multiple functions will yield a column multi-indexed DataFrame. The first level will be the original frame
column names; the second level will be the names of the transforming functions.
In [184]: tsdf.transform([np.abs, lambda x: x+1])
Out[184]:
A B C
absolute <lambda> absolute <lambda> absolute <lambda>
2000-01-01 0.578465 0.421535 0.503335 0.496665 0.987140 0.012860
2000-01-02 0.767147 0.232853 0.266046 0.733954 1.083797 2.083797
2000-01-03 0.195348 1.195348 0.722247 1.722247 0.894537 0.105463
2000-01-04 NaN NaN NaN NaN NaN NaN
2000-01-05 NaN NaN NaN NaN NaN NaN
2000-01-06 NaN NaN NaN NaN NaN NaN
2000-01-07 NaN NaN NaN NaN NaN NaN
2000-01-08 0.556397 0.443603 0.542165 1.542165 0.308675 0.691325
2000-01-09 1.010924 -0.010924 0.672504 0.327496 1.139222 -0.139222
2000-01-10 0.354653 1.354653 0.563622 1.563622 0.365106 0.634894

Passing multiple functions to a Series will yield a DataFrame. The resulting column names will be the transforming
functions.
In [185]: tsdf.A.transform([np.abs, lambda x: x+1])
Out[185]:

9.6. Function application 541

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

absolute <lambda>
2000-01-01 0.578465 0.421535
2000-01-02 0.767147 0.232853
2000-01-03 0.195348 1.195348
2000-01-04 NaN NaN
2000-01-05 NaN NaN
2000-01-06 NaN NaN
2000-01-07 NaN NaN
2000-01-08 0.556397 0.443603
2000-01-09 1.010924 -0.010924
2000-01-10 0.354653 1.354653

9.6.4.2 Transforming with a dict

Passing a dict of functions will will allow selective transforming per column.
In [186]: tsdf.transform({'A': np.abs, 'B': lambda x: x+1})
Out[186]:
A B
2000-01-01 0.578465 0.496665
2000-01-02 0.767147 0.733954
2000-01-03 0.195348 1.722247
2000-01-04 NaN NaN
2000-01-05 NaN NaN
2000-01-06 NaN NaN
2000-01-07 NaN NaN
2000-01-08 0.556397 1.542165
2000-01-09 1.010924 0.327496
2000-01-10 0.354653 1.563622

Passing a dict of lists will generate a multi-indexed DataFrame with these selective transforms.
In [187]: tsdf.transform({'A': np.abs, 'B': [lambda x: x+1, 'sqrt']})
Out[187]:
A B
absolute <lambda> sqrt
2000-01-01 0.578465 0.496665 NaN
2000-01-02 0.767147 0.733954 NaN
2000-01-03 0.195348 1.722247 0.849851
2000-01-04 NaN NaN NaN
2000-01-05 NaN NaN NaN
2000-01-06 NaN NaN NaN
2000-01-07 NaN NaN NaN
2000-01-08 0.556397 1.542165 0.736318
2000-01-09 1.010924 0.327496 NaN
2000-01-10 0.354653 1.563622 0.750748

9.6.5 Applying Elementwise Functions

Since not all functions can be vectorized (accept NumPy arrays and return another array or value), the methods
applymap() on DataFrame and analogously map() on Series accept any Python function taking a single value and
returning a single value. For example:
In [188]: df4
Out[188]:

542 Chapter 9. Essential Basic Functionality

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

one three two

a -1.101558 NaN 1.124472
b -0.177289 -0.634293 2.487104
c 0.462215 1.931194 -0.486066
d NaN -1.222918 -0.456288

In [189]: f = lambda x: len(str(x))

In [190]: df4['one'].map(f)
Out[190]:
a 19
b 20
c 18
d 3
Name: one, dtype: int64

In [191]: df4.applymap(f)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[191]:
one three two
a 19 3 18
b 20 19 18
c 18 18 20
d 3 19 19

Series.map() has an additional feature which is that it can be used to easily “link” or “map” values defined by a
secondary series. This is closely related to merging/joining functionality:

In [192]: s = pd.Series(['six', 'seven', 'six', 'seven', 'six'],

.....: index=['a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'e'])
.....:

In [193]: t = pd.Series({'six' : 6., 'seven' : 7.})

In [194]: s
Out[194]:
a six
b seven
c six
d seven
e six
dtype: object

In [195]: s.map(t)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[195]:
˓→

a 6.0
b 7.0
c 6.0
d 7.0
e 6.0
dtype: float64

9.6.6 Applying with a Panel

Applying with a Panel will pass a Series to the applied function. If the applied function returns a Series, the
result of the application will be a Panel. If the applied function reduces to a scalar, the result of the application will

9.6. Function application 543

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

be a DataFrame.

In [196]: import pandas.util.testing as tm

In [197]: panel = tm.makePanel(5)

In [198]: panel
Out[198]:
<class 'pandas.core.panel.Panel'>
Dimensions: 3 (items) x 5 (major_axis) x 4 (minor_axis)
Items axis: ItemA to ItemC
Major_axis axis: 2000-01-03 00:00:00 to 2000-01-07 00:00:00
Minor_axis axis: A to D

In [199]: panel['ItemA']
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

A B C D
2000-01-03 1.092702 0.604244 -2.927808 0.339642
2000-01-04 -1.481449 -0.487265 0.082065 1.499953
2000-01-05 1.781190 1.990533 0.456554 -0.317818
2000-01-06 -0.031543 0.327007 -1.757911 0.447371
2000-01-07 0.480993 1.053639 0.982407 -1.315799

A transformational apply.

In [200]: result = panel.apply(lambda x: x*2, axis='items')

In [201]: result
Out[201]:
<class 'pandas.core.panel.Panel'>
Dimensions: 3 (items) x 5 (major_axis) x 4 (minor_axis)
Items axis: ItemA to ItemC
Major_axis axis: 2000-01-03 00:00:00 to 2000-01-07 00:00:00
Minor_axis axis: A to D

In [202]: result['ItemA']
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

A B C D
2000-01-03 2.185405 1.208489 -5.855616 0.679285
2000-01-04 -2.962899 -0.974530 0.164130 2.999905
2000-01-05 3.562379 3.981066 0.913107 -0.635635
2000-01-06 -0.063086 0.654013 -3.515821 0.894742
2000-01-07 0.961986 2.107278 1.964815 -2.631598

A reduction operation.

In [203]: panel.apply(lambda x: x.dtype, axis='items')

Out[203]:
A B C D
2000-01-03 float64 float64 float64 float64
2000-01-04 float64 float64 float64 float64
2000-01-05 float64 float64 float64 float64
2000-01-06 float64 float64 float64 float64
2000-01-07 float64 float64 float64 float64

A similar reduction type operation

544 Chapter 9. Essential Basic Functionality

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [204]: panel.apply(lambda x: x.sum(), axis='major_axis')

Out[204]:
ItemA ItemB ItemC
A 1.841893 0.918017 -1.160547
B 3.488158 -2.629773 0.603397
C -3.164692 0.805970 0.806501
D 0.653349 -0.152299 0.252577

This last reduction is equivalent to

In [205]: panel.sum('major_axis')
Out[205]:
ItemA ItemB ItemC
A 1.841893 0.918017 -1.160547
B 3.488158 -2.629773 0.603397
C -3.164692 0.805970 0.806501
D 0.653349 -0.152299 0.252577

A transformation operation that returns a Panel, but is computing the z-score across the major_axis.
In [206]: result = panel.apply(
.....: lambda x: (x-x.mean())/x.std(),
.....: axis='major_axis')
.....:

In [207]: result
Out[207]:
<class 'pandas.core.panel.Panel'>
Dimensions: 3 (items) x 5 (major_axis) x 4 (minor_axis)
Items axis: ItemA to ItemC
Major_axis axis: 2000-01-03 00:00:00 to 2000-01-07 00:00:00
Minor_axis axis: A to D

In [208]: result['ItemA']
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

A B C D
2000-01-03 0.585813 -0.102070 -1.394063 0.201263
2000-01-04 -1.496089 -1.295066 0.434343 1.318766
2000-01-05 1.142642 1.413112 0.661833 -0.431942
2000-01-06 -0.323445 -0.405085 -0.683386 0.305017
2000-01-07 0.091079 0.389108 0.981273 -1.393105

Apply can also accept multiple axes in the axis argument. This will pass a DataFrame of the cross-section to the
applied function.
In [209]: f = lambda x: ((x.T-x.mean(1))/x.std(1)).T

In [210]: result = panel.apply(f, axis = ['items','major_axis'])

In [211]: result
Out[211]:
<class 'pandas.core.panel.Panel'>
Dimensions: 4 (items) x 5 (major_axis) x 3 (minor_axis)
Items axis: A to D
Major_axis axis: 2000-01-03 00:00:00 to 2000-01-07 00:00:00
Minor_axis axis: ItemA to ItemC

9.6. Function application 545

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [212]: result.loc[:,:,'ItemA']
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

A B C D
2000-01-03 0.859304 0.448509 -1.109374 0.397237
2000-01-04 -1.053319 -1.063370 0.986639 1.152266
2000-01-05 1.106511 1.143185 -0.093917 -0.583083
2000-01-06 0.561619 -0.835608 -1.075936 0.194525
2000-01-07 -0.339514 1.097901 0.747522 -1.147605

This is equivalent to the following

In [213]: result = pd.Panel(dict([ (ax, f(panel.loc[:,:,ax]))
.....: for ax in panel.minor_axis ]))
.....:

In [214]: result
Out[214]:
<class 'pandas.core.panel.Panel'>
Dimensions: 4 (items) x 5 (major_axis) x 3 (minor_axis)
Items axis: A to D
Major_axis axis: 2000-01-03 00:00:00 to 2000-01-07 00:00:00
Minor_axis axis: ItemA to ItemC

In [215]: result.loc[:,:,'ItemA']
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

A B C D
2000-01-03 0.859304 0.448509 -1.109374 0.397237
2000-01-04 -1.053319 -1.063370 0.986639 1.152266
2000-01-05 1.106511 1.143185 -0.093917 -0.583083
2000-01-06 0.561619 -0.835608 -1.075936 0.194525
2000-01-07 -0.339514 1.097901 0.747522 -1.147605

9.7 Reindexing and altering labels

reindex() is the fundamental data alignment method in pandas. It is used to implement nearly all other features
relying on label-alignment functionality. To reindex means to conform the data to match a given set of labels along a
particular axis. This accomplishes several things:
• Reorders the existing data to match a new set of labels
• Inserts missing value (NA) markers in label locations where no data for that label existed
• If specified, fill data for missing labels using logic (highly relevant to working with time series data)
Here is a simple example:
In [216]: s = pd.Series(np.random.randn(5), index=['a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'e'])

In [217]: s
Out[217]:
a -0.454087
b -0.360309
c -0.951631
d -0.535459
e 0.835231

546 Chapter 9. Essential Basic Functionality

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

dtype: float64

In [218]: s.reindex(['e', 'b', 'f', 'd'])

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[2
˓→

e 0.835231
b -0.360309
f NaN
d -0.535459
dtype: float64

Here, the f label was not contained in the Series and hence appears as NaN in the result.
With a DataFrame, you can simultaneously reindex the index and columns:

In [219]: df
Out[219]:
one three two
a -1.101558 NaN 1.124472
b -0.177289 -0.634293 2.487104
c 0.462215 1.931194 -0.486066
d NaN -1.222918 -0.456288

In [220]: df.reindex(index=['c', 'f', 'b'], columns=['three', 'two', 'one'])

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

three two one

c 1.931194 -0.486066 0.462215
f NaN NaN NaN
b -0.634293 2.487104 -0.177289

You may also use reindex with an axis keyword:

In [221]: df.reindex(['c', 'f', 'b'], axis='index')

Out[221]:
one three two
c 0.462215 1.931194 -0.486066
f NaN NaN NaN
b -0.177289 -0.634293 2.487104

Note that the Index objects containing the actual axis labels can be shared between objects. So if we have a Series
and a DataFrame, the following can be done:

In [222]: rs = s.reindex(df.index)

In [223]: rs
Out[223]:
a -0.454087
b -0.360309
c -0.951631
d -0.535459
dtype: float64

In [224]: rs.index is df.index

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[224]:
˓→True

This means that the reindexed Series’s index is the same Python object as the DataFrame’s index.

9.7. Reindexing and altering labels 547

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

New in version 0.21.0.

DataFrame.reindex() also supports an “axis-style” calling convention, where you specify a single labels
argument and the axis it applies to.
In [225]: df.reindex(['c', 'f', 'b'], axis='index')
Out[225]:
one three two
c 0.462215 1.931194 -0.486066
f NaN NaN NaN
b -0.177289 -0.634293 2.487104

In [226]: df.reindex(['three', 'two', 'one'], axis='columns')

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

three two one

a NaN 1.124472 -1.101558
b -0.634293 2.487104 -0.177289
c 1.931194 -0.486066 0.462215
d -1.222918 -0.456288 NaN

See also:
MultiIndex / Advanced Indexing is an even more concise way of doing reindexing.

Note: When writing performance-sensitive code, there is a good reason to spend some time becoming a reindexing
ninja: many operations are faster on pre-aligned data. Adding two unaligned DataFrames internally triggers a
reindexing step. For exploratory analysis you will hardly notice the difference (because reindex has been heavily
optimized), but when CPU cycles matter sprinkling a few explicit reindex calls here and there can have an impact.

9.7.1 Reindexing to align with another object

You may wish to take an object and reindex its axes to be labeled the same as another object. While the syntax for this
is straightforward albeit verbose, it is a common enough operation that the reindex_like() method is available
to make this simpler:
In [227]: df2
Out[227]:
one two
a -1.101558 1.124472
b -0.177289 2.487104
c 0.462215 -0.486066

In [228]: df3
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Ou
˓→

one two
a -0.829347 0.082635
b 0.094922 1.445267
c 0.734426 -1.527903

In [229]: df.reindex_like(df2)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

one two
a -1.101558 1.124472

548 Chapter 9. Essential Basic Functionality

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

b -0.177289 2.487104
c 0.462215 -0.486066

9.7.2 Aligning objects with each other with align

The align() method is the fastest way to simultaneously align two objects. It supports a join argument (related to
joining and merging):
• join='outer': take the union of the indexes (default)
• join='left': use the calling object’s index
• join='right': use the passed object’s index
• join='inner': intersect the indexes
It returns a tuple with both of the reindexed Series:

In [230]: s = pd.Series(np.random.randn(5), index=['a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'e'])

In [231]: s1 = s[:4]

In [232]: s2 = s[1:]

In [233]: s1.align(s2)
Out[233]:
(a 0.505453
b 1.788110
c -0.405908
d -0.801912
e NaN
dtype: float64, a NaN
b 1.788110
c -0.405908
d -0.801912
e 0.768460
dtype: float64)

In [234]: s1.align(s2, join='inner')

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

(b 1.788110
c -0.405908
d -0.801912
dtype: float64, b 1.788110
c -0.405908
d -0.801912
dtype: float64)

In [235]: s1.align(s2, join='left')

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

(a 0.505453
b 1.788110
c -0.405908
d -0.801912
dtype: float64, a NaN
b 1.788110

9.7. Reindexing and altering labels 549

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

c -0.405908
d -0.801912
dtype: float64)

For DataFrames, the join method will be applied to both the index and the columns by default:

In [236]: df.align(df2, join='inner')

Out[236]:
( one two
a -1.101558 1.124472
b -0.177289 2.487104
c 0.462215 -0.486066, one two
a -1.101558 1.124472
b -0.177289 2.487104
c 0.462215 -0.486066)

You can also pass an axis option to only align on the specified axis:

In [237]: df.align(df2, join='inner', axis=0)

Out[237]:
( one three two
a -1.101558 NaN 1.124472
b -0.177289 -0.634293 2.487104
c 0.462215 1.931194 -0.486066, one two
a -1.101558 1.124472
b -0.177289 2.487104
c 0.462215 -0.486066)

If you pass a Series to DataFrame.align(), you can choose to align both objects either on the DataFrame’s index
or columns using the axis argument:

In [238]: df.align(df2.iloc[0], axis=1)

Out[238]:
( one three two
a -1.101558 NaN 1.124472
b -0.177289 -0.634293 2.487104
c 0.462215 1.931194 -0.486066
d NaN -1.222918 -0.456288, one -1.101558
three NaN
two 1.124472
Name: a, dtype: float64)

9.7.3 Filling while reindexing

reindex() takes an optional parameter method which is a filling method chosen from the following table:
Method Action
pad / ffill Fill values forward
bfill / backfill Fill values backward
nearest Fill from the nearest index value
We illustrate these fill methods on a simple Series:

In [239]: rng = pd.date_range('1/3/2000', periods=8)

In [240]: ts = pd.Series(np.random.randn(8), index=rng)

550 Chapter 9. Essential Basic Functionality

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [241]: ts2 = ts[[0, 3, 6]]

In [242]: ts
Out[242]:
2000-01-03 0.466284
2000-01-04 -0.457411
2000-01-05 -0.364060
2000-01-06 0.785367
2000-01-07 -1.463093
2000-01-08 1.187315
2000-01-09 -0.493153
2000-01-10 -1.323445
Freq: D, dtype: float64

In [243]: ts2
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

2000-01-03 0.466284
2000-01-06 0.785367
2000-01-09 -0.493153
dtype: float64

In [244]: ts2.reindex(ts.index)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

2000-01-03 0.466284
2000-01-04 NaN
2000-01-05 NaN
2000-01-06 0.785367
2000-01-07 NaN
2000-01-08 NaN
2000-01-09 -0.493153
2000-01-10 NaN
Freq: D, dtype: float64

In [245]: ts2.reindex(ts.index, method='ffill')

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

2000-01-03 0.466284
2000-01-04 0.466284
2000-01-05 0.466284
2000-01-06 0.785367
2000-01-07 0.785367
2000-01-08 0.785367
2000-01-09 -0.493153
2000-01-10 -0.493153
Freq: D, dtype: float64

In [246]: ts2.reindex(ts.index, method='bfill')

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

2000-01-03 0.466284
2000-01-04 0.785367
2000-01-05 0.785367
2000-01-06 0.785367
2000-01-07 -0.493153
2000-01-08 -0.493153

9.7. Reindexing and altering labels 551

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

2000-01-09 -0.493153
2000-01-10 NaN
Freq: D, dtype: float64

In [247]: ts2.reindex(ts.index, method='nearest')

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

2000-01-03 0.466284
2000-01-04 0.466284
2000-01-05 0.785367
2000-01-06 0.785367
2000-01-07 0.785367
2000-01-08 -0.493153
2000-01-09 -0.493153
2000-01-10 -0.493153
Freq: D, dtype: float64

These methods require that the indexes are ordered increasing or decreasing.
Note that the same result could have been achieved using fillna (except for method='nearest') or interpolate:
In [248]: ts2.reindex(ts.index).fillna(method='ffill')
Out[248]:
2000-01-03 0.466284
2000-01-04 0.466284
2000-01-05 0.466284
2000-01-06 0.785367
2000-01-07 0.785367
2000-01-08 0.785367
2000-01-09 -0.493153
2000-01-10 -0.493153
Freq: D, dtype: float64

reindex() will raise a ValueError if the index is not monotonic increasing or decreasing. fillna() and
interpolate() will not make any checks on the order of the index.

9.7.4 Limits on filling while reindexing

The limit and tolerance arguments provide additional control over filling while reindexing. Limit specifies the
maximum count of consecutive matches:
In [249]: ts2.reindex(ts.index, method='ffill', limit=1)
Out[249]:
2000-01-03 0.466284
2000-01-04 0.466284
2000-01-05 NaN
2000-01-06 0.785367
2000-01-07 0.785367
2000-01-08 NaN
2000-01-09 -0.493153
2000-01-10 -0.493153
Freq: D, dtype: float64

In contrast, tolerance specifies the maximum distance between the index and indexer values:
In [250]: ts2.reindex(ts.index, method='ffill', tolerance='1 day')
Out[250]:

552 Chapter 9. Essential Basic Functionality

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

2000-01-03 0.466284
2000-01-04 0.466284
2000-01-05 NaN
2000-01-06 0.785367
2000-01-07 0.785367
2000-01-08 NaN
2000-01-09 -0.493153
2000-01-10 -0.493153
Freq: D, dtype: float64

Notice that when used on a DatetimeIndex, TimedeltaIndex or PeriodIndex, tolerance will coerced
into a Timedelta if possible. This allows you to specify tolerance with appropriate strings.

9.7.5 Dropping labels from an axis

A method closely related to reindex is the drop() function. It removes a set of labels from an axis:
In [251]: df
Out[251]:
one three two
a -1.101558 NaN 1.124472
b -0.177289 -0.634293 2.487104
c 0.462215 1.931194 -0.486066
d NaN -1.222918 -0.456288

In [252]: df.drop(['a', 'd'], axis=0)

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

one three two

b -0.177289 -0.634293 2.487104
c 0.462215 1.931194 -0.486066

In [253]: df.drop(['one'], axis=1)

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

three two
a NaN 1.124472
b -0.634293 2.487104
c 1.931194 -0.486066
d -1.222918 -0.456288

Note that the following also works, but is a bit less obvious / clean:
In [254]: df.reindex(df.index.difference(['a', 'd']))
Out[254]:
one three two
b -0.177289 -0.634293 2.487104
c 0.462215 1.931194 -0.486066

9.7.6 Renaming / mapping labels

The rename() method allows you to relabel an axis based on some mapping (a dict or Series) or an arbitrary function.
In [255]: s
Out[255]:

9.7. Reindexing and altering labels 553

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

a 0.505453
b 1.788110
c -0.405908
d -0.801912
e 0.768460
dtype: float64

In [256]: s.rename(str.upper)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[2
˓→

A 0.505453
B 1.788110
C -0.405908
D -0.801912
E 0.768460
dtype: float64

If you pass a function, it must return a value when called with any of the labels (and must produce a set of unique
values). A dict or Series can also be used:

In [257]: df.rename(columns={'one': 'foo', 'two': 'bar'},

.....: index={'a': 'apple', 'b': 'banana', 'd': 'durian'})
.....:
Out[257]:
foo three bar
apple -1.101558 NaN 1.124472
banana -0.177289 -0.634293 2.487104
c 0.462215 1.931194 -0.486066
durian NaN -1.222918 -0.456288

If the mapping doesn’t include a column/index label, it isn’t renamed. Also extra labels in the mapping don’t throw an
error.
New in version 0.21.0.
DataFrame.rename() also supports an “axis-style” calling convention, where you specify a single mapper and
the axis to apply that mapping to.

In [258]: df.rename({'one': 'foo', 'two': 'bar'}, axis='columns'})

.....: df.rename({'a': 'apple', 'b': 'banana', 'd': 'durian'}, axis='columns'})
.....:
File "<ipython-input-258-d5b8afcaa5ce>", line 1
df.rename({'one': 'foo', 'two': 'bar'}, axis='columns'})
^
SyntaxError: invalid syntax

File "<ipython-input-259-f42b3f5a87b8>", line 1

df.rename({'a': 'apple', 'b': 'banana', 'd': 'durian'}, axis='columns'})
^
SyntaxError: invalid syntax

The rename() method also provides an inplace named parameter that is by default False and copies the under-
lying data. Pass inplace=True to rename the data in place.
New in version 0.18.0.
Finally, rename() also accepts a scalar or list-like for altering the Series.name attribute.

554 Chapter 9. Essential Basic Functionality

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [260]: s.rename("scalar-name")
Out[260]:
a 0.505453
b 1.788110
c -0.405908
d -0.801912
e 0.768460
Name: scalar-name, dtype: float64

The Panel class has a related rename_axis() class which can rename any of its three axes.

9.8 Iteration

The behavior of basic iteration over pandas objects depends on the type. When iterating over a Series, it is regarded
as array-like, and basic iteration produces the values. Other data structures, like DataFrame and Panel, follow the
dict-like convention of iterating over the “keys” of the objects.
In short, basic iteration (for i in object) produces:
• Series: values
• DataFrame: column labels
• Panel: item labels
Thus, for example, iterating over a DataFrame gives you the column names:

In [261]: df = pd.DataFrame({'col1' : np.random.randn(3), 'col2' : np.random.randn(3)}

˓→,

.....: index=['a', 'b', 'c'])

.....:

In [262]: for col in df:

.....: print(col)
.....:
col1
col2

Pandas objects also have the dict-like iteritems() method to iterate over the (key, value) pairs.
To iterate over the rows of a DataFrame, you can use the following methods:
• iterrows(): Iterate over the rows of a DataFrame as (index, Series) pairs. This converts the rows to Series
objects, which can change the dtypes and has some performance implications.
• itertuples(): Iterate over the rows of a DataFrame as namedtuples of the values. This is a lot faster than
iterrows(), and is in most cases preferable to use to iterate over the values of a DataFrame.

Warning: Iterating through pandas objects is generally slow. In many cases, iterating manually over the rows is
not needed and can be avoided with one of the following approaches:
• Look for a vectorized solution: many operations can be performed using built-in methods or numpy func-
tions, (boolean) indexing, ...
• When you have a function that cannot work on the full DataFrame/Series at once, it is better to use apply()
instead of iterating over the values. See the docs on function application.

9.8. Iteration 555

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• If you need to do iterative manipulations on the values but performance is important, consider writing the
inner loop using e.g. cython or numba. See the enhancing performance section for some examples of this
approach.

Warning: You should never modify something you are iterating over. This is not guaranteed to work in all cases.
Depending on the data types, the iterator returns a copy and not a view, and writing to it will have no effect!
For example, in the following case setting the value has no effect:
In [263]: df = pd.DataFrame({'a': [1, 2, 3], 'b': ['a', 'b', 'c']})

In [264]: for index, row in df.iterrows():

.....: row['a'] = 10
.....:

In [265]: df
Out[265]:
a b
0 1 a
1 2 b
2 3 c

9.8.1 iteritems

Consistent with the dict-like interface, iteritems() iterates through key-value pairs:
• Series: (index, scalar value) pairs
• DataFrame: (column, Series) pairs
• Panel: (item, DataFrame) pairs
For example:

In [266]: for item, frame in wp.iteritems():

.....: print(item)
.....: print(frame)
.....:
Item1
A B C D
2000-01-01 -0.433567 -0.273610 0.680433 -0.308450
2000-01-02 -0.276099 -1.821168 -1.993606 -1.927385
2000-01-03 -2.027924 1.624972 0.551135 3.059267
2000-01-04 0.455264 -0.030740 0.935716 1.061192
2000-01-05 -2.107852 0.199905 0.323586 -0.641630
Item2
A B C D
2000-01-01 -0.587514 0.053897 0.194889 -0.381994
2000-01-02 0.318587 2.089075 -0.728293 -0.090255
2000-01-03 -0.748199 1.318931 -2.029766 0.792652
2000-01-04 0.461007 -0.542749 -0.305384 -0.479195
2000-01-05 0.095031 -0.270099 -0.707140 -0.773882

556 Chapter 9. Essential Basic Functionality

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

9.8.2 iterrows

iterrows() allows you to iterate through the rows of a DataFrame as Series objects. It returns an iterator yielding
each index value along with a Series containing the data in each row:

In [267]: for row_index, row in df.iterrows():

.....: print('%s\n%s' % (row_index, row))
.....:
0
a 1
b a
Name: 0, dtype: object
1
a 2
b b
Name: 1, dtype: object
2
a 3
b c
Name: 2, dtype: object

Note: Because iterrows() returns a Series for each row, it does not preserve dtypes across the rows (dtypes are
preserved across columns for DataFrames). For example,

In [268]: df_orig = pd.DataFrame([[1, 1.5]], columns=['int', 'float'])

In [269]: df_orig.dtypes
Out[269]:
int int64
float float64
dtype: object

In [270]: row = next(df_orig.iterrows())[1]

In [271]: row
Out[271]:
int 1.0
float 1.5
Name: 0, dtype: float64

All values in row, returned as a Series, are now upcasted to floats, also the original integer value in column x:

In [272]: row['int'].dtype
Out[272]: dtype('float64')

In [273]: df_orig['int'].dtype
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[273]: dtype('int64')

To preserve dtypes while iterating over the rows, it is better to use itertuples() which returns namedtuples of the
values and which is generally much faster as iterrows.

For instance, a contrived way to transpose the DataFrame would be:

In [274]: df2 = pd.DataFrame({'x': [1, 2, 3], 'y': [4, 5, 6]})

In [275]: print(df2)

9.8. Iteration 557

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

x y
0 1 4
1 2 5
2 3 6

In [276]: print(df2.T)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\ 0 1 2
x 1 2 3
y 4 5 6

In [277]: df2_t = pd.DataFrame(dict((idx,values) for idx, values in df2.iterrows()))

In [278]: print(df2_t)
0 1 2
x 1 2 3
y 4 5 6

9.8.3 itertuples

The itertuples() method will return an iterator yielding a namedtuple for each row in the DataFrame. The first
element of the tuple will be the row’s corresponding index value, while the remaining values are the row values.
For instance,

In [279]: for row in df.itertuples():

.....: print(row)
.....:
Pandas(Index=0, a=1, b='a')
Pandas(Index=1, a=2, b='b')
Pandas(Index=2, a=3, b='c')

This method does not convert the row to a Series object but just returns the values inside a namedtuple. Therefore,
itertuples() preserves the data type of the values and is generally faster as iterrows().

Note: The column names will be renamed to positional names if they are invalid Python identifiers, repeated, or start
with an underscore. With a large number of columns (>255), regular tuples are returned.

9.9 .dt accessor

Series has an accessor to succinctly return datetime like properties for the values of the Series, if it is a date-
time/period like Series. This will return a Series, indexed like the existing Series.

# datetime
In [280]: s = pd.Series(pd.date_range('20130101 09:10:12', periods=4))

In [281]: s
Out[281]:
0 2013-01-01 09:10:12
1 2013-01-02 09:10:12
2 2013-01-03 09:10:12
3 2013-01-04 09:10:12
dtype: datetime64[ns]

558 Chapter 9. Essential Basic Functionality

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [282]: s.dt.hour
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

0 9
1 9
2 9
3 9
dtype: int64

In [283]: s.dt.second
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

0 12
1 12
2 12
3 12
dtype: int64

In [284]: s.dt.day
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

0 1
1 2
2 3
3 4
dtype: int64

This enables nice expressions like this:

In [285]: s[s.dt.day==2]
Out[285]:
1 2013-01-02 09:10:12
dtype: datetime64[ns]

You can easily produces tz aware transformations:

In [286]: stz = s.dt.tz_localize('US/Eastern')

In [287]: stz
Out[287]:
0 2013-01-01 09:10:12-05:00
1 2013-01-02 09:10:12-05:00
2 2013-01-03 09:10:12-05:00
3 2013-01-04 09:10:12-05:00
dtype: datetime64[ns, US/Eastern]

In [288]: stz.dt.tz
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→<DstTzInfo 'US/Eastern' LMT-1 day, 19:04:00 STD>

You can also chain these types of operations:

In [289]: s.dt.tz_localize('UTC').dt.tz_convert('US/Eastern')
Out[289]:
0 2013-01-01 04:10:12-05:00
1 2013-01-02 04:10:12-05:00
2 2013-01-03 04:10:12-05:00

9.9. .dt accessor 559

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

3 2013-01-04 04:10:12-05:00
dtype: datetime64[ns, US/Eastern]

You can also format datetime values as strings with Series.dt.strftime() which supports the same format as
the standard strftime().

# DatetimeIndex
In [290]: s = pd.Series(pd.date_range('20130101', periods=4))

In [291]: s
Out[291]:
0 2013-01-01
1 2013-01-02
2 2013-01-03
3 2013-01-04
dtype: datetime64[ns]

In [292]: s.dt.strftime('%Y/%m/%d')
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[292]
˓→

0 2013/01/01
1 2013/01/02
2 2013/01/03
3 2013/01/04
dtype: object

# PeriodIndex
In [293]: s = pd.Series(pd.period_range('20130101', periods=4))

In [294]: s
Out[294]:
0 2013-01-01
1 2013-01-02
2 2013-01-03
3 2013-01-04
dtype: object

In [295]: s.dt.strftime('%Y/%m/%d')
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[295]:
˓→

0 2013/01/01
1 2013/01/02
2 2013/01/03
3 2013/01/04
dtype: object

The .dt accessor works for period and timedelta dtypes.

# period
In [296]: s = pd.Series(pd.period_range('20130101', periods=4, freq='D'))

In [297]: s
Out[297]:
0 2013-01-01
1 2013-01-02
2 2013-01-03
3 2013-01-04

560 Chapter 9. Essential Basic Functionality

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

dtype: object

In [298]: s.dt.year
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[298]:
˓→

0 2013
1 2013
2 2013
3 2013
dtype: int64

In [299]: s.dt.day
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

0 1
1 2
2 3
3 4
dtype: int64

# timedelta
In [300]: s = pd.Series(pd.timedelta_range('1 day 00:00:05', periods=4, freq='s'))

In [301]: s
Out[301]:
0 1 days 00:00:05
1 1 days 00:00:06
2 1 days 00:00:07
3 1 days 00:00:08
dtype: timedelta64[ns]

In [302]: s.dt.days
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

0 1
1 1
2 1
3 1
dtype: int64

In [303]: s.dt.seconds
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

0 5
1 6
2 7
3 8
dtype: int64

In [304]: s.dt.components
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

days hours minutes seconds milliseconds microseconds nanoseconds

0 1 0 0 5 0 0 0
1 1 0 0 6 0 0 0
2 1 0 0 7 0 0 0
3 1 0 0 8 0 0 0

9.9. .dt accessor 561

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Note: Series.dt will raise a TypeError if you access with a non-datetimelike values

9.10 Vectorized string methods

Series is equipped with a set of string processing methods that make it easy to operate on each element of the array.
Perhaps most importantly, these methods exclude missing/NA values automatically. These are accessed via the Series’s
str attribute and generally have names matching the equivalent (scalar) built-in string methods. For example:
In [305]: s = pd.Series(['A', 'B', 'C', 'Aaba', 'Baca', np.nan, 'CABA', 'dog
˓→', 'cat'])

In [306]: s.str.lower()
Out[306]:
0 a
1 b
2 c
3 aaba
4 baca
5 NaN
6 caba
7 dog
8 cat
dtype: object

Powerful pattern-matching methods are provided as well, but note that pattern-matching generally uses regular expres-
sions by default (and in some cases always uses them).
Please see Vectorized String Methods for a complete description.

9.11 Sorting

Warning: The sorting API is substantially changed in 0.17.0, see here for these changes. In particular, all sorting
methods now return a new object by default, and DO NOT operate in-place (except by passing inplace=True).

There are two obvious kinds of sorting that you may be interested in: sorting by label and sorting by actual values.

9.11.1 By Index

The primary method for sorting axis labels (indexes) are the Series.sort_index() and the DataFrame.
sort_index() methods.
In [307]: unsorted_df = df.reindex(index=['a', 'd', 'c', 'b'],
.....: columns=['three', 'two', 'one'])
.....:

# DataFrame
In [308]: unsorted_df.sort_index()
Out[308]:
three two one

562 Chapter 9. Essential Basic Functionality

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

a NaN NaN NaN

b NaN NaN NaN
c NaN NaN NaN
d NaN NaN NaN

In [309]: unsorted_df.sort_index(ascending=False)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

three two one

d NaN NaN NaN
c NaN NaN NaN
b NaN NaN NaN
a NaN NaN NaN

In [310]: unsorted_df.sort_index(axis=1)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

one three two

a NaN NaN NaN
d NaN NaN NaN
c NaN NaN NaN
b NaN NaN NaN

# Series
In [311]: unsorted_df['three'].sort_index()
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

a NaN
b NaN
c NaN
d NaN
Name: three, dtype: float64

9.11.2 By Values

The Series.sort_values() and DataFrame.sort_values() are the entry points for value sorting (that
is the values in a column or row). DataFrame.sort_values() can accept an optional by argument for axis=0
which will use an arbitrary vector or a column name of the DataFrame to determine the sort order:

In [312]: df1 = pd.DataFrame({'one':[2,1,1,1],'two':[1,3,2,4],'three':[5,4,3,2]})

In [313]: df1.sort_values(by='two')
Out[313]:
one three two
0 2 5 1
2 1 3 2
1 1 4 3
3 1 2 4

The by argument can take a list of column names, e.g.:

In [314]: df1[['one', 'two', 'three']].sort_values(by=['one','two'])

Out[314]:
one two three
2 1 2 3
1 1 3 4

9.11. Sorting 563

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

3 1 4 2
0 2 1 5

These methods have special treatment of NA values via the na_position argument:

In [315]: s[2] = np.nan

In [316]: s.sort_values()
Out[316]:
0 A
3 Aaba
1 B
4 Baca
6 CABA
8 cat
7 dog
2 NaN
5 NaN
dtype: object

In [317]: s.sort_values(na_position='first')
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

2 NaN
5 NaN
0 A
3 Aaba
1 B
4 Baca
6 CABA
8 cat
7 dog
dtype: object

9.11.3 searchsorted

Series has the searchsorted() method, which works similar to numpy.ndarray.searchsorted().

In [318]: ser = pd.Series([1, 2, 3])

In [319]: ser.searchsorted([0, 3])

Out[319]: array([0, 2])

In [320]: ser.searchsorted([0, 4])

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[320]: array([0, 3])

In [321]: ser.searchsorted([1, 3], side='right')

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[321]: array([1, 3])

In [322]: ser.searchsorted([1, 3], side='left')

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[322]:
˓→array([0, 2])

In [323]: ser = pd.Series([3, 1, 2])

In [324]: ser.searchsorted([0, 3], sorter=np.argsort(ser))

564 Chapter 9. Essential Basic Functionality

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Out[324]: array([0, 2])

9.11.4 smallest / largest values

Series has the nsmallest() and nlargest() methods which return the smallest or largest 𝑛 values. For a
large Series this can be much faster than sorting the entire Series and calling head(n) on the result.

In [325]: s = pd.Series(np.random.permutation(10))

In [326]: s
Out[326]:
0 3
1 1
2 9
3 6
4 0
5 8
6 5
7 2
8 7
9 4
dtype: int64

In [327]: s.sort_values()
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[327
˓→

4 0
1 1
7 2
0 3
9 4
6 5
3 6
8 7
5 8
2 9
dtype: int64

In [328]: s.nsmallest(3)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

4 0
1 1
7 2
dtype: int64

In [329]: s.nlargest(3)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

2 9
5 8
8 7
dtype: int64

New in version 0.17.0.

DataFrame also has the nlargest and nsmallest methods.

9.11. Sorting 565

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [330]: df = pd.DataFrame({'a': [-2, -1, 1, 10, 8, 11, -1],

.....: 'b': list('abdceff'),
.....: 'c': [1.0, 2.0, 4.0, 3.2, np.nan, 3.0, 4.0]})
.....:

In [331]: df.nlargest(3, 'a')

Out[331]:
a b c
5 11 f 3.0
3 10 c 3.2
4 8 e NaN

In [332]: df.nlargest(5, ['a', 'c'])

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[332]:
a b c
6 -1 f 4.0
5 11 f 3.0
3 10 c 3.2
4 8 e NaN
2 1 d 4.0

In [333]: df.nsmallest(3, 'a')

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

a b c
0 -2 a 1.0
1 -1 b 2.0
6 -1 f 4.0

In [334]: df.nsmallest(5, ['a', 'c'])

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

a b c
0 -2 a 1.0
2 1 d 4.0
4 8 e NaN
1 -1 b 2.0
6 -1 f 4.0

9.11.5 Sorting by a multi-index column

You must be explicit about sorting when the column is a multi-index, and fully specify all levels to by.

In [335]: df1.columns = pd.MultiIndex.from_tuples([('a','one'),('a','two'),('b','three

˓→')])

In [336]: df1.sort_values(by=('a','two'))
Out[336]:
a b
one two three
3 1 2 4
2 1 3 2
1 1 4 3
0 2 5 1

566 Chapter 9. Essential Basic Functionality

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

9.12 Copying

The copy() method on pandas objects copies the underlying data (though not the axis indexes, since they are im-
mutable) and returns a new object. Note that it is seldom necessary to copy objects. For example, there are only a
handful of ways to alter a DataFrame in-place:
• Inserting, deleting, or modifying a column
• Assigning to the index or columns attributes
• For homogeneous data, directly modifying the values via the values attribute or advanced indexing
To be clear, no pandas methods have the side effect of modifying your data; almost all methods return new objects,
leaving the original object untouched. If data is modified, it is because you did so explicitly.

9.13 dtypes

The main types stored in pandas objects are float, int, bool, datetime64[ns] and datetime64[ns, tz]
(in >= 0.17.0), timedelta[ns], category and object. In addition these dtypes have item sizes, e.g. int64
and int32. See Series with TZ for more detail on datetime64[ns, tz] dtypes.
A convenient dtypes attribute for DataFrames returns a Series with the data type of each column.

In [337]: dft = pd.DataFrame(dict(A = np.random.rand(3),

.....: B = 1,
.....: C = 'foo',
.....: D = pd.Timestamp('20010102'),
.....: E = pd.Series([1.0]*3).astype('float32'),
.....: F = False,
.....: G = pd.Series([1]*3,dtype='int8')))
.....:

In [338]: dft
Out[338]:
A B C D E F G
0 0.534749 1 foo 2001-01-02 1.0 False 1
1 0.688452 1 foo 2001-01-02 1.0 False 1
2 0.777842 1 foo 2001-01-02 1.0 False 1

In [339]: dft.dtypes
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

A float64
B int64
C object
D datetime64[ns]
E float32
F bool
G int8
dtype: object

On a Series use the dtype attribute.

In [340]: dft['A'].dtype
Out[340]: dtype('float64')

9.12. Copying 567

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

If a pandas object contains data multiple dtypes IN A SINGLE COLUMN, the dtype of the column will be chosen to
accommodate all of the data types (object is the most general).
# these ints are coerced to floats
In [341]: pd.Series([1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6.])
Out[341]:
0 1.0
1 2.0
2 3.0
3 4.0
4 5.0
5 6.0
dtype: float64

# string data forces an ``object`` dtype

In [342]: pd.Series([1, 2, 3, 6., 'foo'])
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[342]:
˓→

0 1
1 2
2 3
3 6
4 foo
dtype: object

The method get_dtype_counts() will return the number of columns of each type in a DataFrame:
In [343]: dft.get_dtype_counts()
Out[343]:
bool 1
datetime64[ns] 1
float32 1
float64 1
int64 1
int8 1
object 1
dtype: int64

Numeric dtypes will propagate and can coexist in DataFrames. If a dtype is passed (either directly via the dtype
keyword, a passed ndarray, or a passed Series, then it will be preserved in DataFrame operations. Furthermore,
different numeric dtypes will NOT be combined. The following example will give you a taste.
In [344]: df1 = pd.DataFrame(np.random.randn(8, 1), columns=['A'], dtype='float32')

In [345]: df1
Out[345]:
A
0 -2.038777
1 1.121731
2 0.586626
3 -0.282532
4 0.410238
5 -0.540166
6 1.400679
7 -0.255975

In [346]: df1.dtypes
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

568 Chapter 9. Essential Basic Functionality

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

A float32
dtype: object

In [347]: df2 = pd.DataFrame(dict( A = pd.Series(np.random.randn(8), dtype='float16'),

.....: B = pd.Series(np.random.randn(8)),
.....: C = pd.Series(np.array(np.random.randn(8), dtype=
˓→'uint8')) ))

.....:

In [348]: df2
Out[348]:
A B C
0 -0.624512 -1.397492 0
1 0.022354 1.338115 0
2 -0.433594 0.781169 255
3 -0.405762 -0.791687 0
4 -0.149658 -0.764810 255
5 0.644531 -2.000933 0
6 -1.260742 -0.345662 0
7 0.365967 0.393915 0

In [349]: df2.dtypes
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

A float16
B float64
C uint8
dtype: object

9.13.1 defaults

By default integer types are int64 and float types are float64, REGARDLESS of platform (32-bit or 64-bit). The
following will all result in int64 dtypes.

In [350]: pd.DataFrame([1, 2], columns=['a']).dtypes

Out[350]:
a int64
dtype: object

In [351]: pd.DataFrame({'a': [1, 2]}).dtypes

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[351]:
a int64
dtype: object

In [352]: pd.DataFrame({'a': 1 }, index=list(range(2))).dtypes

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[352]:
a int64
dtype: object

Numpy, however will choose platform-dependent types when creating arrays. The following WILL result in int32
on 32-bit platform.

In [353]: frame = pd.DataFrame(np.array([1, 2]))

9.13. dtypes 569

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

9.13.2 upcasting

Types can potentially be upcasted when combined with other types, meaning they are promoted from the current type
(say int to float)
In [354]: df3 = df1.reindex_like(df2).fillna(value=0.0) + df2

In [355]: df3
Out[355]:
A B C
0 -2.663288 -1.397492 0.0
1 1.144085 1.338115 0.0
2 0.153032 0.781169 255.0
3 -0.688294 -0.791687 0.0
4 0.260580 -0.764810 255.0
5 0.104365 -2.000933 0.0
6 0.139937 -0.345662 0.0
7 0.109992 0.393915 0.0

In [356]: df3.dtypes
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

A float32
B float64
C float64
dtype: object

The values attribute on a DataFrame return the lower-common-denominator of the dtypes, meaning the dtype that
can accommodate ALL of the types in the resulting homogeneous dtyped numpy array. This can force some upcasting.
In [357]: df3.values.dtype
Out[357]: dtype('float64')

9.13.3 astype

You can use the astype() method to explicitly convert dtypes from one to another. These will by default return a
copy, even if the dtype was unchanged (pass copy=False to change this behavior). In addition, they will raise an
exception if the astype operation is invalid.
Upcasting is always according to the numpy rules. If two different dtypes are involved in an operation, then the more
general one will be used as the result of the operation.
In [358]: df3
Out[358]:
A B C
0 -2.663288 -1.397492 0.0
1 1.144085 1.338115 0.0
2 0.153032 0.781169 255.0
3 -0.688294 -0.791687 0.0
4 0.260580 -0.764810 255.0
5 0.104365 -2.000933 0.0
6 0.139937 -0.345662 0.0
7 0.109992 0.393915 0.0

In [359]: df3.dtypes
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

570 Chapter 9. Essential Basic Functionality

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

A float32
B float64
C float64
dtype: object

# conversion of dtypes
In [360]: df3.astype('float32').dtypes
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

A float32
B float32
C float32
dtype: object

Convert a subset of columns to a specified type using astype()

In [361]: dft = pd.DataFrame({'a': [1,2,3], 'b': [4,5,6], 'c': [7, 8, 9]})

In [362]: dft[['a','b']] = dft[['a','b']].astype(np.uint8)

In [363]: dft
Out[363]:
a b c
0 1 4 7
1 2 5 8
2 3 6 9

In [364]: dft.dtypes
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[364]:
a uint8
b uint8
c int64
dtype: object

New in version 0.19.0.

Convert certain columns to a specific dtype by passing a dict to astype()

In [365]: dft1 = pd.DataFrame({'a': [1,0,1], 'b': [4,5,6], 'c': [7, 8, 9]})

In [366]: dft1 = dft1.astype({'a': np.bool, 'c': np.float64})

In [367]: dft1
Out[367]:
a b c
0 True 4 7.0
1 False 5 8.0
2 True 6 9.0

In [368]: dft1.dtypes
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[368]:
˓→

a bool
b int64
c float64
dtype: object

9.13. dtypes 571

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Note: When trying to convert a subset of columns to a specified type using astype() and loc(), upcasting occurs.
loc() tries to fit in what we are assigning to the current dtypes, while [] will overwrite them taking the dtype from
the right hand side. Therefore the following piece of code produces the unintended result.

In [369]: dft = pd.DataFrame({'a': [1,2,3], 'b': [4,5,6], 'c': [7, 8, 9]})

In [370]: dft.loc[:, ['a', 'b']].astype(np.uint8).dtypes

Out[370]:
a uint8
b uint8
dtype: object

In [371]: dft.loc[:, ['a', 'b']] = dft.loc[:, ['a', 'b']].astype(np.uint8)

In [372]: dft.dtypes
Out[372]:
a int64
b int64
c int64
dtype: object

9.13.4 object conversion

pandas offers various functions to try to force conversion of types from the object dtype to other types. In cases
where the data is already of the correct type, but stored in an object array, the DataFrame.infer_objects()
and Series.infer_objects() methods can be used to soft convert to the correct type.

In [373]: import datetime

In [374]: df = pd.DataFrame([[1, 2],

.....: ['a', 'b'],
.....: [datetime.datetime(2016, 3, 2), datetime.
˓→datetime(2016, 3, 2)]])

.....:

In [375]: df = df.T

In [376]: df
Out[376]:
0 1 2
0 1 a 2016-03-02 00:00:00
1 2 b 2016-03-02 00:00:00

In [377]: df.dtypes
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

0 object
1 object
2 object
dtype: object

Because the data was transposed the original inference stored all columns as object, which infer_objects will
correct.

572 Chapter 9. Essential Basic Functionality

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [378]: df.infer_objects().dtypes
Out[378]:
0 int64
1 object
2 datetime64[ns]
dtype: object

The following functions are available for one dimensional object arrays or scalars to perform hard conversion of objects
to a specified type:
• to_numeric() (conversion to numeric dtypes)
In [379]: m = ['1.1', 2, 3]

In [380]: pd.to_numeric(m)
Out[380]: array([1.1, 2. , 3. ])

• to_datetime() (conversion to datetime objects)

In [381]: import datetime

In [382]: m = ['2016-07-09', datetime.datetime(2016, 3, 2)]

In [383]: pd.to_datetime(m)
Out[383]: DatetimeIndex(['2016-07-09', '2016-03-02'], dtype='datetime64[ns]',
˓→freq=None)

• to_timedelta() (conversion to timedelta objects)

In [384]: m = ['5us', pd.Timedelta('1day')]

In [385]: pd.to_timedelta(m)
Out[385]: TimedeltaIndex(['0 days 00:00:00.000005', '1 days 00:00:00'], dtype=
˓→'timedelta64[ns]', freq=None)

To force a conversion, we can pass in an errors argument, which specifies how pandas should deal with elements
that cannot be converted to desired dtype or object. By default, errors='raise', meaning that any errors encoun-
tered will be raised during the conversion process. However, if errors='coerce', these errors will be ignored
and pandas will convert problematic elements to pd.NaT (for datetime and timedelta) or np.nan (for numeric).
This might be useful if you are reading in data which is mostly of the desired dtype (e.g. numeric, datetime), but
occasionally has non-conforming elements intermixed that you want to represent as missing:
In [386]: import datetime

In [387]: m = ['apple', datetime.datetime(2016, 3, 2)]

In [388]: pd.to_datetime(m, errors='coerce')

Out[388]: DatetimeIndex(['NaT', '2016-03-02'], dtype='datetime64[ns]', freq=None)

In [389]: m = ['apple', 2, 3]

In [390]: pd.to_numeric(m, errors='coerce')

Out[390]: array([nan, 2., 3.])

In [391]: m = ['apple', pd.Timedelta('1day')]

In [392]: pd.to_timedelta(m, errors='coerce')

Out[392]: TimedeltaIndex([NaT, '1 days'], dtype='timedelta64[ns]', freq=None)

9.13. dtypes 573

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

The errors parameter has a third option of errors='ignore', which will simply return the passed in data if it
encounters any errors with the conversion to a desired data type:
In [393]: import datetime

In [394]: m = ['apple', datetime.datetime(2016, 3, 2)]

In [395]: pd.to_datetime(m, errors='ignore')

Out[395]: array(['apple', datetime.datetime(2016, 3, 2, 0, 0)], dtype=object)

In [396]: m = ['apple', 2, 3]

In [397]: pd.to_numeric(m, errors='ignore')

Out[397]: array(['apple', 2, 3], dtype=object)

In [398]: m = ['apple', pd.Timedelta('1day')]

In [399]: pd.to_timedelta(m, errors='ignore')

Out[399]: array(['apple', Timedelta('1 days 00:00:00')], dtype=object)

In addition to object conversion, to_numeric() provides another argument downcast, which gives the option of
downcasting the newly (or already) numeric data to a smaller dtype, which can conserve memory:
In [400]: m = ['1', 2, 3]

In [401]: pd.to_numeric(m, downcast='integer') # smallest signed int dtype

Out[401]: array([1, 2, 3], dtype=int8)

In [402]: pd.to_numeric(m, downcast='signed') # same as 'integer'

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[402]: array([1, 2, 3], dtype=int8)

In [403]: pd.to_numeric(m, downcast='unsigned') # smallest unsigned int dtype

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[403]:
˓→array([1, 2, 3], dtype=uint8)

In [404]: pd.to_numeric(m, downcast='float') # smallest float dtype

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→array([1., 2., 3.], dtype=float32)

As these methods apply only to one-dimensional arrays, lists or scalars; they cannot be used directly on multi-
dimensional objects such as DataFrames. However, with apply(), we can “apply” the function over each column
efficiently:
In [405]: import datetime

In [406]: df = pd.DataFrame([['2016-07-09', datetime.datetime(2016, 3, 2)]] * 2,

˓→dtype='O')

In [407]: df
Out[407]:
0 1
0 2016-07-09 2016-03-02 00:00:00
1 2016-07-09 2016-03-02 00:00:00

In [408]: df.apply(pd.to_datetime)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

574 Chapter 9. Essential Basic Functionality

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

0 1
0 2016-07-09 2016-03-02
1 2016-07-09 2016-03-02

In [409]: df = pd.DataFrame([['1.1', 2, 3]] * 2, dtype='O')

In [410]: df
Out[410]:
0 1 2
0 1.1 2 3
1 1.1 2 3

In [411]: df.apply(pd.to_numeric)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[411]:
0 1 2
0 1.1 2 3
1 1.1 2 3

In [412]: df = pd.DataFrame([['5us', pd.Timedelta('1day')]] * 2, dtype='O')

In [413]: df
Out[413]:
0 1
0 5us 1 days 00:00:00
1 5us 1 days 00:00:00

In [414]: df.apply(pd.to_timedelta)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[414]:
˓→

0 1
0 00:00:00.000005 1 days
1 00:00:00.000005 1 days

9.13.5 gotchas

Performing selection operations on integer type data can easily upcast the data to floating. The dtype of the
input data will be preserved in cases where nans are not introduced. See also Support for integer NA
In [415]: dfi = df3.astype('int32')

In [416]: dfi['E'] = 1

In [417]: dfi
Out[417]:
A B C E
0 -2 -1 0 1
1 1 1 0 1
2 0 0 255 1
3 0 0 0 1
4 0 0 255 1
5 0 -2 0 1
6 0 0 0 1
7 0 0 0 1

In [418]: dfi.dtypes
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

9.13. dtypes 575

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

A int32
B int32
C int32
E int64
dtype: object

In [419]: casted = dfi[dfi>0]

In [420]: casted
Out[420]:
A B C E
0 NaN NaN NaN 1
1 1.0 1.0 NaN 1
2 NaN NaN 255.0 1
3 NaN NaN NaN 1
4 NaN NaN 255.0 1
5 NaN NaN NaN 1
6 NaN NaN NaN 1
7 NaN NaN NaN 1

In [421]: casted.dtypes
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

A float64
B float64
C float64
E int64
dtype: object

While float dtypes are unchanged.

In [422]: dfa = df3.copy()

In [423]: dfa['A'] = dfa['A'].astype('float32')

In [424]: dfa.dtypes
Out[424]:
A float32
B float64
C float64
dtype: object

In [425]: casted = dfa[df2>0]

In [426]: casted
Out[426]:
A B C
0 NaN NaN NaN
1 1.144085 1.338115 NaN
2 NaN 0.781169 255.0
3 NaN NaN NaN
4 NaN NaN 255.0
5 0.104365 NaN NaN
6 NaN NaN NaN
7 0.109992 0.393915 NaN

In [427]: casted.dtypes
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

576 Chapter 9. Essential Basic Functionality

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

A float32
B float64
C float64
dtype: object

9.14 Selecting columns based on dtype

The select_dtypes() method implements subsetting of columns based on their dtype.

First, let’s create a DataFrame with a slew of different dtypes:
In [428]: df = pd.DataFrame({'string': list('abc'),
.....: 'int64': list(range(1, 4)),
.....: 'uint8': np.arange(3, 6).astype('u1'),
.....: 'float64': np.arange(4.0, 7.0),
.....: 'bool1': [True, False, True],
.....: 'bool2': [False, True, False],
.....: 'dates': pd.date_range('now', periods=3).values,
.....: 'category': pd.Series(list("ABC")).astype('category')})
.....:

In [429]: df['tdeltas'] = df.dates.diff()

In [430]: df['uint64'] = np.arange(3, 6).astype('u8')

In [431]: df['other_dates'] = pd.date_range('20130101', periods=3).values

In [432]: df['tz_aware_dates'] = pd.date_range('20130101', periods=3, tz='US/Eastern')

In [433]: df
Out[433]:
bool1 bool2 category dates float64 int64 string \
0 True False A 2017-10-27 10:34:07.934179 4.0 1 a
1 False True B 2017-10-28 10:34:07.934179 5.0 2 b
2 True False C 2017-10-29 10:34:07.934179 6.0 3 c

uint8 tdeltas uint64 other_dates tz_aware_dates

0 3 NaT 3 2013-01-01 2013-01-01 00:00:00-05:00
1 4 1 days 4 2013-01-02 2013-01-02 00:00:00-05:00
2 5 1 days 5 2013-01-03 2013-01-03 00:00:00-05:00

And the dtypes

In [434]: df.dtypes
Out[434]:
bool1 bool
bool2 bool
category category
dates datetime64[ns]
float64 float64
int64 int64
string object
uint8 uint8
tdeltas timedelta64[ns]
uint64 uint64
other_dates datetime64[ns]

9.14. Selecting columns based on dtype 577

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

tz_aware_dates datetime64[ns, US/Eastern]

dtype: object

select_dtypes() has two parameters include and exclude that allow you to say “give me the columns
WITH these dtypes” (include) and/or “give the columns WITHOUT these dtypes” (exclude).
For example, to select bool columns

In [435]: df.select_dtypes(include=[bool])
Out[435]:
bool1 bool2
0 True False
1 False True
2 True False

You can also pass the name of a dtype in the numpy dtype hierarchy:

In [436]: df.select_dtypes(include=['bool'])
Out[436]:
bool1 bool2
0 True False
1 False True
2 True False

select_dtypes() also works with generic dtypes as well.

For example, to select all numeric and boolean columns while excluding unsigned integers

In [437]: df.select_dtypes(include=['number', 'bool'], exclude=['unsignedinteger'])

Out[437]:
bool1 bool2 float64 int64 tdeltas
0 True False 4.0 1 NaT
1 False True 5.0 2 1 days
2 True False 6.0 3 1 days

To select string columns you must use the object dtype:

In [438]: df.select_dtypes(include=['object'])
Out[438]:
string
0 a
1 b
2 c

To see all the child dtypes of a generic dtype like numpy.number you can define a function that returns a tree of
child dtypes:

In [439]: def subdtypes(dtype):

.....: subs = dtype.__subclasses__()
.....: if not subs:
.....: return dtype
.....: return [dtype, [subdtypes(dt) for dt in subs]]
.....:

All numpy dtypes are subclasses of numpy.generic:

In [440]: subdtypes(np.generic)
Out[440]:

578 Chapter 9. Essential Basic Functionality

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

[numpy.generic,
[[numpy.number,
[[numpy.integer,
[[numpy.signedinteger,
[numpy.int8,
numpy.int16,
numpy.int32,
numpy.int64,
numpy.int64,
numpy.timedelta64]],
[numpy.unsignedinteger,
[numpy.uint8,
numpy.uint16,
numpy.uint32,
numpy.uint64,
numpy.uint64]]]],
[numpy.inexact,
[[numpy.floating,
[numpy.float16, numpy.float32, numpy.float64, numpy.float128]],
[numpy.complexfloating,
[numpy.complex64, numpy.complex128, numpy.complex256]]]]]],
[numpy.flexible,
[[numpy.character, [numpy.bytes_, numpy.str_]],
[numpy.void, [numpy.record]]]],
numpy.bool_,
numpy.datetime64,
numpy.object_]]

Note: Pandas also defines the types category, and datetime64[ns, tz], which are not integrated into the
normal numpy hierarchy and wont show up with the above function.

9.14. Selecting columns based on dtype 579

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

580 Chapter 9. Essential Basic Functionality

 CHAPTER

TEN

WORKING WITH TEXT DATA

Series and Index are equipped with a set of string processing methods that make it easy to operate on each element of
the array. Perhaps most importantly, these methods exclude missing/NA values automatically. These are accessed via
the str attribute and generally have names matching the equivalent (scalar) built-in string methods:

In [1]: s = pd.Series(['A', 'B', 'C', 'Aaba', 'Baca', np.nan, 'CABA', 'dog', 'cat'])

In [2]: s.str.lower()
Out[2]:
0 a
1 b
2 c
3 aaba
4 baca
5 NaN
6 caba
7 dog
8 cat
dtype: object

In [3]: s.str.upper()
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

0 A
1 B
2 C
3 AABA
4 BACA
5 NaN
6 CABA
7 DOG
8 CAT
dtype: object

In [4]: s.str.len()
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

0 1.0
1 1.0
2 1.0
3 4.0
4 4.0
5 NaN
6 4.0
7 3.0

581
pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

8 3.0
dtype: float64

In [5]: idx = pd.Index([' jack', 'jill ', ' jesse ', 'frank'])

In [6]: idx.str.strip()
Out[6]: Index(['jack', 'jill', 'jesse', 'frank'], dtype='object')

In [7]: idx.str.lstrip()
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[7]: Index(['jack
˓→', 'jill ', 'jesse ', 'frank'], dtype='object')

In [8]: idx.str.rstrip()
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→Index([' jack', 'jill', ' jesse', 'frank'], dtype='object')

The string methods on Index are especially useful for cleaning up or transforming DataFrame columns. For instance,
you may have columns with leading or trailing whitespace:

In [9]: df = pd.DataFrame(randn(3, 2), columns=[' Column A ', ' Column B '],

...: index=range(3))
...:

In [10]: df
Out[10]:
Column A Column B
0 -1.425575 -1.336299
1 0.740933 1.032121
2 -1.585660 0.913812

Since df.columns is an Index object, we can use the .str accessor

In [11]: df.columns.str.strip()
Out[11]: Index(['Column A', 'Column B'], dtype='object')

In [12]: df.columns.str.lower()
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[12]: Index([' column a ',
˓→ ' column b '], dtype='object')

These string methods can then be used to clean up the columns as needed. Here we are removing leading and trailing
whitespaces, lowercasing all names, and replacing any remaining whitespaces with underscores:

In [13]: df.columns = df.columns.str.strip().str.lower().str.replace(' ', '_')

In [14]: df
Out[14]:
column_a column_b
0 -1.425575 -1.336299
1 0.740933 1.032121
2 -1.585660 0.913812

Note: If you have a Series where lots of elements are repeated (i.e. the number of unique elements in the
Series is a lot smaller than the length of the Series), it can be faster to convert the original Series to one of
type category and then use .str.<method> or .dt.<property> on that. The performance difference comes
from the fact that, for Series of type category, the string operations are done on the .categories and not on
each element of the Series.

582 Chapter 10. Working with Text Data

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Please note that a Series of type category with string .categories has some limitations in comparison of
Series of type string (e.g. you can’t add strings to each other: s + " " + s won’t work if s is a Series of type
category). Also, .str methods which operate on elements of type list are not available on such a Series.

10.1 Splitting and Replacing Strings

Methods like split return a Series of lists:

In [15]: s2 = pd.Series(['a_b_c', 'c_d_e', np.nan, 'f_g_h'])

In [16]: s2.str.split('_')
Out[16]:
0 [a, b, c]
1 [c, d, e]
2 NaN
3 [f, g, h]
dtype: object

Elements in the split lists can be accessed using get or [] notation:

In [17]: s2.str.split('_').str.get(1)
Out[17]:
0 b
1 d
2 NaN
3 g
dtype: object

In [18]: s2.str.split('_').str[1]
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[18]:
0 b
1 d
2 NaN
3 g
dtype: object

Easy to expand this to return a DataFrame using expand.

In [19]: s2.str.split('_', expand=True)

Out[19]:
0 1 2
0 a b c
1 c d e
2 NaN None None
3 f g h

It is also possible to limit the number of splits:

In [20]: s2.str.split('_', expand=True, n=1)

Out[20]:
0 1
0 a b_c
1 c d_e
2 NaN None
3 f g_h

10.1. Splitting and Replacing Strings 583

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

rsplit is similar to split except it works in the reverse direction, i.e., from the end of the string to the beginning
of the string:

In [21]: s2.str.rsplit('_', expand=True, n=1)

Out[21]:
0 1
0 a_b c
1 c_d e
2 NaN None
3 f_g h

Methods like replace and findall take regular expressions, too:

In [22]: s3 = pd.Series(['A', 'B', 'C', 'Aaba', 'Baca',

....: '', np.nan, 'CABA', 'dog', 'cat'])
....:

In [23]: s3
Out[23]:
0 A
1 B
2 C
3 Aaba
4 Baca
5
6 NaN
7 CABA
8 dog
9 cat
dtype: object

In [24]: s3.str.replace('^.a|dog', 'XX-XX ', case=False)

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

0 A
1 B
2 C
3 XX-XX ba
4 XX-XX ca
5
6 NaN
7 XX-XX BA
8 XX-XX
9 XX-XX t
dtype: object

Some caution must be taken to keep regular expressions in mind! For example, the following code will cause trouble
because of the regular expression meaning of $:

# Consider the following badly formatted financial data

In [25]: dollars = pd.Series(['12', '-$10', '$10,000'])

# This does what you'd naively expect:

In [26]: dollars.str.replace('$', '')
Out[26]:
0 12
1 -10
2 10,000

584 Chapter 10. Working with Text Data

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

dtype: object

# But this doesn't:

In [27]: dollars.str.replace('-$', '-')
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[27]:
0 12
1 -$10
2 $10,000
dtype: object

# We need to escape the special character (for >1 len patterns)

In [28]: dollars.str.replace(r'-\$', '-')
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

0 12
1 -10
2 $10,000
dtype: object

The replace method can also take a callable as replacement. It is called on every pat using re.sub(). The
callable should expect one positional argument (a regex object) and return a string.
New in version 0.20.0.

# Reverse every lowercase alphabetic word

In [29]: pat = r'[a-z]+'

In [30]: repl = lambda m: m.group(0)[::-1]

In [31]: pd.Series(['foo 123', 'bar baz', np.nan]).str.replace(pat, repl)

Out[31]:
0 oof 123
1 rab zab
2 NaN
dtype: object

# Using regex groups

In [32]: pat = r"(?P<one>\w+) (?P<two>\w+) (?P<three>\w+)"

In [33]: repl = lambda m: m.group('two').swapcase()

In [34]: pd.Series(['Foo Bar Baz', np.nan]).str.replace(pat, repl)

Out[34]:
0 bAR
1 NaN
dtype: object

The replace method also accepts a compiled regular expression object from re.compile() as a pattern. All
flags should be included in the compiled regular expression object.
New in version 0.20.0.

In [35]: import re

In [36]: regex_pat = re.compile(r'^.a|dog', flags=re.IGNORECASE)

In [37]: s3.str.replace(regex_pat, 'XX-XX ')

Out[37]:

10.1. Splitting and Replacing Strings 585

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

0 A
1 B
2 C
3 XX-XX ba
4 XX-XX ca
5
6 NaN
7 XX-XX BA
8 XX-XX
9 XX-XX t
dtype: object

Including a flags argument when calling replace with a compiled regular expression object will raise a
ValueError.

In [38]: s3.str.replace(regex_pat, 'XX-XX ', flags=re.IGNORECASE)

---------------------------------------------------------------------------
ValueError: case and flags cannot be set when pat is a compiled regex

10.2 Indexing with .str

You can use [] notation to directly index by position locations. If you index past the end of the string, the result will
be a NaN.

In [39]: s = pd.Series(['A', 'B', 'C', 'Aaba', 'Baca', np.nan,

....: 'CABA', 'dog', 'cat'])
....:

In [40]: s.str[0]
Out[40]:
0 A
1 B
2 C
3 A
4 B
5 NaN
6 C
7 d
8 c
dtype: object

In [41]: s.str[1]
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

0 NaN
1 NaN
2 NaN
3 a
4 a
5 NaN
6 A
7 o
8 a
dtype: object

586 Chapter 10. Working with Text Data

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

10.3 Extracting Substrings

10.3.1 Extract first match in each subject (extract)

Warning: In version 0.18.0, extract gained the expand argument. When expand=False it returns a
Series, Index, or DataFrame, depending on the subject and regular expression pattern (same behavior as
pre-0.18.0). When expand=True it always returns a DataFrame, which is more consistent and less confusing
from the perspective of a user.

The extract method accepts a regular expression with at least one capture group.
Extracting a regular expression with more than one group returns a DataFrame with one column per group.

In [42]: pd.Series(['a1', 'b2', 'c3']).str.extract('([ab])(\d)', expand=False)

Out[42]:
0 1
0 a 1
1 b 2
2 NaN NaN

Elements that do not match return a row filled with NaN. Thus, a Series of messy strings can be “converted” into a
like-indexed Series or DataFrame of cleaned-up or more useful strings, without necessitating get() to access tuples
or re.match objects. The dtype of the result is always object, even if no match is found and the result only contains
NaN.
Named groups like

In [43]: pd.Series(['a1', 'b2', 'c3']).str.extract('(?P<letter>[ab])(?P<digit>\d)',

˓→expand=False)

Out[43]:
letter digit
0 a 1
1 b 2
2 NaN NaN

and optional groups like

In [44]: pd.Series(['a1', 'b2', '3']).str.extract('([ab])?(\d)', expand=False)

Out[44]:
0 1
0 a 1
1 b 2
2 NaN 3

can also be used. Note that any capture group names in the regular expression will be used for column names;
otherwise capture group numbers will be used.
Extracting a regular expression with one group returns a DataFrame with one column if expand=True.

In [45]: pd.Series(['a1', 'b2', 'c3']).str.extract('[ab](\d)', expand=True)

Out[45]:
0
0 1
1 2
2 NaN

10.3. Extracting Substrings 587

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

It returns a Series if expand=False.

In [46]: pd.Series(['a1', 'b2', 'c3']).str.extract('[ab](\d)', expand=False)

Out[46]:
0 1
1 2
2 NaN
dtype: object

Calling on an Index with a regex with exactly one capture group returns a DataFrame with one column if
expand=True,

In [47]: s = pd.Series(["a1", "b2", "c3"], ["A11", "B22", "C33"])

In [48]: s
Out[48]:
A11 a1
B22 b2
C33 c3
dtype: object

In [49]: s.index.str.extract("(?P<letter>[a-zA-Z])", expand=True)

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[49]:
letter
0 A
1 B
2 C

It returns an Index if expand=False.

In [50]: s.index.str.extract("(?P<letter>[a-zA-Z])", expand=False)

Out[50]: Index(['A', 'B', 'C'], dtype='object', name='letter')

Calling on an Index with a regex with more than one capture group returns a DataFrame if expand=True.

In [51]: s.index.str.extract("(?P<letter>[a-zA-Z])([0-9]+)", expand=True)

Out[51]:
letter 1
0 A 11
1 B 22
2 C 33

It raises ValueError if expand=False.

>>> s.index.str.extract("(?P<letter>[a-zA-Z])([0-9]+)", expand=False)

ValueError: only one regex group is supported with Index

The table below summarizes the behavior of extract(expand=False) (input subject in first column, number of
groups in regex in first row)
1 group >1 group
Index Index ValueError
Series Series DataFrame

10.3.2 Extract all matches in each subject (extractall)

New in version 0.18.0.

588 Chapter 10. Working with Text Data

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Unlike extract (which returns only the first match),

In [52]: s = pd.Series(["a1a2", "b1", "c1"], index=["A", "B", "C"])

In [53]: s
Out[53]:
A a1a2
B b1
C c1
dtype: object

In [54]: two_groups = '(?P<letter>[a-z])(?P<digit>[0-9])'

In [55]: s.str.extract(two_groups, expand=True)

Out[55]:
letter digit
A a 1
B b 1
C c 1

the extractall method returns every match. The result of extractall is always a DataFrame with a
MultiIndex on its rows. The last level of the MultiIndex is named match and indicates the order in the
subject.

In [56]: s.str.extractall(two_groups)
Out[56]:
letter digit
match
A 0 a 1
1 a 2
B 0 b 1
C 0 c 1

When each subject string in the Series has exactly one match,

In [57]: s = pd.Series(['a3', 'b3', 'c2'])

In [58]: s
Out[58]:
0 a3
1 b3
2 c2
dtype: object

then extractall(pat).xs(0, level='match') gives the same result as extract(pat).

In [59]: extract_result = s.str.extract(two_groups, expand=True)

In [60]: extract_result
Out[60]:
letter digit
0 a 3
1 b 3
2 c 2

In [61]: extractall_result = s.str.extractall(two_groups)

In [62]: extractall_result

10.3. Extracting Substrings 589

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Out[62]:
letter digit
match
0 0 a 3
1 0 b 3
2 0 c 2

In [63]: extractall_result.xs(0, level="match")

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

letter digit
0 a 3
1 b 3
2 c 2

Index also supports .str.extractall. It returns a DataFrame which has the same result as a Series.str.
extractall with a default index (starts from 0).
New in version 0.19.0.

In [64]: pd.Index(["a1a2", "b1", "c1"]).str.extractall(two_groups)

Out[64]:
letter digit
match
0 0 a 1
1 a 2
1 0 b 1
2 0 c 1

In [65]: pd.Series(["a1a2", "b1", "c1"]).str.extractall(two_groups)

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

letter digit
match
0 0 a 1
1 a 2
1 0 b 1
2 0 c 1

10.4 Testing for Strings that Match or Contain a Pattern

You can check whether elements contain a pattern:

In [66]: pattern = r'[0-9][a-z]'

In [67]: pd.Series(['1', '2', '3a', '3b', '03c']).str.contains(pattern)

Out[67]:
0 False
1 False
2 True
3 True
4 True
dtype: bool

or match a pattern:

590 Chapter 10. Working with Text Data

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [68]: pd.Series(['1', '2', '3a', '3b', '03c']).str.match(pattern)

Out[68]:
0 False
1 False
2 True
3 True
4 False
dtype: bool

The distinction between match and contains is strictness: match relies on strict re.match, while contains
relies on re.search.
Methods like match, contains, startswith, and endswith take an extra na argument so missing values can
be considered True or False:

In [69]: s4 = pd.Series(['A', 'B', 'C', 'Aaba', 'Baca', np.nan, 'CABA', 'dog', 'cat'])

In [70]: s4.str.contains('A', na=False)

Out[70]:
0 True
1 False
2 False
3 True
4 False
5 False
6 True
7 False
8 False
dtype: bool

10.5 Creating Indicator Variables

You can extract dummy variables from string columns. For example if they are separated by a '|':

In [71]: s = pd.Series(['a', 'a|b', np.nan, 'a|c'])

In [72]: s.str.get_dummies(sep='|')
Out[72]:
a b c
0 1 0 0
1 1 1 0
2 0 0 0
3 1 0 1

String Index also supports get_dummies which returns a MultiIndex.

New in version 0.18.1.

In [73]: idx = pd.Index(['a', 'a|b', np.nan, 'a|c'])

In [74]: idx.str.get_dummies(sep='|')
Out[74]:
MultiIndex(levels=[[0, 1], [0, 1], [0, 1]],
labels=[[1, 1, 0, 1], [0, 1, 0, 0], [0, 0, 0, 1]],
names=['a', 'b', 'c'])

10.5. Creating Indicator Variables 591

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

See also get_dummies().

10.6 Method Summary

Method Description
cat() Concatenate strings
split() Split strings on delimiter
rsplit() Split strings on delimiter working from the end of the string
get() Index into each element (retrieve i-th element)
join() Join strings in each element of the Series with passed separator
get_dummies() Split strings on the delimiter returning DataFrame of dummy variables
contains() Return boolean array if each string contains pattern/regex
replace() Replace occurrences of pattern/regex with some other string or the return value of a callable given the occurr
repeat() Duplicate values (s.str.repeat(3) equivalent to x * 3)
pad() Add whitespace to left, right, or both sides of strings
center() Equivalent to str.center
ljust() Equivalent to str.ljust
rjust() Equivalent to str.rjust
zfill() Equivalent to str.zfill
wrap() Split long strings into lines with length less than a given width
slice() Slice each string in the Series
slice_replace() Replace slice in each string with passed value
count() Count occurrences of pattern
startswith() Equivalent to str.startswith(pat) for each element
endswith() Equivalent to str.endswith(pat) for each element
findall() Compute list of all occurrences of pattern/regex for each string
match() Call re.match on each element, returning matched groups as list
extract() Call re.search on each element, returning DataFrame with one row for each element and one column for
extractall() Call re.findall on each element, returning DataFrame with one row for each match and one column for
len() Compute string lengths
strip() Equivalent to str.strip
rstrip() Equivalent to str.rstrip
lstrip() Equivalent to str.lstrip
partition() Equivalent to str.partition
rpartition() Equivalent to str.rpartition
lower() Equivalent to str.lower
upper() Equivalent to str.upper
find() Equivalent to str.find
rfind() Equivalent to str.rfind
index() Equivalent to str.index
rindex() Equivalent to str.rindex
capitalize() Equivalent to str.capitalize
swapcase() Equivalent to str.swapcase
normalize() Return Unicode normal form. Equivalent to unicodedata.normalize
translate() Equivalent to str.translate
isalnum() Equivalent to str.isalnum
isalpha() Equivalent to str.isalpha
isdigit() Equivalent to str.isdigit
isspace() Equivalent to str.isspace
C

592 Chapter 10. Working with Text Data

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Table 10.1 – continued from previous page

Method Description
islower() Equivalent to str.islower
isupper() Equivalent to str.isupper
istitle() Equivalent to str.istitle
isnumeric() Equivalent to str.isnumeric
isdecimal() Equivalent to str.isdecimal

10.6. Method Summary 593

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

594 Chapter 10. Working with Text Data

 CHAPTER

ELEVEN

OPTIONS AND SETTINGS

11.1 Overview

pandas has an options system that lets you customize some aspects of its behaviour, display-related options being those
the user is most likely to adjust.
Options have a full “dotted-style”, case-insensitive name (e.g. display.max_rows). You can get/set options
directly as attributes of the top-level options attribute:

In [1]: import pandas as pd

In [2]: pd.options.display.max_rows
Out[2]: 15

In [3]: pd.options.display.max_rows = 999

In [4]: pd.options.display.max_rows
Out[4]: 999

The API is composed of 5 relevant functions, available directly from the pandas namespace:
• get_option() / set_option() - get/set the value of a single option.
• reset_option() - reset one or more options to their default value.
• describe_option() - print the descriptions of one or more options.
• option_context() - execute a codeblock with a set of options that revert to prior settings after execution.
Note: developers can check out pandas/core/config.py for more info.
All of the functions above accept a regexp pattern (re.search style) as an argument, and so passing in a substring
will work - as long as it is unambiguous:

In [5]: pd.get_option("display.max_rows")
Out[5]: 999

In [6]: pd.set_option("display.max_rows",101)

In [7]: pd.get_option("display.max_rows")
Out[7]: 101

In [8]: pd.set_option("max_r",102)

In [9]: pd.get_option("display.max_rows")
Out[9]: 102

595
pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

The following will not work because it matches multiple option names, e.g. display.max_colwidth,
display.max_rows, display.max_columns:
In [10]: try:
....: pd.get_option("column")
....: except KeyError as e:
....: print(e)
....:
'Pattern matched multiple keys'

Note: Using this form of shorthand may cause your code to break if new options with similar names are added in
future versions.
You can get a list of available options and their descriptions with describe_option. When called with no argu-
ment describe_option will print out the descriptions for all available options.

11.2 Getting and Setting Options

As described above, get_option() and set_option() are available from the pandas namespace. To change an
option, call set_option('option regex', new_value)
In [11]: pd.get_option('mode.sim_interactive')
Out[11]: False

In [12]: pd.set_option('mode.sim_interactive', True)

In [13]: pd.get_option('mode.sim_interactive')
Out[13]: True

Note: that the option ‘mode.sim_interactive’ is mostly used for debugging purposes.
All options also have a default value, and you can use reset_option to do just that:
In [14]: pd.get_option("display.max_rows")
Out[14]: 60

In [15]: pd.set_option("display.max_rows",999)

In [16]: pd.get_option("display.max_rows")
Out[16]: 999

In [17]: pd.reset_option("display.max_rows")

In [18]: pd.get_option("display.max_rows")
Out[18]: 60

It’s also possible to reset multiple options at once (using a regex):

In [19]: pd.reset_option("^display")

option_context context manager has been exposed through the top-level API, allowing you to execute code with
given option values. Option values are restored automatically when you exit the with block:
In [20]: with pd.option_context("display.max_rows",10,"display.max_columns", 5):
....: print(pd.get_option("display.max_rows"))
....: print(pd.get_option("display.max_columns"))
....:

596 Chapter 11. Options and Settings

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

10
5

In [21]: print(pd.get_option("display.max_rows"))
\\\\\60

In [22]: print(pd.get_option("display.max_columns"))
\\\\\\\\20

11.3 Setting Startup Options in python/ipython Environment

Using startup scripts for the python/ipython environment to import pandas and set options makes working with pandas
more efficient. To do this, create a .py or .ipy script in the startup directory of the desired profile. An example where
the startup folder is in a default ipython profile can be found at:
$IPYTHONDIR/profile_default/startup

More information can be found in the ipython documentation. An example startup script for pandas is displayed
below:
import pandas as pd
pd.set_option('display.max_rows', 999)
pd.set_option('precision', 5)

11.4 Frequently Used Options

The following is a walkthrough of the more frequently used display options.

display.max_rows and display.max_columns sets the maximum number of rows and columns displayed
when a frame is pretty-printed. Truncated lines are replaced by an ellipsis.
In [23]: df = pd.DataFrame(np.random.randn(7,2))

In [24]: pd.set_option('max_rows', 7)

In [25]: df
Out[25]:
0 1
0 0.469112 -0.282863
1 -1.509059 -1.135632
2 1.212112 -0.173215
3 0.119209 -1.044236
4 -0.861849 -2.104569
5 -0.494929 1.071804
6 0.721555 -0.706771

In [26]: pd.set_option('max_rows', 5)

In [27]: df
Out[27]:
0 1
0 0.469112 -0.282863
1 -1.509059 -1.135632

11.3. Setting Startup Options in python/ipython Environment 597

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

.. ... ...
5 -0.494929 1.071804
6 0.721555 -0.706771

[7 rows x 2 columns]

In [28]: pd.reset_option('max_rows')

display.expand_frame_repr allows for the the representation of dataframes to stretch across pages, wrapped
over the full column vs row-wise.
In [29]: df = pd.DataFrame(np.random.randn(5,10))

In [30]: pd.set_option('expand_frame_repr', True)

In [31]: df
Out[31]:
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 \
0 -1.039575 0.271860 -0.424972 0.567020 0.276232 -1.087401 -0.673690
1 0.404705 0.577046 -1.715002 -1.039268 -0.370647 -1.157892 -1.344312
2 1.643563 -1.469388 0.357021 -0.674600 -1.776904 -0.968914 -1.294524
3 -0.013960 -0.362543 -0.006154 -0.923061 0.895717 0.805244 -1.206412
4 -1.170299 -0.226169 0.410835 0.813850 0.132003 -0.827317 -0.076467

7 8 9
0 0.113648 -1.478427 0.524988
1 0.844885 1.075770 -0.109050
2 0.413738 0.276662 -0.472035
3 2.565646 1.431256 1.340309
4 -1.187678 1.130127 -1.436737

In [32]: pd.set_option('expand_frame_repr', False)

In [33]: df
Out[33]:
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
˓→ 8 9
0 -1.039575 0.271860 -0.424972 0.567020 0.276232 -1.087401 -0.673690 0.113648 -1.
˓→478427 0.524988
1 0.404705 0.577046 -1.715002 -1.039268 -0.370647 -1.157892 -1.344312 0.844885 1.
˓→075770 -0.109050

2 1.643563 -1.469388 0.357021 -0.674600 -1.776904 -0.968914 -1.294524 0.413738 0.

˓→276662 -0.472035

3 -0.013960 -0.362543 -0.006154 -0.923061 0.895717 0.805244 -1.206412 2.565646 1.

˓→431256 1.340309
4 -1.170299 -0.226169 0.410835 0.813850 0.132003 -0.827317 -0.076467 -1.187678 1.
˓→130127 -1.436737

In [34]: pd.reset_option('expand_frame_repr')

display.large_repr lets you select whether to display dataframes that exceed max_columns or max_rows
as a truncated frame, or as a summary.
In [35]: df = pd.DataFrame(np.random.randn(10,10))

In [36]: pd.set_option('max_rows', 5)

In [37]: pd.set_option('large_repr', 'truncate')

598 Chapter 11. Options and Settings

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [38]: df
Out[38]:
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 \
0 -1.413681 1.607920 1.024180 0.569605 0.875906 -2.211372 0.974466
1 0.545952 -1.219217 -1.226825 0.769804 -1.281247 -0.727707 -0.121306
.. ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
8 -2.484478 -0.281461 0.030711 0.109121 1.126203 -0.977349 1.474071
9 -1.071357 0.441153 2.353925 0.583787 0.221471 -0.744471 0.758527

7 8 9
0 -2.006747 -0.410001 -0.078638
1 -0.097883 0.695775 0.341734
.. ... ... ...
8 -0.064034 -1.282782 0.781836
9 1.729689 -0.964980 -0.845696

[10 rows x 10 columns]

In [39]: pd.set_option('large_repr', 'info')

In [40]: df
Out[40]:
<class 'pandas.core.frame.DataFrame'>
RangeIndex: 10 entries, 0 to 9
Data columns (total 10 columns):
0 10 non-null float64
1 10 non-null float64
2 10 non-null float64
3 10 non-null float64
4 10 non-null float64
5 10 non-null float64
6 10 non-null float64
7 10 non-null float64
8 10 non-null float64
9 10 non-null float64
dtypes: float64(10)
memory usage: 880.0 bytes

In [41]: pd.reset_option('large_repr')

In [42]: pd.reset_option('max_rows')

display.max_colwidth sets the maximum width of columns. Cells of this length or longer will be truncated
with an ellipsis.
In [43]: df = pd.DataFrame(np.array([['foo', 'bar', 'bim', 'uncomfortably long string
˓→'],

....: ['horse', 'cow', 'banana', 'apple']]))

....:

In [44]: pd.set_option('max_colwidth',40)

In [45]: df
Out[45]:
0 1 2 3
0 foo bar bim uncomfortably long string
1 horse cow banana apple

11.4. Frequently Used Options 599

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [46]: pd.set_option('max_colwidth', 6)

In [47]: df
Out[47]:
0 1 2 3
0 foo bar bim un...
1 horse cow ba... apple

In [48]: pd.reset_option('max_colwidth')

display.max_info_columns sets a threshold for when by-column info will be given.

In [49]: df = pd.DataFrame(np.random.randn(10,10))

In [50]: pd.set_option('max_info_columns', 11)

In [51]: df.info()
<class 'pandas.core.frame.DataFrame'>
RangeIndex: 10 entries, 0 to 9
Data columns (total 10 columns):
0 10 non-null float64
1 10 non-null float64
2 10 non-null float64
3 10 non-null float64
4 10 non-null float64
5 10 non-null float64
6 10 non-null float64
7 10 non-null float64
8 10 non-null float64
9 10 non-null float64
dtypes: float64(10)
memory usage: 880.0 bytes

In [52]: pd.set_option('max_info_columns', 5)

In [53]: df.info()
<class 'pandas.core.frame.DataFrame'>
RangeIndex: 10 entries, 0 to 9
Columns: 10 entries, 0 to 9
dtypes: float64(10)
memory usage: 880.0 bytes

In [54]: pd.reset_option('max_info_columns')

display.max_info_rows: df.info() will usually show null-counts for each column. For large frames this
can be quite slow. max_info_rows and max_info_cols limit this null check only to frames with smaller
dimensions then specified. Note that you can specify the option df.info(null_counts=True) to override on
showing a particular frame.
In [55]: df =pd.DataFrame(np.random.choice([0,1,np.nan], size=(10,10)))

In [56]: df
Out[56]:
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
0 0.0 1.0 1.0 0.0 1.0 1.0 0.0 NaN 1.0 NaN
1 1.0 NaN 0.0 0.0 1.0 1.0 NaN 1.0 0.0 1.0
2 NaN NaN NaN 1.0 1.0 0.0 NaN 0.0 1.0 NaN

600 Chapter 11. Options and Settings

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

3 0.0 1.0 1.0 NaN 0.0 NaN 1.0 NaN NaN 0.0
4 0.0 1.0 0.0 0.0 1.0 0.0 0.0 NaN 0.0 0.0
5 0.0 NaN 1.0 NaN NaN NaN NaN 0.0 1.0 NaN
6 0.0 1.0 0.0 0.0 NaN 1.0 NaN NaN 0.0 NaN
7 0.0 NaN 1.0 1.0 NaN 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 NaN
8 0.0 0.0 NaN 0.0 NaN 1.0 0.0 0.0 NaN NaN
9 NaN NaN 0.0 NaN NaN NaN 0.0 1.0 1.0 NaN

In [57]: pd.set_option('max_info_rows', 11)

In [58]: df.info()
<class 'pandas.core.frame.DataFrame'>
RangeIndex: 10 entries, 0 to 9
Data columns (total 10 columns):
0 8 non-null float64
1 5 non-null float64
2 8 non-null float64
3 7 non-null float64
4 5 non-null float64
5 7 non-null float64
6 6 non-null float64
7 6 non-null float64
8 8 non-null float64
9 3 non-null float64
dtypes: float64(10)
memory usage: 880.0 bytes

In [59]: pd.set_option('max_info_rows', 5)

In [60]: df.info()
<class 'pandas.core.frame.DataFrame'>
RangeIndex: 10 entries, 0 to 9
Data columns (total 10 columns):
0 float64
1 float64
2 float64
3 float64
4 float64
5 float64
6 float64
7 float64
8 float64
9 float64
dtypes: float64(10)
memory usage: 880.0 bytes

In [61]: pd.reset_option('max_info_rows')

display.precision sets the output display precision in terms of decimal places. This is only a suggestion.

In [62]: df = pd.DataFrame(np.random.randn(5,5))

In [63]: pd.set_option('precision',7)

In [64]: df
Out[64]:
0 1 2 3 4
0 -2.0490276 2.8466122 -1.2080493 -0.4503923 2.4239054

11.4. Frequently Used Options 601

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

1 0.1211080 0.2669165 0.8438259 -0.2225400 2.0219807

2 -0.7167894 -2.2244851 -1.0611370 -0.2328247 0.4307933
3 -0.6654779 1.8298075 -1.4065093 1.0782481 0.3227741
4 0.2003243 0.8900241 0.1948132 0.3516326 0.4488815

In [65]: pd.set_option('precision',4)

In [66]: df
Out[66]:
0 1 2 3 4
0 -2.0490 2.8466 -1.2080 -0.4504 2.4239
1 0.1211 0.2669 0.8438 -0.2225 2.0220
2 -0.7168 -2.2245 -1.0611 -0.2328 0.4308
3 -0.6655 1.8298 -1.4065 1.0782 0.3228
4 0.2003 0.8900 0.1948 0.3516 0.4489

display.chop_threshold sets at what level pandas rounds to zero when it displays a Series of DataFrame.
Note, this does not effect the precision at which the number is stored.
In [67]: df = pd.DataFrame(np.random.randn(6,6))

In [68]: pd.set_option('chop_threshold', 0)

In [69]: df
Out[69]:
0 1 2 3 4 5
0 -0.1979 0.9657 -1.5229 -0.1166 0.2956 -1.0477
1 1.6406 1.9058 2.7721 0.0888 -1.1442 -0.6334
2 0.9254 -0.0064 -0.8204 -0.6009 -1.0393 0.8248
3 -0.8241 -0.3377 -0.9278 -0.8401 0.2485 -0.1093
4 0.4320 -0.4607 0.3365 -3.2076 -1.5359 0.4098
5 -0.6731 -0.7411 -0.1109 -2.6729 0.8645 0.0609

In [70]: pd.set_option('chop_threshold', .5)

In [71]: df
Out[71]:
0 1 2 3 4 5
0 0.0000 0.9657 -1.5229 0.0000 0.0000 -1.0477
1 1.6406 1.9058 2.7721 0.0000 -1.1442 -0.6334
2 0.9254 0.0000 -0.8204 -0.6009 -1.0393 0.8248
3 -0.8241 0.0000 -0.9278 -0.8401 0.0000 0.0000
4 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 -3.2076 -1.5359 0.0000
5 -0.6731 -0.7411 0.0000 -2.6729 0.8645 0.0000

In [72]: pd.reset_option('chop_threshold')

display.colheader_justify controls the justification of the headers. Options are ‘right’, and ‘left’.
In [73]: df = pd.DataFrame(np.array([np.random.randn(6), np.random.randint(1,9,6)*.1,
˓→np.zeros(6)]).T,

....: columns=['A', 'B', 'C'], dtype='float')

....:

In [74]: pd.set_option('colheader_justify', 'right')

In [75]: df
Out[75]:

602 Chapter 11. Options and Settings

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

A B C
0 0.9331 0.3 0.0
1 0.2888 0.2 0.0
2 1.3250 0.2 0.0
3 0.5892 0.7 0.0
4 0.5314 0.1 0.0
5 -1.1987 0.7 0.0

In [76]: pd.set_option('colheader_justify', 'left')

In [77]: df
Out[77]:
A B C
0 0.9331 0.3 0.0
1 0.2888 0.2 0.0
2 1.3250 0.2 0.0
3 0.5892 0.7 0.0
4 0.5314 0.1 0.0
5 -1.1987 0.7 0.0

In [78]: pd.reset_option('colheader_justify')

11.5 Available Options

Option Default Function

display.chop_threshold None If set to a float value, all float values smaller then the given threshold will be displaye
display.colheader_justify right Controls the justification of column headers. used by DataFrameFormatter.
display.column_space 12 No description available.
display.date_dayfirst False When True, prints and parses dates with the day first, eg 20/01/2005
display.date_yearfirst False When True, prints and parses dates with the year first, eg 2005/01/20
display.encoding UTF-8 Defaults to the detected encoding of the console. Specifies the encoding to be used fo
display.expand_frame_repr True Whether to print out the full DataFrame repr for wide DataFrames across multiple lin
display.float_format None The callable should accept a floating point number and return a string with the desire
display.large_repr truncate For DataFrames exceeding max_rows/max_cols, the repr (and HTML repr) can show
display.latex.repr False Whether to produce a latex DataFrame representation for jupyter frontends that suppo
display.latex.escape True Escapes special characters in DataFrames, when using the to_latex method.
display.latex.longtable False Specifies if the to_latex method of a DataFrame uses the longtable format.
display.latex.multicolumn True Combines columns when using a MultiIndex
display.latex.multicolumn_format ‘l’ Alignment of multicolumn labels
display.latex.multirow False Combines rows when using a MultiIndex. Centered instead of top-aligned, separated
display.max_columns 20 max_rows and max_columns are used in __repr__() methods to decide if to_string()
display.max_colwidth 50 The maximum width in characters of a column in the repr of a pandas data structure.
display.max_info_columns 100 max_info_columns is used in DataFrame.info method to decide if per column inform
display.max_info_rows 1690785 df.info() will usually show null-counts for each column. For large frames this can be
display.max_rows 60 This sets the maximum number of rows pandas should output when printing out vario
display.max_seq_items 100 when pretty-printing a long sequence, no more then max_seq_items will be printed. I
display.memory_usage True This specifies if the memory usage of a DataFrame should be displayed when the df.i
display.multi_sparse True “Sparsify” MultiIndex display (don’t display repeated elements in outer levels within
display.notebook_repr_html True When True, IPython notebook will use html representation for pandas objects (if it is
display.pprint_nest_depth 3 Controls the number of nested levels to process when pretty-printing

11.5. Available Options 603

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Option Default Function

display.precision 6 Floating point output precision in terms of number of places after the decimal, for reg
display.show_dimensions truncate Whether to print out dimensions at the end of DataFrame repr. If ‘truncate’ is specifie
display.width 80 Width of the display in characters. In case python/IPython is running in a terminal th
display.html.table_schema False Whether to publish a Table Schema representation for frontends that support it.
display.html.border 1 A border=value attribute is inserted in the <table> tag for the DataFrame HTM
io.excel.xls.writer xlwt The default Excel writer engine for ‘xls’ files.
io.excel.xlsm.writer openpyxl The default Excel writer engine for ‘xlsm’ files. Available options: ‘openpyxl’ (the d
io.excel.xlsx.writer openpyxl The default Excel writer engine for ‘xlsx’ files.
io.hdf.default_format None default format writing format, if None, then put will default to ‘fixed’ and append wi
io.hdf.dropna_table True drop ALL nan rows when appending to a table
io.parquet.engine None The engine to use as a default for parquet reading and writing. If None then try ‘pyar
mode.chained_assignment warn Raise an exception, warn, or no action if trying to use chained assignment, The defau
mode.sim_interactive False Whether to simulate interactive mode for purposes of testing.
mode.use_inf_as_na False True means treat None, NaN, -INF, INF as NA (old way), False means None and NaN
compute.use_bottleneck True Use the bottleneck library to accelerate computation if it is installed.
compute.use_numexpr True Use the numexpr library to accelerate computation if it is installed.

11.6 Number Formatting

pandas also allows you to set how numbers are displayed in the console. This option is not set through the
set_options API.
Use the set_eng_float_format function to alter the floating-point formatting of pandas objects to produce a
particular format.
For instance:

In [79]: import numpy as np

In [80]: pd.set_eng_float_format(accuracy=3, use_eng_prefix=True)

In [81]: s = pd.Series(np.random.randn(5), index=['a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'e'])

In [82]: s/1.e3
Out[82]:
a -236.866u
b 846.974u
c -685.597u
d 609.099u
e -303.961u
dtype: float64

In [83]: s/1.e6
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[83
˓→

a -236.866n
b 846.974n
c -685.597n
d 609.099n
e -303.961n
dtype: float64

To round floats on a case-by-case basis, you can also use round() and round().

604 Chapter 11. Options and Settings

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

11.7 Unicode Formatting

Warning: Enabling this option will affect the performance for printing of DataFrame and Series (about 2 times
slower). Use only when it is actually required.

Some East Asian countries use Unicode characters whose width corresponds to two Latin characters. If a DataFrame
or Series contains these characters, the default output mode may not align them properly.

Note: Screen captures are attached for each output to show the actual results.

In [84]: df = pd.DataFrame({u'': ['UK', u''], u'': ['Alice', u'']})

In [85]: df;

Enabling display.unicode.east_asian_width allows pandas to check each character’s “East Asian Width”
property. These characters can be aligned properly by setting this option to True. However, this will result in longer
render times than the standard len function.

In [86]: pd.set_option('display.unicode.east_asian_width', True)

In [87]: df;

In addition, Unicode characters whose width is “Ambiguous” can either be 1 or 2 characters wide depending on the
terminal setting or encoding. The option display.unicode.ambiguous_as_wide can be used to handle the
ambiguity.
By default, an “Ambiguous” character’s width, such as “¡” (inverted exclamation) in the example below, is taken to be
1.

In [88]: df = pd.DataFrame({'a': ['xxx', u'¡¡'], 'b': ['yyy', u'¡¡']})

In [89]: df;

11.7. Unicode Formatting 605

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Enabling display.unicode.ambiguous_as_wide makes pandas interpret these characters’ widths to be 2.

(Note that this option will only be effective when display.unicode.east_asian_width is enabled.)
However, setting this option incorrectly for your terminal will cause these characters to be aligned incorrectly:

In [90]: pd.set_option('display.unicode.ambiguous_as_wide', True)

In [91]: df;

11.8 Table Schema Display

New in version 0.20.0.

DataFrame and Series will publish a Table Schema representation by default. False by default, this can be enabled
globally with the display.html.table_schema option:

In [92]: pd.set_option('display.html.table_schema', True)

Only 'display.max_rows' are serialized and published.

606 Chapter 11. Options and Settings

 CHAPTER

TWELVE

INDEXING AND SELECTING DATA

The axis labeling information in pandas objects serves many purposes:

• Identifies data (i.e. provides metadata) using known indicators, important for analysis, visualization, and inter-
active console display
• Enables automatic and explicit data alignment
• Allows intuitive getting and setting of subsets of the data set
In this section, we will focus on the final point: namely, how to slice, dice, and generally get and set subsets of pandas
objects. The primary focus will be on Series and DataFrame as they have received more development attention in
this area. Expect more work to be invested in higher-dimensional data structures (including Panel) in the future,
especially in label-based advanced indexing.

Note: The Python and NumPy indexing operators [] and attribute operator . provide quick and easy access to pandas
data structures across a wide range of use cases. This makes interactive work intuitive, as there’s little new to learn if
you already know how to deal with Python dictionaries and NumPy arrays. However, since the type of the data to be
accessed isn’t known in advance, directly using standard operators has some optimization limits. For production code,
we recommended that you take advantage of the optimized pandas data access methods exposed in this chapter.

Warning: Whether a copy or a reference is returned for a setting operation, may depend on the context. This is
sometimes called chained assignment and should be avoided. See Returning a View versus Copy

Warning: Indexing on an integer-based Index with floats has been clarified in 0.18.0, for a summary of the
changes, see here.

See the MultiIndex / Advanced Indexing for MultiIndex and more advanced indexing documentation.
See the cookbook for some advanced strategies

12.1 Different Choices for Indexing

Object selection has had a number of user-requested additions in order to support more explicit location based index-
ing. Pandas now supports three types of multi-axis indexing.
• .loc is primarily label based, but may also be used with a boolean array. .loc will raise KeyError when
the items are not found. Allowed inputs are:

607
pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

– A single label, e.g. 5 or 'a', (note that 5 is interpreted as a label of the index. This use is not an integer
position along the index)
– A list or array of labels ['a', 'b', 'c']
– A slice object with labels 'a':'f' (note that contrary to usual python slices, both the start and the stop
are included, when present in the index! - also see Slicing with labels)
– A boolean array
– A callable function with one argument (the calling Series, DataFrame or Panel) and that returns valid
output for indexing (one of the above)
New in version 0.18.1.
See more at Selection by Label
• .iloc is primarily integer position based (from 0 to length-1 of the axis), but may also be used with a
boolean array. .iloc will raise IndexError if a requested indexer is out-of-bounds, except slice indexers
which allow out-of-bounds indexing. (this conforms with python/numpy slice semantics). Allowed inputs are:
– An integer e.g. 5
– A list or array of integers [4, 3, 0]
– A slice object with ints 1:7
– A boolean array
– A callable function with one argument (the calling Series, DataFrame or Panel) and that returns valid
output for indexing (one of the above)
New in version 0.18.1.
See more at Selection by Position
See more at Advanced Indexing and Advanced Hierarchical.
• .loc, .iloc, and also [] indexing can accept a callable as indexer. See more at Selection By Callable.
Getting values from an object with multi-axes selection uses the following notation (using .loc as an example, but
applies to .iloc as well). Any of the axes accessors may be the null slice :. Axes left out of the specification are
assumed to be :. (e.g. p.loc['a'] is equiv to p.loc['a', :, :])
Object Type Indexers
Series s.loc[indexer]
DataFrame df.loc[row_indexer,column_indexer]
Panel p.loc[item_indexer,major_indexer,minor_indexer]

12.2 Basics

As mentioned when introducing the data structures in the last section, the primary function of indexing with [] (a.k.a.
__getitem__ for those familiar with implementing class behavior in Python) is selecting out lower-dimensional
slices. Thus,
Object Type Selection Return Value Type
Series series[label] scalar value
DataFrame frame[colname] Series corresponding to colname
Panel panel[itemname] DataFrame corresponding to the itemname
Here we construct a simple time series data set to use for illustrating the indexing functionality:

608 Chapter 12. Indexing and Selecting Data

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [1]: dates = pd.date_range('1/1/2000', periods=8)

In [2]: df = pd.DataFrame(np.random.randn(8, 4), index=dates, columns=['A', 'B', 'C',

˓→'D'])

In [3]: df
Out[3]:
A B C D
2000-01-01 0.469112 -0.282863 -1.509059 -1.135632
2000-01-02 1.212112 -0.173215 0.119209 -1.044236
2000-01-03 -0.861849 -2.104569 -0.494929 1.071804
2000-01-04 0.721555 -0.706771 -1.039575 0.271860
2000-01-05 -0.424972 0.567020 0.276232 -1.087401
2000-01-06 -0.673690 0.113648 -1.478427 0.524988
2000-01-07 0.404705 0.577046 -1.715002 -1.039268
2000-01-08 -0.370647 -1.157892 -1.344312 0.844885

In [4]: panel = pd.Panel({'one' : df, 'two' : df - df.mean()})

In [5]: panel
Out[5]:
<class 'pandas.core.panel.Panel'>
Dimensions: 2 (items) x 8 (major_axis) x 4 (minor_axis)
Items axis: one to two
Major_axis axis: 2000-01-01 00:00:00 to 2000-01-08 00:00:00
Minor_axis axis: A to D

Note: None of the indexing functionality is time series specific unless specifically stated.

Thus, as per above, we have the most basic indexing using []:

In [6]: s = df['A']

In [7]: s[dates[5]]
Out[7]: -0.67368970808837059

In [8]: panel['two']
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[8]:
A B C D
2000-01-01 0.409571 0.113086 -0.610826 -0.936507
2000-01-02 1.152571 0.222735 1.017442 -0.845111
2000-01-03 -0.921390 -1.708620 0.403304 1.270929
2000-01-04 0.662014 -0.310822 -0.141342 0.470985
2000-01-05 -0.484513 0.962970 1.174465 -0.888276
2000-01-06 -0.733231 0.509598 -0.580194 0.724113
2000-01-07 0.345164 0.972995 -0.816769 -0.840143
2000-01-08 -0.430188 -0.761943 -0.446079 1.044010

You can pass a list of columns to [] to select columns in that order. If a column is not contained in the DataFrame, an
exception will be raised. Multiple columns can also be set in this manner:

In [9]: df
Out[9]:
A B C D
2000-01-01 0.469112 -0.282863 -1.509059 -1.135632
2000-01-02 1.212112 -0.173215 0.119209 -1.044236

12.2. Basics 609

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

2000-01-03 -0.861849 -2.104569 -0.494929 1.071804

2000-01-04 0.721555 -0.706771 -1.039575 0.271860
2000-01-05 -0.424972 0.567020 0.276232 -1.087401
2000-01-06 -0.673690 0.113648 -1.478427 0.524988
2000-01-07 0.404705 0.577046 -1.715002 -1.039268
2000-01-08 -0.370647 -1.157892 -1.344312 0.844885

In [10]: df[['B', 'A']] = df[['A', 'B']]

In [11]: df
Out[11]:
A B C D
2000-01-01 -0.282863 0.469112 -1.509059 -1.135632
2000-01-02 -0.173215 1.212112 0.119209 -1.044236
2000-01-03 -2.104569 -0.861849 -0.494929 1.071804
2000-01-04 -0.706771 0.721555 -1.039575 0.271860
2000-01-05 0.567020 -0.424972 0.276232 -1.087401
2000-01-06 0.113648 -0.673690 -1.478427 0.524988
2000-01-07 0.577046 0.404705 -1.715002 -1.039268
2000-01-08 -1.157892 -0.370647 -1.344312 0.844885

You may find this useful for applying a transform (in-place) to a subset of the columns.

Warning: pandas aligns all AXES when setting Series and DataFrame from .loc, and .iloc.
This will not modify df because the column alignment is before value assignment.
In [12]: df[['A', 'B']]
Out[12]:
A B
2000-01-01 -0.282863 0.469112
2000-01-02 -0.173215 1.212112
2000-01-03 -2.104569 -0.861849
2000-01-04 -0.706771 0.721555
2000-01-05 0.567020 -0.424972
2000-01-06 0.113648 -0.673690
2000-01-07 0.577046 0.404705
2000-01-08 -1.157892 -0.370647

In [13]: df.loc[:,['B', 'A']] = df[['A', 'B']]

In [14]: df[['A', 'B']]

Out[14]:
A B
2000-01-01 -0.282863 0.469112
2000-01-02 -0.173215 1.212112
2000-01-03 -2.104569 -0.861849
2000-01-04 -0.706771 0.721555
2000-01-05 0.567020 -0.424972
2000-01-06 0.113648 -0.673690
2000-01-07 0.577046 0.404705
2000-01-08 -1.157892 -0.370647

The correct way is to use raw values

610 Chapter 12. Indexing and Selecting Data

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [15]: df.loc[:,['B', 'A']] = df[['A', 'B']].values

In [16]: df[['A', 'B']]

Out[16]:
A B
2000-01-01 0.469112 -0.282863
2000-01-02 1.212112 -0.173215
2000-01-03 -0.861849 -2.104569
2000-01-04 0.721555 -0.706771
2000-01-05 -0.424972 0.567020
2000-01-06 -0.673690 0.113648
2000-01-07 0.404705 0.577046
2000-01-08 -0.370647 -1.157892

12.3 Attribute Access

You may access an index on a Series, column on a DataFrame, and an item on a Panel directly as an attribute:

In [17]: sa = pd.Series([1,2,3],index=list('abc'))

In [18]: dfa = df.copy()

In [19]: sa.b
Out[19]: 2

In [20]: dfa.A
\\\\\\\\\\\Out[20]:
2000-01-01 0.469112
2000-01-02 1.212112
2000-01-03 -0.861849
2000-01-04 0.721555
2000-01-05 -0.424972
2000-01-06 -0.673690
2000-01-07 0.404705
2000-01-08 -0.370647
Freq: D, Name: A, dtype: float64

In [21]: panel.one
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

A B C D
2000-01-01 0.469112 -0.282863 -1.509059 -1.135632
2000-01-02 1.212112 -0.173215 0.119209 -1.044236
2000-01-03 -0.861849 -2.104569 -0.494929 1.071804
2000-01-04 0.721555 -0.706771 -1.039575 0.271860
2000-01-05 -0.424972 0.567020 0.276232 -1.087401
2000-01-06 -0.673690 0.113648 -1.478427 0.524988
2000-01-07 0.404705 0.577046 -1.715002 -1.039268
2000-01-08 -0.370647 -1.157892 -1.344312 0.844885

In [22]: sa.a = 5

In [23]: sa

12.3. Attribute Access 611

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Out[23]:
a 5
b 2
c 3
dtype: int64

In [24]: dfa.A = list(range(len(dfa.index))) # ok if A already exists

In [25]: dfa
Out[25]:
A B C D
2000-01-01 0 -0.282863 -1.509059 -1.135632
2000-01-02 1 -0.173215 0.119209 -1.044236
2000-01-03 2 -2.104569 -0.494929 1.071804
2000-01-04 3 -0.706771 -1.039575 0.271860
2000-01-05 4 0.567020 0.276232 -1.087401
2000-01-06 5 0.113648 -1.478427 0.524988
2000-01-07 6 0.577046 -1.715002 -1.039268
2000-01-08 7 -1.157892 -1.344312 0.844885

In [26]: dfa['A'] = list(range(len(dfa.index))) # use this form to create a new

˓→column

In [27]: dfa
Out[27]:
A B C D
2000-01-01 0 -0.282863 -1.509059 -1.135632
2000-01-02 1 -0.173215 0.119209 -1.044236
2000-01-03 2 -2.104569 -0.494929 1.071804
2000-01-04 3 -0.706771 -1.039575 0.271860
2000-01-05 4 0.567020 0.276232 -1.087401
2000-01-06 5 0.113648 -1.478427 0.524988
2000-01-07 6 0.577046 -1.715002 -1.039268
2000-01-08 7 -1.157892 -1.344312 0.844885

Warning:
• You can use this access only if the index element is a valid python identifier, e.g. s.1 is not allowed. See
here for an explanation of valid identifiers.
• The attribute will not be available if it conflicts with an existing method name, e.g. s.min is not allowed.
• Similarly, the attribute will not be available if it conflicts with any of the following list: index,
major_axis, minor_axis, items, labels.
• In any of these cases, standard indexing will still work, e.g. s['1'], s['min'], and s['index'] will
access the corresponding element or column.

If you are using the IPython environment, you may also use tab-completion to see these accessible attributes.
You can also assign a dict to a row of a DataFrame:

In [28]: x = pd.DataFrame({'x': [1, 2, 3], 'y': [3, 4, 5]})

In [29]: x.iloc[1] = dict(x=9, y=99)

In [30]: x

612 Chapter 12. Indexing and Selecting Data

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Out[30]:
x y
0 1 3
1 9 99
2 3 5

You can use attribute access to modify an existing element of a Series or column of a DataFrame, but be careful; if
you try to use attribute access to create a new column, it creates a new attribute rather than a new column. In 0.21.0
and later, this will raise a UserWarning:

In[1]: df = pd.DataFrame({'one': [1., 2., 3.]})

In[2]: df.two = [4, 5, 6]
UserWarning: Pandas doesn't allow Series to be assigned into nonexistent columns -
˓→see https://pandas.pydata.org/pandas-docs/stable/indexing.html#attribute_access

In[3]: df
Out[3]:
one
0 1.0
1 2.0
2 3.0

12.4 Slicing ranges

The most robust and consistent way of slicing ranges along arbitrary axes is described in the Selection by Position
section detailing the .iloc method. For now, we explain the semantics of slicing using the [] operator.
With Series, the syntax works exactly as with an ndarray, returning a slice of the values and the corresponding labels:

In [31]: s[:5]
Out[31]:
2000-01-01 0.469112
2000-01-02 1.212112
2000-01-03 -0.861849
2000-01-04 0.721555
2000-01-05 -0.424972
Freq: D, Name: A, dtype: float64

In [32]: s[::2]
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

2000-01-01 0.469112
2000-01-03 -0.861849
2000-01-05 -0.424972
2000-01-07 0.404705
Freq: 2D, Name: A, dtype: float64

In [33]: s[::-1]
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

2000-01-08 -0.370647
2000-01-07 0.404705
2000-01-06 -0.673690
2000-01-05 -0.424972
2000-01-04 0.721555
2000-01-03 -0.861849

12.4. Slicing ranges 613

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

2000-01-02 1.212112
2000-01-01 0.469112
Freq: -1D, Name: A, dtype: float64

Note that setting works as well:

In [34]: s2 = s.copy()

In [35]: s2[:5] = 0

In [36]: s2
Out[36]:
2000-01-01 0.000000
2000-01-02 0.000000
2000-01-03 0.000000
2000-01-04 0.000000
2000-01-05 0.000000
2000-01-06 -0.673690
2000-01-07 0.404705
2000-01-08 -0.370647
Freq: D, Name: A, dtype: float64

With DataFrame, slicing inside of [] slices the rows. This is provided largely as a convenience since it is such a
common operation.

In [37]: df[:3]
Out[37]:
A B C D
2000-01-01 0.469112 -0.282863 -1.509059 -1.135632
2000-01-02 1.212112 -0.173215 0.119209 -1.044236
2000-01-03 -0.861849 -2.104569 -0.494929 1.071804

In [38]: df[::-1]
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

A B C D
2000-01-08 -0.370647 -1.157892 -1.344312 0.844885
2000-01-07 0.404705 0.577046 -1.715002 -1.039268
2000-01-06 -0.673690 0.113648 -1.478427 0.524988
2000-01-05 -0.424972 0.567020 0.276232 -1.087401
2000-01-04 0.721555 -0.706771 -1.039575 0.271860
2000-01-03 -0.861849 -2.104569 -0.494929 1.071804
2000-01-02 1.212112 -0.173215 0.119209 -1.044236
2000-01-01 0.469112 -0.282863 -1.509059 -1.135632

12.5 Selection By Label

Warning: Whether a copy or a reference is returned for a setting operation, may depend on the context. This is
sometimes called chained assignment and should be avoided. See Returning a View versus Copy

614 Chapter 12. Indexing and Selecting Data

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Warning:
.loc is strict when you present slicers that are not compatible (or convertible) with the index type.
For example using integers in a DatetimeIndex. These will raise a TypeError.
In [39]: dfl = pd.DataFrame(np.random.randn(5,4), columns=list('ABCD'), index=pd.
˓→date_range('20130101',periods=5))

In [40]: dfl
Out[40]:
A B C D
2013-01-01 1.075770 -0.109050 1.643563 -1.469388
2013-01-02 0.357021 -0.674600 -1.776904 -0.968914
2013-01-03 -1.294524 0.413738 0.276662 -0.472035
2013-01-04 -0.013960 -0.362543 -0.006154 -0.923061
2013-01-05 0.895717 0.805244 -1.206412 2.565646

In [4]: dfl.loc[2:3]
TypeError: cannot do slice indexing on <class 'pandas.tseries.index.DatetimeIndex'>
˓→with these indexers [2] of <type 'int'>

String likes in slicing can be convertible to the type of the index and lead to natural slicing.
In [41]: dfl.loc['20130102':'20130104']
Out[41]:
A B C D
2013-01-02 0.357021 -0.674600 -1.776904 -0.968914
2013-01-03 -1.294524 0.413738 0.276662 -0.472035
2013-01-04 -0.013960 -0.362543 -0.006154 -0.923061

Warning: Starting in 0.21.0, pandas will show a FutureWarning if indexing with a list with missing labels.
In the future this will raise a KeyError. See list-like Using loc with missing keys in a list is Deprecated

pandas provides a suite of methods in order to have purely label based indexing. This is a strict inclusion based
protocol. All of the labels for which you ask, must be in the index or a KeyError will be raised! When slicing, both
the start bound AND the stop bound are included, if present in the index. Integers are valid labels, but they refer to the
label and not the position.
The .loc attribute is the primary access method. The following are valid inputs:
• A single label, e.g. 5 or 'a', (note that 5 is interpreted as a label of the index. This use is not an integer
position along the index)
• A list or array of labels ['a', 'b', 'c']
• A slice object with labels 'a':'f' (note that contrary to usual python slices, both the start and the stop are
included, when present in the index! - also See Slicing with labels)
• A boolean array
• A callable, see Selection By Callable

In [42]: s1 = pd.Series(np.random.randn(6),index=list('abcdef'))

In [43]: s1
Out[43]:
a 1.431256

12.5. Selection By Label 615

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

b 1.340309
c -1.170299
d -0.226169
e 0.410835
f 0.813850
dtype: float64

In [44]: s1.loc['c':]
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

c -1.170299
d -0.226169
e 0.410835
f 0.813850
dtype: float64

In [45]: s1.loc['b']
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→1.3403088497993827

Note that setting works as well:

In [46]: s1.loc['c':] = 0

In [47]: s1
Out[47]:
a 1.431256
b 1.340309
c 0.000000
d 0.000000
e 0.000000
f 0.000000
dtype: float64

With a DataFrame

In [48]: df1 = pd.DataFrame(np.random.randn(6,4),

....: index=list('abcdef'),
....: columns=list('ABCD'))
....:

In [49]: df1
Out[49]:
A B C D
a 0.132003 -0.827317 -0.076467 -1.187678
b 1.130127 -1.436737 -1.413681 1.607920
c 1.024180 0.569605 0.875906 -2.211372
d 0.974466 -2.006747 -0.410001 -0.078638
e 0.545952 -1.219217 -1.226825 0.769804
f -1.281247 -0.727707 -0.121306 -0.097883

In [50]: df1.loc[['a', 'b', 'd'], :]

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

A B C D
a 0.132003 -0.827317 -0.076467 -1.187678
b 1.130127 -1.436737 -1.413681 1.607920
d 0.974466 -2.006747 -0.410001 -0.078638

616 Chapter 12. Indexing and Selecting Data

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Accessing via label slices

In [51]: df1.loc['d':, 'A':'C']

Out[51]:
A B C
d 0.974466 -2.006747 -0.410001
e 0.545952 -1.219217 -1.226825
f -1.281247 -0.727707 -0.121306

For getting a cross section using a label (equiv to df.xs('a'))

In [52]: df1.loc['a']
Out[52]:
A 0.132003
B -0.827317
C -0.076467
D -1.187678
Name: a, dtype: float64

For getting values with a boolean array

In [53]: df1.loc['a'] > 0

Out[53]:
A True
B False
C False
D False
Name: a, dtype: bool

In [54]: df1.loc[:, df1.loc['a'] > 0]

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[54]:
A
a 0.132003
b 1.130127
c 1.024180
d 0.974466
e 0.545952
f -1.281247

For getting a value explicitly (equiv to deprecated df.get_value('a','A'))

# this is also equivalent to ``df1.at['a','A']``

In [55]: df1.loc['a', 'A']
Out[55]: 0.13200317033032932

12.5.1 Slicing with labels

When using .loc with slices, if both the start and the stop labels are present in the index, then elements located
between the two (including them) are returned:

In [56]: s = pd.Series(list('abcde'), index=[0,3,2,5,4])

In [57]: s.loc[3:5]
Out[57]:
3 b
2 c

12.5. Selection By Label 617

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

5 d
dtype: object

If at least one of the two is absent, but the index is sorted, and can be compared against start and stop labels, then
slicing will still work as expected, by selecting labels which rank between the two:

In [58]: s.sort_index()
Out[58]:
0 a
2 c
3 b
4 e
5 d
dtype: object

In [59]: s.sort_index().loc[1:6]
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[59]:
2 c
3 b
4 e
5 d
dtype: object

However, if at least one of the two is absent and the index is not sorted, an error will be raised (since doing otherwise
would be computationally expensive, as well as potentially ambiguous for mixed type indexes). For instance, in the
above example, s.loc[1:6] would raise KeyError.

12.6 Selection By Position

Warning: Whether a copy or a reference is returned for a setting operation, may depend on the context. This is
sometimes called chained assignment and should be avoided. See Returning a View versus Copy

Pandas provides a suite of methods in order to get purely integer based indexing. The semantics follow closely
python and numpy slicing. These are 0-based indexing. When slicing, the start bounds is included, while the upper
bound is excluded. Trying to use a non-integer, even a valid label will raise an IndexError.
The .iloc attribute is the primary access method. The following are valid inputs:
• An integer e.g. 5
• A list or array of integers [4, 3, 0]
• A slice object with ints 1:7
• A boolean array
• A callable, see Selection By Callable

In [60]: s1 = pd.Series(np.random.randn(5), index=list(range(0,10,2)))

In [61]: s1
Out[61]:
0 0.695775
2 0.341734
4 0.959726

618 Chapter 12. Indexing and Selecting Data

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

6 -1.110336
8 -0.619976
dtype: float64

In [62]: s1.iloc[:3]
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[62
˓→

0 0.695775
2 0.341734
4 0.959726
dtype: float64

In [63]: s1.iloc[3]
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→-1.1103361028911669

Note that setting works as well:

In [64]: s1.iloc[:3] = 0

In [65]: s1
Out[65]:
0 0.000000
2 0.000000
4 0.000000
6 -1.110336
8 -0.619976
dtype: float64

With a DataFrame
In [66]: df1 = pd.DataFrame(np.random.randn(6,4),
....: index=list(range(0,12,2)),
....: columns=list(range(0,8,2)))
....:

In [67]: df1
Out[67]:
0 2 4 6
0 0.149748 -0.732339 0.687738 0.176444
2 0.403310 -0.154951 0.301624 -2.179861
4 -1.369849 -0.954208 1.462696 -1.743161
6 -0.826591 -0.345352 1.314232 0.690579
8 0.995761 2.396780 0.014871 3.357427
10 -0.317441 -1.236269 0.896171 -0.487602

Select via integer slicing

In [68]: df1.iloc[:3]
Out[68]:
0 2 4 6
0 0.149748 -0.732339 0.687738 0.176444
2 0.403310 -0.154951 0.301624 -2.179861
4 -1.369849 -0.954208 1.462696 -1.743161

In [69]: df1.iloc[1:5, 2:4]

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

12.6. Selection By Position 619

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

4 6
2 0.301624 -2.179861
4 1.462696 -1.743161
6 1.314232 0.690579
8 0.014871 3.357427

Select via integer list

In [70]: df1.iloc[[1, 3, 5], [1, 3]]
Out[70]:
2 6
2 -0.154951 -2.179861
6 -0.345352 0.690579
10 -1.236269 -0.487602

In [71]: df1.iloc[1:3, :]
Out[71]:
0 2 4 6
2 0.403310 -0.154951 0.301624 -2.179861
4 -1.369849 -0.954208 1.462696 -1.743161

In [72]: df1.iloc[:, 1:3]

Out[72]:
2 4
0 -0.732339 0.687738
2 -0.154951 0.301624
4 -0.954208 1.462696
6 -0.345352 1.314232
8 2.396780 0.014871
10 -1.236269 0.896171

# this is also equivalent to ``df1.iat[1,1]``

In [73]: df1.iloc[1, 1]
Out[73]: -0.15495077442490321

For getting a cross section using an integer position (equiv to df.xs(1))

In [74]: df1.iloc[1]
Out[74]:
0 0.403310
2 -0.154951
4 0.301624
6 -2.179861
Name: 2, dtype: float64

Out of range slice indexes are handled gracefully just as in Python/Numpy.

# these are allowed in python/numpy.
In [75]: x = list('abcdef')

In [76]: x
Out[76]: ['a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'e', 'f']

In [77]: x[4:10]
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[77]: ['e', 'f']

In [78]: x[8:10]

620 Chapter 12. Indexing and Selecting Data

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[78]: []

In [79]: s = pd.Series(x)

In [80]: s
Out[80]:
0 a
1 b
2 c
3 d
4 e
5 f
dtype: object

In [81]: s.iloc[4:10]
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[81]:
4 e
5 f
dtype: object

In [82]: s.iloc[8:10]
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→Series([], dtype: object)

Note that using slices that go out of bounds can result in an empty axis (e.g. an empty DataFrame being returned)

In [83]: dfl = pd.DataFrame(np.random.randn(5,2), columns=list('AB'))

In [84]: dfl
Out[84]:
A B
0 -0.082240 -2.182937
1 0.380396 0.084844
2 0.432390 1.519970
3 -0.493662 0.600178
4 0.274230 0.132885

In [85]: dfl.iloc[:, 2:3]

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

Empty DataFrame
Columns: []
Index: [0, 1, 2, 3, 4]

In [86]: dfl.iloc[:, 1:3]

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

B
0 -2.182937
1 0.084844
2 1.519970
3 0.600178
4 0.132885

In [87]: dfl.iloc[4:6]
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

A B

12.6. Selection By Position 621

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

4 0.27423 0.132885

A single indexer that is out of bounds will raise an IndexError. A list of indexers where any element is out of
bounds will raise an IndexError
dfl.iloc[[4, 5, 6]]
IndexError: positional indexers are out-of-bounds

dfl.iloc[:, 4]
IndexError: single positional indexer is out-of-bounds

12.7 Selection By Callable

New in version 0.18.1.

.loc, .iloc, and also [] indexing can accept a callable as indexer. The callable must be a function with
one argument (the calling Series, DataFrame or Panel) and that returns valid output for indexing.
In [88]: df1 = pd.DataFrame(np.random.randn(6, 4),
....: index=list('abcdef'),
....: columns=list('ABCD'))
....:

In [89]: df1
Out[89]:
A B C D
a -0.023688 2.410179 1.450520 0.206053
b -0.251905 -2.213588 1.063327 1.266143
c 0.299368 -0.863838 0.408204 -1.048089
d -0.025747 -0.988387 0.094055 1.262731
e 1.289997 0.082423 -0.055758 0.536580
f -0.489682 0.369374 -0.034571 -2.484478

In [90]: df1.loc[lambda df: df.A > 0, :]

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

A B C D
c 0.299368 -0.863838 0.408204 -1.048089
e 1.289997 0.082423 -0.055758 0.536580

In [91]: df1.loc[:, lambda df: ['A', 'B']]

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

A B
a -0.023688 2.410179
b -0.251905 -2.213588
c 0.299368 -0.863838
d -0.025747 -0.988387
e 1.289997 0.082423
f -0.489682 0.369374

In [92]: df1.iloc[:, lambda df: [0, 1]]

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

A B
a -0.023688 2.410179

622 Chapter 12. Indexing and Selecting Data

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

b -0.251905 -2.213588
c 0.299368 -0.863838
d -0.025747 -0.988387
e 1.289997 0.082423
f -0.489682 0.369374

In [93]: df1[lambda df: df.columns[0]]

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

a -0.023688
b -0.251905
c 0.299368
d -0.025747
e 1.289997
f -0.489682
Name: A, dtype: float64

You can use callable indexing in Series.

In [94]: df1.A.loc[lambda s: s > 0]

Out[94]:
c 0.299368
e 1.289997
Name: A, dtype: float64

Using these methods / indexers, you can chain data selection operations without using temporary variable.

In [95]: bb = pd.read_csv('data/baseball.csv', index_col='id')

In [96]: (bb.groupby(['year', 'team']).sum()

....: .loc[lambda df: df.r > 100])
....:
Out[96]:
stint g ab r h X2b X3b hr rbi sb cs bb \
year team
2007 CIN 6 379 745 101 203 35 2 36 125.0 10.0 1.0 105
DET 5 301 1062 162 283 54 4 37 144.0 24.0 7.0 97
HOU 4 311 926 109 218 47 6 14 77.0 10.0 4.0 60
LAN 11 413 1021 153 293 61 3 36 154.0 7.0 5.0 114
NYN 13 622 1854 240 509 101 3 61 243.0 22.0 4.0 174
SFN 5 482 1305 198 337 67 6 40 171.0 26.0 7.0 235
TEX 2 198 729 115 200 40 4 28 115.0 21.0 4.0 73
TOR 4 459 1408 187 378 96 2 58 223.0 4.0 2.0 190

so ibb hbp sh sf gidp

year team
2007 CIN 127.0 14.0 1.0 1.0 15.0 18.0
DET 176.0 3.0 10.0 4.0 8.0 28.0
HOU 212.0 3.0 9.0 16.0 6.0 17.0
LAN 141.0 8.0 9.0 3.0 8.0 29.0
NYN 310.0 24.0 23.0 18.0 15.0 48.0
SFN 188.0 51.0 8.0 16.0 6.0 41.0
TEX 140.0 4.0 5.0 2.0 8.0 16.0
TOR 265.0 16.0 12.0 4.0 16.0 38.0

12.7. Selection By Callable 623

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

12.8 IX Indexer is Deprecated

Warning: Starting in 0.20.0, the .ix indexer is deprecated, in favor of the more strict .iloc and .loc indexers.

.ix offers a lot of magic on the inference of what the user wants to do. To wit, .ix can decide to index positionally
OR via labels depending on the data type of the index. This has caused quite a bit of user confusion over the years.
The recommended methods of indexing are:
• .loc if you want to label index
• .iloc if you want to positionally index.
In [97]: dfd = pd.DataFrame({'A': [1, 2, 3],
....: 'B': [4, 5, 6]},
....: index=list('abc'))
....:

In [98]: dfd
Out[98]:
A B
a 1 4
b 2 5
c 3 6

Previous Behavior, where you wish to get the 0th and the 2nd elements from the index in the ‘A’ column.
In [3]: dfd.ix[[0, 2], 'A']
Out[3]:
a 1
c 3
Name: A, dtype: int64

Using .loc. Here we will select the appropriate indexes from the index, then use label indexing.
In [99]: dfd.loc[dfd.index[[0, 2]], 'A']
Out[99]:
a 1
c 3
Name: A, dtype: int64

This can also be expressed using .iloc, by explicitly getting locations on the indexers, and using positional indexing
to select things.
In [100]: dfd.iloc[[0, 2], dfd.columns.get_loc('A')]
Out[100]:
a 1
c 3
Name: A, dtype: int64

For getting multiple indexers, using .get_indexer

In [101]: dfd.iloc[[0, 2], dfd.columns.get_indexer(['A', 'B'])]
Out[101]:
A B
a 1 4
c 3 6

624 Chapter 12. Indexing and Selecting Data

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

12.9 Indexing with list with missing labels is Deprecated

Warning: Starting in 0.21.0, using .loc or [] with a list with one or more missing labels, is deprecated, in favor
of .reindex.

In prior versions, using .loc[list-of-labels] would work as long as at least 1 of the keys was found (oth-
erwise it would raise a KeyError). This behavior is deprecated and will show a warning message pointing to this
section. The recommeded alternative is to use .reindex().
For example.

In [102]: s = pd.Series([1, 2, 3])

In [103]: s
Out[103]:
0 1
1 2
2 3
dtype: int64

Selection with all keys found is unchanged.

In [104]: s.loc[[1, 2]]

Out[104]:
1 2
2 3
dtype: int64

Previous Behavior

In [4]: s.loc[[1, 2, 3]]

Out[4]:
1 2.0
2 3.0
3 NaN
dtype: float64

Current Behavior

In [4]: s.loc[[1, 2, 3]]

Passing list-likes to .loc with any non-matching elements will raise
KeyError in the future, you can use .reindex() as an alternative.

See the documentation here:

http://pandas.pydata.org/pandas-docs/stable/indexing.html#deprecate-loc-reindex-
˓→listlike

Out[4]:
1 2.0
2 3.0
3 NaN
dtype: float64

12.9. Indexing with list with missing labels is Deprecated 625

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

12.9.1 Reindexing

The idiomatic way to achieve selecting potentially not-found elmenents is via .reindex(). See also the section on
reindexing.

In [105]: s.reindex([1, 2, 3])

Out[105]:
1 2.0
2 3.0
3 NaN
dtype: float64

Alternatively, if you want to select only valid keys, the following is idiomatic and efficient; it is guaranteed to preserve
the dtype of the selection.

In [106]: labels = [1, 2, 3]

In [107]: s.loc[s.index.intersection(labels)]
Out[107]:
1 2
2 3
dtype: int64

Having a duplicated index will raise for a .reindex():

In [108]: s = pd.Series(np.arange(4), index=['a', 'a', 'b', 'c'])

In [109]: labels = ['c', 'd']

In [17]: s.reindex(labels)
ValueError: cannot reindex from a duplicate axis

Generally, you can interesect the desired labels with the current axis, and then reindex.

In [110]: s.loc[s.index.intersection(labels)].reindex(labels)
Out[110]:
c 3.0
d NaN
dtype: float64

However, this would still raise if your resulting index is duplicated.

In [41]: labels = ['a', 'd']

In [42]: s.loc[s.index.intersection(labels)].reindex(labels)
ValueError: cannot reindex from a duplicate axis

12.10 Selecting Random Samples

A random selection of rows or columns from a Series, DataFrame, or Panel with the sample() method. The method
will sample rows by default, and accepts a specific number of rows/columns to return, or a fraction of rows.

In [111]: s = pd.Series([0,1,2,3,4,5])

# When no arguments are passed, returns 1 row.

626 Chapter 12. Indexing and Selecting Data

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [112]: s.sample()
Out[112]:
4 4
dtype: int64

# One may specify either a number of rows:

In [113]: s.sample(n=3)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[113]:
0 0
4 4
1 1
dtype: int64

# Or a fraction of the rows:

In [114]: s.sample(frac=0.5)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[114]:
5 5
3 3
1 1
dtype: int64

By default, sample will return each row at most once, but one can also sample with replacement using the replace
option:

In [115]: s = pd.Series([0,1,2,3,4,5])

# Without replacement (default):

In [116]: s.sample(n=6, replace=False)
Out[116]:
0 0
1 1
5 5
3 3
2 2
4 4
dtype: int64

# With replacement:
In [117]: s.sample(n=6, replace=True)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[117]:
0 0
4 4
3 3
2 2
4 4
4 4
dtype: int64

By default, each row has an equal probability of being selected, but if you want rows to have different probabilities,
you can pass the sample function sampling weights as weights. These weights can be a list, a numpy array, or a
Series, but they must be of the same length as the object you are sampling. Missing values will be treated as a weight
of zero, and inf values are not allowed. If weights do not sum to 1, they will be re-normalized by dividing all weights
by the sum of the weights. For example:

In [118]: s = pd.Series([0,1,2,3,4,5])

In [119]: example_weights = [0, 0, 0.2, 0.2, 0.2, 0.4]

12.10. Selecting Random Samples 627

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [120]: s.sample(n=3, weights=example_weights)

Out[120]:
5 5
4 4
3 3
dtype: int64

# Weights will be re-normalized automatically

In [121]: example_weights2 = [0.5, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0]

In [122]: s.sample(n=1, weights=example_weights2)

Out[122]:
0 0
dtype: int64

When applied to a DataFrame, you can use a column of the DataFrame as sampling weights (provided you are sampling
rows and not columns) by simply passing the name of the column as a string.

In [123]: df2 = pd.DataFrame({'col1':[9,8,7,6], 'weight_column':[0.5, 0.4, 0.1, 0]})

In [124]: df2.sample(n = 3, weights = 'weight_column')

Out[124]:
col1 weight_column
1 8 0.4
0 9 0.5
2 7 0.1

sample also allows users to sample columns instead of rows using the axis argument.

In [125]: df3 = pd.DataFrame({'col1':[1,2,3], 'col2':[2,3,4]})

In [126]: df3.sample(n=1, axis=1)

Out[126]:
col1
0 1
1 2
2 3

Finally, one can also set a seed for sample‘s random number generator using the random_state argument, which
will accept either an integer (as a seed) or a numpy RandomState object.

In [127]: df4 = pd.DataFrame({'col1':[1,2,3], 'col2':[2,3,4]})

# With a given seed, the sample will always draw the same rows.
In [128]: df4.sample(n=2, random_state=2)
Out[128]:
col1 col2
2 3 4
1 2 3

In [129]: df4.sample(n=2, random_state=2)

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[129]:
col1 col2
2 3 4
1 2 3

628 Chapter 12. Indexing and Selecting Data

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

12.11 Setting With Enlargement

The .loc/[] operations can perform enlargement when setting a non-existent key for that axis.
In the Series case this is effectively an appending operation

In [130]: se = pd.Series([1,2,3])

In [131]: se
Out[131]:
0 1
1 2
2 3
dtype: int64

In [132]: se[5] = 5.

In [133]: se
Out[133]:
0 1.0
1 2.0
2 3.0
5 5.0
dtype: float64

A DataFrame can be enlarged on either axis via .loc

In [134]: dfi = pd.DataFrame(np.arange(6).reshape(3,2),

.....: columns=['A','B'])
.....:

In [135]: dfi
Out[135]:
A B
0 0 1
1 2 3
2 4 5

In [136]: dfi.loc[:,'C'] = dfi.loc[:,'A']

In [137]: dfi
Out[137]:
A B C
0 0 1 0
1 2 3 2
2 4 5 4

This is like an append operation on the DataFrame.

In [138]: dfi.loc[3] = 5

In [139]: dfi
Out[139]:
A B C
0 0 1 0
1 2 3 2
2 4 5 4
3 5 5 5

12.11. Setting With Enlargement 629

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

12.12 Fast scalar value getting and setting

Since indexing with [] must handle a lot of cases (single-label access, slicing, boolean indexing, etc.), it has a bit of
overhead in order to figure out what you’re asking for. If you only want to access a scalar value, the fastest way is to
use the at and iat methods, which are implemented on all of the data structures.
Similarly to loc, at provides label based scalar lookups, while, iat provides integer based lookups analogously to
iloc

In [140]: s.iat[5]
Out[140]: 5

In [141]: df.at[dates[5], 'A']

\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[141]: -0.67368970808837059

In [142]: df.iat[3, 0]
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[142]: 0.72155516224436689

You can also set using these same indexers.

In [143]: df.at[dates[5], 'E'] = 7

In [144]: df.iat[3, 0] = 7

at may enlarge the object in-place as above if the indexer is missing.

In [145]: df.at[dates[-1]+1, 0] = 7

In [146]: df
Out[146]:
A B C D E 0
2000-01-01 0.469112 -0.282863 -1.509059 -1.135632 NaN NaN
2000-01-02 1.212112 -0.173215 0.119209 -1.044236 NaN NaN
2000-01-03 -0.861849 -2.104569 -0.494929 1.071804 NaN NaN
2000-01-04 7.000000 -0.706771 -1.039575 0.271860 NaN NaN
2000-01-05 -0.424972 0.567020 0.276232 -1.087401 NaN NaN
2000-01-06 -0.673690 0.113648 -1.478427 0.524988 7.0 NaN
2000-01-07 0.404705 0.577046 -1.715002 -1.039268 NaN NaN
2000-01-08 -0.370647 -1.157892 -1.344312 0.844885 NaN NaN
2000-01-09 NaN NaN NaN NaN NaN 7.0

12.13 Boolean indexing

Another common operation is the use of boolean vectors to filter the data. The operators are: | for or, & for and, and
~ for not. These must be grouped by using parentheses.
Using a boolean vector to index a Series works exactly as in a numpy ndarray:

In [147]: s = pd.Series(range(-3, 4))

In [148]: s
Out[148]:
0 -3
1 -2
2 -1

630 Chapter 12. Indexing and Selecting Data

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

3 0
4 1
5 2
6 3
dtype: int64

In [149]: s[s > 0]

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[149]:
4 1
5 2
6 3
dtype: int64

In [150]: s[(s < -1) | (s > 0.5)]

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

0 -3
1 -2
4 1
5 2
6 3
dtype: int64

In [151]: s[~(s < 0)]

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

3 0
4 1
5 2
6 3
dtype: int64

You may select rows from a DataFrame using a boolean vector the same length as the DataFrame’s index (for example,
something derived from one of the columns of the DataFrame):
In [152]: df[df['A'] > 0]
Out[152]:
A B C D E 0
2000-01-01 0.469112 -0.282863 -1.509059 -1.135632 NaN NaN
2000-01-02 1.212112 -0.173215 0.119209 -1.044236 NaN NaN
2000-01-04 7.000000 -0.706771 -1.039575 0.271860 NaN NaN
2000-01-07 0.404705 0.577046 -1.715002 -1.039268 NaN NaN

List comprehensions and map method of Series can also be used to produce more complex criteria:
In [153]: df2 = pd.DataFrame({'a' : ['one', 'one', 'two', 'three', 'two', 'one', 'six
˓→'],

.....: 'b' : ['x', 'y', 'y', 'x', 'y', 'x', 'x'],

.....: 'c' : np.random.randn(7)})
.....:

# only want 'two' or 'three'

In [154]: criterion = df2['a'].map(lambda x: x.startswith('t'))

In [155]: df2[criterion]
Out[155]:
a b c
2 two y 0.041290

12.13. Boolean indexing 631

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

3 three x 0.361719
4 two y -0.238075

# equivalent but slower

In [156]: df2[[x.startswith('t') for x in df2['a']]]
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Ou
˓→

a b c
2 two y 0.041290
3 three x 0.361719
4 two y -0.238075

# Multiple criteria
In [157]: df2[criterion & (df2['b'] == 'x')]
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

a b c
3 three x 0.361719

Note, with the choice methods Selection by Label, Selection by Position, and Advanced Indexing you may select along
more than one axis using boolean vectors combined with other indexing expressions.

In [158]: df2.loc[criterion & (df2['b'] == 'x'),'b':'c']

Out[158]:
b c
3 x 0.361719

12.14 Indexing with isin

Consider the isin method of Series, which returns a boolean vector that is true wherever the Series elements exist in
the passed list. This allows you to select rows where one or more columns have values you want:

In [159]: s = pd.Series(np.arange(5), index=np.arange(5)[::-1], dtype='int64')

In [160]: s
Out[160]:
4 0
3 1
2 2
1 3
0 4
dtype: int64

In [161]: s.isin([2, 4, 6])

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[161]:
4 False
3 False
2 True
1 False
0 True
dtype: bool

In [162]: s[s.isin([2, 4, 6])]

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

632 Chapter 12. Indexing and Selecting Data

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

2 2
0 4
dtype: int64

The same method is available for Index objects and is useful for the cases when you don’t know which of the sought
labels are in fact present:

In [163]: s[s.index.isin([2, 4, 6])]

Out[163]:
4 0
2 2
dtype: int64

# compare it to the following

In [164]: s.reindex([2, 4, 6])
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[164]:
2 2.0
4 0.0
6 NaN
dtype: float64

In addition to that, MultiIndex allows selecting a separate level to use in the membership check:

In [165]: s_mi = pd.Series(np.arange(6),

.....: index=pd.MultiIndex.from_product([[0, 1], ['a', 'b', 'c
˓→']]))

.....:

In [166]: s_mi
Out[166]:
0 a 0
b 1
c 2
1 a 3
b 4
c 5
dtype: int64

In [167]: s_mi.iloc[s_mi.index.isin([(1, 'a'), (2, 'b'), (0, 'c')])]

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[167]:
˓→

0 c 2
1 a 3
dtype: int64

In [168]: s_mi.iloc[s_mi.index.isin(['a', 'c', 'e'], level=1)]

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

0 a 0
c 2
1 a 3
c 5
dtype: int64

DataFrame also has an isin method. When calling isin, pass a set of values as either an array or dict. If values is
an array, isin returns a DataFrame of booleans that is the same shape as the original DataFrame, with True wherever
the element is in the sequence of values.

12.14. Indexing with isin 633

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [169]: df = pd.DataFrame({'vals': [1, 2, 3, 4], 'ids': ['a', 'b', 'f', 'n'],

.....: 'ids2': ['a', 'n', 'c', 'n']})
.....:

In [170]: values = ['a', 'b', 1, 3]

In [171]: df.isin(values)
Out[171]:
ids ids2 vals
0 True True True
1 True False False
2 False False True
3 False False False

Oftentimes you’ll want to match certain values with certain columns. Just make values a dict where the key is the
column, and the value is a list of items you want to check for.

In [172]: values = {'ids': ['a', 'b'], 'vals': [1, 3]}

In [173]: df.isin(values)
Out[173]:
ids ids2 vals
0 True False True
1 True False False
2 False False True
3 False False False

Combine DataFrame’s isin with the any() and all() methods to quickly select subsets of your data that meet a
given criteria. To select a row where each column meets its own criterion:

In [174]: values = {'ids': ['a', 'b'], 'ids2': ['a', 'c'], 'vals': [1, 3]}

In [175]: row_mask = df.isin(values).all(1)

In [176]: df[row_mask]
Out[176]:
ids ids2 vals
0 a a 1

12.15 The where() Method and Masking

Selecting values from a Series with a boolean vector generally returns a subset of the data. To guarantee that selection
output has the same shape as the original data, you can use the where method in Series and DataFrame.
To return only the selected rows

In [177]: s[s > 0]

Out[177]:
3 1
2 2
1 3
0 4
dtype: int64

To return a Series of the same shape as the original

634 Chapter 12. Indexing and Selecting Data

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [178]: s.where(s > 0)

Out[178]:
4 NaN
3 1.0
2 2.0
1 3.0
0 4.0
dtype: float64

Selecting values from a DataFrame with a boolean criterion now also preserves input data shape. where is used under
the hood as the implementation. Equivalent is df.where(df < 0)
In [179]: df[df < 0]
Out[179]:
A B C D
2000-01-01 -2.104139 -1.309525 NaN NaN
2000-01-02 -0.352480 NaN -1.192319 NaN
2000-01-03 -0.864883 NaN -0.227870 NaN
2000-01-04 NaN -1.222082 NaN -1.233203
2000-01-05 NaN -0.605656 -1.169184 NaN
2000-01-06 NaN -0.948458 NaN -0.684718
2000-01-07 -2.670153 -0.114722 NaN -0.048048
2000-01-08 NaN NaN -0.048788 -0.808838

In addition, where takes an optional other argument for replacement of values where the condition is False, in the
returned copy.
In [180]: df.where(df < 0, -df)
Out[180]:
A B C D
2000-01-01 -2.104139 -1.309525 -0.485855 -0.245166
2000-01-02 -0.352480 -0.390389 -1.192319 -1.655824
2000-01-03 -0.864883 -0.299674 -0.227870 -0.281059
2000-01-04 -0.846958 -1.222082 -0.600705 -1.233203
2000-01-05 -0.669692 -0.605656 -1.169184 -0.342416
2000-01-06 -0.868584 -0.948458 -2.297780 -0.684718
2000-01-07 -2.670153 -0.114722 -0.168904 -0.048048
2000-01-08 -0.801196 -1.392071 -0.048788 -0.808838

You may wish to set values based on some boolean criteria. This can be done intuitively like so:
In [181]: s2 = s.copy()

In [182]: s2[s2 < 0] = 0

In [183]: s2
Out[183]:
4 0
3 1
2 2
1 3
0 4
dtype: int64

In [184]: df2 = df.copy()

In [185]: df2[df2 < 0] = 0

12.15. The where() Method and Masking 635

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [186]: df2
Out[186]:
A B C D
2000-01-01 0.000000 0.000000 0.485855 0.245166
2000-01-02 0.000000 0.390389 0.000000 1.655824
2000-01-03 0.000000 0.299674 0.000000 0.281059
2000-01-04 0.846958 0.000000 0.600705 0.000000
2000-01-05 0.669692 0.000000 0.000000 0.342416
2000-01-06 0.868584 0.000000 2.297780 0.000000
2000-01-07 0.000000 0.000000 0.168904 0.000000
2000-01-08 0.801196 1.392071 0.000000 0.000000

By default, where returns a modified copy of the data. There is an optional parameter inplace so that the original
data can be modified without creating a copy:
In [187]: df_orig = df.copy()

In [188]: df_orig.where(df > 0, -df, inplace=True);

In [189]: df_orig
Out[189]:
A B C D
2000-01-01 2.104139 1.309525 0.485855 0.245166
2000-01-02 0.352480 0.390389 1.192319 1.655824
2000-01-03 0.864883 0.299674 0.227870 0.281059
2000-01-04 0.846958 1.222082 0.600705 1.233203
2000-01-05 0.669692 0.605656 1.169184 0.342416
2000-01-06 0.868584 0.948458 2.297780 0.684718
2000-01-07 2.670153 0.114722 0.168904 0.048048
2000-01-08 0.801196 1.392071 0.048788 0.808838

Note: The signature for DataFrame.where() differs from numpy.where(). Roughly df1.where(m,
df2) is equivalent to np.where(m, df1, df2).
In [190]: df.where(df < 0, -df) == np.where(df < 0, df, -df)
Out[190]:
A B C D
2000-01-01 True True True True
2000-01-02 True True True True
2000-01-03 True True True True
2000-01-04 True True True True
2000-01-05 True True True True
2000-01-06 True True True True
2000-01-07 True True True True
2000-01-08 True True True True

alignment
Furthermore, where aligns the input boolean condition (ndarray or DataFrame), such that partial selection with setting
is possible. This is analogous to partial setting via .loc (but on the contents rather than the axis labels)
In [191]: df2 = df.copy()

In [192]: df2[ df2[1:4] > 0 ] = 3

In [193]: df2

636 Chapter 12. Indexing and Selecting Data

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Out[193]:
A B C D
2000-01-01 -2.104139 -1.309525 0.485855 0.245166
2000-01-02 -0.352480 3.000000 -1.192319 3.000000
2000-01-03 -0.864883 3.000000 -0.227870 3.000000
2000-01-04 3.000000 -1.222082 3.000000 -1.233203
2000-01-05 0.669692 -0.605656 -1.169184 0.342416
2000-01-06 0.868584 -0.948458 2.297780 -0.684718
2000-01-07 -2.670153 -0.114722 0.168904 -0.048048
2000-01-08 0.801196 1.392071 -0.048788 -0.808838

Where can also accept axis and level parameters to align the input when performing the where.

In [194]: df2 = df.copy()

In [195]: df2.where(df2>0,df2['A'],axis='index')
Out[195]:
A B C D
2000-01-01 -2.104139 -2.104139 0.485855 0.245166
2000-01-02 -0.352480 0.390389 -0.352480 1.655824
2000-01-03 -0.864883 0.299674 -0.864883 0.281059
2000-01-04 0.846958 0.846958 0.600705 0.846958
2000-01-05 0.669692 0.669692 0.669692 0.342416
2000-01-06 0.868584 0.868584 2.297780 0.868584
2000-01-07 -2.670153 -2.670153 0.168904 -2.670153
2000-01-08 0.801196 1.392071 0.801196 0.801196

This is equivalent (but faster than) the following.

In [196]: df2 = df.copy()

In [197]: df.apply(lambda x, y: x.where(x>0,y), y=df['A'])

Out[197]:
A B C D
2000-01-01 -2.104139 -2.104139 0.485855 0.245166
2000-01-02 -0.352480 0.390389 -0.352480 1.655824
2000-01-03 -0.864883 0.299674 -0.864883 0.281059
2000-01-04 0.846958 0.846958 0.600705 0.846958
2000-01-05 0.669692 0.669692 0.669692 0.342416
2000-01-06 0.868584 0.868584 2.297780 0.868584
2000-01-07 -2.670153 -2.670153 0.168904 -2.670153
2000-01-08 0.801196 1.392071 0.801196 0.801196

New in version 0.18.1.

Where can accept a callable as condition and other arguments. The function must be with one argument (the calling
Series or DataFrame) and that returns valid output as condition and other argument.

In [198]: df3 = pd.DataFrame({'A': [1, 2, 3],

.....: 'B': [4, 5, 6],
.....: 'C': [7, 8, 9]})
.....:

In [199]: df3.where(lambda x: x > 4, lambda x: x + 10)

Out[199]:
A B C
0 11 14 7
1 12 5 8

12.15. The where() Method and Masking 637

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

2 13 6 9

mask
mask is the inverse boolean operation of where.

In [200]: s.mask(s >= 0)

Out[200]:
4 NaN
3 NaN
2 NaN
1 NaN
0 NaN
dtype: float64

In [201]: df.mask(df >= 0)

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[201]:
A B C D
2000-01-01 -2.104139 -1.309525 NaN NaN
2000-01-02 -0.352480 NaN -1.192319 NaN
2000-01-03 -0.864883 NaN -0.227870 NaN
2000-01-04 NaN -1.222082 NaN -1.233203
2000-01-05 NaN -0.605656 -1.169184 NaN
2000-01-06 NaN -0.948458 NaN -0.684718
2000-01-07 -2.670153 -0.114722 NaN -0.048048
2000-01-08 NaN NaN -0.048788 -0.808838

12.16 The query() Method (Experimental)

DataFrame objects have a query() method that allows selection using an expression.
You can get the value of the frame where column b has values between the values of columns a and c. For example:

In [202]: n = 10

In [203]: df = pd.DataFrame(np.random.rand(n, 3), columns=list('abc'))

In [204]: df
Out[204]:
a b c
0 0.438921 0.118680 0.863670
1 0.138138 0.577363 0.686602
2 0.595307 0.564592 0.520630
3 0.913052 0.926075 0.616184
4 0.078718 0.854477 0.898725
5 0.076404 0.523211 0.591538
6 0.792342 0.216974 0.564056
7 0.397890 0.454131 0.915716
8 0.074315 0.437913 0.019794
9 0.559209 0.502065 0.026437

# pure python
In [205]: df[(df.a < df.b) & (df.b < df.c)]
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

a b c

638 Chapter 12. Indexing and Selecting Data

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

1 0.138138 0.577363 0.686602

4 0.078718 0.854477 0.898725
5 0.076404 0.523211 0.591538
7 0.397890 0.454131 0.915716

# query
In [206]: df.query('(a < b) & (b < c)')
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

a b c
1 0.138138 0.577363 0.686602
4 0.078718 0.854477 0.898725
5 0.076404 0.523211 0.591538
7 0.397890 0.454131 0.915716

Do the same thing but fall back on a named index if there is no column with the name a.

In [207]: df = pd.DataFrame(np.random.randint(n / 2, size=(n, 2)), columns=list('bc'))

In [208]: df.index.name = 'a'

In [209]: df
Out[209]:
b c
a
0 0 4
1 0 1
2 3 4
3 4 3
4 1 4
5 0 3
6 0 1
7 3 4
8 2 3
9 1 1

In [210]: df.query('a < b and b < c')

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

b c
a
2 3 4

If instead you don’t want to or cannot name your index, you can use the name index in your query expression:

In [211]: df = pd.DataFrame(np.random.randint(n, size=(n, 2)), columns=list('bc'))

In [212]: df
Out[212]:
b c
0 3 1
1 3 0
2 5 6
3 5 2
4 7 4
5 0 1
6 2 5
7 0 1

12.16. The query() Method (Experimental) 639

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

8 6 0
9 7 9

In [213]: df.query('index < b < c')

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Ou
˓→

b c
2 5 6

Note: If the name of your index overlaps with a column name, the column name is given precedence. For example,

In [214]: df = pd.DataFrame({'a': np.random.randint(5, size=5)})

In [215]: df.index.name = 'a'

In [216]: df.query('a > 2') # uses the column 'a', not the index
Out[216]:
a
a
1 3
3 3

You can still use the index in a query expression by using the special identifier ‘index’:

In [217]: df.query('index > 2')

Out[217]:
a
a
3 3
4 2

If for some reason you have a column named index, then you can refer to the index as ilevel_0 as well, but at
this point you should consider renaming your columns to something less ambiguous.

12.16.1 MultiIndex query() Syntax

You can also use the levels of a DataFrame with a MultiIndex as if they were columns in the frame:

In [218]: n = 10

In [219]: colors = np.random.choice(['red', 'green'], size=n)

In [220]: foods = np.random.choice(['eggs', 'ham'], size=n)

In [221]: colors
Out[221]:
array(['red', 'red', 'red', 'green', 'green', 'green', 'green', 'green',
'green', 'green'],
dtype='<U5')

In [222]: foods
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

array(['ham', 'ham', 'eggs', 'eggs', 'eggs', 'ham', 'ham', 'eggs', 'eggs',

640 Chapter 12. Indexing and Selecting Data

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

'eggs'],
dtype='<U4')

In [223]: index = pd.MultiIndex.from_arrays([colors, foods], names=['color', 'food'])

In [224]: df = pd.DataFrame(np.random.randn(n, 2), index=index)

In [225]: df
Out[225]:
0 1
color food
red ham 0.194889 -0.381994
ham 0.318587 2.089075
eggs -0.728293 -0.090255
green eggs -0.748199 1.318931
eggs -2.029766 0.792652
ham 0.461007 -0.542749
ham -0.305384 -0.479195
eggs 0.095031 -0.270099
eggs -0.707140 -0.773882
eggs 0.229453 0.304418

In [226]: df.query('color == "red"')

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

0 1
color food
red ham 0.194889 -0.381994
ham 0.318587 2.089075
eggs -0.728293 -0.090255

If the levels of the MultiIndex are unnamed, you can refer to them using special names:

In [227]: df.index.names = [None, None]

In [228]: df
Out[228]:
0 1
red ham 0.194889 -0.381994
ham 0.318587 2.089075
eggs -0.728293 -0.090255
green eggs -0.748199 1.318931
eggs -2.029766 0.792652
ham 0.461007 -0.542749
ham -0.305384 -0.479195
eggs 0.095031 -0.270099
eggs -0.707140 -0.773882
eggs 0.229453 0.304418

In [229]: df.query('ilevel_0 == "red"')

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

0 1
red ham 0.194889 -0.381994
ham 0.318587 2.089075
eggs -0.728293 -0.090255

The convention is ilevel_0, which means “index level 0” for the 0th level of the index.

12.16. The query() Method (Experimental) 641

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

12.16.2 query() Use Cases

A use case for query() is when you have a collection of DataFrame objects that have a subset of column names
(or index levels/names) in common. You can pass the same query to both frames without having to specify which
frame you’re interested in querying
In [230]: df = pd.DataFrame(np.random.rand(n, 3), columns=list('abc'))

In [231]: df
Out[231]:
a b c
0 0.224283 0.736107 0.139168
1 0.302827 0.657803 0.713897
2 0.611185 0.136624 0.984960
3 0.195246 0.123436 0.627712
4 0.618673 0.371660 0.047902
5 0.480088 0.062993 0.185760
6 0.568018 0.483467 0.445289
7 0.309040 0.274580 0.587101
8 0.258993 0.477769 0.370255
9 0.550459 0.840870 0.304611

In [232]: df2 = pd.DataFrame(np.random.rand(n + 2, 3), columns=df.columns)

In [233]: df2
Out[233]:
a b c
0 0.357579 0.229800 0.596001
1 0.309059 0.957923 0.965663
2 0.123102 0.336914 0.318616
3 0.526506 0.323321 0.860813
4 0.518736 0.486514 0.384724
5 0.190804 0.505723 0.614533
6 0.891939 0.623977 0.676639
7 0.480559 0.378528 0.460858
8 0.420223 0.136404 0.141295
9 0.732206 0.419540 0.604675
10 0.604466 0.848974 0.896165
11 0.589168 0.920046 0.732716

In [234]: expr = '0.0 <= a <= c <= 0.5'

In [235]: map(lambda frame: frame.query(expr), [df, df2])

Out[235]: <map at 0x12cb5cc18>

12.16.3 query() Python versus pandas Syntax Comparison

Full numpy-like syntax

In [236]: df = pd.DataFrame(np.random.randint(n, size=(n, 3)), columns=list('abc'))

In [237]: df
Out[237]:
a b c
0 7 8 9
1 1 0 7
2 2 7 2

642 Chapter 12. Indexing and Selecting Data

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

3 6 2 2
4 2 6 3
5 3 8 2
6 1 7 2
7 5 1 5
8 9 8 0
9 1 5 0

In [238]: df.query('(a < b) & (b < c)')

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

a b c
0 7 8 9

In [239]: df[(df.a < df.b) & (df.b < df.c)]

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

a b c
0 7 8 9

Slightly nicer by removing the parentheses (by binding making comparison operators bind tighter than &/|)

In [240]: df.query('a < b & b < c')

Out[240]:
a b c
0 7 8 9

Use English instead of symbols

In [241]: df.query('a < b and b < c')

Out[241]:
a b c
0 7 8 9

Pretty close to how you might write it on paper

In [242]: df.query('a < b < c')

Out[242]:
a b c
0 7 8 9

12.16.4 The in and not in operators

query() also supports special use of Python’s in and not in comparison operators, providing a succinct syntax
for calling the isin method of a Series or DataFrame.

# get all rows where columns "a" and "b" have overlapping values
In [243]: df = pd.DataFrame({'a': list('aabbccddeeff'), 'b': list('aaaabbbbcccc'),
.....: 'c': np.random.randint(5, size=12),
.....: 'd': np.random.randint(9, size=12)})
.....:

In [244]: df
Out[244]:
a b c d
0 a a 2 6

12.16. The query() Method (Experimental) 643

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

1 a a 4 7
2 b a 1 6
3 b a 2 1
4 c b 3 6
5 c b 0 2
6 d b 3 3
7 d b 2 1
8 e c 4 3
9 e c 2 0
10 f c 0 6
11 f c 1 2

In [245]: df.query('a in b')

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

a b c d
0 a a 2 6
1 a a 4 7
2 b a 1 6
3 b a 2 1
4 c b 3 6
5 c b 0 2

# How you'd do it in pure Python

In [246]: df[df.a.isin(df.b)]
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

a b c d
0 a a 2 6
1 a a 4 7
2 b a 1 6
3 b a 2 1
4 c b 3 6
5 c b 0 2

In [247]: df.query('a not in b')

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

a b c d
6 d b 3 3
7 d b 2 1
8 e c 4 3
9 e c 2 0
10 f c 0 6
11 f c 1 2

# pure Python
In [248]: df[~df.a.isin(df.b)]
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

a b c d
6 d b 3 3
7 d b 2 1
8 e c 4 3
9 e c 2 0
10 f c 0 6
11 f c 1 2

644 Chapter 12. Indexing and Selecting Data

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

You can combine this with other expressions for very succinct queries:
# rows where cols a and b have overlapping values and col c's values are less than
˓→col d's

In [249]: df.query('a in b and c < d')

Out[249]:
a b c d
0 a a 2 6
1 a a 4 7
2 b a 1 6
4 c b 3 6
5 c b 0 2

# pure Python
In [250]: df[df.b.isin(df.a) & (df.c < df.d)]
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[25
˓→

a b c d
0 a a 2 6
1 a a 4 7
2 b a 1 6
4 c b 3 6
5 c b 0 2
10 f c 0 6
11 f c 1 2

Note: Note that in and not in are evaluated in Python, since numexpr has no equivalent of this operation.
However, only the in/not in expression itself is evaluated in vanilla Python. For example, in the expression
df.query('a in b + c + d')

(b + c + d) is evaluated by numexpr and then the in operation is evaluated in plain Python. In general, any
operations that can be evaluated using numexpr will be.

12.16.5 Special use of the == operator with list objects

Comparing a list of values to a column using ==/!= works similarly to in/not in

In [251]: df.query('b == ["a", "b", "c"]')
Out[251]:
a b c d
0 a a 2 6
1 a a 4 7
2 b a 1 6
3 b a 2 1
4 c b 3 6
5 c b 0 2
6 d b 3 3
7 d b 2 1
8 e c 4 3
9 e c 2 0
10 f c 0 6
11 f c 1 2

# pure Python

12.16. The query() Method (Experimental) 645

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [252]: df[df.b.isin(["a", "b", "c"])]

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

a b c d
0 a a 2 6
1 a a 4 7
2 b a 1 6
3 b a 2 1
4 c b 3 6
5 c b 0 2
6 d b 3 3
7 d b 2 1
8 e c 4 3
9 e c 2 0
10 f c 0 6
11 f c 1 2

In [253]: df.query('c == [1, 2]')

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

a b c d
0 a a 2 6
2 b a 1 6
3 b a 2 1
7 d b 2 1
9 e c 2 0
11 f c 1 2

In [254]: df.query('c != [1, 2]')

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

a b c d
1 a a 4 7
4 c b 3 6
5 c b 0 2
6 d b 3 3
8 e c 4 3
10 f c 0 6

# using in/not in
In [255]: df.query('[1, 2] in c')
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

a b c d
0 a a 2 6
2 b a 1 6
3 b a 2 1
7 d b 2 1
9 e c 2 0
11 f c 1 2

In [256]: df.query('[1, 2] not in c')

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

a b c d
1 a a 4 7
4 c b 3 6
5 c b 0 2

646 Chapter 12. Indexing and Selecting Data

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

6 d b 3 3
8 e c 4 3
10 f c 0 6

# pure Python
In [257]: df[df.c.isin([1, 2])]
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

a b c d
0 a a 2 6
2 b a 1 6
3 b a 2 1
7 d b 2 1
9 e c 2 0
11 f c 1 2

12.16.6 Boolean Operators

You can negate boolean expressions with the word not or the ~ operator.

In [258]: df = pd.DataFrame(np.random.rand(n, 3), columns=list('abc'))

In [259]: df['bools'] = np.random.rand(len(df)) > 0.5

In [260]: df.query('~bools')
Out[260]:
a b c bools
2 0.697753 0.212799 0.329209 False
7 0.275396 0.691034 0.826619 False
8 0.190649 0.558748 0.262467 False

In [261]: df.query('not bools')

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

a b c bools
2 0.697753 0.212799 0.329209 False
7 0.275396 0.691034 0.826619 False
8 0.190649 0.558748 0.262467 False

In [262]: df.query('not bools') == df[~df.bools]

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

a b c bools
2 True True True True
7 True True True True
8 True True True True

Of course, expressions can be arbitrarily complex too

# short query syntax

In [263]: shorter = df.query('a < b < c and (not bools) or bools > 2')

# equivalent in pure Python

In [264]: longer = df[(df.a < df.b) & (df.b < df.c) & (~df.bools) | (df.bools > 2)]

In [265]: shorter

12.16. The query() Method (Experimental) 647

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Out[265]:
a b c bools
7 0.275396 0.691034 0.826619 False

In [266]: longer
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[266]:
˓→

a b c bools
7 0.275396 0.691034 0.826619 False

In [267]: shorter == longer

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

a b c bools
7 True True True True

12.16.7 Performance of query()

DataFrame.query() using numexpr is slightly faster than Python for large frames

Note: You will only see the performance benefits of using the numexpr engine with DataFrame.query() if
your frame has more than approximately 200,000 rows

648 Chapter 12. Indexing and Selecting Data

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

This plot was created using a DataFrame with 3 columns each containing floating point values generated using
numpy.random.randn().

12.17 Duplicate Data

If you want to identify and remove duplicate rows in a DataFrame, there are two methods that will help: duplicated
and drop_duplicates. Each takes as an argument the columns to use to identify duplicated rows.
• duplicated returns a boolean vector whose length is the number of rows, and which indicates whether a row
is duplicated.
• drop_duplicates removes duplicate rows.
By default, the first observed row of a duplicate set is considered unique, but each method has a keep parameter to
specify targets to be kept.
• keep='first' (default): mark / drop duplicates except for the first occurrence.
• keep='last': mark / drop duplicates except for the last occurrence.
• keep=False: mark / drop all duplicates.
In [268]: df2 = pd.DataFrame({'a': ['one', 'one', 'two', 'two', 'two', 'three', 'four
˓→'],

.....: 'b': ['x', 'y', 'x', 'y', 'x', 'x', 'x'],

.....: 'c': np.random.randn(7)})
.....:

In [269]: df2
Out[269]:
a b c
0 one x -1.067137
1 one y 0.309500
2 two x -0.211056
3 two y -1.842023
4 two x -0.390820
5 three x -1.964475

12.17. Duplicate Data 649

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

6 four x 1.298329

In [270]: df2.duplicated('a')
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

0 False
1 True
2 False
3 True
4 True
5 False
6 False
dtype: bool

In [271]: df2.duplicated('a', keep='last')

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

0 True
1 False
2 True
3 True
4 False
5 False
6 False
dtype: bool

In [272]: df2.duplicated('a', keep=False)

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

0 True
1 True
2 True
3 True
4 True
5 False
6 False
dtype: bool

In [273]: df2.drop_duplicates('a')
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

a b c
0 one x -1.067137
2 two x -0.211056
5 three x -1.964475
6 four x 1.298329

In [274]: df2.drop_duplicates('a', keep='last')

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

a b c
1 one y 0.309500
4 two x -0.390820
5 three x -1.964475
6 four x 1.298329

In [275]: df2.drop_duplicates('a', keep=False)

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

650 Chapter 12. Indexing and Selecting Data

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

a b c
5 three x -1.964475
6 four x 1.298329

Also, you can pass a list of columns to identify duplications.

In [276]: df2.duplicated(['a', 'b'])
Out[276]:
0 False
1 False
2 False
3 False
4 True
5 False
6 False
dtype: bool

In [277]: df2.drop_duplicates(['a', 'b'])

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\O
˓→

a b c
0 one x -1.067137
1 one y 0.309500
2 two x -0.211056
3 two y -1.842023
5 three x -1.964475
6 four x 1.298329

To drop duplicates by index value, use Index.duplicated then perform slicing. Same options are available in
keep parameter.
In [278]: df3 = pd.DataFrame({'a': np.arange(6),
.....: 'b': np.random.randn(6)},
.....: index=['a', 'a', 'b', 'c', 'b', 'a'])
.....:

In [279]: df3
Out[279]:
a b
a 0 1.440455
a 1 2.456086
b 2 1.038402
c 3 -0.894409
b 4 0.683536
a 5 3.082764

In [280]: df3.index.duplicated()
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→array([False, True, False, False, True, True], dtype=bool)

In [281]: df3[~df3.index.duplicated()]
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

a b
a 0 1.440455
b 2 1.038402
c 3 -0.894409

12.17. Duplicate Data 651

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [282]: df3[~df3.index.duplicated(keep='last')]
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

a b
c 3 -0.894409
b 4 0.683536
a 5 3.082764

In [283]: df3[~df3.index.duplicated(keep=False)]
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

a b
c 3 -0.894409

12.18 Dictionary-like get() method

Each of Series, DataFrame, and Panel have a get method which can return a default value.

In [284]: s = pd.Series([1,2,3], index=['a','b','c'])

In [285]: s.get('a') # equivalent to s['a']

Out[285]: 1

In [286]: s.get('x', default=-1)

\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[286]: -1

12.19 The lookup() Method

Sometimes you want to extract a set of values given a sequence of row labels and column labels, and the lookup
method allows for this and returns a numpy array. For instance,

In [287]: dflookup = pd.DataFrame(np.random.rand(20,4), columns = ['A','B','C','D'])

In [288]: dflookup.lookup(list(range(0,10,2)), ['B','C','A','B','D'])

Out[288]: array([0.3506, 0.4779, 0.4825, 0.9197, 0.5019])

12.20 Index objects

The pandas Index class and its subclasses can be viewed as implementing an ordered multiset. Duplicates are
allowed. However, if you try to convert an Index object with duplicate entries into a set, an exception will be
raised.
Index also provides the infrastructure necessary for lookups, data alignment, and reindexing. The easiest way to
create an Index directly is to pass a list or other sequence to Index:

In [289]: index = pd.Index(['e', 'd', 'a', 'b'])

In [290]: index
Out[290]: Index(['e', 'd', 'a', 'b'], dtype='object')

652 Chapter 12. Indexing and Selecting Data

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [291]: 'd' in index

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[291]: True

You can also pass a name to be stored in the index:

In [292]: index = pd.Index(['e', 'd', 'a', 'b'], name='something')

In [293]: index.name
Out[293]: 'something'

The name, if set, will be shown in the console display:

In [294]: index = pd.Index(list(range(5)), name='rows')

In [295]: columns = pd.Index(['A', 'B', 'C'], name='cols')

In [296]: df = pd.DataFrame(np.random.randn(5, 3), index=index, columns=columns)

In [297]: df
Out[297]:
cols A B C
rows
0 1.295989 0.185778 0.436259
1 0.678101 0.311369 -0.528378
2 -0.674808 -1.103529 -0.656157
3 1.889957 2.076651 -1.102192
4 -1.211795 -0.791746 0.634724

In [298]: df['A']
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

rows
0 1.295989
1 0.678101
2 -0.674808
3 1.889957
4 -1.211795
Name: A, dtype: float64

12.20.1 Setting metadata

Indexes are “mostly immutable”, but it is possible to set and change their metadata, like the index name (or, for
MultiIndex, levels and labels).
You can use the rename, set_names, set_levels, and set_labels to set these attributes directly. They
default to returning a copy; however, you can specify inplace=True to have the data change in place.
See Advanced Indexing for usage of MultiIndexes.
In [299]: ind = pd.Index([1, 2, 3])

In [300]: ind.rename("apple")
Out[300]: Int64Index([1, 2, 3], dtype='int64', name='apple')

In [301]: ind
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[301]: Int64Index([1,
˓→2, 3], dtype='int64')

12.20. Index objects 653

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [302]: ind.set_names(["apple"], inplace=True)

In [303]: ind.name = "bob"

In [304]: ind
Out[304]: Int64Index([1, 2, 3], dtype='int64', name='bob')

set_names, set_levels, and set_labels also take an optional level‘ argument

In [305]: index = pd.MultiIndex.from_product([range(3), ['one', 'two']], names=['first

˓→', 'second'])

In [306]: index
Out[306]:
MultiIndex(levels=[[0, 1, 2], ['one', 'two']],
labels=[[0, 0, 1, 1, 2, 2], [0, 1, 0, 1, 0, 1]],
names=['first', 'second'])

In [307]: index.levels[1]
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→Index(['one', 'two'], dtype='object', name='second')

In [308]: index.set_levels(["a", "b"], level=1)

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

MultiIndex(levels=[[0, 1, 2], ['a', 'b']],

labels=[[0, 0, 1, 1, 2, 2], [0, 1, 0, 1, 0, 1]],
names=['first', 'second'])

12.20.2 Set operations on Index objects

The two main operations are union (|), intersection (&) These can be directly called as instance methods
or used via overloaded operators. Difference is provided via the .difference() method.

In [309]: a = pd.Index(['c', 'b', 'a'])

In [310]: b = pd.Index(['c', 'e', 'd'])

In [311]: a | b
Out[311]: Index(['a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'e'], dtype='object')

In [312]: a & b
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[312]: Index(['c'],
˓→dtype='object')

In [313]: a.difference(b)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out
˓→Index(['a', 'b'], dtype='object')

Also available is the symmetric_difference (^) operation, which returns elements that appear in either idx1
or idx2 but not both. This is equivalent to the Index created by idx1.difference(idx2).union(idx2.
difference(idx1)), with duplicates dropped.

In [314]: idx1 = pd.Index([1, 2, 3, 4])

654 Chapter 12. Indexing and Selecting Data

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [315]: idx2 = pd.Index([2, 3, 4, 5])

In [316]: idx1.symmetric_difference(idx2)
Out[316]: Int64Index([1, 5], dtype='int64')

In [317]: idx1 ^ idx2

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[317]: Int64Index([1, 5], dtype='int64
˓→')

Note: The resulting index from a set operation will be sorted in ascending order.

12.20.3 Missing values

New in version 0.17.1.

Important: Even though Index can hold missing values (NaN), it should be avoided if you do not want any
unexpected results. For example, some operations exclude missing values implicitly.

Index.fillna fills missing values with specified scalar value.

In [318]: idx1 = pd.Index([1, np.nan, 3, 4])

In [319]: idx1
Out[319]: Float64Index([1.0, nan, 3.0, 4.0], dtype='float64')

In [320]: idx1.fillna(2)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[320]:
˓→Float64Index([1.0, 2.0, 3.0, 4.0], dtype='float64')

In [321]: idx2 = pd.DatetimeIndex([pd.Timestamp('2011-01-01'), pd.NaT, pd.Timestamp(

˓→'2011-01-03')])

In [322]: idx2
Out[322]: DatetimeIndex(['2011-01-01', 'NaT', '2011-01-03'], dtype='datetime64[ns]',
˓→freq=None)

In [323]: idx2.fillna(pd.Timestamp('2011-01-02'))
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[3
˓→DatetimeIndex(['2011-01-01', '2011-01-02', '2011-01-03'], dtype='datetime64[ns]',

˓→freq=None)

12.21 Set / Reset Index

Occasionally you will load or create a data set into a DataFrame and want to add an index after you’ve already done
so. There are a couple of different ways.

12.21. Set / Reset Index 655

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

12.21.1 Set an index

DataFrame has a set_index method which takes a column name (for a regular Index) or a list of column names
(for a MultiIndex), to create a new, indexed DataFrame:

In [324]: data
Out[324]:
a b c d
0 bar one z 1.0
1 bar two y 2.0
2 foo one x 3.0
3 foo two w 4.0

In [325]: indexed1 = data.set_index('c')

In [326]: indexed1
Out[326]:
a b d
c
z bar one 1.0
y bar two 2.0
x foo one 3.0
w foo two 4.0

In [327]: indexed2 = data.set_index(['a', 'b'])

In [328]: indexed2
Out[328]:
c d
a b
bar one z 1.0
two y 2.0
foo one x 3.0
two w 4.0

The append keyword option allow you to keep the existing index and append the given columns to a MultiIndex:

In [329]: frame = data.set_index('c', drop=False)

In [330]: frame = frame.set_index(['a', 'b'], append=True)

In [331]: frame
Out[331]:
c d
c a b
z bar one z 1.0
y bar two y 2.0
x foo one x 3.0
w foo two w 4.0

Other options in set_index allow you not drop the index columns or to add the index in-place (without creating a
new object):

In [332]: data.set_index('c', drop=False)

Out[332]:
a b c d
c
z bar one z 1.0

656 Chapter 12. Indexing and Selecting Data

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

y bar two y 2.0

x foo one x 3.0
w foo two w 4.0

In [333]: data.set_index(['a', 'b'], inplace=True)

In [334]: data
Out[334]:
c d
a b
bar one z 1.0
two y 2.0
foo one x 3.0
two w 4.0

12.21.2 Reset the index

As a convenience, there is a new function on DataFrame called reset_index which transfers the index values into
the DataFrame’s columns and sets a simple integer index. This is the inverse operation to set_index

In [335]: data
Out[335]:
c d
a b
bar one z 1.0
two y 2.0
foo one x 3.0
two w 4.0

In [336]: data.reset_index()
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

a b c d
0 bar one z 1.0
1 bar two y 2.0
2 foo one x 3.0
3 foo two w 4.0

The output is more similar to a SQL table or a record array. The names for the columns derived from the index are the
ones stored in the names attribute.
You can use the level keyword to remove only a portion of the index:

In [337]: frame
Out[337]:
c d
c a b
z bar one z 1.0
y bar two y 2.0
x foo one x 3.0
w foo two w 4.0

In [338]: frame.reset_index(level=1)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

a c d

12.21. Set / Reset Index 657

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

c b
z one bar z 1.0
y two bar y 2.0
x one foo x 3.0
w two foo w 4.0

reset_index takes an optional parameter drop which if true simply discards the index, instead of putting index
values in the DataFrame’s columns.

Note: The reset_index method used to be called delevel which is now deprecated.

12.21.3 Adding an ad hoc index

If you create an index yourself, you can just assign it to the index field:

data.index = index

12.22 Returning a view versus a copy

When setting values in a pandas object, care must be taken to avoid what is called chained indexing. Here is an
example.

In [339]: dfmi = pd.DataFrame([list('abcd'),

.....: list('efgh'),
.....: list('ijkl'),
.....: list('mnop')],
.....: columns=pd.MultiIndex.from_product([['one','two'],
.....: ['first','second
˓→']]))

.....:

In [340]: dfmi
Out[340]:
one two
first second first second
0 a b c d
1 e f g h
2 i j k l
3 m n o p

Compare these two access methods:

In [341]: dfmi['one']['second']
Out[341]:
0 b
1 f
2 j
3 n
Name: second, dtype: object

658 Chapter 12. Indexing and Selecting Data

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [342]: dfmi.loc[:,('one','second')]
Out[342]:
0 b
1 f
2 j
3 n
Name: (one, second), dtype: object

These both yield the same results, so which should you use? It is instructive to understand the order of operations on
these and why method 2 (.loc) is much preferred over method 1 (chained [])
dfmi['one'] selects the first level of the columns and returns a DataFrame that is singly-indexed. Then another
python operation dfmi_with_one['second'] selects the series indexed by 'second' happens. This is indi-
cated by the variable dfmi_with_one because pandas sees these operations as separate events. e.g. separate calls
to __getitem__, so it has to treat them as linear operations, they happen one after another.
Contrast this to df.loc[:,('one','second')] which passes a nested tuple of (slice(None),('one',
'second')) to a single call to __getitem__. This allows pandas to deal with this as a single entity. Furthermore
this order of operations can be significantly faster, and allows one to index both axes if so desired.

12.22.1 Why does assignment fail when using chained indexing?

The problem in the previous section is just a performance issue. What’s up with the SettingWithCopy warning?
We don’t usually throw warnings around when you do something that might cost a few extra milliseconds!
But it turns out that assigning to the product of chained indexing has inherently unpredictable results. To see this,
think about how the Python interpreter executes this code:
dfmi.loc[:,('one','second')] = value
# becomes
dfmi.loc.__setitem__((slice(None), ('one', 'second')), value)

But this code is handled differently:

dfmi['one']['second'] = value
# becomes
dfmi.__getitem__('one').__setitem__('second', value)

See that __getitem__ in there? Outside of simple cases, it’s very hard to predict whether it will return a view or a
copy (it depends on the memory layout of the array, about which pandas makes no guarantees), and therefore whether
the __setitem__ will modify dfmi or a temporary object that gets thrown out immediately afterward. That’s what
SettingWithCopy is warning you about!

Note: You may be wondering whether we should be concerned about the loc property in the first example. But
dfmi.loc is guaranteed to be dfmi itself with modified indexing behavior, so dfmi.loc.__getitem__ /
dfmi.loc.__setitem__ operate on dfmi directly. Of course, dfmi.loc.__getitem__(idx) may be
a view or a copy of dfmi.

Sometimes a SettingWithCopy warning will arise at times when there’s no obvious chained indexing going on.
These are the bugs that SettingWithCopy is designed to catch! Pandas is probably trying to warn you that you’ve
done this:
def do_something(df):
foo = df[['bar', 'baz']] # Is foo a view? A copy? Nobody knows!
# ... many lines here ...

12.22. Returning a view versus a copy 659

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

foo['quux'] = value # We don't know whether this will modify df or not!

return foo

Yikes!

12.22.2 Evaluation order matters

Furthermore, in chained expressions, the order may determine whether a copy is returned or not. If an expression will
set values on a copy of a slice, then a SettingWithCopy warning will be issued.
You can control the action of a chained assignment via the option mode.chained_assignment, which can take
the values ['raise','warn',None], where showing a warning is the default.

In [343]: dfb = pd.DataFrame({'a' : ['one', 'one', 'two',

.....: 'three', 'two', 'one', 'six'],
.....: 'c' : np.arange(7)})
.....:

# This will show the SettingWithCopyWarning

# but the frame values will be set
In [344]: dfb['c'][dfb.a.str.startswith('o')] = 42

This however is operating on a copy and will not work.

>>> pd.set_option('mode.chained_assignment','warn')
>>> dfb[dfb.a.str.startswith('o')]['c'] = 42
Traceback (most recent call last)
...
SettingWithCopyWarning:
A value is trying to be set on a copy of a slice from a DataFrame.
Try using .loc[row_index,col_indexer] = value instead

A chained assignment can also crop up in setting in a mixed dtype frame.

Note: These setting rules apply to all of .loc/.iloc

This is the correct access method

In [345]: dfc = pd.DataFrame({'A':['aaa','bbb','ccc'],'B':[1,2,3]})

In [346]: dfc.loc[0,'A'] = 11

In [347]: dfc
Out[347]:
A B
0 11 1
1 bbb 2
2 ccc 3

This can work at times, but is not guaranteed, and so should be avoided

In [348]: dfc = dfc.copy()

In [349]: dfc['A'][0] = 111

660 Chapter 12. Indexing and Selecting Data

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [350]: dfc
Out[350]:
A B
0 111 1
1 bbb 2
2 ccc 3

This will not work at all, and so should be avoided

>>> pd.set_option('mode.chained_assignment','raise')
>>> dfc.loc[0]['A'] = 1111
Traceback (most recent call last)
...
SettingWithCopyException:
A value is trying to be set on a copy of a slice from a DataFrame.
Try using .loc[row_index,col_indexer] = value instead

Warning: The chained assignment warnings / exceptions are aiming to inform the user of a possibly invalid
assignment. There may be false positives; situations where a chained assignment is inadvertently reported.

12.22. Returning a view versus a copy 661

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

662 Chapter 12. Indexing and Selecting Data

 CHAPTER

THIRTEEN

MULTIINDEX / ADVANCED INDEXING

This section covers indexing with a MultiIndex and more advanced indexing features.
See the Indexing and Selecting Data for general indexing documentation.

Warning: Whether a copy or a reference is returned for a setting operation, may depend on the context. This is
sometimes called chained assignment and should be avoided. See Returning a View versus Copy

See the cookbook for some advanced strategies

13.1 Hierarchical indexing (MultiIndex)

Hierarchical / Multi-level indexing is very exciting as it opens the door to some quite sophisticated data analysis and
manipulation, especially for working with higher dimensional data. In essence, it enables you to store and manipulate
data with an arbitrary number of dimensions in lower dimensional data structures like Series (1d) and DataFrame (2d).
In this section, we will show what exactly we mean by “hierarchical” indexing and how it integrates with all of the
pandas indexing functionality described above and in prior sections. Later, when discussing group by and pivoting and
reshaping data, we’ll show non-trivial applications to illustrate how it aids in structuring data for analysis.
See the cookbook for some advanced strategies

13.1.1 Creating a MultiIndex (hierarchical index) object

The MultiIndex object is the hierarchical analogue of the standard Index object which typically stores the axis
labels in pandas objects. You can think of MultiIndex as an array of tuples where each tuple is unique. A
MultiIndex can be created from a list of arrays (using MultiIndex.from_arrays), an array of tuples (using
MultiIndex.from_tuples), or a crossed set of iterables (using MultiIndex.from_product). The Index
constructor will attempt to return a MultiIndex when it is passed a list of tuples. The following examples demo
different ways to initialize MultiIndexes.

In [1]: arrays = [['bar', 'bar', 'baz', 'baz', 'foo', 'foo', 'qux', 'qux'],
...: ['one', 'two', 'one', 'two', 'one', 'two', 'one', 'two']]
...:

In [2]: tuples = list(zip(*arrays))

In [3]: tuples
Out[3]:
[('bar', 'one'),

663
pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

('bar', 'two'),
('baz', 'one'),
('baz', 'two'),
('foo', 'one'),
('foo', 'two'),
('qux', 'one'),
('qux', 'two')]

In [4]: index = pd.MultiIndex.from_tuples(tuples, names=['first', 'second'])

In [5]: index
Out[5]:
MultiIndex(levels=[['bar', 'baz', 'foo', 'qux'], ['one', 'two']],
labels=[[0, 0, 1, 1, 2, 2, 3, 3], [0, 1, 0, 1, 0, 1, 0, 1]],
names=['first', 'second'])

In [6]: s = pd.Series(np.random.randn(8), index=index)

In [7]: s
Out[7]:
first second
bar one 0.469112
two -0.282863
baz one -1.509059
two -1.135632
foo one 1.212112
two -0.173215
qux one 0.119209
two -1.044236
dtype: float64

When you want every pairing of the elements in two iterables, it can be easier to use the MultiIndex.
from_product function:
In [8]: iterables = [['bar', 'baz', 'foo', 'qux'], ['one', 'two']]

In [9]: pd.MultiIndex.from_product(iterables, names=['first', 'second'])

Out[9]:
MultiIndex(levels=[['bar', 'baz', 'foo', 'qux'], ['one', 'two']],
labels=[[0, 0, 1, 1, 2, 2, 3, 3], [0, 1, 0, 1, 0, 1, 0, 1]],
names=['first', 'second'])

As a convenience, you can pass a list of arrays directly into Series or DataFrame to construct a MultiIndex automati-
cally:
In [10]: arrays = [np.array(['bar', 'bar', 'baz', 'baz', 'foo', 'foo', 'qux', 'qux']),
....: np.array(['one', 'two', 'one', 'two', 'one', 'two', 'one', 'two'])]
....:

In [11]: s = pd.Series(np.random.randn(8), index=arrays)

In [12]: s
Out[12]:
bar one -0.861849
two -2.104569
baz one -0.494929
two 1.071804
foo one 0.721555

664 Chapter 13. MultiIndex / Advanced Indexing

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

two -0.706771
qux one -1.039575
two 0.271860
dtype: float64

In [13]: df = pd.DataFrame(np.random.randn(8, 4), index=arrays)

In [14]: df
Out[14]:
0 1 2 3
bar one -0.424972 0.567020 0.276232 -1.087401
two -0.673690 0.113648 -1.478427 0.524988
baz one 0.404705 0.577046 -1.715002 -1.039268
two -0.370647 -1.157892 -1.344312 0.844885
foo one 1.075770 -0.109050 1.643563 -1.469388
two 0.357021 -0.674600 -1.776904 -0.968914
qux one -1.294524 0.413738 0.276662 -0.472035
two -0.013960 -0.362543 -0.006154 -0.923061

All of the MultiIndex constructors accept a names argument which stores string names for the levels themselves.
If no names are provided, None will be assigned:

In [15]: df.index.names
Out[15]: FrozenList([None, None])

This index can back any axis of a pandas object, and the number of levels of the index is up to you:

In [16]: df = pd.DataFrame(np.random.randn(3, 8), index=['A', 'B', 'C'],

˓→columns=index)

In [17]: df
Out[17]:
first bar baz foo qux \
second one two one two one two one
A 0.895717 0.805244 -1.206412 2.565646 1.431256 1.340309 -1.170299
B 0.410835 0.813850 0.132003 -0.827317 -0.076467 -1.187678 1.130127
C -1.413681 1.607920 1.024180 0.569605 0.875906 -2.211372 0.974466

first
second two
A -0.226169
B -1.436737
C -2.006747

In [18]: pd.DataFrame(np.random.randn(6, 6), index=index[:6], columns=index[:6])

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

first bar baz foo

second one two one two one two
first second
bar one -0.410001 -0.078638 0.545952 -1.219217 -1.226825 0.769804
two -1.281247 -0.727707 -0.121306 -0.097883 0.695775 0.341734
baz one 0.959726 -1.110336 -0.619976 0.149748 -0.732339 0.687738
two 0.176444 0.403310 -0.154951 0.301624 -2.179861 -1.369849
foo one -0.954208 1.462696 -1.743161 -0.826591 -0.345352 1.314232
two 0.690579 0.995761 2.396780 0.014871 3.357427 -0.317441

We’ve “sparsified” the higher levels of the indexes to make the console output a bit easier on the eyes.

13.1. Hierarchical indexing (MultiIndex) 665

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

It’s worth keeping in mind that there’s nothing preventing you from using tuples as atomic labels on an axis:

In [19]: pd.Series(np.random.randn(8), index=tuples)

Out[19]:
(bar, one) -1.236269
(bar, two) 0.896171
(baz, one) -0.487602
(baz, two) -0.082240
(foo, one) -2.182937
(foo, two) 0.380396
(qux, one) 0.084844
(qux, two) 0.432390
dtype: float64

The reason that the MultiIndex matters is that it can allow you to do grouping, selection, and reshaping operations
as we will describe below and in subsequent areas of the documentation. As you will see in later sections, you can find
yourself working with hierarchically-indexed data without creating a MultiIndex explicitly yourself. However,
when loading data from a file, you may wish to generate your own MultiIndex when preparing the data set.
Note that how the index is displayed by be controlled using the multi_sparse option in pandas.
set_options():

In [20]: pd.set_option('display.multi_sparse', False)

In [21]: df
Out[21]:
first bar bar baz baz foo foo qux \
second one two one two one two one
A 0.895717 0.805244 -1.206412 2.565646 1.431256 1.340309 -1.170299
B 0.410835 0.813850 0.132003 -0.827317 -0.076467 -1.187678 1.130127
C -1.413681 1.607920 1.024180 0.569605 0.875906 -2.211372 0.974466

first qux
second two
A -0.226169
B -1.436737
C -2.006747

In [22]: pd.set_option('display.multi_sparse', True)

13.1.2 Reconstructing the level labels

The method get_level_values will return a vector of the labels for each location at a particular level:

In [23]: index.get_level_values(0)
Out[23]: Index(['bar', 'bar', 'baz', 'baz', 'foo', 'foo', 'qux', 'qux'], dtype='object
˓→', name='first')

In [24]: index.get_level_values('second')
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→Index(['one', 'two', 'one', 'two', 'one', 'two', 'one', 'two'], dtype='object',

˓→name='second')

666 Chapter 13. MultiIndex / Advanced Indexing

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

13.1.3 Basic indexing on axis with MultiIndex

One of the important features of hierarchical indexing is that you can select data by a “partial” label identifying a
subgroup in the data. Partial selection “drops” levels of the hierarchical index in the result in a completely analogous
way to selecting a column in a regular DataFrame:
In [25]: df['bar']
Out[25]:
second one two
A 0.895717 0.805244
B 0.410835 0.813850
C -1.413681 1.607920

In [26]: df['bar', 'one']

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

A 0.895717
B 0.410835
C -1.413681
Name: (bar, one), dtype: float64

In [27]: df['bar']['one']
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

A 0.895717
B 0.410835
C -1.413681
Name: one, dtype: float64

In [28]: s['qux']
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

one -1.039575
two 0.271860
dtype: float64

See Cross-section with hierarchical index for how to select on a deeper level.

13.1.4 Defined Levels

The repr of a MultiIndex shows ALL the defined levels of an index, even if the they are not actually used. When
slicing an index, you may notice this. For example:
# original multi-index
In [29]: df.columns
Out[29]:
MultiIndex(levels=[['bar', 'baz', 'foo', 'qux'], ['one', 'two']],
labels=[[0, 0, 1, 1, 2, 2, 3, 3], [0, 1, 0, 1, 0, 1, 0, 1]],
names=['first', 'second'])

# sliced
In [30]: df[['foo','qux']].columns
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

MultiIndex(levels=[['bar', 'baz', 'foo', 'qux'], ['one', 'two']],

labels=[[2, 2, 3, 3], [0, 1, 0, 1]],
names=['first', 'second'])

13.1. Hierarchical indexing (MultiIndex) 667

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

This is done to avoid a recomputation of the levels in order to make slicing highly performant. If you want to see the
actual used levels.

In [31]: df[['foo','qux']].columns.values
Out[31]: array([('foo', 'one'), ('foo', 'two'), ('qux', 'one'), ('qux', 'two')],
˓→dtype=object)

# for a specific level

In [32]: df[['foo','qux']].columns.get_level_values(0)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[32
˓→Index(['foo', 'foo', 'qux', 'qux'], dtype='object', name='first')

To reconstruct the multiindex with only the used levels

New in version 0.20.0.

In [33]: df[['foo','qux']].columns.remove_unused_levels()
Out[33]:
MultiIndex(levels=[['foo', 'qux'], ['one', 'two']],
labels=[[0, 0, 1, 1], [0, 1, 0, 1]],
names=['first', 'second'])

13.1.5 Data alignment and using reindex

Operations between differently-indexed objects having MultiIndex on the axes will work as you expect; data
alignment will work the same as an Index of tuples:

In [34]: s + s[:-2]
Out[34]:
bar one -1.723698
two -4.209138
baz one -0.989859
two 2.143608
foo one 1.443110
two -1.413542
qux one NaN
two NaN
dtype: float64

In [35]: s + s[::2]
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

bar one -1.723698

two NaN
baz one -0.989859
two NaN
foo one 1.443110
two NaN
qux one -2.079150
two NaN
dtype: float64

reindex can be called with another MultiIndex or even a list or array of tuples:

In [36]: s.reindex(index[:3])
Out[36]:
first second

668 Chapter 13. MultiIndex / Advanced Indexing

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

bar one -0.861849

two -2.104569
baz one -0.494929
dtype: float64

In [37]: s.reindex([('foo', 'two'), ('bar', 'one'), ('qux', 'one'), ('baz', 'one')])

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

foo two -0.706771

bar one -0.861849
qux one -1.039575
baz one -0.494929
dtype: float64

13.2 Advanced indexing with hierarchical index

Syntactically integrating MultiIndex in advanced indexing with .loc is a bit challenging, but we’ve made every
effort to do so. for example the following works as you would expect:

In [38]: df = df.T

In [39]: df
Out[39]:
A B C
first second
bar one 0.895717 0.410835 -1.413681
two 0.805244 0.813850 1.607920
baz one -1.206412 0.132003 1.024180
two 2.565646 -0.827317 0.569605
foo one 1.431256 -0.076467 0.875906
two 1.340309 -1.187678 -2.211372
qux one -1.170299 1.130127 0.974466
two -0.226169 -1.436737 -2.006747

In [40]: df.loc['bar']
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

A B C
second
one 0.895717 0.410835 -1.413681
two 0.805244 0.813850 1.607920

In [41]: df.loc['bar', 'two']

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

A 0.805244
B 0.813850
C 1.607920
Name: (bar, two), dtype: float64

“Partial” slicing also works quite nicely.

In [42]: df.loc['baz':'foo']
Out[42]:
A B C

13.2. Advanced indexing with hierarchical index 669

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

first second
baz one -1.206412 0.132003 1.024180
two 2.565646 -0.827317 0.569605
foo one 1.431256 -0.076467 0.875906
two 1.340309 -1.187678 -2.211372

You can slice with a ‘range’ of values, by providing a slice of tuples.

In [43]: df.loc[('baz', 'two'):('qux', 'one')]

Out[43]:
A B C
first second
baz two 2.565646 -0.827317 0.569605
foo one 1.431256 -0.076467 0.875906
two 1.340309 -1.187678 -2.211372
qux one -1.170299 1.130127 0.974466

In [44]: df.loc[('baz', 'two'):'foo']

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

A B C
first second
baz two 2.565646 -0.827317 0.569605
foo one 1.431256 -0.076467 0.875906
two 1.340309 -1.187678 -2.211372

Passing a list of labels or tuples works similar to reindexing:

In [45]: df.loc[[('bar', 'two'), ('qux', 'one')]]

Out[45]:
A B C
first second
bar two 0.805244 0.813850 1.607920
qux one -1.170299 1.130127 0.974466

13.2.1 Using slicers

You can slice a multi-index by providing multiple indexers.

You can provide any of the selectors as if you are indexing by label, see Selection by Label, including slices, lists of
labels, labels, and boolean indexers.
You can use slice(None) to select all the contents of that level. You do not need to specify all the deeper levels,
they will be implied as slice(None).
As usual, both sides of the slicers are included as this is label indexing.

Warning: You should specify all axes in the .loc specifier, meaning the indexer for the index and for the
columns. There are some ambiguous cases where the passed indexer could be mis-interpreted as indexing both
axes, rather than into say the MuliIndex for the rows.
You should do this:
df.loc[(slice('A1','A3'),.....), :]

rather than this:

670 Chapter 13. MultiIndex / Advanced Indexing

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

df.loc[(slice('A1','A3'),.....)]

In [46]: def mklbl(prefix,n):

....: return ["%s%s" % (prefix,i) for i in range(n)]
....:

In [47]: miindex = pd.MultiIndex.from_product([mklbl('A',4),

....: mklbl('B',2),
....: mklbl('C',4),
....: mklbl('D',2)])
....:

In [48]: micolumns = pd.MultiIndex.from_tuples([('a','foo'),('a','bar'),

....: ('b','foo'),('b','bah')],
....: names=['lvl0', 'lvl1'])
....:

In [49]: dfmi = pd.DataFrame(np.arange(len(miindex)*len(micolumns)).

˓→reshape((len(miindex),len(micolumns))),

....: index=miindex,
....: columns=micolumns).sort_index().sort_index(axis=1)
....:

In [50]: dfmi
Out[50]:
lvl0 a b
lvl1 bar foo bah foo
A0 B0 C0 D0 1 0 3 2
D1 5 4 7 6
C1 D0 9 8 11 10
D1 13 12 15 14
C2 D0 17 16 19 18
D1 21 20 23 22
C3 D0 25 24 27 26
... ... ... ... ...
A3 B1 C0 D1 229 228 231 230
C1 D0 233 232 235 234
D1 237 236 239 238
C2 D0 241 240 243 242
D1 245 244 247 246
C3 D0 249 248 251 250
D1 253 252 255 254

[64 rows x 4 columns]

Basic multi-index slicing using slices, lists, and labels.

In [51]: dfmi.loc[(slice('A1','A3'), slice(None), ['C1', 'C3']), :]
Out[51]:
lvl0 a b
lvl1 bar foo bah foo
A1 B0 C1 D0 73 72 75 74
D1 77 76 79 78
C3 D0 89 88 91 90
D1 93 92 95 94
B1 C1 D0 105 104 107 106

13.2. Advanced indexing with hierarchical index 671

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

D1 109 108 111 110

C3 D0 121 120 123 122
... ... ... ... ...
A3 B0 C1 D1 205 204 207 206
C3 D0 217 216 219 218
D1 221 220 223 222
B1 C1 D0 233 232 235 234
D1 237 236 239 238
C3 D0 249 248 251 250
D1 253 252 255 254

[24 rows x 4 columns]

You can use a pd.IndexSlice to have a more natural syntax using : rather than using slice(None)

In [52]: idx = pd.IndexSlice

In [53]: dfmi.loc[idx[:, :, ['C1', 'C3']], idx[:, 'foo']]

Out[53]:
lvl0 a b
lvl1 foo foo
A0 B0 C1 D0 8 10
D1 12 14
C3 D0 24 26
D1 28 30
B1 C1 D0 40 42
D1 44 46
C3 D0 56 58
... ... ...
A3 B0 C1 D1 204 206
C3 D0 216 218
D1 220 222
B1 C1 D0 232 234
D1 236 238
C3 D0 248 250
D1 252 254

[32 rows x 2 columns]

It is possible to perform quite complicated selections using this method on multiple axes at the same time.

In [54]: dfmi.loc['A1', (slice(None), 'foo')]

Out[54]:
lvl0 a b
lvl1 foo foo
B0 C0 D0 64 66
D1 68 70
C1 D0 72 74
D1 76 78
C2 D0 80 82
D1 84 86
C3 D0 88 90
... ... ...
B1 C0 D1 100 102
C1 D0 104 106
D1 108 110
C2 D0 112 114
D1 116 118

672 Chapter 13. MultiIndex / Advanced Indexing

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

C3 D0 120 122
D1 124 126

[16 rows x 2 columns]

In [55]: dfmi.loc[idx[:, :, ['C1', 'C3']], idx[:, 'foo']]

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

lvl0 a b
lvl1 foo foo
A0 B0 C1 D0 8 10
D1 12 14
C3 D0 24 26
D1 28 30
B1 C1 D0 40 42
D1 44 46
C3 D0 56 58
... ... ...
A3 B0 C1 D1 204 206
C3 D0 216 218
D1 220 222
B1 C1 D0 232 234
D1 236 238
C3 D0 248 250
D1 252 254

[32 rows x 2 columns]

Using a boolean indexer you can provide selection related to the values.

In [56]: mask = dfmi[('a', 'foo')] > 200

In [57]: dfmi.loc[idx[mask, :, ['C1', 'C3']], idx[:, 'foo']]

Out[57]:
lvl0 a b
lvl1 foo foo
A3 B0 C1 D1 204 206
C3 D0 216 218
D1 220 222
B1 C1 D0 232 234
D1 236 238
C3 D0 248 250
D1 252 254

You can also specify the axis argument to .loc to interpret the passed slicers on a single axis.

In [58]: dfmi.loc(axis=0)[:, :, ['C1', 'C3']]

Out[58]:
lvl0 a b
lvl1 bar foo bah foo
A0 B0 C1 D0 9 8 11 10
D1 13 12 15 14
C3 D0 25 24 27 26
D1 29 28 31 30
B1 C1 D0 41 40 43 42
D1 45 44 47 46
C3 D0 57 56 59 58
... ... ... ... ...

13.2. Advanced indexing with hierarchical index 673

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

A3 B0 C1 D1 205 204 207 206

C3 D0 217 216 219 218
D1 221 220 223 222
B1 C1 D0 233 232 235 234
D1 237 236 239 238
C3 D0 249 248 251 250
D1 253 252 255 254

[32 rows x 4 columns]

Furthermore you can set the values using these methods

In [59]: df2 = dfmi.copy()

In [60]: df2.loc(axis=0)[:, :, ['C1', 'C3']] = -10

In [61]: df2
Out[61]:
lvl0 a b
lvl1 bar foo bah foo
A0 B0 C0 D0 1 0 3 2
D1 5 4 7 6
C1 D0 -10 -10 -10 -10
D1 -10 -10 -10 -10
C2 D0 17 16 19 18
D1 21 20 23 22
C3 D0 -10 -10 -10 -10
... ... ... ... ...
A3 B1 C0 D1 229 228 231 230
C1 D0 -10 -10 -10 -10
D1 -10 -10 -10 -10
C2 D0 241 240 243 242
D1 245 244 247 246
C3 D0 -10 -10 -10 -10
D1 -10 -10 -10 -10

[64 rows x 4 columns]

You can use a right-hand-side of an alignable object as well.

In [62]: df2 = dfmi.copy()

In [63]: df2.loc[idx[:, :, ['C1', 'C3']], :] = df2 * 1000

In [64]: df2
Out[64]:
lvl0 a b
lvl1 bar foo bah foo
A0 B0 C0 D0 1 0 3 2
D1 5 4 7 6
C1 D0 9000 8000 11000 10000
D1 13000 12000 15000 14000
C2 D0 17 16 19 18
D1 21 20 23 22
C3 D0 25000 24000 27000 26000
... ... ... ... ...
A3 B1 C0 D1 229 228 231 230
C1 D0 233000 232000 235000 234000

674 Chapter 13. MultiIndex / Advanced Indexing

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

D1 237000 236000 239000 238000

C2 D0 241 240 243 242
D1 245 244 247 246
C3 D0 249000 248000 251000 250000
D1 253000 252000 255000 254000

[64 rows x 4 columns]

13.2.2 Cross-section

The xs method of DataFrame additionally takes a level argument to make selecting data at a particular level of a
MultiIndex easier.
In [65]: df
Out[65]:
A B C
first second
bar one 0.895717 0.410835 -1.413681
two 0.805244 0.813850 1.607920
baz one -1.206412 0.132003 1.024180
two 2.565646 -0.827317 0.569605
foo one 1.431256 -0.076467 0.875906
two 1.340309 -1.187678 -2.211372
qux one -1.170299 1.130127 0.974466
two -0.226169 -1.436737 -2.006747

In [66]: df.xs('one', level='second')

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

A B C
first
bar 0.895717 0.410835 -1.413681
baz -1.206412 0.132003 1.024180
foo 1.431256 -0.076467 0.875906
qux -1.170299 1.130127 0.974466

# using the slicers

In [67]: df.loc[(slice(None),'one'),:]
Out[67]:
A B C
first second
bar one 0.895717 0.410835 -1.413681
baz one -1.206412 0.132003 1.024180
foo one 1.431256 -0.076467 0.875906
qux one -1.170299 1.130127 0.974466

You can also select on the columns with xs(), by providing the axis argument
In [68]: df = df.T

In [69]: df.xs('one', level='second', axis=1)

Out[69]:
first bar baz foo qux
A 0.895717 -1.206412 1.431256 -1.170299
B 0.410835 0.132003 -0.076467 1.130127
C -1.413681 1.024180 0.875906 0.974466

13.2. Advanced indexing with hierarchical index 675

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

# using the slicers

In [70]: df.loc[:,(slice(None),'one')]
Out[70]:
first bar baz foo qux
second one one one one
A 0.895717 -1.206412 1.431256 -1.170299
B 0.410835 0.132003 -0.076467 1.130127
C -1.413681 1.024180 0.875906 0.974466

xs() also allows selection with multiple keys

In [71]: df.xs(('one', 'bar'), level=('second', 'first'), axis=1)
Out[71]:
first bar
second one
A 0.895717
B 0.410835
C -1.413681

# using the slicers

In [72]: df.loc[:,('bar','one')]
Out[72]:
A 0.895717
B 0.410835
C -1.413681
Name: (bar, one), dtype: float64

You can pass drop_level=False to xs() to retain the level that was selected
In [73]: df.xs('one', level='second', axis=1, drop_level=False)
Out[73]:
first bar baz foo qux
second one one one one
A 0.895717 -1.206412 1.431256 -1.170299
B 0.410835 0.132003 -0.076467 1.130127
C -1.413681 1.024180 0.875906 0.974466

versus the result with drop_level=True (the default value)

In [74]: df.xs('one', level='second', axis=1, drop_level=True)
Out[74]:
first bar baz foo qux
A 0.895717 -1.206412 1.431256 -1.170299
B 0.410835 0.132003 -0.076467 1.130127
C -1.413681 1.024180 0.875906 0.974466

13.2.3 Advanced reindexing and alignment

The parameter level has been added to the reindex and align methods of pandas objects. This is useful to
broadcast values across a level. For instance:
In [75]: midx = pd.MultiIndex(levels=[['zero', 'one'], ['x','y']],
....: labels=[[1,1,0,0],[1,0,1,0]])
....:

In [76]: df = pd.DataFrame(np.random.randn(4,2), index=midx)

676 Chapter 13. MultiIndex / Advanced Indexing

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [77]: df
Out[77]:
0 1
one y 1.519970 -0.493662
x 0.600178 0.274230
zero y 0.132885 -0.023688
x 2.410179 1.450520

In [78]: df2 = df.mean(level=0)

In [79]: df2
Out[79]:
0 1
one 1.060074 -0.109716
zero 1.271532 0.713416

In [80]: df2.reindex(df.index, level=0)

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[80]:
˓→

0 1
one y 1.060074 -0.109716
x 1.060074 -0.109716
zero y 1.271532 0.713416
x 1.271532 0.713416

# aligning
In [81]: df_aligned, df2_aligned = df.align(df2, level=0)

In [82]: df_aligned
Out[82]:
0 1
one y 1.519970 -0.493662
x 0.600178 0.274230
zero y 0.132885 -0.023688
x 2.410179 1.450520

In [83]: df2_aligned
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

0 1
one y 1.060074 -0.109716
x 1.060074 -0.109716
zero y 1.271532 0.713416
x 1.271532 0.713416

13.2.4 Swapping levels with swaplevel()

The swaplevel function can switch the order of two levels:

In [84]: df[:5]
Out[84]:
0 1
one y 1.519970 -0.493662
x 0.600178 0.274230
zero y 0.132885 -0.023688

13.2. Advanced indexing with hierarchical index 677

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

x 2.410179 1.450520

In [85]: df[:5].swaplevel(0, 1, axis=0)

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

0 1
y one 1.519970 -0.493662
x one 0.600178 0.274230
y zero 0.132885 -0.023688
x zero 2.410179 1.450520

13.2.5 Reordering levels with reorder_levels()

The reorder_levels function generalizes the swaplevel function, allowing you to permute the hierarchical
index levels in one step:
In [86]: df[:5].reorder_levels([1,0], axis=0)
Out[86]:
0 1
y one 1.519970 -0.493662
x one 0.600178 0.274230
y zero 0.132885 -0.023688
x zero 2.410179 1.450520

13.3 Sorting a MultiIndex

For MultiIndex-ed objects to be indexed & sliced effectively, they need to be sorted. As with any index, you can use
sort_index.
In [87]: import random; random.shuffle(tuples)

In [88]: s = pd.Series(np.random.randn(8), index=pd.MultiIndex.from_tuples(tuples))

In [89]: s
Out[89]:
qux one 0.206053
bar one -0.251905
foo one -2.213588
bar two 1.063327
foo two 1.266143
qux two 0.299368
baz two -0.863838
one 0.408204
dtype: float64

In [90]: s.sort_index()
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

bar one -0.251905

two 1.063327
baz one 0.408204
two -0.863838
foo one -2.213588
two 1.266143

678 Chapter 13. MultiIndex / Advanced Indexing

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

qux one 0.206053

two 0.299368
dtype: float64

In [91]: s.sort_index(level=0)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

bar one -0.251905

two 1.063327
baz one 0.408204
two -0.863838
foo one -2.213588
two 1.266143
qux one 0.206053
two 0.299368
dtype: float64

In [92]: s.sort_index(level=1)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

bar one -0.251905

baz one 0.408204
foo one -2.213588
qux one 0.206053
bar two 1.063327
baz two -0.863838
foo two 1.266143
qux two 0.299368
dtype: float64

You may also pass a level name to sort_index if the MultiIndex levels are named.

In [93]: s.index.set_names(['L1', 'L2'], inplace=True)

In [94]: s.sort_index(level='L1')
Out[94]:
L1 L2
bar one -0.251905
two 1.063327
baz one 0.408204
two -0.863838
foo one -2.213588
two 1.266143
qux one 0.206053
two 0.299368
dtype: float64

In [95]: s.sort_index(level='L2')
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

L1 L2
bar one -0.251905
baz one 0.408204
foo one -2.213588
qux one 0.206053
bar two 1.063327
baz two -0.863838
foo two 1.266143

13.3. Sorting a MultiIndex 679

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

qux two 0.299368

dtype: float64

On higher dimensional objects, you can sort any of the other axes by level if they have a MultiIndex:
In [96]: df.T.sort_index(level=1, axis=1)
Out[96]:
zero one zero one
x x y y
0 2.410179 0.600178 0.132885 1.519970
1 1.450520 0.274230 -0.023688 -0.493662

Indexing will work even if the data are not sorted, but will be rather inefficient (and show a PerformanceWarning).
It will also return a copy of the data rather than a view:
In [97]: dfm = pd.DataFrame({'jim': [0, 0, 1, 1],
....: 'joe': ['x', 'x', 'z', 'y'],
....: 'jolie': np.random.rand(4)})
....:

In [98]: dfm = dfm.set_index(['jim', 'joe'])

In [99]: dfm
Out[99]:
jolie
jim joe
0 x 0.490671
x 0.120248
1 z 0.537020
y 0.110968

In [4]: dfm.loc[(1, 'z')]

PerformanceWarning: indexing past lexsort depth may impact performance.

Out[4]:
jolie
jim joe
1 z 0.64094

Furthermore if you try to index something that is not fully lexsorted, this can raise:
In [5]: dfm.loc[(0,'y'):(1, 'z')]
UnsortedIndexError: 'Key length (2) was greater than MultiIndex lexsort depth (1)'

The is_lexsorted() method on an Index show if the index is sorted, and the lexsort_depth property
returns the sort depth:
In [100]: dfm.index.is_lexsorted()
Out[100]: False

In [101]: dfm.index.lexsort_depth
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[101]: 1

In [102]: dfm = dfm.sort_index()

In [103]: dfm
Out[103]:

680 Chapter 13. MultiIndex / Advanced Indexing

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

jolie
jim joe
0 x 0.490671
x 0.120248
1 y 0.110968
z 0.537020

In [104]: dfm.index.is_lexsorted()
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→True

In [105]: dfm.index.lexsort_depth
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→2

And now selection works as expected.

In [106]: dfm.loc[(0,'y'):(1, 'z')]

Out[106]:
jolie
jim joe
1 y 0.110968
z 0.537020

13.4 Take Methods

Similar to numpy ndarrays, pandas Index, Series, and DataFrame also provides the take method that retrieves ele-
ments along a given axis at the given indices. The given indices must be either a list or an ndarray of integer index
positions. take will also accept negative integers as relative positions to the end of the object.

In [107]: index = pd.Index(np.random.randint(0, 1000, 10))

In [108]: index
Out[108]: Int64Index([214, 502, 712, 567, 786, 175, 993, 133, 758, 329], dtype='int64
˓→')

In [109]: positions = [0, 9, 3]

In [110]: index[positions]
Out[110]: Int64Index([214, 329, 567], dtype='int64')

In [111]: index.take(positions)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[111]: Int64Index([214, 329,
˓→567], dtype='int64')

In [112]: ser = pd.Series(np.random.randn(10))

In [113]: ser.iloc[positions]
Out[113]:
0 -0.179666
9 1.824375
3 0.392149
dtype: float64

In [114]: ser.take(positions)

13.4. Take Methods 681

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[114]:
0 -0.179666
9 1.824375
3 0.392149
dtype: float64

For DataFrames, the given indices should be a 1d list or ndarray that specifies row or column positions.

In [115]: frm = pd.DataFrame(np.random.randn(5, 3))

In [116]: frm.take([1, 4, 3])

Out[116]:
0 1 2
1 -1.237881 0.106854 -1.276829
4 0.629675 -1.425966 1.857704
3 0.979542 -1.633678 0.615855

In [117]: frm.take([0, 2], axis=1)

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

0 2
0 0.595974 0.601544
1 -1.237881 -1.276829
2 -0.767101 1.499591
3 0.979542 0.615855
4 0.629675 1.857704

It is important to note that the take method on pandas objects are not intended to work on boolean indices and may
return unexpected results.

In [118]: arr = np.random.randn(10)

In [119]: arr.take([False, False, True, True])

Out[119]: array([-1.1935, -1.1935, 0.6775, 0.6775])

In [120]: arr[[0, 1]]

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[120]: array([-1.1935, 0.
˓→6775])

In [121]: ser = pd.Series(np.random.randn(10))

In [122]: ser.take([False, False, True, True])

Out[122]:
0 0.233141
0 0.233141
1 -0.223540
1 -0.223540
dtype: float64

In [123]: ser.iloc[[0, 1]]

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[123]:
˓→

0 0.233141
1 -0.223540
dtype: float64

Finally, as a small note on performance, because the take method handles a narrower range of inputs, it can offer
performance that is a good deal faster than fancy indexing.

682 Chapter 13. MultiIndex / Advanced Indexing

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

13.5 Index Types

We have discussed MultiIndex in the previous sections pretty extensively. DatetimeIndex and PeriodIndex
are shown here. TimedeltaIndex are here.
In the following sub-sections we will highlight some other index types.

13.5.1 CategoricalIndex

CategoricalIndex is a type of index that is useful for supporting indexing with duplicates. This is a container
around a Categorical and allows efficient indexing and storage of an index with a large number of duplicated
elements.

In [124]: from pandas.api.types import CategoricalDtype

In [125]: df = pd.DataFrame({'A': np.arange(6),

.....: 'B': list('aabbca')})
.....:

In [126]: df['B'] = df['B'].astype(CategoricalDtype(list('cab')))

In [127]: df
Out[127]:
A B
0 0 a
1 1 a
2 2 b
3 3 b
4 4 c
5 5 a

In [128]: df.dtypes
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[128]:
A int64
B category
dtype: object

In [129]: df.B.cat.categories
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→Index(['c', 'a', 'b'], dtype='object')

Setting the index, will create a CategoricalIndex

In [130]: df2 = df.set_index('B')

In [131]: df2.index
Out[131]: CategoricalIndex(['a', 'a', 'b', 'b', 'c', 'a'], categories=['c', 'a', 'b'],
˓→ ordered=False, name='B', dtype='category')

Indexing with __getitem__/.iloc/.loc works similarly to an Index with duplicates. The indexers MUST be
in the category or the operation will raise.

In [132]: df2.loc['a']
Out[132]:
A
B

13.5. Index Types 683

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

a 0
a 1
a 5

These PRESERVE the CategoricalIndex

In [133]: df2.loc['a'].index
Out[133]: CategoricalIndex(['a', 'a', 'a'], categories=['c', 'a', 'b'], ordered=False,
˓→ name='B', dtype='category')

Sorting will order by the order of the categories

In [134]: df2.sort_index()
Out[134]:
A
B
c 4
a 0
a 1
a 5
b 2
b 3

Groupby operations on the index will preserve the index nature as well
In [135]: df2.groupby(level=0).sum()
Out[135]:
A
B
c 4
a 6
b 5

In [136]: df2.groupby(level=0).sum().index
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[136]: CategoricalIndex(['c', 'a', 'b'],
˓→categories=['c', 'a', 'b'], ordered=False, name='B', dtype='category')

Reindexing operations, will return a resulting index based on the type of the passed indexer, meaning that passing
a list will return a plain-old-Index; indexing with a Categorical will return a CategoricalIndex, indexed
according to the categories of the PASSED Categorical dtype. This allows one to arbitrarily index these even
with values NOT in the categories, similarly to how you can reindex ANY pandas index.
In [137]: df2.reindex(['a','e'])
Out[137]:
A
B
a 0.0
a 1.0
a 5.0
e NaN

In [138]: df2.reindex(['a','e']).index
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[138]: Index(['a', 'a', 'a',
˓→'e'], dtype='object', name='B')

In [139]: df2.reindex(pd.Categorical(['a','e'],categories=list('abcde')))
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

684 Chapter 13. MultiIndex / Advanced Indexing

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

A
B
a 0.0
a 1.0
a 5.0
e NaN

In [140]: df2.reindex(pd.Categorical(['a','e'],categories=list('abcde'))).index
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→CategoricalIndex(['a', 'a', 'a', 'e'], categories=['a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'e'],

˓→ordered=False, name='B', dtype='category')

Warning: Reshaping and Comparison operations on a CategoricalIndex must have the same categories or
a TypeError will be raised.
In [9]: df3 = pd.DataFrame({'A' : np.arange(6),
'B' : pd.Series(list('aabbca')).astype('category')})

In [11]: df3 = df3.set_index('B')

In [11]: df3.index
Out[11]: CategoricalIndex([u'a', u'a', u'b', u'b', u'c', u'a'], categories=[u'a', u
˓→'b', u'c'], ordered=False, name=u'B', dtype='category')

In [12]: pd.concat([df2, df3]

TypeError: categories must match existing categories when appending

13.5.2 Int64Index and RangeIndex

Warning: Indexing on an integer-based Index with floats has been clarified in 0.18.0, for a summary of the
changes, see here.

Int64Index is a fundamental basic index in pandas. This is an Immutable array implementing an ordered, sliceable
set. Prior to 0.18.0, the Int64Index would provide the default index for all NDFrame objects.
RangeIndex is a sub-class of Int64Index added in version 0.18.0, now providing the default index for all
NDFrame objects. RangeIndex is an optimized version of Int64Index that can represent a monotonic ordered
set. These are analogous to python range types.

13.5.3 Float64Index

By default a Float64Index will be automatically created when passing floating, or mixed-integer-floating values
in index creation. This enables a pure label-based slicing paradigm that makes [],ix,loc for scalar indexing and
slicing work exactly the same.
In [141]: indexf = pd.Index([1.5, 2, 3, 4.5, 5])

In [142]: indexf
Out[142]: Float64Index([1.5, 2.0, 3.0, 4.5, 5.0], dtype='float64')

In [143]: sf = pd.Series(range(5), index=indexf)

13.5. Index Types 685

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [144]: sf
Out[144]:
1.5 0
2.0 1
3.0 2
4.5 3
5.0 4
dtype: int64

Scalar selection for [],.loc will always be label based. An integer will match an equal float index (e.g. 3 is
equivalent to 3.0)

In [145]: sf[3]
Out[145]: 2

In [146]: sf[3.0]
\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[146]: 2

In [147]: sf.loc[3]
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[147]: 2

In [148]: sf.loc[3.0]
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[148]: 2

The only positional indexing is via iloc

In [149]: sf.iloc[3]
Out[149]: 3

A scalar index that is not found will raise KeyError

Slicing is ALWAYS on the values of the index, for [],ix,loc and ALWAYS positional with iloc

In [150]: sf[2:4]
Out[150]:
2.0 1
3.0 2
dtype: int64

In [151]: sf.loc[2:4]
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[151]:
2.0 1
3.0 2
dtype: int64

In [152]: sf.iloc[2:4]
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[152]:
˓→

3.0 2
4.5 3
dtype: int64

In float indexes, slicing using floats is allowed

In [153]: sf[2.1:4.6]
Out[153]:
3.0 2

686 Chapter 13. MultiIndex / Advanced Indexing

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

4.5 3
dtype: int64

In [154]: sf.loc[2.1:4.6]
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[154]:
3.0 2
4.5 3
dtype: int64

In non-float indexes, slicing using floats will raise a TypeError

In [1]: pd.Series(range(5))[3.5]
TypeError: the label [3.5] is not a proper indexer for this index type (Int64Index)

In [1]: pd.Series(range(5))[3.5:4.5]
TypeError: the slice start [3.5] is not a proper indexer for this index type
˓→(Int64Index)

Warning: Using a scalar float indexer for .iloc has been removed in 0.18.0, so the following will raise a
TypeError
In [3]: pd.Series(range(5)).iloc[3.0]
TypeError: cannot do positional indexing on <class 'pandas.indexes.range.RangeIndex
˓→'> with these indexers [3.0] of <type 'float'>

Here is a typical use-case for using this type of indexing. Imagine that you have a somewhat irregular timedelta-like
indexing scheme, but the data is recorded as floats. This could for example be millisecond offsets.
In [155]: dfir = pd.concat([pd.DataFrame(np.random.randn(5,2),
.....: index=np.arange(5) * 250.0,
.....: columns=list('AB')),
.....: pd.DataFrame(np.random.randn(6,2),
.....: index=np.arange(4,10) * 250.1,
.....: columns=list('AB'))])
.....:

In [156]: dfir
Out[156]:
A B
0.0 0.997289 -1.693316
250.0 -0.179129 -1.598062
500.0 0.936914 0.912560
750.0 -1.003401 1.632781
1000.0 -0.724626 0.178219
1000.4 0.310610 -0.108002
1250.5 -0.974226 -1.147708
1500.6 -2.281374 0.760010
1750.7 -0.742532 1.533318
2000.8 2.495362 -0.432771
2250.9 -0.068954 0.043520

Selection operations then will always work on a value basis, for all selection operators.
In [157]: dfir[0:1000.4]
Out[157]:
A B

13.5. Index Types 687

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

0.0 0.997289 -1.693316

250.0 -0.179129 -1.598062
500.0 0.936914 0.912560
750.0 -1.003401 1.632781
1000.0 -0.724626 0.178219
1000.4 0.310610 -0.108002

In [158]: dfir.loc[0:1001,'A']
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

0.0 0.997289
250.0 -0.179129
500.0 0.936914
750.0 -1.003401
1000.0 -0.724626
1000.4 0.310610
Name: A, dtype: float64

In [159]: dfir.loc[1000.4]
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

A 0.310610
B -0.108002
Name: 1000.4, dtype: float64

You could then easily pick out the first 1 second (1000 ms) of data then.

In [160]: dfir[0:1000]
Out[160]:
A B
0.0 0.997289 -1.693316
250.0 -0.179129 -1.598062
500.0 0.936914 0.912560
750.0 -1.003401 1.632781
1000.0 -0.724626 0.178219

Of course if you need integer based selection, then use iloc

In [161]: dfir.iloc[0:5]
Out[161]:
A B
0.0 0.997289 -1.693316
250.0 -0.179129 -1.598062
500.0 0.936914 0.912560
750.0 -1.003401 1.632781
1000.0 -0.724626 0.178219

13.5.4 IntervalIndex

IntervalIndex together with its own dtype, interval as well as the Interval scalar type, allow first-class
support in pandas for interval notation.
The IntervalIndex allows some unique indexing and is also used as a return type for the categories in cut()
and qcut().
New in version 0.20.0.

688 Chapter 13. MultiIndex / Advanced Indexing

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Warning: These indexing behaviors are provisional and may change in a future version of pandas.

An IntervalIndex can be used in Series and in DataFrame as the index.

In [162]: df = pd.DataFrame({'A': [1, 2, 3, 4]},

.....: index=pd.IntervalIndex.from_breaks([0, 1, 2, 3, 4]))
.....:

In [163]: df
Out[163]:
A
(0, 1] 1
(1, 2] 2
(2, 3] 3
(3, 4] 4

Label based indexing via .loc along the edges of an interval works as you would expect, selecting that particular
interval.

In [164]: df.loc[2]
Out[164]:
A 2
Name: (1, 2], dtype: int64

In [165]: df.loc[[2, 3]]

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[165]:
A
(1, 2] 2
(2, 3] 3

If you select a lable contained within an interval, this will also select the interval.

In [166]: df.loc[2.5]
Out[166]:
A 3
Name: (2, 3], dtype: int64

In [167]: df.loc[[2.5, 3.5]]

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[167]:
A
(2, 3] 3
(3, 4] 4

Interval and IntervalIndex are used by cut and qcut:

In [168]: c = pd.cut(range(4), bins=2)

In [169]: c
Out[169]:
[(-0.003, 1.5], (-0.003, 1.5], (1.5, 3.0], (1.5, 3.0]]
Categories (2, interval[float64]): [(-0.003, 1.5] < (1.5, 3.0]]

In [170]: c.categories
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

IntervalIndex([(-0.003, 1.5], (1.5, 3.0]]

13.5. Index Types 689

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

closed='right',
dtype='interval[float64]')

Furthermore, IntervalIndex allows one to bin other data with these same bins, with NaN representing a missing
value similar to other dtypes.
In [171]: pd.cut([0, 3, 5, 1], bins=c.categories)
Out[171]:
[(-0.003, 1.5], (1.5, 3.0], NaN, (-0.003, 1.5]]
Categories (2, interval[float64]): [(-0.003, 1.5] < (1.5, 3.0]]

13.6 Miscellaneous indexing FAQ

13.6.1 Integer indexing

Label-based indexing with integer axis labels is a thorny topic. It has been discussed heavily on mailing lists and
among various members of the scientific Python community. In pandas, our general viewpoint is that labels matter
more than integer locations. Therefore, with an integer axis index only label-based indexing is possible with the
standard tools like .loc. The following code will generate exceptions:
s = pd.Series(range(5))
s[-1]
df = pd.DataFrame(np.random.randn(5, 4))
df
df.loc[-2:]

This deliberate decision was made to prevent ambiguities and subtle bugs (many users reported finding bugs when the
API change was made to stop “falling back” on position-based indexing).

13.6.2 Non-monotonic indexes require exact matches

If the index of a Series or DataFrame is monotonically increasing or decreasing, then the bounds of a label-based
slice can be outside the range of the index, much like slice indexing a normal Python list. Monotonicity of an index
can be tested with the is_monotonic_increasing and is_monotonic_decreasing attributes.
In [172]: df = pd.DataFrame(index=[2,3,3,4,5], columns=['data'], data=list(range(5)))

In [173]: df.index.is_monotonic_increasing
Out[173]: True

# no rows 0 or 1, but still returns rows 2, 3 (both of them), and 4:

In [174]: df.loc[0:4, :]
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[174]:
data
2 0
3 1
3 2
4 3

# slice is are outside the index, so empty DataFrame is returned

In [175]: df.loc[13:15, :]
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[175]:
Empty DataFrame

690 Chapter 13. MultiIndex / Advanced Indexing

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Columns: [data]
Index: []

On the other hand, if the index is not monotonic, then both slice bounds must be unique members of the index.

In [176]: df = pd.DataFrame(index=[2,3,1,4,3,5], columns=['data'],

˓→data=list(range(6)))

In [177]: df.index.is_monotonic_increasing
Out[177]: False

# OK because 2 and 4 are in the index

In [178]: df.loc[2:4, :]
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[178]:
data
2 0
3 1
1 2
4 3

# 0 is not in the index

In [9]: df.loc[0:4, :]
KeyError: 0

# 3 is not a unique label

In [11]: df.loc[2:3, :]
KeyError: 'Cannot get right slice bound for non-unique label: 3'

Index.is_monotonic_increasing() and Index.is_monotonic_decreasing() only check that an

index is weakly monotonic. To check for strict montonicity, you can combine one of those with Index.
is_unique()

In [179]: weakly_monotonic = pd.Index(['a', 'b', 'c', 'c'])

In [180]: weakly_monotonic
Out[180]: Index(['a', 'b', 'c', 'c'], dtype='object')

In [181]: weakly_monotonic.is_monotonic_increasing
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[181]: True

In [182]: weakly_monotonic.is_monotonic_increasing & weakly_monotonic.is_unique

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[182]: False

13.6.3 Endpoints are inclusive

Compared with standard Python sequence slicing in which the slice endpoint is not inclusive, label-based slicing in
pandas is inclusive. The primary reason for this is that it is often not possible to easily determine the “successor” or
next element after a particular label in an index. For example, consider the following Series:

In [183]: s = pd.Series(np.random.randn(6), index=list('abcdef'))

In [184]: s
Out[184]:
a 0.112246
b 0.871721

13.6. Miscellaneous indexing FAQ 691

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

c -0.816064
d -0.784880
e 1.030659
f 0.187483
dtype: float64

Suppose we wished to slice from c to e, using integers this would be

In [185]: s[2:5]
Out[185]:
c -0.816064
d -0.784880
e 1.030659
dtype: float64

However, if you only had c and e, determining the next element in the index can be somewhat complicated. For
example, the following does not work:
s.loc['c':'e'+1]

A very common use case is to limit a time series to start and end at two specific dates. To enable this, we made the
design to make label-based slicing include both endpoints:
In [186]: s.loc['c':'e']
Out[186]:
c -0.816064
d -0.784880
e 1.030659
dtype: float64

This is most definitely a “practicality beats purity” sort of thing, but it is something to watch out for if you expect
label-based slicing to behave exactly in the way that standard Python integer slicing works.

13.6.4 Indexing potentially changes underlying Series dtype

The different indexing operation can potentially change the dtype of a Series.
In [187]: series1 = pd.Series([1, 2, 3])

In [188]: series1.dtype
Out[188]: dtype('int64')

In [189]: res = series1.reindex([0, 4])

In [190]: res.dtype
Out[190]: dtype('float64')

In [191]: res
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[191]:
0 1.0
4 NaN
dtype: float64

In [192]: series2 = pd.Series([True])

In [193]: series2.dtype

692 Chapter 13. MultiIndex / Advanced Indexing

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Out[193]: dtype('bool')

In [194]: res = series2.reindex_like(series1)

In [195]: res.dtype
Out[195]: dtype('O')

In [196]: res
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[196]:
0 True
1 NaN
2 NaN
dtype: object

This is because the (re)indexing operations above silently inserts NaNs and the dtype changes accordingly. This can
cause some issues when using numpy ufuncs such as numpy.logical_and.
See the this old issue for a more detailed discussion.

13.6. Miscellaneous indexing FAQ 693

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

694 Chapter 13. MultiIndex / Advanced Indexing

 CHAPTER

FOURTEEN

COMPUTATIONAL TOOLS

14.1 Statistical Functions

14.1.1 Percent Change

Series, DataFrame, and Panel all have a method pct_change to compute the percent change over a given
number of periods (using fill_method to fill NA/null values before computing the percent change).

In [1]: ser = pd.Series(np.random.randn(8))

In [2]: ser.pct_change()
Out[2]:
0 NaN
1 -1.602976
2 4.334938
3 -0.247456
4 -2.067345
5 -1.142903
6 -1.688214
7 -9.759729
dtype: float64

In [3]: df = pd.DataFrame(np.random.randn(10, 4))

In [4]: df.pct_change(periods=3)
Out[4]:
0 1 2 3
0 NaN NaN NaN NaN
1 NaN NaN NaN NaN
2 NaN NaN NaN NaN
3 -0.218320 -1.054001 1.987147 -0.510183
4 -0.439121 -1.816454 0.649715 -4.822809
5 -0.127833 -3.042065 -5.866604 -1.776977
6 -2.596833 -1.959538 -2.111697 -3.798900
7 -0.117826 -2.169058 0.036094 -0.067696
8 2.492606 -1.357320 -1.205802 -1.558697
9 -1.012977 2.324558 -1.003744 -0.371806

14.1.2 Covariance

The Series object has a method cov to compute covariance between series (excluding NA/null values).

695
pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [5]: s1 = pd.Series(np.random.randn(1000))

In [6]: s2 = pd.Series(np.random.randn(1000))

In [7]: s1.cov(s2)
Out[7]: 0.00068010881743110871

Analogously, DataFrame has a method cov to compute pairwise covariances among the series in the DataFrame,
also excluding NA/null values.

Note: Assuming the missing data are missing at random this results in an estimate for the covariance matrix which
is unbiased. However, for many applications this estimate may not be acceptable because the estimated covariance
matrix is not guaranteed to be positive semi-definite. This could lead to estimated correlations having absolute values
which are greater than one, and/or a non-invertible covariance matrix. See Estimation of covariance matrices for more
details.

In [8]: frame = pd.DataFrame(np.random.randn(1000, 5), columns=['a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'e

˓→'])

In [9]: frame.cov()
Out[9]:
a b c d e
a 1.000882 -0.003177 -0.002698 -0.006889 0.031912
b -0.003177 1.024721 0.000191 0.009212 0.000857
c -0.002698 0.000191 0.950735 -0.031743 -0.005087
d -0.006889 0.009212 -0.031743 1.002983 -0.047952
e 0.031912 0.000857 -0.005087 -0.047952 1.042487

DataFrame.cov also supports an optional min_periods keyword that specifies the required minimum number
of observations for each column pair in order to have a valid result.

In [10]: frame = pd.DataFrame(np.random.randn(20, 3), columns=['a', 'b', 'c'])

In [11]: frame.loc[frame.index[:5], 'a'] = np.nan

In [12]: frame.loc[frame.index[5:10], 'b'] = np.nan

In [13]: frame.cov()
Out[13]:
a b c
a 1.123670 -0.412851 0.018169
b -0.412851 1.154141 0.305260
c 0.018169 0.305260 1.301149

In [14]: frame.cov(min_periods=12)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

a b c
a 1.123670 NaN 0.018169
b NaN 1.154141 0.305260
c 0.018169 0.305260 1.301149

696 Chapter 14. Computational tools

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

14.1.3 Correlation

Several methods for computing correlations are provided:

Method name Description
pearson (default) Standard correlation coefficient
kendall Kendall Tau correlation coefficient
spearman Spearman rank correlation coefficient
All of these are currently computed using pairwise complete observations.

Note: Please see the caveats associated with this method of calculating correlation matrices in the covariance section.

In [15]: frame = pd.DataFrame(np.random.randn(1000, 5), columns=['a', 'b', 'c', 'd',

˓→'e'])

In [16]: frame.iloc[::2] = np.nan

# Series with Series

In [17]: frame['a'].corr(frame['b'])
Out[17]: 0.013479040400098794

In [18]: frame['a'].corr(frame['b'], method='spearman')

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[18]: -0.0072898851595406371

# Pairwise correlation of DataFrame columns

In [19]: frame.corr()
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[19]:
a b c d e
a 1.000000 0.013479 -0.049269 -0.042239 -0.028525
b 0.013479 1.000000 -0.020433 -0.011139 0.005654
c -0.049269 -0.020433 1.000000 0.018587 -0.054269
d -0.042239 -0.011139 0.018587 1.000000 -0.017060
e -0.028525 0.005654 -0.054269 -0.017060 1.000000

Note that non-numeric columns will be automatically excluded from the correlation calculation.
Like cov, corr also supports the optional min_periods keyword:

In [20]: frame = pd.DataFrame(np.random.randn(20, 3), columns=['a', 'b', 'c'])

In [21]: frame.loc[frame.index[:5], 'a'] = np.nan

In [22]: frame.loc[frame.index[5:10], 'b'] = np.nan

In [23]: frame.corr()
Out[23]:
a b c
a 1.000000 -0.121111 0.069544
b -0.121111 1.000000 0.051742
c 0.069544 0.051742 1.000000

In [24]: frame.corr(min_periods=12)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

a b c
a 1.000000 NaN 0.069544

14.1. Statistical Functions 697

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

b NaN 1.000000 0.051742

c 0.069544 0.051742 1.000000

A related method corrwith is implemented on DataFrame to compute the correlation between like-labeled Series
contained in different DataFrame objects.

In [25]: index = ['a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'e']

In [26]: columns = ['one', 'two', 'three', 'four']

In [27]: df1 = pd.DataFrame(np.random.randn(5, 4), index=index, columns=columns)

In [28]: df2 = pd.DataFrame(np.random.randn(4, 4), index=index[:4], columns=columns)

In [29]: df1.corrwith(df2)
Out[29]:
one -0.125501
two -0.493244
three 0.344056
four 0.004183
dtype: float64

In [30]: df2.corrwith(df1, axis=1)

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[
˓→

a -0.675817
b 0.458296
c 0.190809
d -0.186275
e NaN
dtype: float64

14.1.4 Data ranking

The rank method produces a data ranking with ties being assigned the mean of the ranks (by default) for the group:

In [31]: s = pd.Series(np.random.np.random.randn(5), index=list('abcde'))

In [32]: s['d'] = s['b'] # so there's a tie

In [33]: s.rank()
Out[33]:
a 5.0
b 2.5
c 1.0
d 2.5
e 4.0
dtype: float64

rank is also a DataFrame method and can rank either the rows (axis=0) or the columns (axis=1). NaN values are
excluded from the ranking.

In [34]: df = pd.DataFrame(np.random.np.random.randn(10, 6))

In [35]: df[4] = df[2][:5] # some ties

698 Chapter 14. Computational tools

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [36]: df
Out[36]:
0 1 2 3 4 5
0 -0.904948 -1.163537 -1.457187 0.135463 -1.457187 0.294650
1 -0.976288 -0.244652 -0.748406 -0.999601 -0.748406 -0.800809
2 0.401965 1.460840 1.256057 1.308127 1.256057 0.876004
3 0.205954 0.369552 -0.669304 0.038378 -0.669304 1.140296
4 -0.477586 -0.730705 -1.129149 -0.601463 -1.129149 -0.211196
5 -1.092970 -0.689246 0.908114 0.204848 NaN 0.463347
6 0.376892 0.959292 0.095572 -0.593740 NaN -0.069180
7 -1.002601 1.957794 -0.120708 0.094214 NaN -1.467422
8 -0.547231 0.664402 -0.519424 -0.073254 NaN -1.263544
9 -0.250277 -0.237428 -1.056443 0.419477 NaN 1.375064

In [37]: df.rank(1)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

0 1 2 3 4 5
0 4.0 3.0 1.5 5.0 1.5 6.0
1 2.0 6.0 4.5 1.0 4.5 3.0
2 1.0 6.0 3.5 5.0 3.5 2.0
3 4.0 5.0 1.5 3.0 1.5 6.0
4 5.0 3.0 1.5 4.0 1.5 6.0
5 1.0 2.0 5.0 3.0 NaN 4.0
6 4.0 5.0 3.0 1.0 NaN 2.0
7 2.0 5.0 3.0 4.0 NaN 1.0
8 2.0 5.0 3.0 4.0 NaN 1.0
9 2.0 3.0 1.0 4.0 NaN 5.0

rank optionally takes a parameter ascending which by default is true; when false, data is reverse-ranked, with
larger values assigned a smaller rank.
rank supports different tie-breaking methods, specified with the method parameter:
• average : average rank of tied group
• min : lowest rank in the group
• max : highest rank in the group
• first : ranks assigned in the order they appear in the array

14.2 Window Functions

Warning: Prior to version 0.18.0, pd.rolling_*, pd.expanding_*, and pd.ewm* were module level
functions and are now deprecated. These are replaced by using the Rolling, Expanding and EWM. objects and
a corresponding method call.
The deprecation warning will show the new syntax, see an example here You can view the previous documentation
here

For working with data, a number of windows functions are provided for computing common window or rolling statis-
tics. Among these are count, sum, mean, median, correlation, variance, covariance, standard deviation, skewness, and
kurtosis.

14.2. Window Functions 699

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Starting in version 0.18.1, the rolling() and expanding() functions can be used directly from
DataFrameGroupBy objects, see the groupby docs.

Note: The API for window statistics is quite similar to the way one works with GroupBy objects, see the documen-
tation here

We work with rolling, expanding and exponentially weighted data through the corresponding objects,
Rolling, Expanding and EWM.

In [38]: s = pd.Series(np.random.randn(1000), index=pd.date_range('1/1/2000',

˓→periods=1000))

In [39]: s = s.cumsum()

In [40]: s
Out[40]:
2000-01-01 -0.268824
2000-01-02 -1.771855
2000-01-03 -0.818003
2000-01-04 -0.659244
2000-01-05 -1.942133
2000-01-06 -1.869391
2000-01-07 0.563674
...
2002-09-20 -68.233054
2002-09-21 -66.765687
2002-09-22 -67.457323
2002-09-23 -69.253182
2002-09-24 -70.296818
2002-09-25 -70.844674
2002-09-26 -72.475016
Freq: D, Length: 1000, dtype: float64

These are created from methods on Series and DataFrame.

In [41]: r = s.rolling(window=60)

In [42]: r
Out[42]: Rolling [window=60,center=False,axis=0]

These object provide tab-completion of the avaible methods and properties.

In [14]: r.
r.agg r.apply r.count r.exclusions r.max r.median r.
˓→name r.skew r.sum
r.aggregate r.corr r.cov r.kurt r.mean r.min r.
˓→quantile r.std r.var

Generally these methods all have the same interface. They all accept the following arguments:
• window: size of moving window
• min_periods: threshold of non-null data points to require (otherwise result is NA)
• center: boolean, whether to set the labels at the center (default is False)

700 Chapter 14. Computational tools

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Warning: The freq and how arguments were in the API prior to 0.18.0 changes. These are deprecated in the
new API. You can simply resample the input prior to creating a window function.
For example, instead of s.rolling(window=5,freq='D').max() to get the max value on a rolling 5 Day
window, one could use s.resample('D').max().rolling(window=5).max(), which first resamples
the data to daily data, then provides a rolling 5 day window.

We can then call methods on these rolling objects. These return like-indexed objects:

In [43]: r.mean()
Out[43]:
2000-01-01 NaN
2000-01-02 NaN
2000-01-03 NaN
2000-01-04 NaN
2000-01-05 NaN
2000-01-06 NaN
2000-01-07 NaN
...
2002-09-20 -62.694135
2002-09-21 -62.812190
2002-09-22 -62.914971
2002-09-23 -63.061867
2002-09-24 -63.213876
2002-09-25 -63.375074
2002-09-26 -63.539734
Freq: D, Length: 1000, dtype: float64

In [44]: s.plot(style='k--')
Out[44]: <matplotlib.axes._subplots.AxesSubplot at 0x121ceb748>

In [45]: r.mean().plot(style='k')
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[45]: <matplotlib.
˓→axes._subplots.AxesSubplot at 0x121ceb748>

14.2. Window Functions 701

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

They can also be applied to DataFrame objects. This is really just syntactic sugar for applying the moving window
operator to all of the DataFrame’s columns:

In [46]: df = pd.DataFrame(np.random.randn(1000, 4),

....: index=pd.date_range('1/1/2000', periods=1000),
....: columns=['A', 'B', 'C', 'D'])
....:

In [47]: df = df.cumsum()

In [48]: df.rolling(window=60).sum().plot(subplots=True)
Out[48]:
array([<matplotlib.axes._subplots.AxesSubplot object at 0x116d566d8>,
<matplotlib.axes._subplots.AxesSubplot object at 0x121eb3320>,
<matplotlib.axes._subplots.AxesSubplot object at 0x121ff3160>,
<matplotlib.axes._subplots.AxesSubplot object at 0x12201ed30>], dtype=object)

702 Chapter 14. Computational tools

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

14.2.1 Method Summary

We provide a number of the common statistical functions:

Method Description
count() Number of non-null observations
sum() Sum of values
mean() Mean of values
median() Arithmetic median of values
min() Minimum
max() Maximum
std() Bessel-corrected sample standard deviation
var() Unbiased variance
skew() Sample skewness (3rd moment)
kurt() Sample kurtosis (4th moment)
quantile() Sample quantile (value at %)
apply() Generic apply
cov() Unbiased covariance (binary)
corr() Correlation (binary)
The apply() function takes an extra func argument and performs generic rolling computations. The func argu-
ment should be a single function that produces a single value from an ndarray input. Suppose we wanted to compute
the mean absolute deviation on a rolling basis:

In [49]: mad = lambda x: np.fabs(x - x.mean()).mean()

In [50]: s.rolling(window=60).apply(mad).plot(style='k')
Out[50]: <matplotlib.axes._subplots.AxesSubplot at 0x122067d68>

14.2. Window Functions 703

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

14.2.2 Rolling Windows

Passing win_type to .rolling generates a generic rolling window computation, that is weighted according the
win_type. The following methods are available:
Method Description
sum() Sum of values
mean() Mean of values
The weights used in the window are specified by the win_type keyword. The list of recognized types are:
• boxcar
• triang
• blackman
• hamming
• bartlett
• parzen
• bohman
• blackmanharris
• nuttall
• barthann
• kaiser (needs beta)
• gaussian (needs std)
• general_gaussian (needs power, width)

704 Chapter 14. Computational tools

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• slepian (needs width).

In [51]: ser = pd.Series(np.random.randn(10), index=pd.date_range('1/1/2000',
˓→periods=10))

In [52]: ser.rolling(window=5, win_type='triang').mean()

Out[52]:
2000-01-01 NaN
2000-01-02 NaN
2000-01-03 NaN
2000-01-04 NaN
2000-01-05 -1.037870
2000-01-06 -0.767705
2000-01-07 -0.383197
2000-01-08 -0.395513
2000-01-09 -0.558440
2000-01-10 -0.672416
Freq: D, dtype: float64

Note that the boxcar window is equivalent to mean().

In [53]: ser.rolling(window=5, win_type='boxcar').mean()
Out[53]:
2000-01-01 NaN
2000-01-02 NaN
2000-01-03 NaN
2000-01-04 NaN
2000-01-05 -0.841164
2000-01-06 -0.779948
2000-01-07 -0.565487
2000-01-08 -0.502815
2000-01-09 -0.553755
2000-01-10 -0.472211
Freq: D, dtype: float64

In [54]: ser.rolling(window=5).mean()
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

2000-01-01 NaN
2000-01-02 NaN
2000-01-03 NaN
2000-01-04 NaN
2000-01-05 -0.841164
2000-01-06 -0.779948
2000-01-07 -0.565487
2000-01-08 -0.502815
2000-01-09 -0.553755
2000-01-10 -0.472211
Freq: D, dtype: float64

For some windowing functions, additional parameters must be specified:

In [55]: ser.rolling(window=5, win_type='gaussian').mean(std=0.1)
Out[55]:
2000-01-01 NaN
2000-01-02 NaN
2000-01-03 NaN
2000-01-04 NaN
2000-01-05 -1.309989

14.2. Window Functions 705

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

2000-01-06 -1.153000
2000-01-07 0.606382
2000-01-08 -0.681101
2000-01-09 -0.289724
2000-01-10 -0.996632
Freq: D, dtype: float64

Note: For .sum() with a win_type, there is no normalization done to the weights for the window. Passing custom
weights of [1, 1, 1] will yield a different result than passing weights of [2, 2, 2], for example. When passing
a win_type instead of explicitly specifying the weights, the weights are already normalized so that the largest weight
is 1.
In contrast, the nature of the .mean() calculation is such that the weights are normalized with respect to each other.
Weights of [1, 1, 1] and [2, 2, 2] yield the same result.

14.2.3 Time-aware Rolling

New in version 0.19.0.

New in version 0.19.0 are the ability to pass an offset (or convertible) to a .rolling() method and have it produce
variable sized windows based on the passed time window. For each time point, this includes all preceding values
occurring within the indicated time delta.
This can be particularly useful for a non-regular time frequency index.

In [56]: dft = pd.DataFrame({'B': [0, 1, 2, np.nan, 4]},

....: index=pd.date_range('20130101 09:00:00', periods=5, freq=
˓→'s'))

....:

In [57]: dft
Out[57]:
B
2013-01-01 09:00:00 0.0
2013-01-01 09:00:01 1.0
2013-01-01 09:00:02 2.0
2013-01-01 09:00:03 NaN
2013-01-01 09:00:04 4.0

This is a regular frequency index. Using an integer window parameter works to roll along the window frequency.

In [58]: dft.rolling(2).sum()
Out[58]:
B
2013-01-01 09:00:00 NaN
2013-01-01 09:00:01 1.0
2013-01-01 09:00:02 3.0
2013-01-01 09:00:03 NaN
2013-01-01 09:00:04 NaN

In [59]: dft.rolling(2, min_periods=1).sum()

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

B
2013-01-01 09:00:00 0.0

706 Chapter 14. Computational tools

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

2013-01-01 09:00:01 1.0

2013-01-01 09:00:02 3.0
2013-01-01 09:00:03 2.0
2013-01-01 09:00:04 4.0

Specifying an offset allows a more intuitive specification of the rolling frequency.

In [60]: dft.rolling('2s').sum()
Out[60]:
B
2013-01-01 09:00:00 0.0
2013-01-01 09:00:01 1.0
2013-01-01 09:00:02 3.0
2013-01-01 09:00:03 2.0
2013-01-01 09:00:04 4.0

Using a non-regular, but still monotonic index, rolling with an integer window does not impart any special calculation.
In [61]: dft = pd.DataFrame({'B': [0, 1, 2, np.nan, 4]},
....: index = pd.Index([pd.Timestamp('20130101 09:00:00'),
....: pd.Timestamp('20130101 09:00:02'),
....: pd.Timestamp('20130101 09:00:03'),
....: pd.Timestamp('20130101 09:00:05'),
....: pd.Timestamp('20130101 09:00:06')],
....: name='foo'))
....:

In [62]: dft
Out[62]:
B
foo
2013-01-01 09:00:00 0.0
2013-01-01 09:00:02 1.0
2013-01-01 09:00:03 2.0
2013-01-01 09:00:05 NaN
2013-01-01 09:00:06 4.0

In [63]: dft.rolling(2).sum()
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

B
foo
2013-01-01 09:00:00 NaN
2013-01-01 09:00:02 1.0
2013-01-01 09:00:03 3.0
2013-01-01 09:00:05 NaN
2013-01-01 09:00:06 NaN

Using the time-specification generates variable windows for this sparse data.
In [64]: dft.rolling('2s').sum()
Out[64]:
B
foo
2013-01-01 09:00:00 0.0
2013-01-01 09:00:02 1.0
2013-01-01 09:00:03 3.0
2013-01-01 09:00:05 NaN

14.2. Window Functions 707

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

2013-01-01 09:00:06 4.0

Furthermore, we now allow an optional on parameter to specify a column (rather than the default of the index) in a
DataFrame.
In [65]: dft = dft.reset_index()

In [66]: dft
Out[66]:
foo B
0 2013-01-01 09:00:00 0.0
1 2013-01-01 09:00:02 1.0
2 2013-01-01 09:00:03 2.0
3 2013-01-01 09:00:05 NaN
4 2013-01-01 09:00:06 4.0

In [67]: dft.rolling('2s', on='foo').sum()

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

foo B
0 2013-01-01 09:00:00 0.0
1 2013-01-01 09:00:02 1.0
2 2013-01-01 09:00:03 3.0
3 2013-01-01 09:00:05 NaN
4 2013-01-01 09:00:06 4.0

14.2.4 Rolling Window Endpoints

New in version 0.20.0.

The inclusion of the interval endpoints in rolling window calculations can be specified with the closed parameter:
closed Description Default for
right close right endpoint time-based windows
left close left endpoint
both close both endpoints fixed windows
neither open endpoints
For example, having the right endpoint open is useful in many problems that require that there is no contamination
from present information back to past information. This allows the rolling window to compute statistics “up to that
point in time”, but not including that point in time.
In [68]: df = pd.DataFrame({'x': 1},
....: index = [pd.Timestamp('20130101 09:00:01'),
....: pd.Timestamp('20130101 09:00:02'),
....: pd.Timestamp('20130101 09:00:03'),
....: pd.Timestamp('20130101 09:00:04'),
....: pd.Timestamp('20130101 09:00:06')])
....:

In [69]: df["right"] = df.rolling('2s', closed='right').x.sum() # default

In [70]: df["both"] = df.rolling('2s', closed='both').x.sum()

In [71]: df["left"] = df.rolling('2s', closed='left').x.sum()

In [72]: df["neither"] = df.rolling('2s', closed='neither').x.sum()

708 Chapter 14. Computational tools

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [73]: df
Out[73]:
x right both left neither
2013-01-01 09:00:01 1 1.0 1.0 NaN NaN
2013-01-01 09:00:02 1 2.0 2.0 1.0 1.0
2013-01-01 09:00:03 1 2.0 3.0 2.0 1.0
2013-01-01 09:00:04 1 2.0 3.0 2.0 1.0
2013-01-01 09:00:06 1 1.0 2.0 1.0 NaN

Currently, this feature is only implemented for time-based windows. For fixed windows, the closed parameter cannot
be set and the rolling window will always have both endpoints closed.

14.2.5 Time-aware Rolling vs. Resampling

Using .rolling() with a time-based index is quite similar to resampling. They both operate and perform reductive
operations on time-indexed pandas objects.
When using .rolling() with an offset. The offset is a time-delta. Take a backwards-in-time looking window, and
aggregate all of the values in that window (including the end-point, but not the start-point). This is the new value at
that point in the result. These are variable sized windows in time-space for each point of the input. You will get a same
sized result as the input.
When using .resample() with an offset. Construct a new index that is the frequency of the offset. For each
frequency bin, aggregate points from the input within a backwards-in-time looking window that fall in that bin. The
result of this aggregation is the output for that frequency point. The windows are fixed size size in the frequency space.
Your result will have the shape of a regular frequency between the min and the max of the original input object.
To summarize, .rolling() is a time-based window operation, while .resample() is a frequency-based window
operation.

14.2.6 Centering Windows

By default the labels are set to the right edge of the window, but a center keyword is available so the labels can be
set at the center.
In [74]: ser.rolling(window=5).mean()
Out[74]:
2000-01-01 NaN
2000-01-02 NaN
2000-01-03 NaN
2000-01-04 NaN
2000-01-05 -0.841164
2000-01-06 -0.779948
2000-01-07 -0.565487
2000-01-08 -0.502815
2000-01-09 -0.553755
2000-01-10 -0.472211
Freq: D, dtype: float64

In [75]: ser.rolling(window=5, center=True).mean()

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

2000-01-01 NaN
2000-01-02 NaN
2000-01-03 -0.841164

14.2. Window Functions 709

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

2000-01-04 -0.779948
2000-01-05 -0.565487
2000-01-06 -0.502815
2000-01-07 -0.553755
2000-01-08 -0.472211
2000-01-09 NaN
2000-01-10 NaN
Freq: D, dtype: float64

14.2.7 Binary Window Functions

cov() and corr() can compute moving window statistics about two Series or any combination of DataFrame/
Series or DataFrame/DataFrame. Here is the behavior in each case:
• two Series: compute the statistic for the pairing.
• DataFrame/Series: compute the statistics for each column of the DataFrame with the passed Series, thus
returning a DataFrame.
• DataFrame/DataFrame: by default compute the statistic for matching column names, returning a
DataFrame. If the keyword argument pairwise=True is passed then computes the statistic for each pair
of columns, returning a MultiIndexed DataFrame whose index are the dates in question (see the next
section).
For example:

In [76]: df = pd.DataFrame(np.random.randn(1000, 4),

....: index=pd.date_range('1/1/2000', periods=1000),
....: columns=['A', 'B', 'C', 'D'])
....:

In [77]: df = df.cumsum()

In [78]: df2 = df[:20]

In [79]: df2.rolling(window=5).corr(df2['B'])
Out[79]:
A B C D
2000-01-01 NaN NaN NaN NaN
2000-01-02 NaN NaN NaN NaN
2000-01-03 NaN NaN NaN NaN
2000-01-04 NaN NaN NaN NaN
2000-01-05 0.768775 1.0 -0.977990 0.800252
2000-01-06 0.744106 1.0 -0.967912 0.830021
2000-01-07 0.683257 1.0 -0.928969 0.384916
... ... ... ... ...
2000-01-14 -0.392318 1.0 0.570240 -0.591056
2000-01-15 0.017217 1.0 0.649900 -0.896258
2000-01-16 0.691078 1.0 0.807450 -0.939302
2000-01-17 0.274506 1.0 0.582601 -0.902954
2000-01-18 0.330459 1.0 0.515707 -0.545268
2000-01-19 0.046756 1.0 -0.104334 -0.419799
2000-01-20 -0.328241 1.0 -0.650974 -0.777777

[20 rows x 4 columns]

710 Chapter 14. Computational tools

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

14.2.8 Computing rolling pairwise covariances and correlations

Warning: Prior to version 0.20.0 if pairwise=True was passed, a Panel would be returned. This will now
return a 2-level MultiIndexed DataFrame, see the whatsnew here

In financial data analysis and other fields it’s common to compute covariance and correlation matrices for a collection
of time series. Often one is also interested in moving-window covariance and correlation matrices. This can be done
by passing the pairwise keyword argument, which in the case of DataFrame inputs will yield a MultiIndexed
DataFrame whose index are the dates in question. In the case of a single DataFrame argument the pairwise
argument can even be omitted:

Note: Missing values are ignored and each entry is computed using the pairwise complete observations. Please see
the covariance section for caveats associated with this method of calculating covariance and correlation matrices.

In [80]: covs = df[['B','C','D']].rolling(window=50).cov(df[['A','B','C']],

˓→pairwise=True)

In [81]: covs.loc['2002-09-22':]
Out[81]:
B C D
2002-09-22 A 1.367467 8.676734 -8.047366
B 3.067315 0.865946 -1.052533
C 0.865946 7.739761 -4.943924
2002-09-23 A 0.910343 8.669065 -8.443062
B 2.625456 0.565152 -0.907654
C 0.565152 7.825521 -5.367526
2002-09-24 A 0.463332 8.514509 -8.776514
B 2.306695 0.267746 -0.732186
C 0.267746 7.771425 -5.696962
2002-09-25 A 0.467976 8.198236 -9.162599
B 2.307129 0.267287 -0.754080
C 0.267287 7.466559 -5.822650
2002-09-26 A 0.545781 7.899084 -9.326238
B 2.311058 0.322295 -0.844451
C 0.322295 7.038237 -5.684445

In [82]: correls = df.rolling(window=50).corr()

In [83]: correls.loc['2002-09-22':]
Out[83]:
A B C D
2002-09-22 A 1.000000 0.186397 0.744551 -0.769767
B 0.186397 1.000000 0.177725 -0.240802
C 0.744551 0.177725 1.000000 -0.712051
D -0.769767 -0.240802 -0.712051 1.000000
2002-09-23 A 1.000000 0.134723 0.743113 -0.758758
B 0.134723 1.000000 0.124683 -0.209934
C 0.743113 0.124683 1.000000 -0.719088
... ... ... ... ...
2002-09-25 B 0.075157 1.000000 0.064399 -0.164179
C 0.731888 0.064399 1.000000 -0.704686
D -0.739160 -0.164179 -0.704686 1.000000
2002-09-26 A 1.000000 0.087756 0.727792 -0.736562
B 0.087756 1.000000 0.079913 -0.179477

14.2. Window Functions 711

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

C 0.727792 0.079913 1.000000 -0.692303

D -0.736562 -0.179477 -0.692303 1.000000

[20 rows x 4 columns]

You can efficiently retrieve the time series of correlations between two columns by reshaping and indexing:

In [84]: correls.unstack(1)[('A', 'C')].plot()

Out[84]: <matplotlib.axes._subplots.AxesSubplot at 0x122699320>

14.3 Aggregation

Once the Rolling, Expanding or EWM objects have been created, several methods are available to perform multiple
computations on the data. These operations are similar to the aggregating API, groupby API, and resample API.

In [85]: dfa = pd.DataFrame(np.random.randn(1000, 3),

....: index=pd.date_range('1/1/2000', periods=1000),
....: columns=['A', 'B', 'C'])
....:

In [86]: r = dfa.rolling(window=60,min_periods=1)

In [87]: r
Out[87]: Rolling [window=60,min_periods=1,center=False,axis=0]

We can aggregate by passing a function to the entire DataFrame, or select a Series (or multiple Series) via standard

712 Chapter 14. Computational tools

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

getitem.
In [88]: r.aggregate(np.sum)
Out[88]:
A B C
2000-01-01 -0.289838 -0.370545 -1.284206
2000-01-02 -0.216612 -1.675528 -1.169415
2000-01-03 1.154661 -1.634017 -1.566620
2000-01-04 2.969393 -4.003274 -1.816179
2000-01-05 4.690630 -4.682017 -2.717209
2000-01-06 3.880630 -4.447700 -1.078947
2000-01-07 4.001957 -2.884072 -3.116903
... ... ... ...
2002-09-20 2.652493 -10.528875 9.867805
2002-09-21 0.844497 -9.280944 9.522649
2002-09-22 2.860036 -9.270337 6.415245
2002-09-23 3.510163 -8.151439 5.177219
2002-09-24 6.524983 -10.168078 5.792639
2002-09-25 6.409626 -9.956226 5.704050
2002-09-26 5.093787 -7.074515 6.905823

[1000 rows x 3 columns]

In [89]: r['A'].aggregate(np.sum)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

2000-01-01 -0.289838
2000-01-02 -0.216612
2000-01-03 1.154661
2000-01-04 2.969393
2000-01-05 4.690630
2000-01-06 3.880630
2000-01-07 4.001957
...
2002-09-20 2.652493
2002-09-21 0.844497
2002-09-22 2.860036
2002-09-23 3.510163
2002-09-24 6.524983
2002-09-25 6.409626
2002-09-26 5.093787
Freq: D, Name: A, Length: 1000, dtype: float64

In [90]: r[['A','B']].aggregate(np.sum)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

A B
2000-01-01 -0.289838 -0.370545
2000-01-02 -0.216612 -1.675528
2000-01-03 1.154661 -1.634017
2000-01-04 2.969393 -4.003274
2000-01-05 4.690630 -4.682017
2000-01-06 3.880630 -4.447700
2000-01-07 4.001957 -2.884072
... ... ...
2002-09-20 2.652493 -10.528875
2002-09-21 0.844497 -9.280944
2002-09-22 2.860036 -9.270337
2002-09-23 3.510163 -8.151439

14.3. Aggregation 713

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

2002-09-24 6.524983 -10.168078

2002-09-25 6.409626 -9.956226
2002-09-26 5.093787 -7.074515

[1000 rows x 2 columns]

As you can see, the result of the aggregation will have the selected columns, or all columns if none are selected.

14.3.1 Applying multiple functions

With windowed Series you can also pass a list of functions to do aggregation with, outputting a DataFrame:
In [91]: r['A'].agg([np.sum, np.mean, np.std])
Out[91]:
sum mean std
2000-01-01 -0.289838 -0.289838 NaN
2000-01-02 -0.216612 -0.108306 0.256725
2000-01-03 1.154661 0.384887 0.873311
2000-01-04 2.969393 0.742348 1.009734
2000-01-05 4.690630 0.938126 0.977914
2000-01-06 3.880630 0.646772 1.128883
2000-01-07 4.001957 0.571708 1.049487
... ... ... ...
2002-09-20 2.652493 0.044208 1.164919
2002-09-21 0.844497 0.014075 1.148231
2002-09-22 2.860036 0.047667 1.132051
2002-09-23 3.510163 0.058503 1.134296
2002-09-24 6.524983 0.108750 1.144204
2002-09-25 6.409626 0.106827 1.142913
2002-09-26 5.093787 0.084896 1.151416

[1000 rows x 3 columns]

On a windowed DataFrame, you can pass a list of functions to apply to each column, which produces an aggregated
result with a hierarchical index:
In [92]: r.agg([np.sum, np.mean])
Out[92]:
A B C
sum mean sum mean sum mean
2000-01-01 -0.289838 -0.289838 -0.370545 -0.370545 -1.284206 -1.284206
2000-01-02 -0.216612 -0.108306 -1.675528 -0.837764 -1.169415 -0.584708
2000-01-03 1.154661 0.384887 -1.634017 -0.544672 -1.566620 -0.522207
2000-01-04 2.969393 0.742348 -4.003274 -1.000819 -1.816179 -0.454045
2000-01-05 4.690630 0.938126 -4.682017 -0.936403 -2.717209 -0.543442
2000-01-06 3.880630 0.646772 -4.447700 -0.741283 -1.078947 -0.179825
2000-01-07 4.001957 0.571708 -2.884072 -0.412010 -3.116903 -0.445272
... ... ... ... ... ... ...
2002-09-20 2.652493 0.044208 -10.528875 -0.175481 9.867805 0.164463
2002-09-21 0.844497 0.014075 -9.280944 -0.154682 9.522649 0.158711
2002-09-22 2.860036 0.047667 -9.270337 -0.154506 6.415245 0.106921
2002-09-23 3.510163 0.058503 -8.151439 -0.135857 5.177219 0.086287
2002-09-24 6.524983 0.108750 -10.168078 -0.169468 5.792639 0.096544
2002-09-25 6.409626 0.106827 -9.956226 -0.165937 5.704050 0.095068
2002-09-26 5.093787 0.084896 -7.074515 -0.117909 6.905823 0.115097

[1000 rows x 6 columns]

714 Chapter 14. Computational tools

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Passing a dict of functions has different behavior by default, see the next section.

14.3.2 Applying different functions to DataFrame columns

By passing a dict to aggregate you can apply a different aggregation to the columns of a DataFrame:

In [93]: r.agg({'A' : np.sum,

....: 'B' : lambda x: np.std(x, ddof=1)})
....:
Out[93]:
A B
2000-01-01 -0.289838 NaN
2000-01-02 -0.216612 0.660747
2000-01-03 1.154661 0.689929
2000-01-04 2.969393 1.072199
2000-01-05 4.690630 0.939657
2000-01-06 3.880630 0.966848
2000-01-07 4.001957 1.240137
... ... ...
2002-09-20 2.652493 1.114814
2002-09-21 0.844497 1.113220
2002-09-22 2.860036 1.113208
2002-09-23 3.510163 1.132381
2002-09-24 6.524983 1.080963
2002-09-25 6.409626 1.082911
2002-09-26 5.093787 1.136199

[1000 rows x 2 columns]

The function names can also be strings. In order for a string to be valid it must be implemented on the windowed
object

In [94]: r.agg({'A' : 'sum', 'B' : 'std'})

Out[94]:
A B
2000-01-01 -0.289838 NaN
2000-01-02 -0.216612 0.660747
2000-01-03 1.154661 0.689929
2000-01-04 2.969393 1.072199
2000-01-05 4.690630 0.939657
2000-01-06 3.880630 0.966848
2000-01-07 4.001957 1.240137
... ... ...
2002-09-20 2.652493 1.114814
2002-09-21 0.844497 1.113220
2002-09-22 2.860036 1.113208
2002-09-23 3.510163 1.132381
2002-09-24 6.524983 1.080963
2002-09-25 6.409626 1.082911
2002-09-26 5.093787 1.136199

[1000 rows x 2 columns]

Furthermore you can pass a nested dict to indicate different aggregations on different columns.

14.3. Aggregation 715

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [95]: r.agg({'A' : ['sum','std'], 'B' : ['mean','std'] })

Out[95]:
A B
sum std mean std
2000-01-01 -0.289838 NaN -0.370545 NaN
2000-01-02 -0.216612 0.256725 -0.837764 0.660747
2000-01-03 1.154661 0.873311 -0.544672 0.689929
2000-01-04 2.969393 1.009734 -1.000819 1.072199
2000-01-05 4.690630 0.977914 -0.936403 0.939657
2000-01-06 3.880630 1.128883 -0.741283 0.966848
2000-01-07 4.001957 1.049487 -0.412010 1.240137
... ... ... ... ...
2002-09-20 2.652493 1.164919 -0.175481 1.114814
2002-09-21 0.844497 1.148231 -0.154682 1.113220
2002-09-22 2.860036 1.132051 -0.154506 1.113208
2002-09-23 3.510163 1.134296 -0.135857 1.132381
2002-09-24 6.524983 1.144204 -0.169468 1.080963
2002-09-25 6.409626 1.142913 -0.165937 1.082911
2002-09-26 5.093787 1.151416 -0.117909 1.136199

[1000 rows x 4 columns]

14.4 Expanding Windows

A common alternative to rolling statistics is to use an expanding window, which yields the value of the statistic with
all the data available up to that point in time.
These follow a similar interface to .rolling, with the .expanding method returning an Expanding object.
As these calculations are a special case of rolling statistics, they are implemented in pandas such that the following
two calls are equivalent:

In [96]: df.rolling(window=len(df), min_periods=1).mean()[:5]

Out[96]:
A B C D
2000-01-01 0.314226 -0.001675 0.071823 0.892566
2000-01-02 0.654522 -0.171495 0.179278 0.853361
2000-01-03 0.708733 -0.064489 -0.238271 1.371111
2000-01-04 0.987613 0.163472 -0.919693 1.566485
2000-01-05 1.426971 0.288267 -1.358877 1.808650

In [97]: df.expanding(min_periods=1).mean()[:5]
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

A B C D
2000-01-01 0.314226 -0.001675 0.071823 0.892566
2000-01-02 0.654522 -0.171495 0.179278 0.853361
2000-01-03 0.708733 -0.064489 -0.238271 1.371111
2000-01-04 0.987613 0.163472 -0.919693 1.566485
2000-01-05 1.426971 0.288267 -1.358877 1.808650

These have a similar set of methods to .rolling methods.

716 Chapter 14. Computational tools

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

14.4.1 Method Summary

Function Description
count() Number of non-null observations
sum() Sum of values
mean() Mean of values
median() Arithmetic median of values
min() Minimum
max() Maximum
std() Unbiased standard deviation
var() Unbiased variance
skew() Unbiased skewness (3rd moment)
kurt() Unbiased kurtosis (4th moment)
quantile() Sample quantile (value at %)
apply() Generic apply
cov() Unbiased covariance (binary)
corr() Correlation (binary)
Aside from not having a window parameter, these functions have the same interfaces as their .rolling counter-
parts. Like above, the parameters they all accept are:
• min_periods: threshold of non-null data points to require. Defaults to minimum needed to compute statistic.
No NaNs will be output once min_periods non-null data points have been seen.
• center: boolean, whether to set the labels at the center (default is False)

Note: The output of the .rolling and .expanding methods do not return a NaN if there are at least
min_periods non-null values in the current window. For example,
In [98]: sn = pd.Series([1, 2, np.nan, 3, np.nan, 4])

In [99]: sn
Out[99]:
0 1.0
1 2.0
2 NaN
3 3.0
4 NaN
5 4.0
dtype: float64

In [100]: sn.rolling(2).max()
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[100]:
˓→

0 NaN
1 2.0
2 NaN
3 NaN
4 NaN
5 NaN
dtype: float64

In [101]: sn.rolling(2, min_periods=1).max()

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

0 1.0
1 2.0

14.4. Expanding Windows 717

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

2 2.0
3 3.0
4 3.0
5 4.0
dtype: float64

In case of expanding functions, this differs from cumsum(), cumprod(), cummax(), and cummin(), which
return NaN in the output wherever a NaN is encountered in the input. In order to match the output of cumsum with
expanding, use fillna():

In [102]: sn.expanding().sum()
Out[102]:
0 1.0
1 3.0
2 3.0
3 6.0
4 6.0
5 10.0
dtype: float64

In [103]: sn.cumsum()
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[103]:
˓→

0 1.0
1 3.0
2 NaN
3 6.0
4 NaN
5 10.0
dtype: float64

In [104]: sn.cumsum().fillna(method='ffill')
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

0 1.0
1 3.0
2 3.0
3 6.0
4 6.0
5 10.0
dtype: float64

An expanding window statistic will be more stable (and less responsive) than its rolling window counterpart as the
increasing window size decreases the relative impact of an individual data point. As an example, here is the mean()
output for the previous time series dataset:

In [105]: s.plot(style='k--')
Out[105]: <matplotlib.axes._subplots.AxesSubplot at 0x1226fc5c0>

In [106]: s.expanding().mean().plot(style='k')
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[106]:
˓→<matplotlib.axes._subplots.AxesSubplot at 0x1226fc5c0>

718 Chapter 14. Computational tools

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

14.5 Exponentially Weighted Windows

A related set of functions are exponentially weighted versions of several of the above statistics. A similar interface
to .rolling and .expanding is accessed through the .ewm method to receive an EWM object. A number of
expanding EW (exponentially weighted) methods are provided:
Function Description
mean() EW moving average
var() EW moving variance
std() EW moving standard deviation
corr() EW moving correlation
cov() EW moving covariance
In general, a weighted moving average is calculated as
∑︀𝑡
𝑖=0 𝑤𝑖 𝑥𝑡−𝑖
𝑦𝑡 = ∑︀ 𝑡 ,
𝑖=0 𝑤𝑖

where 𝑥𝑡 is the input and 𝑦𝑡 is the result.

The EW functions support two variants of exponential weights. The default, adjust=True, uses the weights 𝑤𝑖 =
(1 − 𝛼)𝑖 which gives

𝑥𝑡 + (1 − 𝛼)𝑥𝑡−1 + (1 − 𝛼)2 𝑥𝑡−2 + ... + (1 − 𝛼)𝑡 𝑥0

𝑦𝑡 =
1 + (1 − 𝛼) + (1 − 𝛼)2 + ... + (1 − 𝛼)𝑡

14.5. Exponentially Weighted Windows 719

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

When adjust=False is specified, moving averages are calculated as

𝑦0 = 𝑥0
𝑦𝑡 = (1 − 𝛼)𝑦𝑡−1 + 𝛼𝑥𝑡 ,
which is equivalent to using weights
{︃
𝛼(1 − 𝛼)𝑖 if 𝑖 < 𝑡
𝑤𝑖 =
(1 − 𝛼)𝑖 if 𝑖 = 𝑡.

Note: These equations are sometimes written in terms of 𝛼′ = 1 − 𝛼, e.g.

𝑦𝑡 = 𝛼′ 𝑦𝑡−1 + (1 − 𝛼′ )𝑥𝑡 .

The difference between the above two variants arises because we are dealing with series which have finite history.
Consider a series of infinite history:
𝑥𝑡 + (1 − 𝛼)𝑥𝑡−1 + (1 − 𝛼)2 𝑥𝑡−2 + ...
𝑦𝑡 =
1 + (1 − 𝛼) + (1 − 𝛼)2 + ...
Noting that the denominator is a geometric series with initial term equal to 1 and a ratio of 1 − 𝛼 we have
𝑥𝑡 + (1 − 𝛼)𝑥𝑡−1 + (1 − 𝛼)2 𝑥𝑡−2 + ...
𝑦𝑡 = 1
1−(1−𝛼)

= [𝑥𝑡 + (1 − 𝛼)𝑥𝑡−1 + (1 − 𝛼)2 𝑥𝑡−2 + ...]𝛼

= 𝛼𝑥𝑡 + [(1 − 𝛼)𝑥𝑡−1 + (1 − 𝛼)2 𝑥𝑡−2 + ...]𝛼
= 𝛼𝑥𝑡 + (1 − 𝛼)[𝑥𝑡−1 + (1 − 𝛼)𝑥𝑡−2 + ...]𝛼
= 𝛼𝑥𝑡 + (1 − 𝛼)𝑦𝑡−1
which shows the equivalence of the above two variants for infinite series. When adjust=True we have 𝑦0 = 𝑥0
and from the last representation above we have 𝑦𝑡 = 𝛼𝑥𝑡 + (1 − 𝛼)𝑦𝑡−1 , therefore there is an assumption that 𝑥0 is
not an ordinary value but rather an exponentially weighted moment of the infinite series up to that point.
One must have 0 < 𝛼 ≤ 1, and while since version 0.18.0 it has been possible to pass 𝛼 directly, it’s often easier to
think about either the span, center of mass (com) or half-life of an EW moment:
⎧
2
⎨ 𝑠+1 ,
⎪ for span 𝑠 ≥ 1
1
𝛼 = 1+𝑐 , for center of mass 𝑐 ≥ 0
⎪ log 0.5
1 − exp ℎ , for half-life ℎ > 0
⎩

One must specify precisely one of span, center of mass, half-life and alpha to the EW functions:
• Span corresponds to what is commonly called an “N-day EW moving average”.
• Center of mass has a more physical interpretation and can be thought of in terms of span: 𝑐 = (𝑠 − 1)/2.
• Half-life is the period of time for the exponential weight to reduce to one half.
• Alpha specifies the smoothing factor directly.
Here is an example for a univariate time series:
In [107]: s.plot(style='k--')
Out[107]: <matplotlib.axes._subplots.AxesSubplot at 0x121e3bb70>

In [108]: s.ewm(span=20).mean().plot(style='k')
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[108]:
˓→<matplotlib.axes._subplots.AxesSubplot at 0x121e3bb70>

720 Chapter 14. Computational tools

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

EWM has a min_periods argument, which has the same meaning it does for all the .expanding and .rolling
methods: no output values will be set until at least min_periods non-null values are encountered in the (expanding)
window.
EWM also has an ignore_na argument, which determines how intermediate null values affect the calculation of
the weights. When ignore_na=False (the default), weights are calculated based on absolute positions, so that
intermediate null values affect the result. When ignore_na=True, weights are calculated by ignoring intermediate
null values. For example, assuming adjust=True, if ignore_na=False, the weighted average of 3, NaN, 5
would be calculated as
(1 − 𝛼)2 · 3 + 1 · 5
(1 − 𝛼)2 + 1

Whereas if ignore_na=True, the weighted average would be calculated as

(1 − 𝛼) · 3 + 1 · 5
.
(1 − 𝛼) + 1

The var(), std(), and cov() functions have a bias argument, specifying whether the result should con-
tain biased or unbiased statistics. For example, if bias=True, ewmvar(x) is calculated as ewmvar(x) =
ewma(x**2) - ewma(x)**2; whereas if bias=False (the default), the biased variance statistics are scaled
by debiasing factors
(︁∑︀ )︁2
𝑡
𝑖=0 𝑤𝑖
(︁∑︀ )︁2 .
𝑡 ∑︀𝑡 2
𝑖=0 𝑤𝑖 − 𝑖=0 𝑤𝑖

(For 𝑤𝑖 = 1, this reduces to the usual 𝑁/(𝑁 − 1) factor, with 𝑁 = 𝑡 + 1.) See Weighted Sample Variance for further
details.

14.5. Exponentially Weighted Windows 721

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

722 Chapter 14. Computational tools

 CHAPTER

FIFTEEN

WORKING WITH MISSING DATA

In this section, we will discuss missing (also referred to as NA) values in pandas.

Note: The choice of using NaN internally to denote missing data was largely for simplicity and performance reasons.
It differs from the MaskedArray approach of, for example, scikits.timeseries. We are hopeful that NumPy
will soon be able to provide a native NA type solution (similar to R) performant enough to be used in pandas.

See the cookbook for some advanced strategies

15.1 Missing data basics

15.1.1 When / why does data become missing?

Some might quibble over our usage of missing. By “missing” we simply mean NA (“not available”) or “not present
for whatever reason”. Many data sets simply arrive with missing data, either because it exists and was not collected or
it never existed. For example, in a collection of financial time series, some of the time series might start on different
dates. Thus, values prior to the start date would generally be marked as missing.
In pandas, one of the most common ways that missing data is introduced into a data set is by reindexing. For example

In [1]: df = pd.DataFrame(np.random.randn(5, 3), index=['a', 'c', 'e', 'f', 'h'],

...: columns=['one', 'two', 'three'])
...:

In [2]: df['four'] = 'bar'

In [3]: df['five'] = df['one'] > 0

In [4]: df
Out[4]:
one two three four five
a -0.166778 0.501113 -0.355322 bar False
c -0.337890 0.580967 0.983801 bar False
e 0.057802 0.761948 -0.712964 bar True
f -0.443160 -0.974602 1.047704 bar False
h -0.717852 -1.053898 -0.019369 bar False

In [5]: df2 = df.reindex(['a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'e', 'f', 'g', 'h'])

In [6]: df2
Out[6]:

723
pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

one two three four five

a -0.166778 0.501113 -0.355322 bar False
b NaN NaN NaN NaN NaN
c -0.337890 0.580967 0.983801 bar False
d NaN NaN NaN NaN NaN
e 0.057802 0.761948 -0.712964 bar True
f -0.443160 -0.974602 1.047704 bar False
g NaN NaN NaN NaN NaN
h -0.717852 -1.053898 -0.019369 bar False

15.1.2 Values considered “missing”

As data comes in many shapes and forms, pandas aims to be flexible with regard to handling missing data. While
NaN is the default missing value marker for reasons of computational speed and convenience, we need to be able to
easily detect this value with data of different types: floating point, integer, boolean, and general object. In many cases,
however, the Python None will arise and we wish to also consider that “missing” or “not available” or “NA”.

Note: If you want to consider inf and -inf to be “NA” in computations, you can set pandas.options.mode.
use_inf_as_na = True.

To make detecting missing values easier (and across different array dtypes), pandas provides the isna() and
notna() functions, which are also methods on Series and DataFrame objects:

In [7]: df2['one']
Out[7]:
a -0.166778
b NaN
c -0.337890
d NaN
e 0.057802
f -0.443160
g NaN
h -0.717852
Name: one, dtype: float64

In [8]: pd.isna(df2['one'])
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

a False
b True
c False
d True
e False
f False
g True
h False
Name: one, dtype: bool

In [9]: df2['four'].notna()
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

a True
b False
c True

724 Chapter 15. Working with missing data

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

d False
e True
f True
g False
h True
Name: four, dtype: bool

In [10]: df2.isna()
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

one two three four five

a False False False False False
b True True True True True
c False False False False False
d True True True True True
e False False False False False
f False False False False False
g True True True True True
h False False False False False

Warning: One has to be mindful that in python (and numpy), the nan's don’t compare equal, but None's do.
Note that Pandas/numpy uses the fact that np.nan != np.nan, and treats None like np.nan.
In [11]: None == None
Out[11]: True

In [12]: np.nan == np.nan

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[12]: False

So as compared to above, a scalar equality comparison versus a None/np.nan doesn’t provide useful informa-
tion.
In [13]: df2['one'] == np.nan
Out[13]:
a False
b False
c False
d False
e False
f False
g False
h False
Name: one, dtype: bool

15.2 Datetimes

For datetime64[ns] types, NaT represents missing values. This is a pseudo-native sentinel value that can be represented
by numpy in a singular dtype (datetime64[ns]). pandas objects provide intercompatibility between NaT and NaN.

In [14]: df2 = df.copy()

In [15]: df2['timestamp'] = pd.Timestamp('20120101')

In [16]: df2

15.2. Datetimes 725

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Out[16]:
one two three four five timestamp
a -0.166778 0.501113 -0.355322 bar False 2012-01-01
c -0.337890 0.580967 0.983801 bar False 2012-01-01
e 0.057802 0.761948 -0.712964 bar True 2012-01-01
f -0.443160 -0.974602 1.047704 bar False 2012-01-01
h -0.717852 -1.053898 -0.019369 bar False 2012-01-01

In [17]: df2.loc[['a','c','h'],['one','timestamp']] = np.nan

In [18]: df2
Out[18]:
one two three four five timestamp
a NaN 0.501113 -0.355322 bar False NaT
c NaN 0.580967 0.983801 bar False NaT
e 0.057802 0.761948 -0.712964 bar True 2012-01-01
f -0.443160 -0.974602 1.047704 bar False 2012-01-01
h NaN -1.053898 -0.019369 bar False NaT

In [19]: df2.get_dtype_counts()
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

bool 1
datetime64[ns] 1
float64 3
object 1
dtype: int64

15.3 Inserting missing data

You can insert missing values by simply assigning to containers. The actual missing value used will be chosen based
on the dtype.
For example, numeric containers will always use NaN regardless of the missing value type chosen:

In [20]: s = pd.Series([1, 2, 3])

In [21]: s.loc[0] = None

In [22]: s
Out[22]:
0 NaN
1 2.0
2 3.0
dtype: float64

Likewise, datetime containers will always use NaT.

For object containers, pandas will use the value given:

In [23]: s = pd.Series(["a", "b", "c"])

In [24]: s.loc[0] = None

In [25]: s.loc[1] = np.nan

726 Chapter 15. Working with missing data

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [26]: s
Out[26]:
0 None
1 NaN
2 c
dtype: object

15.4 Calculations with missing data

Missing values propagate naturally through arithmetic operations between pandas objects.

In [27]: a
Out[27]:
one two
a NaN 0.501113
c NaN 0.580967
e 0.057802 0.761948
f -0.443160 -0.974602
h -0.443160 -1.053898

In [28]: b
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

one two three

a NaN 0.501113 -0.355322
c NaN 0.580967 0.983801
e 0.057802 0.761948 -0.712964
f -0.443160 -0.974602 1.047704
h NaN -1.053898 -0.019369

In [29]: a + b
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

one three two

a NaN NaN 1.002226
c NaN NaN 1.161935
e 0.115604 NaN 1.523896
f -0.886321 NaN -1.949205
h NaN NaN -2.107796

The descriptive statistics and computational methods discussed in the data structure overview (and listed here and
here) are all written to account for missing data. For example:
• When summing data, NA (missing) values will be treated as zero
• If the data are all NA, the result will be NA
• Methods like cumsum and cumprod ignore NA values, but preserve them in the resulting arrays

In [30]: df
Out[30]:
one two three
a NaN 0.501113 -0.355322
c NaN 0.580967 0.983801
e 0.057802 0.761948 -0.712964
f -0.443160 -0.974602 1.047704

15.4. Calculations with missing data 727

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

h NaN -1.053898 -0.019369

In [31]: df['one'].sum()
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→-0.38535826528461409

In [32]: df.mean(1)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

a 0.072895
c 0.782384
e 0.035595
f -0.123353
h -0.536633
dtype: float64

In [33]: df.cumsum()
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

one two three

a NaN 0.501113 -0.355322
c NaN 1.082080 0.628479
e 0.057802 1.844028 -0.084485
f -0.385358 0.869426 0.963219
h NaN -0.184472 0.943850

15.4.1 Sum/Prod of Empties/Nans

Warning: This behavior is now standard as of v0.21.0; previously sum/prod would give different results if the
bottleneck package was installed. See the here.

With sum or prod on an empty or all-NaN Series, or columns of a DataFrame, the result will be all-NaN.

In [34]: s = pd.Series([np.nan])

In [35]: s.sum()
Out[35]: nan

Summing of an empty Series

In [36]: pd.Series([]).sum()
Out[36]: nan

Warning: These behaviors differ from the default in numpy where an empty sum returns zero.
In [37]: np.nansum(np.array([np.nan]))
Out[37]: 0.0

In [38]: np.nansum(np.array([]))
\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[38]: 0.0

728 Chapter 15. Working with missing data

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

15.4.2 NA values in GroupBy

NA groups in GroupBy are automatically excluded. This behavior is consistent with R, for example:

In [39]: df
Out[39]:
one two three
a NaN 0.501113 -0.355322
c NaN 0.580967 0.983801
e 0.057802 0.761948 -0.712964
f -0.443160 -0.974602 1.047704
h NaN -1.053898 -0.019369

In [40]: df.groupby('one').mean()
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

two three
one
-0.443160 -0.974602 1.047704
0.057802 0.761948 -0.712964

See the groupby section here for more information.

15.5 Cleaning / filling missing data

pandas objects are equipped with various data manipulation methods for dealing with missing data.

15.5.1 Filling missing values: fillna

The fillna function can “fill in” NA values with non-NA data in a couple of ways, which we illustrate:
Replace NA with a scalar value

In [41]: df2
Out[41]:
one two three four five timestamp
a NaN 0.501113 -0.355322 bar False NaT
c NaN 0.580967 0.983801 bar False NaT
e 0.057802 0.761948 -0.712964 bar True 2012-01-01
f -0.443160 -0.974602 1.047704 bar False 2012-01-01
h NaN -1.053898 -0.019369 bar False NaT

In [42]: df2.fillna(0)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

one two three four five timestamp

a 0.000000 0.501113 -0.355322 bar False 0
c 0.000000 0.580967 0.983801 bar False 0
e 0.057802 0.761948 -0.712964 bar True 2012-01-01 00:00:00
f -0.443160 -0.974602 1.047704 bar False 2012-01-01 00:00:00
h 0.000000 -1.053898 -0.019369 bar False 0

In [43]: df2['four'].fillna('missing')
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

15.5. Cleaning / filling missing data 729

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

a bar
c bar
e bar
f bar
h bar
Name: four, dtype: object

Fill gaps forward or backward

Using the same filling arguments as reindexing, we can propagate non-NA values forward or backward:

In [44]: df
Out[44]:
one two three
a NaN 0.501113 -0.355322
c NaN 0.580967 0.983801
e 0.057802 0.761948 -0.712964
f -0.443160 -0.974602 1.047704
h NaN -1.053898 -0.019369

In [45]: df.fillna(method='pad')
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

one two three

a NaN 0.501113 -0.355322
c NaN 0.580967 0.983801
e 0.057802 0.761948 -0.712964
f -0.443160 -0.974602 1.047704
h -0.443160 -1.053898 -0.019369

Limit the amount of filling

If we only want consecutive gaps filled up to a certain number of data points, we can use the limit keyword:

In [46]: df
Out[46]:
one two three
a NaN 0.501113 -0.355322
c NaN 0.580967 0.983801
e NaN NaN NaN
f NaN NaN NaN
h NaN -1.053898 -0.019369

In [47]: df.fillna(method='pad', limit=1)

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

one two three

a NaN 0.501113 -0.355322
c NaN 0.580967 0.983801
e NaN 0.580967 0.983801
f NaN NaN NaN
h NaN -1.053898 -0.019369

To remind you, these are the available filling methods:

Method Action
pad / ffill Fill values forward
bfill / backfill Fill values backward

730 Chapter 15. Working with missing data

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

With time series data, using pad/ffill is extremely common so that the “last known value” is available at every time
point.
The ffill() function is equivalent to fillna(method='ffill') and bfill() is equivalent to
fillna(method='bfill')

15.5.2 Filling with a PandasObject

You can also fillna using a dict or Series that is alignable. The labels of the dict or index of the Series must match the
columns of the frame you wish to fill. The use case of this is to fill a DataFrame with the mean of that column.

In [48]: dff = pd.DataFrame(np.random.randn(10,3), columns=list('ABC'))

In [49]: dff.iloc[3:5,0] = np.nan

In [50]: dff.iloc[4:6,1] = np.nan

In [51]: dff.iloc[5:8,2] = np.nan

In [52]: dff
Out[52]:
A B C
0 0.758887 2.340598 0.219039
1 -1.235583 0.031785 0.701683
2 -1.557016 -0.636986 -1.238610
3 NaN -1.002278 0.654052
4 NaN NaN 1.053999
5 0.651981 NaN NaN
6 0.109001 -0.533294 NaN
7 -1.037831 -1.150016 NaN
8 -0.687693 1.921056 -0.121113
9 -0.258742 -0.706329 0.402547

In [53]: dff.fillna(dff.mean())
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

A B C
0 0.758887 2.340598 0.219039
1 -1.235583 0.031785 0.701683
2 -1.557016 -0.636986 -1.238610
3 -0.407125 -1.002278 0.654052
4 -0.407125 0.033067 1.053999
5 0.651981 0.033067 0.238800
6 0.109001 -0.533294 0.238800
7 -1.037831 -1.150016 0.238800
8 -0.687693 1.921056 -0.121113
9 -0.258742 -0.706329 0.402547

In [54]: dff.fillna(dff.mean()['B':'C'])
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

A B C
0 0.758887 2.340598 0.219039
1 -1.235583 0.031785 0.701683
2 -1.557016 -0.636986 -1.238610
3 NaN -1.002278 0.654052
4 NaN 0.033067 1.053999

15.5. Cleaning / filling missing data 731

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

5 0.651981 0.033067 0.238800

6 0.109001 -0.533294 0.238800
7 -1.037831 -1.150016 0.238800
8 -0.687693 1.921056 -0.121113
9 -0.258742 -0.706329 0.402547

Same result as above, but is aligning the ‘fill’ value which is a Series in this case.

In [55]: dff.where(pd.notna(dff), dff.mean(), axis='columns')

Out[55]:
A B C
0 0.758887 2.340598 0.219039
1 -1.235583 0.031785 0.701683
2 -1.557016 -0.636986 -1.238610
3 -0.407125 -1.002278 0.654052
4 -0.407125 0.033067 1.053999
5 0.651981 0.033067 0.238800
6 0.109001 -0.533294 0.238800
7 -1.037831 -1.150016 0.238800
8 -0.687693 1.921056 -0.121113
9 -0.258742 -0.706329 0.402547

15.5.3 Dropping axis labels with missing data: dropna

You may wish to simply exclude labels from a data set which refer to missing data. To do this, use the dropna method:

In [56]: df
Out[56]:
one two three
a NaN 0.501113 -0.355322
c NaN 0.580967 0.983801
e NaN 0.000000 0.000000
f NaN 0.000000 0.000000
h NaN -1.053898 -0.019369

In [57]: df.dropna(axis=0)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

Empty DataFrame
Columns: [one, two, three]
Index: []

In [58]: df.dropna(axis=1)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

two three
a 0.501113 -0.355322
c 0.580967 0.983801
e 0.000000 0.000000
f 0.000000 0.000000
h -1.053898 -0.019369

In [59]: df['one'].dropna()
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→Series([], Name: one, dtype: float64)

732 Chapter 15. Working with missing data

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Series.dropna is a simpler method as it only has one axis to consider. DataFrame.dropna has considerably more options
than Series.dropna, which can be examined in the API.

15.5.4 Interpolation

New in version 0.17.0: The limit_direction keyword argument was added.

Both Series and DataFrame objects have an interpolate method that, by default, performs linear interpolation at
missing datapoints.

In [60]: ts
Out[60]:
2000-01-31 0.469112
2000-02-29 NaN
2000-03-31 NaN
2000-04-28 NaN
2000-05-31 NaN
2000-06-30 NaN
2000-07-31 NaN
...
2007-10-31 -3.305259
2007-11-30 -5.485119
2007-12-31 -6.854968
2008-01-31 -7.809176
2008-02-29 -6.346480
2008-03-31 -8.089641
2008-04-30 -8.916232
Freq: BM, Length: 100, dtype: float64

In [61]: ts.count()
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→61

In [62]: ts.interpolate().count()
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→100

In [63]: ts.interpolate().plot()
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→<matplotlib.axes._subplots.AxesSubplot at 0x13130c160>

15.5. Cleaning / filling missing data 733

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Index aware interpolation is available via the method keyword:

In [64]: ts2
Out[64]:
2000-01-31 0.469112
2000-02-29 NaN
2002-07-31 -5.689738
2005-01-31 NaN
2008-04-30 -8.916232
dtype: float64

In [65]: ts2.interpolate()
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

2000-01-31 0.469112
2000-02-29 -2.610313
2002-07-31 -5.689738
2005-01-31 -7.302985
2008-04-30 -8.916232
dtype: float64

In [66]: ts2.interpolate(method='time')
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

2000-01-31 0.469112
2000-02-29 0.273272
2002-07-31 -5.689738
2005-01-31 -7.095568
2008-04-30 -8.916232
dtype: float64

734 Chapter 15. Working with missing data

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

For a floating-point index, use method='values':

In [67]: ser
Out[67]:
0.0 0.0
1.0 NaN
10.0 10.0
dtype: float64

In [68]: ser.interpolate()
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[68]:
0.0 0.0
1.0 5.0
10.0 10.0
dtype: float64

In [69]: ser.interpolate(method='values')
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

0.0 0.0
1.0 1.0
10.0 10.0
dtype: float64

You can also interpolate with a DataFrame:

In [70]: df = pd.DataFrame({'A': [1, 2.1, np.nan, 4.7, 5.6, 6.8],

....: 'B': [.25, np.nan, np.nan, 4, 12.2, 14.4]})
....:

In [71]: df
Out[71]:
A B
0 1.0 0.25
1 2.1 NaN
2 NaN NaN
3 4.7 4.00
4 5.6 12.20
5 6.8 14.40

In [72]: df.interpolate()
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

A B
0 1.0 0.25
1 2.1 1.50
2 3.4 2.75
3 4.7 4.00
4 5.6 12.20
5 6.8 14.40

The method argument gives access to fancier interpolation methods. If you have scipy installed, you can set pass
the name of a 1-d interpolation routine to method. You’ll want to consult the full scipy interpolation documentation
and reference guide for details. The appropriate interpolation method will depend on the type of data you are working
with.
• If you are dealing with a time series that is growing at an increasing rate, method='quadratic' may be
appropriate.

15.5. Cleaning / filling missing data 735

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• If you have values approximating a cumulative distribution function, then method='pchip' should work
well.
• To fill missing values with goal of smooth plotting, use method='akima'.

Warning: These methods require scipy.

In [73]: df.interpolate(method='barycentric')
Out[73]:
A B
0 1.00 0.250
1 2.10 -7.660
2 3.53 -4.515
3 4.70 4.000
4 5.60 12.200
5 6.80 14.400

In [74]: df.interpolate(method='pchip')
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

A B
0 1.00000 0.250000
1 2.10000 0.672808
2 3.43454 1.928950
3 4.70000 4.000000
4 5.60000 12.200000
5 6.80000 14.400000

In [75]: df.interpolate(method='akima')
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

A B
0 1.000000 0.250000
1 2.100000 -0.873316
2 3.406667 0.320034
3 4.700000 4.000000
4 5.600000 12.200000
5 6.800000 14.400000

When interpolating via a polynomial or spline approximation, you must also specify the degree or order of the approx-
imation:
In [76]: df.interpolate(method='spline', order=2)
Out[76]:
A B
0 1.000000 0.250000
1 2.100000 -0.428598
2 3.404545 1.206900
3 4.700000 4.000000
4 5.600000 12.200000
5 6.800000 14.400000

In [77]: df.interpolate(method='polynomial', order=2)

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

A B
0 1.000000 0.250000

736 Chapter 15. Working with missing data

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

1 2.100000 -2.703846
2 3.451351 -1.453846
3 4.700000 4.000000
4 5.600000 12.200000
5 6.800000 14.400000

Compare several methods:

In [78]: np.random.seed(2)

In [79]: ser = pd.Series(np.arange(1, 10.1, .25)**2 + np.random.randn(37))

In [80]: bad = np.array([4, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 20, 29])

In [81]: ser[bad] = np.nan

In [82]: methods = ['linear', 'quadratic', 'cubic']

In [83]: df = pd.DataFrame({m: ser.interpolate(method=m) for m in methods})

In [84]: df.plot()
Out[84]: <matplotlib.axes._subplots.AxesSubplot at 0x1312fcfd0>

Another use case is interpolation at new values. Suppose you have 100 observations from some distribution. And let’s
suppose that you’re particularly interested in what’s happening around the middle. You can mix pandas’ reindex
and interpolate methods to interpolate at the new values.
In [85]: ser = pd.Series(np.sort(np.random.uniform(size=100)))

# interpolate at new_index

15.5. Cleaning / filling missing data 737

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [86]: new_index = ser.index | pd.Index([49.25, 49.5, 49.75, 50.25, 50.5, 50.75])

In [87]: interp_s = ser.reindex(new_index).interpolate(method='pchip')

In [88]: interp_s[49:51]
Out[88]:
49.00 0.471410
49.25 0.476841
49.50 0.481780
49.75 0.485998
50.00 0.489266
50.25 0.491814
50.50 0.493995
50.75 0.495763
51.00 0.497074
dtype: float64

15.5.4.1 Interpolation Limits

Like other pandas fill methods, interpolate accepts a limit keyword argument. Use this argument to limit
the number of consecutive interpolations, keeping NaN values for interpolations that are too far from the last valid
observation:

In [89]: ser = pd.Series([np.nan, np.nan, 5, np.nan, np.nan, np.nan, 13])

In [90]: ser.interpolate(limit=2)
Out[90]:
0 NaN
1 NaN
2 5.0
3 7.0
4 9.0
5 NaN
6 13.0
dtype: float64

By default, limit applies in a forward direction, so that only NaN values after a non-NaN value can be filled. If you
provide 'backward' or 'both' for the limit_direction keyword argument, you can fill NaN values before
non-NaN values, or both before and after non-NaN values, respectively:

In [91]: ser.interpolate(limit=1) # limit_direction == 'forward'

Out[91]:
0 NaN
1 NaN
2 5.0
3 7.0
4 NaN
5 NaN
6 13.0
dtype: float64

In [92]: ser.interpolate(limit=1, limit_direction='backward')

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[92
˓→

0 NaN
1 5.0

738 Chapter 15. Working with missing data

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

2 5.0
3 NaN
4 NaN
5 11.0
6 13.0
dtype: float64

In [93]: ser.interpolate(limit=1, limit_direction='both')

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

0 NaN
1 5.0
2 5.0
3 7.0
4 NaN
5 11.0
6 13.0
dtype: float64

15.5.5 Replacing Generic Values

Often times we want to replace arbitrary values with other values. The replace method in Series/DataFrame pro-
vides an efficient yet flexible way to perform such replacements.
For a Series, you can replace a single value or a list of values by another value:

In [94]: ser = pd.Series([0., 1., 2., 3., 4.])

In [95]: ser.replace(0, 5)
Out[95]:
0 5.0
1 1.0
2 2.0
3 3.0
4 4.0
dtype: float64

You can replace a list of values by a list of other values:

In [96]: ser.replace([0, 1, 2, 3, 4], [4, 3, 2, 1, 0])

Out[96]:
0 4.0
1 3.0
2 2.0
3 1.0
4 0.0
dtype: float64

You can also specify a mapping dict:

In [97]: ser.replace({0: 10, 1: 100})

Out[97]:
0 10.0
1 100.0
2 2.0
3 3.0

15.5. Cleaning / filling missing data 739

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

4 4.0
dtype: float64

For a DataFrame, you can specify individual values by column:

In [98]: df = pd.DataFrame({'a': [0, 1, 2, 3, 4], 'b': [5, 6, 7, 8, 9]})

In [99]: df.replace({'a': 0, 'b': 5}, 100)

Out[99]:
a b
0 100 100
1 1 6
2 2 7
3 3 8
4 4 9

Instead of replacing with specified values, you can treat all given values as missing and interpolate over them:

In [100]: ser.replace([1, 2, 3], method='pad')

Out[100]:
0 0.0
1 0.0
2 0.0
3 0.0
4 4.0
dtype: float64

15.5.6 String/Regular Expression Replacement

Note: Python strings prefixed with the r character such as r'hello world' are so-called “raw” strings. They
have different semantics regarding backslashes than strings without this prefix. Backslashes in raw strings will be
interpreted as an escaped backslash, e.g., r'\' == '\\'. You should read about them if this is unclear.

Replace the ‘.’ with NaN (str -> str)

In [101]: d = {'a': list(range(4)), 'b': list('ab..'), 'c': ['a', 'b', np.nan, 'd']}

In [102]: df = pd.DataFrame(d)

In [103]: df.replace('.', np.nan)

Out[103]:
a b c
0 0 a a
1 1 b b
2 2 NaN NaN
3 3 NaN d

Now do it with a regular expression that removes surrounding whitespace (regex -> regex)

In [104]: df.replace(r'\s*\.\s*', np.nan, regex=True)

Out[104]:
a b c
0 0 a a
1 1 b b

740 Chapter 15. Working with missing data

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

2 2 NaN NaN
3 3 NaN d

Replace a few different values (list -> list)

In [105]: df.replace(['a', '.'], ['b', np.nan])
Out[105]:
a b c
0 0 b b
1 1 b b
2 2 NaN NaN
3 3 NaN d

list of regex -> list of regex

In [106]: df.replace([r'\.', r'(a)'], ['dot', '\1stuff'], regex=True)
Out[106]:
a b c
0 0 {stuff {stuff
1 1 b b
2 2 dot NaN
3 3 dot d

Only search in column 'b' (dict -> dict)

In [107]: df.replace({'b': '.'}, {'b': np.nan})
Out[107]:
a b c
0 0 a a
1 1 b b
2 2 NaN NaN
3 3 NaN d

Same as the previous example, but use a regular expression for searching instead (dict of regex -> dict)
In [108]: df.replace({'b': r'\s*\.\s*'}, {'b': np.nan}, regex=True)
Out[108]:
a b c
0 0 a a
1 1 b b
2 2 NaN NaN
3 3 NaN d

You can pass nested dictionaries of regular expressions that use regex=True
In [109]: df.replace({'b': {'b': r''}}, regex=True)
Out[109]:
a b c
0 0 a a
1 1 b
2 2 . NaN
3 3 . d

or you can pass the nested dictionary like so

In [110]: df.replace(regex={'b': {r'\s*\.\s*': np.nan}})
Out[110]:
a b c

15.5. Cleaning / filling missing data 741

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

0 0 a a
1 1 b b
2 2 NaN NaN
3 3 NaN d

You can also use the group of a regular expression match when replacing (dict of regex -> dict of regex), this works
for lists as well

In [111]: df.replace({'b': r'\s*(\.)\s*'}, {'b': r'\1ty'}, regex=True)

Out[111]:
a b c
0 0 a a
1 1 b b
2 2 .ty NaN
3 3 .ty d

You can pass a list of regular expressions, of which those that match will be replaced with a scalar (list of regex ->
regex)

In [112]: df.replace([r'\s*\.\s*', r'a|b'], np.nan, regex=True)

Out[112]:
a b c
0 0 NaN NaN
1 1 NaN NaN
2 2 NaN NaN
3 3 NaN d

All of the regular expression examples can also be passed with the to_replace argument as the regex argument.
In this case the value argument must be passed explicitly by name or regex must be a nested dictionary. The
previous example, in this case, would then be

In [113]: df.replace(regex=[r'\s*\.\s*', r'a|b'], value=np.nan)

Out[113]:
a b c
0 0 NaN NaN
1 1 NaN NaN
2 2 NaN NaN
3 3 NaN d

This can be convenient if you do not want to pass regex=True every time you want to use a regular expression.

Note: Anywhere in the above replace examples that you see a regular expression a compiled regular expression is
valid as well.

15.5.7 Numeric Replacement

Similar to DataFrame.fillna

In [114]: df = pd.DataFrame(np.random.randn(10, 2))

In [115]: df[np.random.rand(df.shape[0]) > 0.5] = 1.5

In [116]: df.replace(1.5, np.nan)

Out[116]:

742 Chapter 15. Working with missing data

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

0 1
0 -0.844214 -1.021415
1 0.432396 -0.323580
2 0.423825 0.799180
3 1.262614 0.751965
4 NaN NaN
5 NaN NaN
6 -0.498174 -1.060799
7 0.591667 -0.183257
8 1.019855 -1.482465
9 NaN NaN

Replacing more than one value via lists works as well

In [117]: df00 = df.values[0, 0]

In [118]: df.replace([1.5, df00], [np.nan, 'a'])

Out[118]:
0 1
0 a -1.02141
1 0.432396 -0.32358
2 0.423825 0.79918
3 1.26261 0.751965
4 NaN NaN
5 NaN NaN
6 -0.498174 -1.0608
7 0.591667 -0.183257
8 1.01985 -1.48247
9 NaN NaN

In [119]: df[1].dtype
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→dtype('float64')

You can also operate on the DataFrame in place

In [120]: df.replace(1.5, np.nan, inplace=True)

Warning: When replacing multiple bool or datetime64 objects, the first argument to replace
(to_replace) must match the type of the value being replaced type. For example,
s = pd.Series([True, False, True])
s.replace({'a string': 'new value', True: False}) # raises

TypeError: Cannot compare types 'ndarray(dtype=bool)' and 'str'

will raise a TypeError because one of the dict keys is not of the correct type for replacement.
However, when replacing a single object such as,
In [121]: s = pd.Series([True, False, True])

In [122]: s.replace('a string', 'another string')

Out[122]:
0 True
1 False
2 True
dtype: bool

15.5. Cleaning / filling missing data 743

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

the original NDFrame object will be returned untouched. We’re working on unifying this API, but for backwards
compatibility reasons we cannot break the latter behavior. See GH6354 for more details.

15.6 Missing data casting rules and indexing

While pandas supports storing arrays of integer and boolean type, these types are not capable of storing missing data.
Until we can switch to using a native NA type in NumPy, we’ve established some “casting rules” when reindexing will
cause missing data to be introduced into, say, a Series or DataFrame. Here they are:
data type Cast to
integer float
boolean object
float no cast
object no cast
For example:

In [123]: s = pd.Series(np.random.randn(5), index=[0, 2, 4, 6, 7])

In [124]: s > 0
Out[124]:
0 True
2 True
4 True
6 True
7 True
dtype: bool

In [125]: (s > 0).dtype

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[125]:
˓→dtype('bool')

In [126]: crit = (s > 0).reindex(list(range(8)))

In [127]: crit
Out[127]:
0 True
1 NaN
2 True
3 NaN
4 True
5 NaN
6 True
7 True
dtype: object

In [128]: crit.dtype
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→dtype('O')

Ordinarily NumPy will complain if you try to use an object array (even if it contains boolean values) instead of a
boolean array to get or set values from an ndarray (e.g. selecting values based on some criteria). If a boolean vector
contains NAs, an exception will be generated:

744 Chapter 15. Working with missing data

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [129]: reindexed = s.reindex(list(range(8))).fillna(0)

In [130]: reindexed[crit]
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
ValueError Traceback (most recent call last)
<ipython-input-130-2da204ed1ac7> in <module>()
----> 1 reindexed[crit]

~/Envs/pandas-dev/lib/python3.6/site-packages/pandas/pandas/core/series.py in __
˓→getitem__(self, key)

659 key = list(key)

660
--> 661 if com.is_bool_indexer(key):
662 key = check_bool_indexer(self.index, key)
663

~/Envs/pandas-dev/lib/python3.6/site-packages/pandas/pandas/core/common.py in is_bool_
˓→indexer(key)

189 if not lib.is_bool_array(key):

190 if isna(key).any():
--> 191 raise ValueError('cannot index with vector containing '
192 'NA / NaN values')
193 return False

ValueError: cannot index with vector containing NA / NaN values

However, these can be filled in using fillna and it will work fine:

In [131]: reindexed[crit.fillna(False)]
Out[131]:
0 0.126504
2 0.696198
4 0.697416
6 0.601516
7 0.003659
dtype: float64

In [132]: reindexed[crit.fillna(True)]
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[1
˓→

0 0.126504
1 0.000000
2 0.696198
3 0.000000
4 0.697416
5 0.000000
6 0.601516
7 0.003659
dtype: float64

15.6. Missing data casting rules and indexing 745

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

746 Chapter 15. Working with missing data

 CHAPTER

SIXTEEN

GROUP BY: SPLIT-APPLY-COMBINE

By “group by” we are referring to a process involving one or more of the following steps
• Splitting the data into groups based on some criteria
• Applying a function to each group independently
• Combining the results into a data structure
Of these, the split step is the most straightforward. In fact, in many situations you may wish to split the data set into
groups and do something with those groups yourself. In the apply step, we might wish to one of the following:
• Aggregation: computing a summary statistic (or statistics) about each group. Some examples:
– Compute group sums or means
– Compute group sizes / counts
• Transformation: perform some group-specific computations and return a like-indexed. Some examples:
– Standardizing data (zscore) within group
– Filling NAs within groups with a value derived from each group
• Filtration: discard some groups, according to a group-wise computation that evaluates True or False. Some
examples:
– Discarding data that belongs to groups with only a few members
– Filtering out data based on the group sum or mean
• Some combination of the above: GroupBy will examine the results of the apply step and try to return a sensibly
combined result if it doesn’t fit into either of the above two categories
Since the set of object instance methods on pandas data structures are generally rich and expressive, we often simply
want to invoke, say, a DataFrame function on each group. The name GroupBy should be quite familiar to those who
have used a SQL-based tool (or itertools), in which you can write code like:

SELECT Column1, Column2, mean(Column3), sum(Column4)

FROM SomeTable
GROUP BY Column1, Column2

We aim to make operations like this natural and easy to express using pandas. We’ll address each area of GroupBy
functionality then provide some non-trivial examples / use cases.
See the cookbook for some advanced strategies

747
pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

16.1 Splitting an object into groups

pandas objects can be split on any of their axes. The abstract definition of grouping is to provide a mapping of labels
to group names. To create a GroupBy object (more on what the GroupBy object is later), you do the following:

# default is axis=0
>>> grouped = obj.groupby(key)
>>> grouped = obj.groupby(key, axis=1)
>>> grouped = obj.groupby([key1, key2])

The mapping can be specified many different ways:

• A Python function, to be called on each of the axis labels
• A list or NumPy array of the same length as the selected axis
• A dict or Series, providing a label -> group name mapping
• For DataFrame objects, a string indicating a column to be used to group. Of course df.groupby('A') is
just syntactic sugar for df.groupby(df['A']), but it makes life simpler
• For DataFrame objects, a string indicating an index level to be used to group.
• A list of any of the above things
Collectively we refer to the grouping objects as the keys. For example, consider the following DataFrame:

Note: New in version 0.20.

A string passed to groupby may refer to either a column or an index level. If a string matches both a column name
and an index level name then a warning is issued and the column takes precedence. This will result in an ambiguity
error in a future version.

In [1]: df = pd.DataFrame({'A' : ['foo', 'bar', 'foo', 'bar',

...: 'foo', 'bar', 'foo', 'foo'],
...: 'B' : ['one', 'one', 'two', 'three',
...: 'two', 'two', 'one', 'three'],
...: 'C' : np.random.randn(8),
...: 'D' : np.random.randn(8)})
...:

In [2]: df
Out[2]:
A B C D
0 foo one 0.469112 -0.861849
1 bar one -0.282863 -2.104569
2 foo two -1.509059 -0.494929
3 bar three -1.135632 1.071804
4 foo two 1.212112 0.721555
5 bar two -0.173215 -0.706771
6 foo one 0.119209 -1.039575
7 foo three -1.044236 0.271860

We could naturally group by either the A or B columns or both:

In [3]: grouped = df.groupby('A')

In [4]: grouped = df.groupby(['A', 'B'])

748 Chapter 16. Group By: split-apply-combine

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

These will split the DataFrame on its index (rows). We could also split by the columns:

In [5]: def get_letter_type(letter):

...: if letter.lower() in 'aeiou':
...: return 'vowel'
...: else:
...: return 'consonant'
...:

In [6]: grouped = df.groupby(get_letter_type, axis=1)

pandas Index objects support duplicate values. If a non-unique index is used as the group key in a groupby operation,
all values for the same index value will be considered to be in one group and thus the output of aggregation functions
will only contain unique index values:

In [7]: lst = [1, 2, 3, 1, 2, 3]

In [8]: s = pd.Series([1, 2, 3, 10, 20, 30], lst)

In [9]: grouped = s.groupby(level=0)

In [10]: grouped.first()
Out[10]:
1 1
2 2
3 3
dtype: int64

In [11]: grouped.last()
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[11]:
1 10
2 20
3 30
dtype: int64

In [12]: grouped.sum()
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[12]:
˓→

1 11
2 22
3 33
dtype: int64

Note that no splitting occurs until it’s needed. Creating the GroupBy object only verifies that you’ve passed a valid
mapping.

Note: Many kinds of complicated data manipulations can be expressed in terms of GroupBy operations (though can’t
be guaranteed to be the most efficient). You can get quite creative with the label mapping functions.

16.1.1 GroupBy sorting

By default the group keys are sorted during the groupby operation. You may however pass sort=False for
potential speedups:

16.1. Splitting an object into groups 749

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [13]: df2 = pd.DataFrame({'X' : ['B', 'B', 'A', 'A'], 'Y' : [1, 2, 3, 4]})

In [14]: df2.groupby(['X']).sum()
Out[14]:
Y
X
A 7
B 3

In [15]: df2.groupby(['X'], sort=False).sum()

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[15]:
Y
X
B 3
A 7

Note that groupby will preserve the order in which observations are sorted within each group. For example, the
groups created by groupby() below are in the order they appeared in the original DataFrame:

In [16]: df3 = pd.DataFrame({'X' : ['A', 'B', 'A', 'B'], 'Y' : [1, 4, 3, 2]})

In [17]: df3.groupby(['X']).get_group('A')
Out[17]:
X Y
0 A 1
2 A 3

In [18]: df3.groupby(['X']).get_group('B')
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[18]:
X Y
1 B 4
3 B 2

16.1.2 GroupBy object attributes

The groups attribute is a dict whose keys are the computed unique groups and corresponding values being the axis
labels belonging to each group. In the above example we have:

In [19]: df.groupby('A').groups
Out[19]:
{'bar': Int64Index([1, 3, 5], dtype='int64'),
'foo': Int64Index([0, 2, 4, 6, 7], dtype='int64')}

In [20]: df.groupby(get_letter_type, axis=1).groups

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

{'consonant': Index(['B', 'C', 'D'], dtype='object'),

'vowel': Index(['A'], dtype='object')}

Calling the standard Python len function on the GroupBy object just returns the length of the groups dict, so it is
largely just a convenience:

In [21]: grouped = df.groupby(['A', 'B'])

In [22]: grouped.groups
Out[22]:

750 Chapter 16. Group By: split-apply-combine

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

{('bar', 'one'): Int64Index([1], dtype='int64'),

('bar', 'three'): Int64Index([3], dtype='int64'),
('bar', 'two'): Int64Index([5], dtype='int64'),
('foo', 'one'): Int64Index([0, 6], dtype='int64'),
('foo', 'three'): Int64Index([7], dtype='int64'),
('foo', 'two'): Int64Index([2, 4], dtype='int64')}

In [23]: len(grouped)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→6

GroupBy will tab complete column names (and other attributes)

In [24]: df
Out[24]:
gender height weight
2000-01-01 male 42.849980 157.500553
2000-01-02 male 49.607315 177.340407
2000-01-03 male 56.293531 171.524640
2000-01-04 female 48.421077 144.251986
2000-01-05 male 46.556882 152.526206
2000-01-06 female 68.448851 168.272968
2000-01-07 male 70.757698 136.431469
2000-01-08 female 58.909500 176.499753
2000-01-09 female 76.435631 174.094104
2000-01-10 male 45.306120 177.540920

In [25]: gb = df.groupby('gender')

In [26]: gb.<TAB>
gb.agg gb.boxplot gb.cummin gb.describe gb.filter gb.get_group
˓→gb.height gb.last gb.median gb.ngroups gb.plot gb.rank
˓→gb.std gb.transform
gb.aggregate gb.count gb.cumprod gb.dtype gb.first gb.groups
˓→gb.hist gb.max gb.min gb.nth gb.prod gb.resample
˓→gb.sum gb.var
gb.apply gb.cummax gb.cumsum gb.fillna gb.gender gb.head
˓→gb.indices gb.mean gb.name gb.ohlc gb.quantile gb.size
˓→gb.tail gb.weight

16.1.3 GroupBy with MultiIndex

With hierarchically-indexed data, it’s quite natural to group by one of the levels of the hierarchy.
Let’s create a Series with a two-level MultiIndex.

In [27]: arrays = [['bar', 'bar', 'baz', 'baz', 'foo', 'foo', 'qux', 'qux'],
....: ['one', 'two', 'one', 'two', 'one', 'two', 'one', 'two']]
....:

In [28]: index = pd.MultiIndex.from_arrays(arrays, names=['first', 'second'])

In [29]: s = pd.Series(np.random.randn(8), index=index)

In [30]: s
Out[30]:

16.1. Splitting an object into groups 751

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

first second
bar one -0.919854
two -0.042379
baz one 1.247642
two -0.009920
foo one 0.290213
two 0.495767
qux one 0.362949
two 1.548106
dtype: float64

We can then group by one of the levels in s.

In [31]: grouped = s.groupby(level=0)

In [32]: grouped.sum()
Out[32]:
first
bar -0.962232
baz 1.237723
foo 0.785980
qux 1.911055
dtype: float64

If the MultiIndex has names specified, these can be passed instead of the level number:
In [33]: s.groupby(level='second').sum()
Out[33]:
second
one 0.980950
two 1.991575
dtype: float64

The aggregation functions such as sum will take the level parameter directly. Additionally, the resulting index will be
named according to the chosen level:
In [34]: s.sum(level='second')
Out[34]:
second
one 0.980950
two 1.991575
dtype: float64

Grouping with multiple levels is supported.

In [35]: s
Out[35]:
first second third
bar doo one -1.131345
two -0.089329
baz bee one 0.337863
two -0.945867
foo bop one -0.932132
two 1.956030
qux bop one 0.017587
two -0.016692
dtype: float64

752 Chapter 16. Group By: split-apply-combine

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [36]: s.groupby(level=['first', 'second']).sum()

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

first second
bar doo -1.220674
baz bee -0.608004
foo bop 1.023898
qux bop 0.000895
dtype: float64

New in version 0.20.

Index level names may be supplied as keys.

In [37]: s.groupby(['first', 'second']).sum()

Out[37]:
first second
bar doo -1.220674
baz bee -0.608004
foo bop 1.023898
qux bop 0.000895
dtype: float64

More on the sum function and aggregation later.

16.1.4 Grouping DataFrame with Index Levels and Columns

A DataFrame may be grouped by a combination of columns and index levels by specifying the column names as
strings and the index levels as pd.Grouper objects.

In [38]: arrays = [['bar', 'bar', 'baz', 'baz', 'foo', 'foo', 'qux', 'qux'],
....: ['one', 'two', 'one', 'two', 'one', 'two', 'one', 'two']]
....:

In [39]: index = pd.MultiIndex.from_arrays(arrays, names=['first', 'second'])

In [40]: df = pd.DataFrame({'A': [1, 1, 1, 1, 2, 2, 3, 3],

....: 'B': np.arange(8)},
....: index=index)
....:

In [41]: df
Out[41]:
A B
first second
bar one 1 0
two 1 1
baz one 1 2
two 1 3
foo one 2 4
two 2 5
qux one 3 6
two 3 7

The following example groups df by the second index level and the A column.

16.1. Splitting an object into groups 753

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [42]: df.groupby([pd.Grouper(level=1), 'A']).sum()

Out[42]:
B
second A
one 1 2
2 4
3 6
two 1 4
2 5
3 7

Index levels may also be specified by name.

In [43]: df.groupby([pd.Grouper(level='second'), 'A']).sum()

Out[43]:
B
second A
one 1 2
2 4
3 6
two 1 4
2 5
3 7

New in version 0.20.

Index level names may be specified as keys directly to groupby.

In [44]: df.groupby(['second', 'A']).sum()

Out[44]:
B
second A
one 1 2
2 4
3 6
two 1 4
2 5
3 7

16.1.5 DataFrame column selection in GroupBy

Once you have created the GroupBy object from a DataFrame, for example, you might want to do something different
for each of the columns. Thus, using [] similar to getting a column from a DataFrame, you can do:

In [45]: grouped = df.groupby(['A'])

In [46]: grouped_C = grouped['C']

In [47]: grouped_D = grouped['D']

This is mainly syntactic sugar for the alternative and much more verbose:

In [48]: df['C'].groupby(df['A'])
Out[48]: <pandas.core.groupby.SeriesGroupBy object at 0x11513a550>

Additionally this method avoids recomputing the internal grouping information derived from the passed key.

754 Chapter 16. Group By: split-apply-combine

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

16.2 Iterating through groups

With the GroupBy object in hand, iterating through the grouped data is very natural and functions similarly to
itertools.groupby:

In [49]: grouped = df.groupby('A')

In [50]: for name, group in grouped:

....: print(name)
....: print(group)
....:
bar
A B C D
1 bar one 0.254161 1.511763
3 bar three 0.215897 -0.990582
5 bar two -0.077118 1.211526
foo
A B C D
0 foo one -0.575247 1.346061
2 foo two -1.143704 1.627081
4 foo two 1.193555 -0.441652
6 foo one -0.408530 0.268520
7 foo three -0.862495 0.024580

In the case of grouping by multiple keys, the group name will be a tuple:

In [51]: for name, group in df.groupby(['A', 'B']):

....: print(name)
....: print(group)
....:
('bar', 'one')
A B C D
1 bar one 0.254161 1.511763
('bar', 'three')
A B C D
3 bar three 0.215897 -0.990582
('bar', 'two')
A B C D
5 bar two -0.077118 1.211526
('foo', 'one')
A B C D
0 foo one -0.575247 1.346061
6 foo one -0.408530 0.268520
('foo', 'three')
A B C D
7 foo three -0.862495 0.02458
('foo', 'two')
A B C D
2 foo two -1.143704 1.627081
4 foo two 1.193555 -0.441652

It’s standard Python-fu but remember you can unpack the tuple in the for loop statement if you wish: for (k1,
k2), group in grouped:.

16.2. Iterating through groups 755

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

16.3 Selecting a group

A single group can be selected using GroupBy.get_group():

In [52]: grouped.get_group('bar')
Out[52]:
A B C D
1 bar one 0.254161 1.511763
3 bar three 0.215897 -0.990582
5 bar two -0.077118 1.211526

Or for an object grouped on multiple columns:

In [53]: df.groupby(['A', 'B']).get_group(('bar', 'one'))

Out[53]:
A B C D
1 bar one 0.254161 1.511763

16.4 Aggregation

Once the GroupBy object has been created, several methods are available to perform a computation on the grouped
data. These operations are similar to the aggregating API, window functions API, and resample API.
An obvious one is aggregation via the aggregate or equivalently agg method:

In [54]: grouped = df.groupby('A')

In [55]: grouped.aggregate(np.sum)
Out[55]:
C D
A
bar 0.392940 1.732707
foo -1.796421 2.824590

In [56]: grouped = df.groupby(['A', 'B'])

In [57]: grouped.aggregate(np.sum)
Out[57]:
C D
A B
bar one 0.254161 1.511763
three 0.215897 -0.990582
two -0.077118 1.211526
foo one -0.983776 1.614581
three -0.862495 0.024580
two 0.049851 1.185429

As you can see, the result of the aggregation will have the group names as the new index along the grouped axis. In
the case of multiple keys, the result is a MultiIndex by default, though this can be changed by using the as_index
option:

In [58]: grouped = df.groupby(['A', 'B'], as_index=False)

In [59]: grouped.aggregate(np.sum)
Out[59]:

756 Chapter 16. Group By: split-apply-combine

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

A B C D
0 bar one 0.254161 1.511763
1 bar three 0.215897 -0.990582
2 bar two -0.077118 1.211526
3 foo one -0.983776 1.614581
4 foo three -0.862495 0.024580
5 foo two 0.049851 1.185429

In [60]: df.groupby('A', as_index=False).sum()

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

A C D
0 bar 0.392940 1.732707
1 foo -1.796421 2.824590

Note that you could use the reset_index DataFrame function to achieve the same result as the column names are
stored in the resulting MultiIndex:

In [61]: df.groupby(['A', 'B']).sum().reset_index()

Out[61]:
A B C D
0 bar one 0.254161 1.511763
1 bar three 0.215897 -0.990582
2 bar two -0.077118 1.211526
3 foo one -0.983776 1.614581
4 foo three -0.862495 0.024580
5 foo two 0.049851 1.185429

Another simple aggregation example is to compute the size of each group. This is included in GroupBy as the size
method. It returns a Series whose index are the group names and whose values are the sizes of each group.

In [62]: grouped.size()
Out[62]:
A B
bar one 1
three 1
two 1
foo one 2
three 1
two 2
dtype: int64

In [63]: grouped.describe()
Out[63]:
C \
count mean std min 25% 50% 75% max
0 1.0 0.254161 NaN 0.254161 0.254161 0.254161 0.254161 0.254161
1 1.0 0.215897 NaN 0.215897 0.215897 0.215897 0.215897 0.215897
2 1.0 -0.077118 NaN -0.077118 -0.077118 -0.077118 -0.077118 -0.077118
3 2.0 -0.491888 0.117887 -0.575247 -0.533567 -0.491888 -0.450209 -0.408530
4 1.0 -0.862495 NaN -0.862495 -0.862495 -0.862495 -0.862495 -0.862495
5 2.0 0.024925 1.652692 -1.143704 -0.559389 0.024925 0.609240 1.193555

D
count mean std min 25% 50% 75% max
0 1.0 1.511763 NaN 1.511763 1.511763 1.511763 1.511763 1.511763
1 1.0 -0.990582 NaN -0.990582 -0.990582 -0.990582 -0.990582 -0.990582

16.4. Aggregation 757

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

2 1.0 1.211526 NaN 1.211526 1.211526 1.211526 1.211526 1.211526

3 2.0 0.807291 0.761937 0.268520 0.537905 0.807291 1.076676 1.346061
4 1.0 0.024580 NaN 0.024580 0.024580 0.024580 0.024580 0.024580
5 2.0 0.592714 1.462816 -0.441652 0.075531 0.592714 1.109898 1.627081

Note: Aggregation functions will not return the groups that you are aggregating over if they are named columns,
when as_index=True, the default. The grouped columns will be the indices of the returned object.
Passing as_index=False will return the groups that you are aggregating over, if they are named columns.
Aggregating functions are ones that reduce the dimension of the returned objects, for example: mean, sum, size,
count, std, var, sem, describe, first, last, nth, min, max. This is what happens when
you do for example DataFrame.sum() and get back a Series.
nth can act as a reducer or a filter, see here

16.4.1 Applying multiple functions at once

With grouped Series you can also pass a list or dict of functions to do aggregation with, outputting a DataFrame:

In [64]: grouped = df.groupby('A')

In [65]: grouped['C'].agg([np.sum, np.mean, np.std])

Out[65]:
sum mean std
A
bar 0.392940 0.130980 0.181231
foo -1.796421 -0.359284 0.912265

On a grouped DataFrame, you can pass a list of functions to apply to each column, which produces an aggregated
result with a hierarchical index:

In [66]: grouped.agg([np.sum, np.mean, np.std])

Out[66]:
C D
sum mean std sum mean std
A
bar 0.392940 0.130980 0.181231 1.732707 0.577569 1.366330
foo -1.796421 -0.359284 0.912265 2.824590 0.564918 0.884785

The resulting aggregations are named for the functions themselves. If you need to rename, then you can add in a
chained operation for a Series like this:

In [67]: (grouped['C'].agg([np.sum, np.mean, np.std])

....: .rename(columns={'sum': 'foo',
....: 'mean': 'bar',
....: 'std': 'baz'})
....: )
....:
Out[67]:
foo bar baz
A
bar 0.392940 0.130980 0.181231
foo -1.796421 -0.359284 0.912265

758 Chapter 16. Group By: split-apply-combine

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

For a grouped DataFrame, you can rename in a similar manner:

In [68]: (grouped.agg([np.sum, np.mean, np.std])

....: .rename(columns={'sum': 'foo',
....: 'mean': 'bar',
....: 'std': 'baz'})
....: )
....:
Out[68]:
C D
foo bar baz foo bar baz
A
bar 0.392940 0.130980 0.181231 1.732707 0.577569 1.366330
foo -1.796421 -0.359284 0.912265 2.824590 0.564918 0.884785

16.4.2 Applying different functions to DataFrame columns

By passing a dict to aggregate you can apply a different aggregation to the columns of a DataFrame:

In [69]: grouped.agg({'C' : np.sum,

....: 'D' : lambda x: np.std(x, ddof=1)})
....:
Out[69]:
C D
A
bar 0.392940 1.366330
foo -1.796421 0.884785

The function names can also be strings. In order for a string to be valid it must be either implemented on GroupBy or
available via dispatching:

In [70]: grouped.agg({'C' : 'sum', 'D' : 'std'})

Out[70]:
C D
A
bar 0.392940 1.366330
foo -1.796421 0.884785

Note: If you pass a dict to aggregate, the ordering of the output columns is non-deterministic. If you want to
be sure the output columns will be in a specific order, you can use an OrderedDict. Compare the output of the
following two commands:

In [71]: grouped.agg({'D': 'std', 'C': 'mean'})

Out[71]:
D C
A
bar 1.366330 0.130980
foo 0.884785 -0.359284

In [72]: grouped.agg(OrderedDict([('D', 'std'), ('C', 'mean')]))

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

D C
A

16.4. Aggregation 759

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

bar 1.366330 0.130980

foo 0.884785 -0.359284

16.4.3 Cython-optimized aggregation functions

Some common aggregations, currently only sum, mean, std, and sem, have optimized Cython implementations:

In [73]: df.groupby('A').sum()
Out[73]:
C D
A
bar 0.392940 1.732707
foo -1.796421 2.824590

In [74]: df.groupby(['A', 'B']).mean()

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

C D
A B
bar one 0.254161 1.511763
three 0.215897 -0.990582
two -0.077118 1.211526
foo one -0.491888 0.807291
three -0.862495 0.024580
two 0.024925 0.592714

Of course sum and mean are implemented on pandas objects, so the above code would work even without the special
versions via dispatching (see below).

16.5 Transformation

The transform method returns an object that is indexed the same (same size) as the one being grouped. The
transform function must:
• Return a result that is either the same size as the group chunk or broadcastable to the size of the group chunk
(e.g., a scalar, grouped.transform(lambda x: x.iloc[-1])).
• Operate column-by-column on the group chunk. The transform is applied to the first group chunk using
chunk.apply.
• Not perform in-place operations on the group chunk. Group chunks should be treated as immutable, and changes
to a group chunk may produce unexpected results. For example, when using fillna, inplace must be
False (grouped.transform(lambda x: x.fillna(inplace=False))).
• (Optionally) operates on the entire group chunk. If this is supported, a fast path is used starting from the second
chunk.
For example, suppose we wished to standardize the data within each group:

In [75]: index = pd.date_range('10/1/1999', periods=1100)

In [76]: ts = pd.Series(np.random.normal(0.5, 2, 1100), index)

In [77]: ts = ts.rolling(window=100,min_periods=100).mean().dropna()

760 Chapter 16. Group By: split-apply-combine

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [78]: ts.head()
Out[78]:
2000-01-08 0.779333
2000-01-09 0.778852
2000-01-10 0.786476
2000-01-11 0.782797
2000-01-12 0.798110
Freq: D, dtype: float64

In [79]: ts.tail()
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

2002-09-30 0.660294
2002-10-01 0.631095
2002-10-02 0.673601
2002-10-03 0.709213
2002-10-04 0.719369
Freq: D, dtype: float64

In [80]: key = lambda x: x.year

In [81]: zscore = lambda x: (x - x.mean()) / x.std()

In [82]: transformed = ts.groupby(key).transform(zscore)

We would expect the result to now have mean 0 and standard deviation 1 within each group, which we can easily
check:
# Original Data
In [83]: grouped = ts.groupby(key)

In [84]: grouped.mean()
Out[84]:
2000 0.442441
2001 0.526246
2002 0.459365
dtype: float64

In [85]: grouped.std()
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[85]:
2000 0.131752
2001 0.210945
2002 0.128753
dtype: float64

# Transformed Data
In [86]: grouped_trans = transformed.groupby(key)

In [87]: grouped_trans.mean()
Out[87]:
2000 1.168208e-15
2001 1.454544e-15
2002 1.726657e-15
dtype: float64

In [88]: grouped_trans.std()
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[88]:
˓→

16.5. Transformation 761

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

2000 1.0
2001 1.0
2002 1.0
dtype: float64

We can also visually compare the original and transformed data sets.
In [89]: compare = pd.DataFrame({'Original': ts, 'Transformed': transformed})

In [90]: compare.plot()
Out[90]: <matplotlib.axes._subplots.AxesSubplot at 0x12772ff98>

Transformation functions that have lower dimension outputs are broadcast to match the shape of the input array.
In [91]: data_range = lambda x: x.max() - x.min()

In [92]: ts.groupby(key).transform(data_range)
Out[92]:
2000-01-08 0.623893
2000-01-09 0.623893
2000-01-10 0.623893
2000-01-11 0.623893
2000-01-12 0.623893
2000-01-13 0.623893
2000-01-14 0.623893
...
2002-09-28 0.558275
2002-09-29 0.558275
2002-09-30 0.558275

762 Chapter 16. Group By: split-apply-combine

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

2002-10-01 0.558275
2002-10-02 0.558275
2002-10-03 0.558275
2002-10-04 0.558275
Freq: D, Length: 1001, dtype: float64

Alternatively the built-in methods can be could be used to produce the same outputs

In [93]: ts.groupby(key).transform('max') - ts.groupby(key).transform('min')

Out[93]:
2000-01-08 0.623893
2000-01-09 0.623893
2000-01-10 0.623893
2000-01-11 0.623893
2000-01-12 0.623893
2000-01-13 0.623893
2000-01-14 0.623893
...
2002-09-28 0.558275
2002-09-29 0.558275
2002-09-30 0.558275
2002-10-01 0.558275
2002-10-02 0.558275
2002-10-03 0.558275
2002-10-04 0.558275
Freq: D, Length: 1001, dtype: float64

Another common data transform is to replace missing data with the group mean.

In [94]: data_df
Out[94]:
A B C
0 1.539708 -1.166480 0.533026
1 1.302092 -0.505754 NaN
2 -0.371983 1.104803 -0.651520
3 -1.309622 1.118697 -1.161657
4 -1.924296 0.396437 0.812436
5 0.815643 0.367816 -0.469478
6 -0.030651 1.376106 -0.645129
.. ... ... ...
993 0.012359 0.554602 -1.976159
994 0.042312 -1.628835 1.013822
995 -0.093110 0.683847 -0.774753
996 -0.185043 1.438572 NaN
997 -0.394469 -0.642343 0.011374
998 -1.174126 1.857148 NaN
999 0.234564 0.517098 0.393534

[1000 rows x 3 columns]

In [95]: countries = np.array(['US', 'UK', 'GR', 'JP'])

In [96]: key = countries[np.random.randint(0, 4, 1000)]

In [97]: grouped = data_df.groupby(key)

# Non-NA count in each group

In [98]: grouped.count()

16.5. Transformation 763

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Out[98]:
A B C
GR 209 217 189
JP 240 255 217
UK 216 231 193
US 239 250 217

In [99]: f = lambda x: x.fillna(x.mean())

In [100]: transformed = grouped.transform(f)

We can verify that the group means have not changed in the transformed data and that the transformed data contains
no NAs.
In [101]: grouped_trans = transformed.groupby(key)

In [102]: grouped.mean() # original group means

Out[102]:
A B C
GR -0.098371 -0.015420 0.068053
JP 0.069025 0.023100 -0.077324
UK 0.034069 -0.052580 -0.116525
US 0.058664 -0.020399 0.028603

In [103]: grouped_trans.mean() # transformation did not change group means

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

A B C
GR -0.098371 -0.015420 0.068053
JP 0.069025 0.023100 -0.077324
UK 0.034069 -0.052580 -0.116525
US 0.058664 -0.020399 0.028603

In [104]: grouped.count() # original has some missing data points

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

A B C
GR 209 217 189
JP 240 255 217
UK 216 231 193
US 239 250 217

In [105]: grouped_trans.count() # counts after transformation

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

A B C
GR 228 228 228
JP 267 267 267
UK 247 247 247
US 258 258 258

In [106]: grouped_trans.size() # Verify non-NA count equals group size

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

GR 228
JP 267
UK 247
US 258

764 Chapter 16. Group By: split-apply-combine

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

dtype: int64

Note: Some functions when applied to a groupby object will automatically transform the input, returning an object
of the same shape as the original. Passing as_index=False will not affect these transformation methods.
For example: fillna, ffill, bfill, shift.
In [107]: grouped.ffill()
Out[107]:
A B C
0 1.539708 -1.166480 0.533026
1 1.302092 -0.505754 0.533026
2 -0.371983 1.104803 -0.651520
3 -1.309622 1.118697 -1.161657
4 -1.924296 0.396437 0.812436
5 0.815643 0.367816 -0.469478
6 -0.030651 1.376106 -0.645129
.. ... ... ...
993 0.012359 0.554602 -1.976159
994 0.042312 -1.628835 1.013822
995 -0.093110 0.683847 -0.774753
996 -0.185043 1.438572 -0.774753
997 -0.394469 -0.642343 0.011374
998 -1.174126 1.857148 -0.774753
999 0.234564 0.517098 0.393534

[1000 rows x 3 columns]

16.5.1 New syntax to window and resample operations

New in version 0.18.1.

Working with the resample, expanding or rolling operations on the groupby level used to require the application of
helper functions. However, now it is possible to use resample(), expanding() and rolling() as methods
on groupbys.
The example below will apply the rolling() method on the samples of the column B based on the groups of
column A.
In [108]: df_re = pd.DataFrame({'A': [1] * 10 + [5] * 10,
.....: 'B': np.arange(20)})
.....:

In [109]: df_re
Out[109]:
A B
0 1 0
1 1 1
2 1 2
3 1 3
4 1 4
5 1 5
6 1 6
.. .. ..
13 5 13

16.5. Transformation 765

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

14 5 14
15 5 15
16 5 16
17 5 17
18 5 18
19 5 19

[20 rows x 2 columns]

In [110]: df_re.groupby('A').rolling(4).B.mean()
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

A
1 0 NaN
1 NaN
2 NaN
3 1.5
4 2.5
5 3.5
6 4.5
...
5 13 11.5
14 12.5
15 13.5
16 14.5
17 15.5
18 16.5
19 17.5
Name: B, Length: 20, dtype: float64

The expanding() method will accumulate a given operation (sum() in the example) for all the members of each
particular group.

In [111]: df_re.groupby('A').expanding().sum()
Out[111]:
A B
A
1 0 1.0 0.0
1 2.0 1.0
2 3.0 3.0
3 4.0 6.0
4 5.0 10.0
5 6.0 15.0
6 7.0 21.0
... ... ...
5 13 20.0 46.0
14 25.0 60.0
15 30.0 75.0
16 35.0 91.0
17 40.0 108.0
18 45.0 126.0
19 50.0 145.0

[20 rows x 2 columns]

Suppose you want to use the resample() method to get a daily frequency in each group of your dataframe and wish
to complete the missing values with the ffill() method.

766 Chapter 16. Group By: split-apply-combine

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [112]: df_re = pd.DataFrame({'date': pd.date_range(start='2016-01-01',

.....: periods=4,
.....: freq='W'),
.....: 'group': [1, 1, 2, 2],
.....: 'val': [5, 6, 7, 8]}).set_index('date')
.....:

In [113]: df_re
Out[113]:
group val
date
2016-01-03 1 5
2016-01-10 1 6
2016-01-17 2 7
2016-01-24 2 8

In [114]: df_re.groupby('group').resample('1D').ffill()
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

group val
group date
1 2016-01-03 1 5
2016-01-04 1 5
2016-01-05 1 5
2016-01-06 1 5
2016-01-07 1 5
2016-01-08 1 5
2016-01-09 1 5
... ... ...
2 2016-01-18 2 7
2016-01-19 2 7
2016-01-20 2 7
2016-01-21 2 7
2016-01-22 2 7
2016-01-23 2 7
2016-01-24 2 8

[16 rows x 2 columns]

16.6 Filtration

The filter method returns a subset of the original object. Suppose we want to take only elements that belong to
groups with a group sum greater than 2.

In [115]: sf = pd.Series([1, 1, 2, 3, 3, 3])

In [116]: sf.groupby(sf).filter(lambda x: x.sum() > 2)

Out[116]:
3 3
4 3
5 3
dtype: int64

The argument of filter must be a function that, applied to the group as a whole, returns True or False.
Another useful operation is filtering out elements that belong to groups with only a couple members.

16.6. Filtration 767

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [117]: dff = pd.DataFrame({'A': np.arange(8), 'B': list('aabbbbcc')})

In [118]: dff.groupby('B').filter(lambda x: len(x) > 2)

Out[118]:
A B
2 2 b
3 3 b
4 4 b
5 5 b

Alternatively, instead of dropping the offending groups, we can return a like-indexed objects where the groups that do
not pass the filter are filled with NaNs.

In [119]: dff.groupby('B').filter(lambda x: len(x) > 2, dropna=False)

Out[119]:
A B
0 NaN NaN
1 NaN NaN
2 2.0 b
3 3.0 b
4 4.0 b
5 5.0 b
6 NaN NaN
7 NaN NaN

For DataFrames with multiple columns, filters should explicitly specify a column as the filter criterion.

In [120]: dff['C'] = np.arange(8)

In [121]: dff.groupby('B').filter(lambda x: len(x['C']) > 2)

Out[121]:
A B C
2 2 b 2
3 3 b 3
4 4 b 4
5 5 b 5

Note: Some functions when applied to a groupby object will act as a filter on the input, returning a reduced shape of
the original (and potentially eliminating groups), but with the index unchanged. Passing as_index=False will not
affect these transformation methods.
For example: head, tail.

In [122]: dff.groupby('B').head(2)
Out[122]:
A B C
0 0 a 0
1 1 a 1
2 2 b 2
3 3 b 3
6 6 c 6
7 7 c 7

768 Chapter 16. Group By: split-apply-combine

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

16.7 Dispatching to instance methods

When doing an aggregation or transformation, you might just want to call an instance method on each data group.
This is pretty easy to do by passing lambda functions:

In [123]: grouped = df.groupby('A')

In [124]: grouped.agg(lambda x: x.std())

Out[124]:
C D
A
bar 0.181231 1.366330
foo 0.912265 0.884785

But, it’s rather verbose and can be untidy if you need to pass additional arguments. Using a bit of metaprogramming
cleverness, GroupBy now has the ability to “dispatch” method calls to the groups:

In [125]: grouped.std()
Out[125]:
C D
A
bar 0.181231 1.366330
foo 0.912265 0.884785

What is actually happening here is that a function wrapper is being generated. When invoked, it takes any passed
arguments and invokes the function with any arguments on each group (in the above example, the std function). The
results are then combined together much in the style of agg and transform (it actually uses apply to infer the
gluing, documented next). This enables some operations to be carried out rather succinctly:

In [126]: tsdf = pd.DataFrame(np.random.randn(1000, 3),

.....: index=pd.date_range('1/1/2000', periods=1000),
.....: columns=['A', 'B', 'C'])
.....:

In [127]: tsdf.iloc[::2] = np.nan

In [128]: grouped = tsdf.groupby(lambda x: x.year)

In [129]: grouped.fillna(method='pad')
Out[129]:
A B C
2000-01-01 NaN NaN NaN
2000-01-02 -0.353501 -0.080957 -0.876864
2000-01-03 -0.353501 -0.080957 -0.876864
2000-01-04 0.050976 0.044273 -0.559849
2000-01-05 0.050976 0.044273 -0.559849
2000-01-06 0.030091 0.186460 -0.680149
2000-01-07 0.030091 0.186460 -0.680149
... ... ... ...
2002-09-20 2.310215 0.157482 -0.064476
2002-09-21 2.310215 0.157482 -0.064476
2002-09-22 0.005011 0.053897 -1.026922
2002-09-23 0.005011 0.053897 -1.026922
2002-09-24 -0.456542 -1.849051 1.559856
2002-09-25 -0.456542 -1.849051 1.559856
2002-09-26 1.123162 0.354660 1.128135

16.7. Dispatching to instance methods 769

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

[1000 rows x 3 columns]

In this example, we chopped the collection of time series into yearly chunks then independently called fillna on the
groups.
The nlargest and nsmallest methods work on Series style groupbys:

In [130]: s = pd.Series([9, 8, 7, 5, 19, 1, 4.2, 3.3])

In [131]: g = pd.Series(list('abababab'))

In [132]: gb = s.groupby(g)

In [133]: gb.nlargest(3)
Out[133]:
a 4 19.0
0 9.0
2 7.0
b 1 8.0
3 5.0
7 3.3
dtype: float64

In [134]: gb.nsmallest(3)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

a 6 4.2
2 7.0
0 9.0
b 5 1.0
7 3.3
3 5.0
dtype: float64

16.8 Flexible apply

Some operations on the grouped data might not fit into either the aggregate or transform categories. Or, you may simply
want GroupBy to infer how to combine the results. For these, use the apply function, which can be substituted for
both aggregate and transform in many standard use cases. However, apply can handle some exceptional use
cases, for example:

In [135]: df
Out[135]:
A B C D
0 foo one -0.575247 1.346061
1 bar one 0.254161 1.511763
2 foo two -1.143704 1.627081
3 bar three 0.215897 -0.990582
4 foo two 1.193555 -0.441652
5 bar two -0.077118 1.211526
6 foo one -0.408530 0.268520
7 foo three -0.862495 0.024580

In [136]: grouped = df.groupby('A')

770 Chapter 16. Group By: split-apply-combine

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

# could also just call .describe()

In [137]: grouped['C'].apply(lambda x: x.describe())
Out[137]:
A
bar count 3.000000
mean 0.130980
std 0.181231
min -0.077118
25% 0.069390
50% 0.215897
75% 0.235029
...
foo mean -0.359284
std 0.912265
min -1.143704
25% -0.862495
50% -0.575247
75% -0.408530
max 1.193555
Name: C, Length: 16, dtype: float64

The dimension of the returned result can also change:

In [138]: grouped = df.groupby('A')['C']

In [139]: def f(group):

.....: return pd.DataFrame({'original' : group,
.....: 'demeaned' : group - group.mean()})
.....:

In [140]: grouped.apply(f)
Out[140]:
demeaned original
0 -0.215962 -0.575247
1 0.123181 0.254161
2 -0.784420 -1.143704
3 0.084917 0.215897
4 1.552839 1.193555
5 -0.208098 -0.077118
6 -0.049245 -0.408530
7 -0.503211 -0.862495

apply on a Series can operate on a returned value from the applied function, that is itself a series, and possibly upcast
the result to a DataFrame
In [141]: def f(x):
.....: return pd.Series([ x, x**2 ], index = ['x', 'x^2'])
.....:

In [142]: s
Out[142]:
0 9.0
1 8.0
2 7.0
3 5.0
4 19.0
5 1.0
6 4.2

16.8. Flexible apply 771

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

7 3.3
dtype: float64

In [143]: s.apply(f)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

x x^2
0 9.0 81.00
1 8.0 64.00
2 7.0 49.00
3 5.0 25.00
4 19.0 361.00
5 1.0 1.00
6 4.2 17.64
7 3.3 10.89

Note: apply can act as a reducer, transformer, or filter function, depending on exactly what is passed to it. So
depending on the path taken, and exactly what you are grouping. Thus the grouped columns(s) may be included in the
output as well as set the indices.

Warning: In the current implementation apply calls func twice on the first group to decide whether it can take a
fast or slow code path. This can lead to unexpected behavior if func has side-effects, as they will take effect twice
for the first group.
In [144]: d = pd.DataFrame({"a":["x", "y"], "b":[1,2]})

In [145]: def identity(df):

.....: print(df)
.....: return df
.....:

In [146]: d.groupby("a").apply(identity)
a b
0 x 1
a b
0 x 1
a b
1 y 2
Out[146]:
a b
0 x 1
1 y 2

16.9 Other useful features

16.9.1 Automatic exclusion of “nuisance” columns

Again consider the example DataFrame we’ve been looking at:

In [147]: df
Out[147]:

772 Chapter 16. Group By: split-apply-combine

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

A B C D
0 foo one -0.575247 1.346061
1 bar one 0.254161 1.511763
2 foo two -1.143704 1.627081
3 bar three 0.215897 -0.990582
4 foo two 1.193555 -0.441652
5 bar two -0.077118 1.211526
6 foo one -0.408530 0.268520
7 foo three -0.862495 0.024580

Suppose we wish to compute the standard deviation grouped by the A column. There is a slight problem, namely that
we don’t care about the data in column B. We refer to this as a “nuisance” column. If the passed aggregation function
can’t be applied to some columns, the troublesome columns will be (silently) dropped. Thus, this does not pose any
problems:
In [148]: df.groupby('A').std()
Out[148]:
C D
A
bar 0.181231 1.366330
foo 0.912265 0.884785

16.9.2 NA and NaT group handling

If there are any NaN or NaT values in the grouping key, these will be automatically excluded. So there will never be
an “NA group” or “NaT group”. This was not the case in older versions of pandas, but users were generally discarding
the NA group anyway (and supporting it was an implementation headache).

16.9.3 Grouping with ordered factors

Categorical variables represented as instance of pandas’s Categorical class can be used as group keys. If so, the
order of the levels will be preserved:
In [149]: data = pd.Series(np.random.randn(100))

In [150]: factor = pd.qcut(data, [0, .25, .5, .75, 1.])

In [151]: data.groupby(factor).mean()
Out[151]:
(-2.618, -0.684] -1.331461
(-0.684, -0.0232] -0.272816
(-0.0232, 0.541] 0.263607
(0.541, 2.369] 1.166038
dtype: float64

16.9.4 Grouping with a Grouper specification

You may need to specify a bit more data to properly group. You can use the pd.Grouper to provide this local
control.
In [152]: import datetime

In [153]: df = pd.DataFrame({

16.9. Other useful features 773

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

.....: 'Branch' : 'A A A A A A A B'.split(),

.....: 'Buyer': 'Carl Mark Carl Carl Joe Joe Joe Carl'.split(),
.....: 'Quantity': [1,3,5,1,8,1,9,3],
.....: 'Date' : [
.....: datetime.datetime(2013,1,1,13,0),
.....: datetime.datetime(2013,1,1,13,5),
.....: datetime.datetime(2013,10,1,20,0),
.....: datetime.datetime(2013,10,2,10,0),
.....: datetime.datetime(2013,10,1,20,0),
.....: datetime.datetime(2013,10,2,10,0),
.....: datetime.datetime(2013,12,2,12,0),
.....: datetime.datetime(2013,12,2,14,0),
.....: ]
.....: })
.....:

In [154]: df
Out[154]:
Branch Buyer Date Quantity
0 A Carl 2013-01-01 13:00:00 1
1 A Mark 2013-01-01 13:05:00 3
2 A Carl 2013-10-01 20:00:00 5
3 A Carl 2013-10-02 10:00:00 1
4 A Joe 2013-10-01 20:00:00 8
5 A Joe 2013-10-02 10:00:00 1
6 A Joe 2013-12-02 12:00:00 9
7 B Carl 2013-12-02 14:00:00 3

Groupby a specific column with the desired frequency. This is like resampling.
In [155]: df.groupby([pd.Grouper(freq='1M',key='Date'),'Buyer']).sum()
Out[155]:
Quantity
Date Buyer
2013-01-31 Carl 1
Mark 3
2013-10-31 Carl 6
Joe 9
2013-12-31 Carl 3
Joe 9

You have an ambiguous specification in that you have a named index and a column that could be potential groupers.
In [156]: df = df.set_index('Date')

In [157]: df['Date'] = df.index + pd.offsets.MonthEnd(2)

In [158]: df.groupby([pd.Grouper(freq='6M',key='Date'),'Buyer']).sum()
Out[158]:
Quantity
Date Buyer
2013-02-28 Carl 1
Mark 3
2014-02-28 Carl 9
Joe 18

In [159]: df.groupby([pd.Grouper(freq='6M',level='Date'),'Buyer']).sum()
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

774 Chapter 16. Group By: split-apply-combine

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Quantity
Date Buyer
2013-01-31 Carl 1
Mark 3
2014-01-31 Carl 9
Joe 18

16.9.5 Taking the first rows of each group

Just like for a DataFrame or Series you can call head and tail on a groupby:
In [160]: df = pd.DataFrame([[1, 2], [1, 4], [5, 6]], columns=['A', 'B'])

In [161]: df
Out[161]:
A B
0 1 2
1 1 4
2 5 6

In [162]: g = df.groupby('A')

In [163]: g.head(1)
Out[163]:
A B
0 1 2
2 5 6

In [164]: g.tail(1)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[164]:
A B
1 1 4
2 5 6

This shows the first or last n rows from each group.

16.9.6 Taking the nth row of each group

To select from a DataFrame or Series the nth item, use the nth method. This is a reduction method, and will return a
single row (or no row) per group if you pass an int for n:
In [165]: df = pd.DataFrame([[1, np.nan], [1, 4], [5, 6]], columns=['A', 'B'])

In [166]: g = df.groupby('A')

In [167]: g.nth(0)
Out[167]:
B
A
1 NaN
5 6.0

In [168]: g.nth(-1)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[168]:
B

16.9. Other useful features 775

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

A
1 4.0
5 6.0

In [169]: g.nth(1)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[169]:
˓→

B
A
1 4.0

If you want to select the nth not-null item, use the dropna kwarg. For a DataFrame this should be either 'any' or
'all' just like you would pass to dropna:
# nth(0) is the same as g.first()
In [170]: g.nth(0, dropna='any')
Out[170]:
B
A
1 4.0
5 6.0

In [171]: g.first()
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[171]:
B
A
1 4.0
5 6.0

# nth(-1) is the same as g.last()

In [172]: g.nth(-1, dropna='any') # NaNs denote group exhausted when using dropna
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[172]:
˓→

B
A
1 4.0
5 6.0

In [173]: g.last()
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

B
A
1 4.0
5 6.0

In [174]: g.B.nth(0, dropna='all')

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

A
1 4.0
5 6.0
Name: B, dtype: float64

As with other methods, passing as_index=False, will achieve a filtration, which returns the grouped row.
In [175]: df = pd.DataFrame([[1, np.nan], [1, 4], [5, 6]], columns=['A', 'B'])

776 Chapter 16. Group By: split-apply-combine

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [176]: g = df.groupby('A',as_index=False)

In [177]: g.nth(0)
Out[177]:
A B
0 1 NaN
2 5 6.0

In [178]: g.nth(-1)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[178]:
A B
1 1 4.0
2 5 6.0

You can also select multiple rows from each group by specifying multiple nth values as a list of ints.

In [179]: business_dates = pd.date_range(start='4/1/2014', end='6/30/2014', freq='B')

In [180]: df = pd.DataFrame(1, index=business_dates, columns=['a', 'b'])

# get the first, 4th, and last date index for each month
In [181]: df.groupby((df.index.year, df.index.month)).nth([0, 3, -1])
Out[181]:
a b
2014 4 1 1
4 1 1
4 1 1
5 1 1
5 1 1
5 1 1
6 1 1
6 1 1
6 1 1

16.9.7 Enumerate group items

To see the order in which each row appears within its group, use the cumcount method:

In [182]: dfg = pd.DataFrame(list('aaabba'), columns=['A'])

In [183]: dfg
Out[183]:
A
0 a
1 a
2 a
3 b
4 b
5 a

In [184]: dfg.groupby('A').cumcount()
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[184]:
0 0
1 1
2 2
3 0

16.9. Other useful features 777

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

4 1
5 3
dtype: int64

In [185]: dfg.groupby('A').cumcount(ascending=False)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

0 3
1 2
2 1
3 1
4 0
5 0
dtype: int64

16.9.8 Enumerate groups

New in version 0.20.2.

To see the ordering of the groups (as opposed to the order of rows within a group given by cumcount) you can use
the ngroup method.
Note that the numbers given to the groups match the order in which the groups would be seen when iterating over the
groupby object, not the order they are first observed.
In [186]: dfg = pd.DataFrame(list('aaabba'), columns=['A'])

In [187]: dfg
Out[187]:
A
0 a
1 a
2 a
3 b
4 b
5 a

In [188]: dfg.groupby('A').ngroup()
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[188]:
0 0
1 0
2 0
3 1
4 1
5 0
dtype: int64

In [189]: dfg.groupby('A').ngroup(ascending=False)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

0 1
1 1
2 1
3 0
4 0
5 1
dtype: int64

778 Chapter 16. Group By: split-apply-combine

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

16.9.9 Plotting

Groupby also works with some plotting methods. For example, suppose we suspect that some features in a DataFrame
may differ by group, in this case, the values in column 1 where the group is “B” are 3 higher on average.

In [190]: np.random.seed(1234)

In [191]: df = pd.DataFrame(np.random.randn(50, 2))

In [192]: df['g'] = np.random.choice(['A', 'B'], size=50)

In [193]: df.loc[df['g'] == 'B', 1] += 3

We can easily visualize this with a boxplot:

In [194]: df.groupby('g').boxplot()
Out[194]:
A AxesSubplot(0.1,0.15;0.363636x0.75)
B AxesSubplot(0.536364,0.15;0.363636x0.75)
dtype: object

The result of calling boxplot is a dictionary whose keys are the values of our grouping column g (“A” and “B”).
The values of the resulting dictionary can be controlled by the return_type keyword of boxplot. See the
visualization documentation for more.

Warning: For historical reasons, df.groupby("g").boxplot() is not equivalent to df.

boxplot(by="g"). See here for an explanation.

16.9. Other useful features 779

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

16.9.10 Piping function calls

New in version 0.21.0.

Similar to the functionality provided by DataFrame and Series, functions that take GroupBy objects can be
chained together using a pipe method to allow for a cleaner, more readable syntax. To read about .pipe in general
terms, see here.
Combining .groupby and .pipe is often useful when you need to reuse GroupB objects.
For an example, imagine having a DataFrame with columns for stores, products, revenue and sold quantity. We’d
like to do a groupwise calculation of prices (i.e. revenue/quantity) per store and per product. We could do this in a
multi-step operation, but expressing it in terms of piping can make the code more readable. First we set the data:

In [195]: import numpy as np

In [196]: n = 1000

In [197]: df = pd.DataFrame({'Store': np.random.choice(['Store_1', 'Store_2'], n),

.....: 'Product': np.random.choice(['Product_1', 'Product_2',
˓→'Product_3'], n),

.....: 'Revenue': (np.random.random(n)*50+10).round(2),

.....: 'Quantity': np.random.randint(1, 10, size=n)})
.....:

In [198]: df.head(2)
Out[198]:
Product Quantity Revenue Store
0 Product_1 6 30.35 Store_2
1 Product_3 2 35.69 Store_2

Now, to find prices per store/product, we can simply do:

In [199]: (df.groupby(['Store', 'Product'])

.....: .pipe(lambda grp: grp.Revenue.sum()/grp.Quantity.sum())
.....: .unstack().round(2))
.....:
Out[199]:
Product Product_1 Product_2 Product_3
Store
Store_1 6.93 6.82 7.15
Store_2 6.69 6.64 6.77

Piping can also be expressive when you want to deliver a grouped object to some arbitrary function, for example:

(df.groupby(['Store', 'Product']).pipe(report_func)

where report_func takes a GroupBy object and creates a report from that.

16.10 Examples

16.10.1 Regrouping by factor

Regroup columns of a DataFrame according to their sum, and sum the aggregated ones.

780 Chapter 16. Group By: split-apply-combine

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [200]: df = pd.DataFrame({'a':[1,0,0], 'b':[0,1,0], 'c':[1,0,0], 'd':[2,3,4]})

In [201]: df
Out[201]:
a b c d
0 1 0 1 2
1 0 1 0 3
2 0 0 0 4

In [202]: df.groupby(df.sum(), axis=1).sum()

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[202]:
1 9
0 2 2
1 1 3
2 0 4

16.10.2 Multi-column factorization

By using .ngroup(), we can extract information about the groups in a way similar to factorize() (as described
further in the reshaping API) but which applies naturally to multiple columns of mixed type and different sources.
This can be useful as an intermediate categorical-like step in processing, when the relationships between the group
rows are more important than their content, or as input to an algorithm which only accepts the integer encoding.
(For more information about support in pandas for full categorical data, see the Categorical introduction and the API
documentation.)

In [203]: dfg = pd.DataFrame({"A": [1, 1, 2, 3, 2], "B": list("aaaba")})

In [204]: dfg
Out[204]:
A B
0 1 a
1 1 a
2 2 a
3 3 b
4 2 a

In [205]: dfg.groupby(["A", "B"]).ngroup()

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[205]:
0 0
1 0
2 1
3 2
4 1
dtype: int64

In [206]: dfg.groupby(["A", [0, 0, 0, 1, 1]]).ngroup()

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

0 0
1 0
2 1
3 3
4 2
dtype: int64

16.10. Examples 781

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

16.10.3 Groupby by Indexer to ‘resample’ data

Resampling produces new hypothetical samples (resamples) from already existing observed data or from a model that
generates data. These new samples are similar to the pre-existing samples.
In order to resample to work on indices that are non-datetimelike, the following procedure can be utilized.
In the following examples, df.index // 5 returns a binary array which is used to determine what gets selected for the
groupby operation.

Note: The below example shows how we can downsample by consolidation of samples into fewer samples. Here by
using df.index // 5, we are aggregating the samples in bins. By applying std() function, we aggregate the information
contained in many samples into a small subset of values which is their standard deviation thereby reducing the number
of samples.

In [207]: df = pd.DataFrame(np.random.randn(10,2))

In [208]: df
Out[208]:
0 1
0 0.431670 0.882143
1 -0.026213 -1.941880
2 -1.106825 -0.667835
3 0.210712 -0.530195
4 -0.295191 -0.172722
5 0.638454 1.807622
6 1.008900 0.672822
7 0.770658 1.533002
8 0.576321 -0.819781
9 -1.302052 1.599477

In [209]: df.index // 5
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→Int64Index([0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1], dtype='int64')

In [210]: df.groupby(df.index // 5).std()

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

0 1
0 0.595843 1.015451
1 0.931952 1.084644

16.10.4 Returning a Series to propagate names

Group DataFrame columns, compute a set of metrics and return a named Series. The Series name is used as the name
for the column index. This is especially useful in conjunction with reshaping operations such as stacking in which the
column index name will be used as the name of the inserted column:

In [211]: df = pd.DataFrame({
.....: 'a': [0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 1, 1, 2, 2, 2, 2],
.....: 'b': [0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 1, 1],
.....: 'c': [1, 0, 1, 0, 1, 0, 1, 0, 1, 0, 1, 0],
.....: 'd': [0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 1],
.....: })
.....:

782 Chapter 16. Group By: split-apply-combine

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [212]: def compute_metrics(x):

.....: result = {'b_sum': x['b'].sum(), 'c_mean': x['c'].mean()}
.....: return pd.Series(result, name='metrics')
.....:

In [213]: result = df.groupby('a').apply(compute_metrics)

In [214]: result
Out[214]:
metrics b_sum c_mean
a
0 2.0 0.5
1 2.0 0.5
2 2.0 0.5

In [215]: result.stack()
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

a metrics
0 b_sum 2.0
c_mean 0.5
1 b_sum 2.0
c_mean 0.5
2 b_sum 2.0
c_mean 0.5
dtype: float64

16.10. Examples 783

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

784 Chapter 16. Group By: split-apply-combine

 CHAPTER

SEVENTEEN

MERGE, JOIN, AND CONCATENATE

pandas provides various facilities for easily combining together Series, DataFrame, and Panel objects with various
kinds of set logic for the indexes and relational algebra functionality in the case of join / merge-type operations.

17.1 Concatenating objects

The concat function (in the main pandas namespace) does all of the heavy lifting of performing concatenation
operations along an axis while performing optional set logic (union or intersection) of the indexes (if any) on the other
axes. Note that I say “if any” because there is only a single possible axis of concatenation for Series.
Before diving into all of the details of concat and what it can do, here is a simple example:

In [1]: df1 = pd.DataFrame({'A': ['A0', 'A1', 'A2', 'A3'],

...: 'B': ['B0', 'B1', 'B2', 'B3'],
...: 'C': ['C0', 'C1', 'C2', 'C3'],
...: 'D': ['D0', 'D1', 'D2', 'D3']},
...: index=[0, 1, 2, 3])
...:

In [2]: df2 = pd.DataFrame({'A': ['A4', 'A5', 'A6', 'A7'],

...: 'B': ['B4', 'B5', 'B6', 'B7'],
...: 'C': ['C4', 'C5', 'C6', 'C7'],
...: 'D': ['D4', 'D5', 'D6', 'D7']},
...: index=[4, 5, 6, 7])
...:

In [3]: df3 = pd.DataFrame({'A': ['A8', 'A9', 'A10', 'A11'],

...: 'B': ['B8', 'B9', 'B10', 'B11'],
...: 'C': ['C8', 'C9', 'C10', 'C11'],
...: 'D': ['D8', 'D9', 'D10', 'D11']},
...: index=[8, 9, 10, 11])
...:

In [4]: frames = [df1, df2, df3]

In [5]: result = pd.concat(frames)

785
pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Like its sibling function on ndarrays, numpy.concatenate, pandas.concat takes a list or dict of
homogeneously-typed objects and concatenates them with some configurable handling of “what to do with the other
axes”:

pd.concat(objs, axis=0, join='outer', join_axes=None, ignore_index=False,

keys=None, levels=None, names=None, verify_integrity=False,
copy=True)

• objs : a sequence or mapping of Series, DataFrame, or Panel objects. If a dict is passed, the sorted keys will be
used as the keys argument, unless it is passed, in which case the values will be selected (see below). Any None
objects will be dropped silently unless they are all None in which case a ValueError will be raised.
• axis : {0, 1, ...}, default 0. The axis to concatenate along.
• join : {‘inner’, ‘outer’}, default ‘outer’. How to handle indexes on other axis(es). Outer for union and inner
for intersection.
• ignore_index : boolean, default False. If True, do not use the index values on the concatenation axis. The
resulting axis will be labeled 0, ..., n - 1. This is useful if you are concatenating objects where the concatenation
axis does not have meaningful indexing information. Note the index values on the other axes are still respected
in the join.
• join_axes : list of Index objects. Specific indexes to use for the other n - 1 axes instead of performing
inner/outer set logic.
• keys : sequence, default None. Construct hierarchical index using the passed keys as the outermost level. If
multiple levels passed, should contain tuples.
• levels : list of sequences, default None. Specific levels (unique values) to use for constructing a MultiIndex.
Otherwise they will be inferred from the keys.
• names : list, default None. Names for the levels in the resulting hierarchical index.
• verify_integrity : boolean, default False. Check whether the new concatenated axis contains duplicates.
This can be very expensive relative to the actual data concatenation.

786 Chapter 17. Merge, join, and concatenate

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• copy : boolean, default True. If False, do not copy data unnecessarily.

Without a little bit of context and example many of these arguments don’t make much sense. Let’s take the above
example. Suppose we wanted to associate specific keys with each of the pieces of the chopped up DataFrame. We can
do this using the keys argument:

In [6]: result = pd.concat(frames, keys=['x', 'y', 'z'])

As you can see (if you’ve read the rest of the documentation), the resulting object’s index has a hierarchical index.
This means that we can now do stuff like select out each chunk by key:

In [7]: result.loc['y']
Out[7]:
A B C D
4 A4 B4 C4 D4
5 A5 B5 C5 D5
6 A6 B6 C6 D6
7 A7 B7 C7 D7

It’s not a stretch to see how this can be very useful. More detail on this functionality below.

Note: It is worth noting however, that concat (and therefore append) makes a full copy of the data, and that
constantly reusing this function can create a significant performance hit. If you need to use the operation over several
datasets, use a list comprehension.

frames = [ process_your_file(f) for f in files ]

result = pd.concat(frames)

17.1. Concatenating objects 787

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

17.1.1 Set logic on the other axes

When gluing together multiple DataFrames (or Panels or...), for example, you have a choice of how to handle the other
axes (other than the one being concatenated). This can be done in three ways:
• Take the (sorted) union of them all, join='outer'. This is the default option as it results in zero information
loss.
• Take the intersection, join='inner'.
• Use a specific index (in the case of DataFrame) or indexes (in the case of Panel or future higher dimensional
objects), i.e. the join_axes argument
Here is a example of each of these methods. First, the default join='outer' behavior:

In [8]: df4 = pd.DataFrame({'B': ['B2', 'B3', 'B6', 'B7'],

...: 'D': ['D2', 'D3', 'D6', 'D7'],
...: 'F': ['F2', 'F3', 'F6', 'F7']},
...: index=[2, 3, 6, 7])
...:

In [9]: result = pd.concat([df1, df4], axis=1)

Note that the row indexes have been unioned and sorted. Here is the same thing with join='inner':

In [10]: result = pd.concat([df1, df4], axis=1, join='inner')

Lastly, suppose we just wanted to reuse the exact index from the original DataFrame:

788 Chapter 17. Merge, join, and concatenate

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [11]: result = pd.concat([df1, df4], axis=1, join_axes=[df1.index])

17.1.2 Concatenating using append

A useful shortcut to concat are the append instance methods on Series and DataFrame. These methods actually
predated concat. They concatenate along axis=0, namely the index:

In [12]: result = df1.append(df2)

In the case of DataFrame, the indexes must be disjoint but the columns do not need to be:

In [13]: result = df1.append(df4)

17.1. Concatenating objects 789

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

append may take multiple objects to concatenate:

In [14]: result = df1.append([df2, df3])

Note: Unlike list.append method, which appends to the original list and returns nothing, append here does not
modify df1 and returns its copy with df2 appended.

790 Chapter 17. Merge, join, and concatenate

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

17.1.3 Ignoring indexes on the concatenation axis

For DataFrames which don’t have a meaningful index, you may wish to append them and ignore the fact that they may
have overlapping indexes:
To do this, use the ignore_index argument:

In [15]: result = pd.concat([df1, df4], ignore_index=True)

This is also a valid argument to DataFrame.append:

In [16]: result = df1.append(df4, ignore_index=True)

17.1. Concatenating objects 791

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

17.1.4 Concatenating with mixed ndims

You can concatenate a mix of Series and DataFrames. The Series will be transformed to DataFrames with the column
name as the name of the Series.
In [17]: s1 = pd.Series(['X0', 'X1', 'X2', 'X3'], name='X')

In [18]: result = pd.concat([df1, s1], axis=1)

If unnamed Series are passed they will be numbered consecutively.

In [19]: s2 = pd.Series(['_0', '_1', '_2', '_3'])

In [20]: result = pd.concat([df1, s2, s2, s2], axis=1)

Passing ignore_index=True will drop all name references.

In [21]: result = pd.concat([df1, s1], axis=1, ignore_index=True)

792 Chapter 17. Merge, join, and concatenate

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

17.1.5 More concatenating with group keys

A fairly common use of the keys argument is to override the column names when creating a new DataFrame based
on existing Series. Notice how the default behaviour consists on letting the resulting DataFrame inherits the parent
Series’ name, when these existed.

In [22]: s3 = pd.Series([0, 1, 2, 3], name='foo')

In [23]: s4 = pd.Series([0, 1, 2, 3])

In [24]: s5 = pd.Series([0, 1, 4, 5])

In [25]: pd.concat([s3, s4, s5], axis=1)

Out[25]:
foo 0 1
0 0 0 0
1 1 1 1
2 2 2 4
3 3 3 5

Through the keys argument we can override the existing column names.

In [26]: pd.concat([s3, s4, s5], axis=1, keys=['red','blue','yellow'])

Out[26]:
red blue yellow
0 0 0 0
1 1 1 1
2 2 2 4
3 3 3 5

Let’s consider now a variation on the very first example presented:

In [27]: result = pd.concat(frames, keys=['x', 'y', 'z'])

17.1. Concatenating objects 793

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

You can also pass a dict to concat in which case the dict keys will be used for the keys argument (unless other keys
are specified):

In [28]: pieces = {'x': df1, 'y': df2, 'z': df3}

In [29]: result = pd.concat(pieces)

794 Chapter 17. Merge, join, and concatenate

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [30]: result = pd.concat(pieces, keys=['z', 'y'])

The MultiIndex created has levels that are constructed from the passed keys and the index of the DataFrame pieces:

17.1. Concatenating objects 795

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [31]: result.index.levels
Out[31]: FrozenList([['z', 'y'], [4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11]])

If you wish to specify other levels (as will occasionally be the case), you can do so using the levels argument:

In [32]: result = pd.concat(pieces, keys=['x', 'y', 'z'],

....: levels=[['z', 'y', 'x', 'w']],
....: names=['group_key'])
....:

In [33]: result.index.levels
Out[33]: FrozenList([['z', 'y', 'x', 'w'], [0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11]])

Yes, this is fairly esoteric, but is actually necessary for implementing things like GroupBy where the order of a
categorical variable is meaningful.

17.1.6 Appending rows to a DataFrame

While not especially efficient (since a new object must be created), you can append a single row to a DataFrame by
passing a Series or dict to append, which returns a new DataFrame as above.

In [34]: s2 = pd.Series(['X0', 'X1', 'X2', 'X3'], index=['A', 'B', 'C', 'D'])

In [35]: result = df1.append(s2, ignore_index=True)

796 Chapter 17. Merge, join, and concatenate

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

You should use ignore_index with this method to instruct DataFrame to discard its index. If you wish to preserve
the index, you should construct an appropriately-indexed DataFrame and append or concatenate those objects.
You can also pass a list of dicts or Series:

In [36]: dicts = [{'A': 1, 'B': 2, 'C': 3, 'X': 4},

....: {'A': 5, 'B': 6, 'C': 7, 'Y': 8}]
....:

In [37]: result = df1.append(dicts, ignore_index=True)

17.2 Database-style DataFrame joining/merging

pandas has full-featured, high performance in-memory join operations idiomatically very similar to relational
databases like SQL. These methods perform significantly better (in some cases well over an order of magnitude better)
than other open source implementations (like base::merge.data.frame in R). The reason for this is careful
algorithmic design and internal layout of the data in DataFrame.
See the cookbook for some advanced strategies.

17.2. Database-style DataFrame joining/merging 797

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Users who are familiar with SQL but new to pandas might be interested in a comparison with SQL.
pandas provides a single function, merge, as the entry point for all standard database join operations between
DataFrame objects:

pd.merge(left, right, how='inner', on=None, left_on=None, right_on=None,

left_index=False, right_index=False, sort=True,
suffixes=('_x', '_y'), copy=True, indicator=False,
validate=None)

• left: A DataFrame object

• right: Another DataFrame object
• on: Columns (names) to join on. Must be found in both the left and right DataFrame objects. If not passed
and left_index and right_index are False, the intersection of the columns in the DataFrames will be
inferred to be the join keys
• left_on: Columns from the left DataFrame to use as keys. Can either be column names or arrays with length
equal to the length of the DataFrame
• right_on: Columns from the right DataFrame to use as keys. Can either be column names or arrays with
length equal to the length of the DataFrame
• left_index: If True, use the index (row labels) from the left DataFrame as its join key(s). In the case of a
DataFrame with a MultiIndex (hierarchical), the number of levels must match the number of join keys from the
right DataFrame
• right_index: Same usage as left_index for the right DataFrame
• how: One of 'left', 'right', 'outer', 'inner'. Defaults to inner. See below for more detailed
description of each method
• sort: Sort the result DataFrame by the join keys in lexicographical order. Defaults to True, setting to False
will improve performance substantially in many cases
• suffixes: A tuple of string suffixes to apply to overlapping columns. Defaults to ('_x', '_y').
• copy: Always copy data (default True) from the passed DataFrame objects, even when reindexing is not
necessary. Cannot be avoided in many cases but may improve performance / memory usage. The cases where
copying can be avoided are somewhat pathological but this option is provided nonetheless.
• indicator: Add a column to the output DataFrame called _merge with information on the source of each
row. _merge is Categorical-type and takes on a value of left_only for observations whose merge key only
appears in 'left' DataFrame, right_only for observations whose merge key only appears in 'right'
DataFrame, and both if the observation’s merge key is found in both.
New in version 0.17.0.
• validate : string, default None. If specified, checks if merge is of specified type.
– “one_to_one” or “1:1”: checks if merge keys are unique in both left and right datasets.
– “one_to_many” or “1:m”: checks if merge keys are unique in left dataset.
– “many_to_one” or “m:1”: checks if merge keys are unique in right dataset.
– “many_to_many” or “m:m”: allowed, but does not result in checks.
New in version 0.21.0.
The return type will be the same as left. If left is a DataFrame and right is a subclass of DataFrame, the
return type will still be DataFrame.

798 Chapter 17. Merge, join, and concatenate

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

merge is a function in the pandas namespace, and it is also available as a DataFrame instance method, with the calling
DataFrame being implicitly considered the left object in the join.
The related DataFrame.join method, uses merge internally for the index-on-index (by default) and column(s)-
on-index join. If you are joining on index only, you may wish to use DataFrame.join to save yourself some
typing.

17.2.1 Brief primer on merge methods (relational algebra)

Experienced users of relational databases like SQL will be familiar with the terminology used to describe join opera-
tions between two SQL-table like structures (DataFrame objects). There are several cases to consider which are very
important to understand:
• one-to-one joins: for example when joining two DataFrame objects on their indexes (which must contain unique
values)
• many-to-one joins: for example when joining an index (unique) to one or more columns in a DataFrame
• many-to-many joins: joining columns on columns.

Note: When joining columns on columns (potentially a many-to-many join), any indexes on the passed DataFrame
objects will be discarded.

It is worth spending some time understanding the result of the many-to-many join case. In SQL / standard relational
algebra, if a key combination appears more than once in both tables, the resulting table will have the Cartesian
product of the associated data. Here is a very basic example with one unique key combination:

In [38]: left = pd.DataFrame({'key': ['K0', 'K1', 'K2', 'K3'],

....: 'A': ['A0', 'A1', 'A2', 'A3'],
....: 'B': ['B0', 'B1', 'B2', 'B3']})
....:

In [39]: right = pd.DataFrame({'key': ['K0', 'K1', 'K2', 'K3'],

....: 'C': ['C0', 'C1', 'C2', 'C3'],
....: 'D': ['D0', 'D1', 'D2', 'D3']})
....:

In [40]: result = pd.merge(left, right, on='key')

Here is a more complicated example with multiple join keys:

In [41]: left = pd.DataFrame({'key1': ['K0', 'K0', 'K1', 'K2'],

....: 'key2': ['K0', 'K1', 'K0', 'K1'],

17.2. Database-style DataFrame joining/merging 799

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

....: 'A': ['A0', 'A1', 'A2', 'A3'],

....: 'B': ['B0', 'B1', 'B2', 'B3']})
....:

In [42]: right = pd.DataFrame({'key1': ['K0', 'K1', 'K1', 'K2'],

....: 'key2': ['K0', 'K0', 'K0', 'K0'],
....: 'C': ['C0', 'C1', 'C2', 'C3'],
....: 'D': ['D0', 'D1', 'D2', 'D3']})
....:

In [43]: result = pd.merge(left, right, on=['key1', 'key2'])

The how argument to merge specifies how to determine which keys are to be included in the resulting table. If a
key combination does not appear in either the left or right tables, the values in the joined table will be NA. Here is a
summary of the how options and their SQL equivalent names:
Merge method SQL Join Name Description
left LEFT OUTER JOIN Use keys from left frame only
right RIGHT OUTER JOIN Use keys from right frame only
outer FULL OUTER JOIN Use union of keys from both frames
inner INNER JOIN Use intersection of keys from both frames
In [44]: result = pd.merge(left, right, how='left', on=['key1', 'key2'])

In [45]: result = pd.merge(left, right, how='right', on=['key1', 'key2'])

800 Chapter 17. Merge, join, and concatenate

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [46]: result = pd.merge(left, right, how='outer', on=['key1', 'key2'])

In [47]: result = pd.merge(left, right, how='inner', on=['key1', 'key2'])

Here is another example with duplicate join keys in DataFrames:

In [48]: left = pd.DataFrame({'A' : [1,2], 'B' : [2, 2]})

In [49]: right = pd.DataFrame({'A' : [4,5,6], 'B': [2,2,2]})

In [50]: result = pd.merge(left, right, on='B', how='outer')

17.2. Database-style DataFrame joining/merging 801

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Warning: Joining / merging on duplicate keys can cause a returned frame that is the multiplication of the row
dimensions, which may result in memory overflow. It is the user’ s responsibility to manage duplicate values in
keys before joining large DataFrames.

17.2.2 Checking for duplicate keys

New in version 0.21.0.

Users can use the validate argument to automatically check whether there are unexpected duplicates in their merge
keys. Key uniqueness is checked before merge operations and so should protect against memory overflows. Checking
key uniqueness is also a good way to ensure user data structures are as expected.
In the following example, there are duplicate values of B in the right DataFrame. As this is not a one-to-one merge –
as specified in the validate argument – an exception will be raised.

In [51]: left = pd.DataFrame({'A' : [1,2], 'B' : [1, 2]})

In [52]: right = pd.DataFrame({'A' : [4,5,6], 'B': [2, 2, 2]})

In [53]: result = pd.merge(left, right, on='B', how='outer', validate="one_to_one")

...
MergeError: Merge keys are not unique in right dataset; not a one-to-one merge

If the user is aware of the duplicates in the right DataFrame but wants to ensure there are no duplicates in the left
DataFrame, one can use the validate=’one_to_many’ argument instead, which will not raise an exception.

In [53]: pd.merge(left, right, on='B', how='outer', validate="one_to_many")

Out[53]:
A_x B A_y
0 1 1 NaN
1 2 2 4.0
2 2 2 5.0
3 2 2 6.0

17.2.3 The merge indicator

New in version 0.17.0.

merge now accepts the argument indicator. If True, a Categorical-type column called _merge will be added
to the output object that takes on values:

802 Chapter 17. Merge, join, and concatenate

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Observation Origin _merge value

Merge key only in 'left' frame left_only
Merge key only in 'right' frame right_only
Merge key in both frames both
In [54]: df1 = pd.DataFrame({'col1': [0, 1], 'col_left':['a', 'b']})

In [55]: df2 = pd.DataFrame({'col1': [1, 2, 2],'col_right':[2, 2, 2]})

In [56]: pd.merge(df1, df2, on='col1', how='outer', indicator=True)

Out[56]:
col1 col_left col_right _merge
0 0 a NaN left_only
1 1 b 2.0 both
2 2 NaN 2.0 right_only
3 2 NaN 2.0 right_only

The indicator argument will also accept string arguments, in which case the indicator function will use the value
of the passed string as the name for the indicator column.

In [57]: pd.merge(df1, df2, on='col1', how='outer', indicator='indicator_column')

Out[57]:
col1 col_left col_right indicator_column
0 0 a NaN left_only
1 1 b 2.0 both
2 2 NaN 2.0 right_only
3 2 NaN 2.0 right_only

17.2.4 Merge Dtypes

New in version 0.19.0.

Merging will preserve the dtype of the join keys.

In [58]: left = pd.DataFrame({'key': [1], 'v1': [10]})

In [59]: left
Out[59]:
key v1
0 1 10

In [60]: right = pd.DataFrame({'key': [1, 2], 'v1': [20, 30]})

In [61]: right
Out[61]:
key v1
0 1 20
1 2 30

We are able to preserve the join keys

In [62]: pd.merge(left, right, how='outer')

Out[62]:
key v1
0 1 10
1 1 20
2 2 30

17.2. Database-style DataFrame joining/merging 803

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [63]: pd.merge(left, right, how='outer').dtypes

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[63]:
key int64
v1 int64
dtype: object

Of course if you have missing values that are introduced, then the resulting dtype will be upcast.
In [64]: pd.merge(left, right, how='outer', on='key')
Out[64]:
key v1_x v1_y
0 1 10.0 20
1 2 NaN 30

In [65]: pd.merge(left, right, how='outer', on='key').dtypes

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[65]:
key int64
v1_x float64
v1_y int64
dtype: object

New in version 0.20.0.

Merging will preserve category dtypes of the mergands. See also the section on categoricals
The left frame.
In [66]: from pandas.api.types import CategoricalDtype

In [67]: X = pd.Series(np.random.choice(['foo', 'bar'], size=(10,)))

In [68]: X = X.astype(CategoricalDtype(categories=['foo', 'bar']))

In [69]: left = pd.DataFrame({'X': X,

....: 'Y': np.random.choice(['one', 'two', 'three'], size=(10,
˓→))})

....:

In [70]: left
Out[70]:
X Y
0 bar one
1 foo one
2 foo three
3 bar three
4 foo one
5 bar one
6 bar three
7 bar three
8 bar three
9 foo three

In [71]: left.dtypes
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

X category
Y object
dtype: object

804 Chapter 17. Merge, join, and concatenate

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

The right frame.

In [72]: right = pd.DataFrame({

....: 'X': pd.Series(['foo', 'bar'],
....: dtype=CategoricalDtype(['foo', 'bar'])),
....: 'Z': [1, 2]
....: })
....:

In [73]: right
Out[73]:
X Z
0 foo 1
1 bar 2

In [74]: right.dtypes
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[74]:
X category
Z int64
dtype: object

The merged result

In [75]: result = pd.merge(left, right, how='outer')

In [76]: result
Out[76]:
X Y Z
0 bar one 2
1 bar three 2
2 bar one 2
3 bar three 2
4 bar three 2
5 bar three 2
6 foo one 1
7 foo three 1
8 foo one 1
9 foo three 1

In [77]: result.dtypes
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

X category
Y object
Z int64
dtype: object

Note: The category dtypes must be exactly the same, meaning the same categories and the ordered attribute. Other-
wise the result will coerce to object dtype.

Note: Merging on category dtypes that are the same can be quite performant compared to object dtype merging.

17.2. Database-style DataFrame joining/merging 805

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

17.2.5 Joining on index

DataFrame.join is a convenient method for combining the columns of two potentially differently-indexed
DataFrames into a single result DataFrame. Here is a very basic example:
In [78]: left = pd.DataFrame({'A': ['A0', 'A1', 'A2'],
....: 'B': ['B0', 'B1', 'B2']},
....: index=['K0', 'K1', 'K2'])
....:

In [79]: right = pd.DataFrame({'C': ['C0', 'C2', 'C3'],

....: 'D': ['D0', 'D2', 'D3']},
....: index=['K0', 'K2', 'K3'])
....:

In [80]: result = left.join(right)

In [81]: result = left.join(right, how='outer')

In [82]: result = left.join(right, how='inner')

806 Chapter 17. Merge, join, and concatenate

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

The data alignment here is on the indexes (row labels). This same behavior can be achieved using merge plus
additional arguments instructing it to use the indexes:

In [83]: result = pd.merge(left, right, left_index=True, right_index=True, how='outer

˓→')

In [84]: result = pd.merge(left, right, left_index=True, right_index=True, how='inner

˓→');

17.2.6 Joining key columns on an index

join takes an optional on argument which may be a column or multiple column names, which specifies that the
passed DataFrame is to be aligned on that column in the DataFrame. These two function calls are completely equiva-
lent:

left.join(right, on=key_or_keys)
pd.merge(left, right, left_on=key_or_keys, right_index=True,
how='left', sort=False)

Obviously you can choose whichever form you find more convenient. For many-to-one joins (where one of the
DataFrame’s is already indexed by the join key), using join may be more convenient. Here is a simple example:

In [85]: left = pd.DataFrame({'A': ['A0', 'A1', 'A2', 'A3'],

....: 'B': ['B0', 'B1', 'B2', 'B3'],
....: 'key': ['K0', 'K1', 'K0', 'K1']})
....:

In [86]: right = pd.DataFrame({'C': ['C0', 'C1'],

....: 'D': ['D0', 'D1']},
....: index=['K0', 'K1'])

17.2. Database-style DataFrame joining/merging 807

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

....:

In [87]: result = left.join(right, on='key')

In [88]: result = pd.merge(left, right, left_on='key', right_index=True,

....: how='left', sort=False);
....:

To join on multiple keys,

the passed DataFrame must have a MultiIndex:

In [89]: left = pd.DataFrame({'A': ['A0', 'A1', 'A2', 'A3'],

....: 'B': ['B0', 'B1', 'B2', 'B3'],
....: 'key1': ['K0', 'K0', 'K1', 'K2'],
....: 'key2': ['K0', 'K1', 'K0', 'K1']})
....:

In [90]: index = pd.MultiIndex.from_tuples([('K0', 'K0'), ('K1', 'K0'),

....: ('K2', 'K0'), ('K2', 'K1')])
....:

In [91]: right = pd.DataFrame({'C': ['C0', 'C1', 'C2', 'C3'],

....: 'D': ['D0', 'D1', 'D2', 'D3']},
....: index=index)
....:

Now this can be joined by passing the two key column names:

In [92]: result = left.join(right, on=['key1', 'key2'])

808 Chapter 17. Merge, join, and concatenate

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

The de-
fault for DataFrame.join is to perform a left join (essentially a “VLOOKUP” operation, for Excel users), which
uses only the keys found in the calling DataFrame. Other join types, for example inner join, can be just as easily
performed:

In [93]: result = left.join(right, on=['key1', 'key2'], how='inner')

As you can see, this drops any rows where there was no match.

17.2.7 Joining a single Index to a Multi-index

You can join a singly-indexed DataFrame with a level of a multi-indexed DataFrame. The level will match on the
name of the index of the singly-indexed frame against a level name of the multi-indexed frame.

In [94]: left = pd.DataFrame({'A': ['A0', 'A1', 'A2'],

....: 'B': ['B0', 'B1', 'B2']},
....: index=pd.Index(['K0', 'K1', 'K2'], name='key'))
....:

In [95]: index = pd.MultiIndex.from_tuples([('K0', 'Y0'), ('K1', 'Y1'),

....: ('K2', 'Y2'), ('K2', 'Y3')],
....: names=['key', 'Y'])
....:

In [96]: right = pd.DataFrame({'C': ['C0', 'C1', 'C2', 'C3'],

....: 'D': ['D0', 'D1', 'D2', 'D3']},
....: index=index)
....:

In [97]: result = left.join(right, how='inner')

17.2. Database-style DataFrame joining/merging 809

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

This is equivalent but less verbose and more memory efficient / faster than this.

In [98]: result = pd.merge(left.reset_index(), right.reset_index(),

....: on=['key'], how='inner').set_index(['key','Y'])
....:

17.2.8 Joining with two multi-indexes

This is not Implemented via join at-the-moment, however it can be done using the following.

In [99]: index = pd.MultiIndex.from_tuples([('K0', 'X0'), ('K0', 'X1'),

....: ('K1', 'X2')],
....: names=['key', 'X'])
....:

In [100]: left = pd.DataFrame({'A': ['A0', 'A1', 'A2'],

.....: 'B': ['B0', 'B1', 'B2']},
.....: index=index)
.....:

In [101]: result = pd.merge(left.reset_index(), right.reset_index(),

.....: on=['key'], how='inner').set_index(['key','X','Y'])
.....:

810 Chapter 17. Merge, join, and concatenate

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

17.2.9 Overlapping value columns

The merge suffixes argument takes a tuple of list of strings to append to overlapping column names in the input
DataFrames to disambiguate the result columns:

In [102]: left = pd.DataFrame({'k': ['K0', 'K1', 'K2'], 'v': [1, 2, 3]})

In [103]: right = pd.DataFrame({'k': ['K0', 'K0', 'K3'], 'v': [4, 5, 6]})

In [104]: result = pd.merge(left, right, on='k')

In [105]: result = pd.merge(left, right, on='k', suffixes=['_l', '_r'])

DataFrame.join has lsuffix and rsuffix arguments which behave similarly.

In [106]: left = left.set_index('k')

In [107]: right = right.set_index('k')

In [108]: result = left.join(right, lsuffix='_l', rsuffix='_r')

17.2. Database-style DataFrame joining/merging 811

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

17.2.10 Joining multiple DataFrame or Panel objects

A list or tuple of DataFrames can also be passed to DataFrame.join to join them together on their indexes. The
same is true for Panel.join.

In [109]: right2 = pd.DataFrame({'v': [7, 8, 9]}, index=['K1', 'K1', 'K2'])

In [110]: result = left.join([right, right2])

17.2.11 Merging together values within Series or DataFrame columns

Another fairly common situation is to have two like-indexed (or similarly indexed) Series or DataFrame objects and
wanting to “patch” values in one object from values for matching indices in the other. Here is an example:

In [111]: df1 = pd.DataFrame([[np.nan, 3., 5.], [-4.6, np.nan, np.nan],

.....: [np.nan, 7., np.nan]])
.....:

In [112]: df2 = pd.DataFrame([[-42.6, np.nan, -8.2], [-5., 1.6, 4]],

.....: index=[1, 2])
.....:

For this, use the combine_first method:

812 Chapter 17. Merge, join, and concatenate

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [113]: result = df1.combine_first(df2)

Note that this method only takes values from the right DataFrame if they are missing in the left DataFrame. A related
method, update, alters non-NA values inplace:

In [114]: df1.update(df2)

17.3 Timeseries friendly merging

17.3.1 Merging Ordered Data

A merge_ordered() function allows combining time series and other ordered data. In particular it has an optional
fill_method keyword to fill/interpolate missing data:

In [115]: left = pd.DataFrame({'k': ['K0', 'K1', 'K1', 'K2'],

.....: 'lv': [1, 2, 3, 4],
.....: 's': ['a', 'b', 'c', 'd']})
.....:

In [116]: right = pd.DataFrame({'k': ['K1', 'K2', 'K4'],

.....: 'rv': [1, 2, 3]})
.....:

In [117]: pd.merge_ordered(left, right, fill_method='ffill', left_by='s')

Out[117]:
k lv s rv
0 K0 1.0 a NaN
1 K1 1.0 a 1.0
2 K2 1.0 a 2.0
3 K4 1.0 a 3.0

17.3. Timeseries friendly merging 813

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

4 K1 2.0 b 1.0
5 K2 2.0 b 2.0
6 K4 2.0 b 3.0
7 K1 3.0 c 1.0
8 K2 3.0 c 2.0
9 K4 3.0 c 3.0
10 K1 NaN d 1.0
11 K2 4.0 d 2.0
12 K4 4.0 d 3.0

17.3.2 Merging AsOf

New in version 0.19.0.

A merge_asof() is similar to an ordered left-join except that we match on nearest key rather than equal keys. For
each row in the left DataFrame, we select the last row in the right DataFrame whose on key is less than the left’s
key. Both DataFrames must be sorted by the key.
Optionally an asof merge can perform a group-wise merge. This matches the by key equally, in addition to the nearest
match on the on key.
For example; we might have trades and quotes and we want to asof merge them.

In [118]: trades = pd.DataFrame({

.....: 'time': pd.to_datetime(['20160525 13:30:00.023',
.....: '20160525 13:30:00.038',
.....: '20160525 13:30:00.048',
.....: '20160525 13:30:00.048',
.....: '20160525 13:30:00.048']),
.....: 'ticker': ['MSFT', 'MSFT',
.....: 'GOOG', 'GOOG', 'AAPL'],
.....: 'price': [51.95, 51.95,
.....: 720.77, 720.92, 98.00],
.....: 'quantity': [75, 155,
.....: 100, 100, 100]},
.....: columns=['time', 'ticker', 'price', 'quantity'])
.....:

In [119]: quotes = pd.DataFrame({

.....: 'time': pd.to_datetime(['20160525 13:30:00.023',
.....: '20160525 13:30:00.023',
.....: '20160525 13:30:00.030',
.....: '20160525 13:30:00.041',
.....: '20160525 13:30:00.048',
.....: '20160525 13:30:00.049',
.....: '20160525 13:30:00.072',
.....: '20160525 13:30:00.075']),
.....: 'ticker': ['GOOG', 'MSFT', 'MSFT',
.....: 'MSFT', 'GOOG', 'AAPL', 'GOOG',
.....: 'MSFT'],
.....: 'bid': [720.50, 51.95, 51.97, 51.99,
.....: 720.50, 97.99, 720.50, 52.01],
.....: 'ask': [720.93, 51.96, 51.98, 52.00,
.....: 720.93, 98.01, 720.88, 52.03]},
.....: columns=['time', 'ticker', 'bid', 'ask'])
.....:

814 Chapter 17. Merge, join, and concatenate

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [120]: trades
Out[120]:
time ticker price quantity
0 2016-05-25 13:30:00.023 MSFT 51.95 75
1 2016-05-25 13:30:00.038 MSFT 51.95 155
2 2016-05-25 13:30:00.048 GOOG 720.77 100
3 2016-05-25 13:30:00.048 GOOG 720.92 100
4 2016-05-25 13:30:00.048 AAPL 98.00 100

In [121]: quotes
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

time ticker bid ask

0 2016-05-25 13:30:00.023 GOOG 720.50 720.93
1 2016-05-25 13:30:00.023 MSFT 51.95 51.96
2 2016-05-25 13:30:00.030 MSFT 51.97 51.98
3 2016-05-25 13:30:00.041 MSFT 51.99 52.00
4 2016-05-25 13:30:00.048 GOOG 720.50 720.93
5 2016-05-25 13:30:00.049 AAPL 97.99 98.01
6 2016-05-25 13:30:00.072 GOOG 720.50 720.88
7 2016-05-25 13:30:00.075 MSFT 52.01 52.03

By default we are taking the asof of the quotes.

In [122]: pd.merge_asof(trades, quotes,
.....: on='time',
.....: by='ticker')
.....:
Out[122]:
time ticker price quantity bid ask
0 2016-05-25 13:30:00.023 MSFT 51.95 75 51.95 51.96
1 2016-05-25 13:30:00.038 MSFT 51.95 155 51.97 51.98
2 2016-05-25 13:30:00.048 GOOG 720.77 100 720.50 720.93
3 2016-05-25 13:30:00.048 GOOG 720.92 100 720.50 720.93
4 2016-05-25 13:30:00.048 AAPL 98.00 100 NaN NaN

We only asof within 2ms between the quote time and the trade time.
In [123]: pd.merge_asof(trades, quotes,
.....: on='time',
.....: by='ticker',
.....: tolerance=pd.Timedelta('2ms'))
.....:
Out[123]:
time ticker price quantity bid ask
0 2016-05-25 13:30:00.023 MSFT 51.95 75 51.95 51.96
1 2016-05-25 13:30:00.038 MSFT 51.95 155 NaN NaN
2 2016-05-25 13:30:00.048 GOOG 720.77 100 720.50 720.93
3 2016-05-25 13:30:00.048 GOOG 720.92 100 720.50 720.93
4 2016-05-25 13:30:00.048 AAPL 98.00 100 NaN NaN

We only asof within 10ms between the quote time and the trade time and we exclude exact matches on time. Note
that though we exclude the exact matches (of the quotes), prior quotes DO propagate to that point in time.
In [124]: pd.merge_asof(trades, quotes,
.....: on='time',
.....: by='ticker',
.....: tolerance=pd.Timedelta('10ms'),

17.3. Timeseries friendly merging 815

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

.....: allow_exact_matches=False)
.....:
Out[124]:
time ticker price quantity bid ask
0 2016-05-25 13:30:00.023 MSFT 51.95 75 NaN NaN
1 2016-05-25 13:30:00.038 MSFT 51.95 155 51.97 51.98
2 2016-05-25 13:30:00.048 GOOG 720.77 100 NaN NaN
3 2016-05-25 13:30:00.048 GOOG 720.92 100 NaN NaN
4 2016-05-25 13:30:00.048 AAPL 98.00 100 NaN NaN

816 Chapter 17. Merge, join, and concatenate

 CHAPTER

EIGHTEEN

RESHAPING AND PIVOT TABLES

18.1 Reshaping by pivoting DataFrame objects

Data is often stored in CSV files or databases in so-called “stacked” or “record” format:

In [1]: df
Out[1]:
date variable value
0 2000-01-03 A 0.469112
1 2000-01-04 A -0.282863
2 2000-01-05 A -1.509059
3 2000-01-03 B -1.135632
4 2000-01-04 B 1.212112
5 2000-01-05 B -0.173215
6 2000-01-03 C 0.119209
7 2000-01-04 C -1.044236
8 2000-01-05 C -0.861849
9 2000-01-03 D -2.104569
10 2000-01-04 D -0.494929
11 2000-01-05 D 1.071804

For the curious here is how the above DataFrame was created:

import pandas.util.testing as tm; tm.N = 3

def unpivot(frame):
N, K = frame.shape
data = {'value' : frame.values.ravel('F'),
'variable' : np.asarray(frame.columns).repeat(N),
'date' : np.tile(np.asarray(frame.index), K)}
return pd.DataFrame(data, columns=['date', 'variable', 'value'])
df = unpivot(tm.makeTimeDataFrame())

To select out everything for variable A we could do:

In [2]: df[df['variable'] == 'A']

Out[2]:
date variable value
0 2000-01-03 A 0.469112
1 2000-01-04 A -0.282863
2 2000-01-05 A -1.509059

But suppose we wish to do time series operations with the variables. A better representation would be where the
columns are the unique variables and an index of dates identifies individual observations. To reshape the data into
this form, use the pivot function:

817
pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [3]: df.pivot(index='date', columns='variable', values='value')

Out[3]:
variable A B C D
date
2000-01-03 0.469112 -1.135632 0.119209 -2.104569
2000-01-04 -0.282863 1.212112 -1.044236 -0.494929
2000-01-05 -1.509059 -0.173215 -0.861849 1.071804

If the values argument is omitted, and the input DataFrame has more than one column of values which are not used
as column or index inputs to pivot, then the resulting “pivoted” DataFrame will have hierarchical columns whose
topmost level indicates the respective value column:

In [4]: df['value2'] = df['value'] * 2

In [5]: pivoted = df.pivot('date', 'variable')

In [6]: pivoted
Out[6]:
value value2 \
variable A B C D A B
date
2000-01-03 0.469112 -1.135632 0.119209 -2.104569 0.938225 -2.271265
2000-01-04 -0.282863 1.212112 -1.044236 -0.494929 -0.565727 2.424224
2000-01-05 -1.509059 -0.173215 -0.861849 1.071804 -3.018117 -0.346429

variable C D
date
2000-01-03 0.238417 -4.209138
2000-01-04 -2.088472 -0.989859
2000-01-05 -1.723698 2.143608

You of course can then select subsets from the pivoted DataFrame:

In [7]: pivoted['value2']
Out[7]:
variable A B C D
date
2000-01-03 0.938225 -2.271265 0.238417 -4.209138
2000-01-04 -0.565727 2.424224 -2.088472 -0.989859
2000-01-05 -3.018117 -0.346429 -1.723698 2.143608

Note that this returns a view on the underlying data in the case where the data are homogeneously-typed.

18.2 Reshaping by stacking and unstacking

Closely related to the pivot function are the related stack and unstack functions currently available on Series and
DataFrame. These functions are designed to work together with MultiIndex objects (see the section on hierarchical
indexing). Here are essentially what these functions do:
• stack: “pivot” a level of the (possibly hierarchical) column labels, returning a DataFrame with an index with
a new inner-most level of row labels.
• unstack: inverse operation from stack: “pivot” a level of the (possibly hierarchical) row index to the column
axis, producing a reshaped DataFrame with a new inner-most level of column labels.

818 Chapter 18. Reshaping and Pivot Tables

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

The clearest way to explain is by example. Let’s take a prior example data set from the hierarchical indexing section:
In [8]: tuples = list(zip(*[['bar', 'bar', 'baz', 'baz',
...: 'foo', 'foo', 'qux', 'qux'],
...: ['one', 'two', 'one', 'two',
...: 'one', 'two', 'one', 'two']]))
...:

In [9]: index = pd.MultiIndex.from_tuples(tuples, names=['first', 'second'])

In [10]: df = pd.DataFrame(np.random.randn(8, 2), index=index, columns=['A', 'B'])

In [11]: df2 = df[:4]

In [12]: df2
Out[12]:
A B
first second
bar one 0.721555 -0.706771
two -1.039575 0.271860
baz one -0.424972 0.567020
two 0.276232 -1.087401

The stack function “compresses” a level in the DataFrame’s columns to produce either:
• A Series, in the case of a simple column Index
• A DataFrame, in the case of a MultiIndex in the columns
If the columns have a MultiIndex, you can choose which level to stack. The stacked level becomes the new lowest
level in a MultiIndex on the columns:
In [13]: stacked = df2.stack()

In [14]: stacked
Out[14]:
first second
bar one A 0.721555
B -0.706771
two A -1.039575
B 0.271860
baz one A -0.424972
B 0.567020
two A 0.276232
B -1.087401
dtype: float64

With a “stacked” DataFrame or Series (having a MultiIndex as the index), the inverse operation of stack is
unstack, which by default unstacks the last level:
In [15]: stacked.unstack()
Out[15]:
A B
first second
bar one 0.721555 -0.706771
two -1.039575 0.271860
baz one -0.424972 0.567020
two 0.276232 -1.087401

In [16]: stacked.unstack(1)

18.2. Reshaping by stacking and unstacking 819

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

second one two

first
bar A 0.721555 -1.039575
B -0.706771 0.271860
baz A -0.424972 0.276232
B 0.567020 -1.087401

In [17]: stacked.unstack(0)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

first bar baz

second
one A 0.721555 -0.424972
B -0.706771 0.567020
two A -1.039575 0.276232
B 0.271860 -1.087401

If the indexes have names, you can use the level names instead of specifying the level numbers:

In [18]: stacked.unstack('second')
Out[18]:
second one two
first
bar A 0.721555 -1.039575
B -0.706771 0.271860
baz A -0.424972 0.276232
B 0.567020 -1.087401

Notice that the stack and unstack methods implicitly sort the index levels involved. Hence a call to stack and
then unstack, or vice versa, will result in a sorted copy of the original DataFrame or Series:

In [19]: index = pd.MultiIndex.from_product([[2,1], ['a', 'b']])

In [20]: df = pd.DataFrame(np.random.randn(4), index=index, columns=['A'])

In [21]: df
Out[21]:
A
2 a -0.370647
b -1.157892
1 a -1.344312
b 0.844885

In [22]: all(df.unstack().stack() == df.sort_index())

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[22]:
˓→True

while the above code will raise a TypeError if the call to sort_index is removed.

18.2.1 Multiple Levels

You may also stack or unstack more than one level at a time by passing a list of levels, in which case the end result is
as if each level in the list were processed individually.

820 Chapter 18. Reshaping and Pivot Tables

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [23]: columns = pd.MultiIndex.from_tuples([

....: ('A', 'cat', 'long'), ('B', 'cat', 'long'),
....: ('A', 'dog', 'short'), ('B', 'dog', 'short')
....: ],
....: names=['exp', 'animal', 'hair_length']
....: )
....:

In [24]: df = pd.DataFrame(np.random.randn(4, 4), columns=columns)

In [25]: df
Out[25]:
exp A B A B
animal cat cat dog dog
hair_length long long short short
0 1.075770 -0.109050 1.643563 -1.469388
1 0.357021 -0.674600 -1.776904 -0.968914
2 -1.294524 0.413738 0.276662 -0.472035
3 -0.013960 -0.362543 -0.006154 -0.923061

In [26]: df.stack(level=['animal', 'hair_length'])

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

exp A B
animal hair_length
0 cat long 1.075770 -0.109050
dog short 1.643563 -1.469388
1 cat long 0.357021 -0.674600
dog short -1.776904 -0.968914
2 cat long -1.294524 0.413738
dog short 0.276662 -0.472035
3 cat long -0.013960 -0.362543
dog short -0.006154 -0.923061

The list of levels can contain either level names or level numbers (but not a mixture of the two).

# df.stack(level=['animal', 'hair_length'])
# from above is equivalent to:
In [27]: df.stack(level=[1, 2])
Out[27]:
exp A B
animal hair_length
0 cat long 1.075770 -0.109050
dog short 1.643563 -1.469388
1 cat long 0.357021 -0.674600
dog short -1.776904 -0.968914
2 cat long -1.294524 0.413738
dog short 0.276662 -0.472035
3 cat long -0.013960 -0.362543
dog short -0.006154 -0.923061

18.2.2 Missing Data

These functions are intelligent about handling missing data and do not expect each subgroup within the hierarchical
index to have the same set of labels. They also can handle the index being unsorted (but you can make it sorted by
calling sort_index, of course). Here is a more complex example:

18.2. Reshaping by stacking and unstacking 821

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [28]: columns = pd.MultiIndex.from_tuples([('A', 'cat'), ('B', 'dog'),

....: ('B', 'cat'), ('A', 'dog')],
....: names=['exp', 'animal'])
....:

In [29]: index = pd.MultiIndex.from_product([('bar', 'baz', 'foo', 'qux'),

....: ('one', 'two')],
....: names=['first', 'second'])
....:

In [30]: df = pd.DataFrame(np.random.randn(8, 4), index=index, columns=columns)

In [31]: df2 = df.iloc[[0, 1, 2, 4, 5, 7]]

In [32]: df2
Out[32]:
exp A B A
animal cat dog cat dog
first second
bar one 0.895717 0.805244 -1.206412 2.565646
two 1.431256 1.340309 -1.170299 -0.226169
baz one 0.410835 0.813850 0.132003 -0.827317
foo one -1.413681 1.607920 1.024180 0.569605
two 0.875906 -2.211372 0.974466 -2.006747
qux two -1.226825 0.769804 -1.281247 -0.727707

As mentioned above, stack can be called with a level argument to select which level in the columns to stack:

In [33]: df2.stack('exp')
Out[33]:
animal cat dog
first second exp
bar one A 0.895717 2.565646
B -1.206412 0.805244
two A 1.431256 -0.226169
B -1.170299 1.340309
baz one A 0.410835 -0.827317
B 0.132003 0.813850
foo one A -1.413681 0.569605
B 1.024180 1.607920
two A 0.875906 -2.006747
B 0.974466 -2.211372
qux two A -1.226825 -0.727707
B -1.281247 0.769804

In [34]: df2.stack('animal')
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

exp A B
first second animal
bar one cat 0.895717 -1.206412
dog 2.565646 0.805244
two cat 1.431256 -1.170299
dog -0.226169 1.340309
baz one cat 0.410835 0.132003
dog -0.827317 0.813850
foo one cat -1.413681 1.024180
dog 0.569605 1.607920

822 Chapter 18. Reshaping and Pivot Tables

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

two cat 0.875906 0.974466

dog -2.006747 -2.211372
qux two cat -1.226825 -1.281247
dog -0.727707 0.769804

Unstacking can result in missing values if subgroups do not have the same set of labels. By default, missing values
will be replaced with the default fill value for that data type, NaN for float, NaT for datetimelike, etc. For integer types,
by default data will converted to float and missing values will be set to NaN.

In [35]: df3 = df.iloc[[0, 1, 4, 7], [1, 2]]

In [36]: df3
Out[36]:
exp B
animal dog cat
first second
bar one 0.805244 -1.206412
two 1.340309 -1.170299
foo one 1.607920 1.024180
qux two 0.769804 -1.281247

In [37]: df3.unstack()
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

exp B
animal dog cat
second one two one two
first
bar 0.805244 1.340309 -1.206412 -1.170299
foo 1.607920 NaN 1.024180 NaN
qux NaN 0.769804 NaN -1.281247

Alternatively, unstack takes an optional fill_value argument, for specifying the value of missing data.

In [38]: df3.unstack(fill_value=-1e9)
Out[38]:
exp B
animal dog cat
second one two one two
first
bar 8.052440e-01 1.340309e+00 -1.206412e+00 -1.170299e+00
foo 1.607920e+00 -1.000000e+09 1.024180e+00 -1.000000e+09
qux -1.000000e+09 7.698036e-01 -1.000000e+09 -1.281247e+00

18.2.3 With a MultiIndex

Unstacking when the columns are a MultiIndex is also careful about doing the right thing:

In [39]: df[:3].unstack(0)
Out[39]:
exp A B A \
animal cat dog cat dog
first bar baz bar baz bar baz bar
second
one 0.895717 0.410835 0.805244 0.81385 -1.206412 0.132003 2.565646
two 1.431256 NaN 1.340309 NaN -1.170299 NaN -0.226169

18.2. Reshaping by stacking and unstacking 823

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

exp
animal
first baz
second
one -0.827317
two NaN

In [40]: df2.unstack(1)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

exp A B A \
animal cat dog cat dog
second one two one two one two one
first
bar 0.895717 1.431256 0.805244 1.340309 -1.206412 -1.170299 2.565646
baz 0.410835 NaN 0.813850 NaN 0.132003 NaN -0.827317
foo -1.413681 0.875906 1.607920 -2.211372 1.024180 0.974466 0.569605
qux NaN -1.226825 NaN 0.769804 NaN -1.281247 NaN

exp
animal
second two
first
bar -0.226169
baz NaN
foo -2.006747
qux -0.727707

18.3 Reshaping by Melt

The top-level melt() and melt() functions are useful to massage a DataFrame into a format where one or more
columns are identifier variables, while all other columns, considered measured variables, are “unpivoted” to the row
axis, leaving just two non-identifier columns, “variable” and “value”. The names of those columns can be customized
by supplying the var_name and value_name parameters.
For instance,
In [41]: cheese = pd.DataFrame({'first' : ['John', 'Mary'],
....: 'last' : ['Doe', 'Bo'],
....: 'height' : [5.5, 6.0],
....: 'weight' : [130, 150]})
....:

In [42]: cheese
Out[42]:
first height last weight
0 John 5.5 Doe 130
1 Mary 6.0 Bo 150

In [43]: cheese.melt(id_vars=['first', 'last'])

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[
˓→

first last variable value

0 John Doe height 5.5
1 Mary Bo height 6.0

824 Chapter 18. Reshaping and Pivot Tables

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

2 John Doe weight 130.0

3 Mary Bo weight 150.0

In [44]: cheese.melt(id_vars=['first', 'last'], var_name='quantity')

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

first last quantity value

0 John Doe height 5.5
1 Mary Bo height 6.0
2 John Doe weight 130.0
3 Mary Bo weight 150.0

Another way to transform is to use the wide_to_long panel data convenience function.

In [45]: dft = pd.DataFrame({"A1970" : {0 : "a", 1 : "b", 2 : "c"},

....: "A1980" : {0 : "d", 1 : "e", 2 : "f"},
....: "B1970" : {0 : 2.5, 1 : 1.2, 2 : .7},
....: "B1980" : {0 : 3.2, 1 : 1.3, 2 : .1},
....: "X" : dict(zip(range(3), np.random.randn(3)))
....: })
....:

In [46]: dft["id"] = dft.index

In [47]: dft
Out[47]:
A1970 A1980 B1970 B1980 X id
0 a d 2.5 3.2 -0.121306 0
1 b e 1.2 1.3 -0.097883 1
2 c f 0.7 0.1 0.695775 2

In [48]: pd.wide_to_long(dft, ["A", "B"], i="id", j="year")

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

X A B
id year
0 1970 -0.121306 a 2.5
1 1970 -0.097883 b 1.2
2 1970 0.695775 c 0.7
0 1980 -0.121306 d 3.2
1 1980 -0.097883 e 1.3
2 1980 0.695775 f 0.1

18.4 Combining with stats and GroupBy

It should be no shock that combining pivot / stack / unstack with GroupBy and the basic Series and DataFrame
statistical functions can produce some very expressive and fast data manipulations.

In [49]: df
Out[49]:
exp A B A
animal cat dog cat dog
first second
bar one 0.895717 0.805244 -1.206412 2.565646
two 1.431256 1.340309 -1.170299 -0.226169

18.4. Combining with stats and GroupBy 825

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

baz one 0.410835 0.813850 0.132003 -0.827317

two -0.076467 -1.187678 1.130127 -1.436737
foo one -1.413681 1.607920 1.024180 0.569605
two 0.875906 -2.211372 0.974466 -2.006747
qux one -0.410001 -0.078638 0.545952 -1.219217
two -1.226825 0.769804 -1.281247 -0.727707

In [50]: df.stack().mean(1).unstack()
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

animal cat dog

first second
bar one -0.155347 1.685445
two 0.130479 0.557070
baz one 0.271419 -0.006733
two 0.526830 -1.312207
foo one -0.194750 1.088763
two 0.925186 -2.109060
qux one 0.067976 -0.648927
two -1.254036 0.021048

# same result, another way

In [51]: df.groupby(level=1, axis=1).mean()
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

animal cat dog

first second
bar one -0.155347 1.685445
two 0.130479 0.557070
baz one 0.271419 -0.006733
two 0.526830 -1.312207
foo one -0.194750 1.088763
two 0.925186 -2.109060
qux one 0.067976 -0.648927
two -1.254036 0.021048

In [52]: df.stack().groupby(level=1).mean()
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

exp A B
second
one 0.071448 0.455513
two -0.424186 -0.204486

In [53]: df.mean().unstack(0)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

exp A B
animal
cat 0.060843 0.018596
dog -0.413580 0.232430

826 Chapter 18. Reshaping and Pivot Tables

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

18.5 Pivot tables

While pivot provides general purpose pivoting of DataFrames with various data types (strings, numerics, etc.),
Pandas also provides the pivot_table function for pivoting with aggregation of numeric data.
The function pandas.pivot_table can be used to create spreadsheet-style pivot tables. See the cookbook for
some advanced strategies
It takes a number of arguments
• data: A DataFrame object
• values: a column or a list of columns to aggregate
• index: a column, Grouper, array which has the same length as data, or list of them. Keys to group by on the
pivot table index. If an array is passed, it is being used as the same manner as column values.
• columns: a column, Grouper, array which has the same length as data, or list of them. Keys to group by on
the pivot table column. If an array is passed, it is being used as the same manner as column values.
• aggfunc: function to use for aggregation, defaulting to numpy.mean
Consider a data set like this:

In [54]: import datetime

In [55]: df = pd.DataFrame({'A': ['one', 'one', 'two', 'three'] * 6,

....: 'B': ['A', 'B', 'C'] * 8,
....: 'C': ['foo', 'foo', 'foo', 'bar', 'bar', 'bar'] * 4,
....: 'D': np.random.randn(24),
....: 'E': np.random.randn(24),
....: 'F': [datetime.datetime(2013, i, 1) for i in range(1,
˓→13)] +

....: [datetime.datetime(2013, i, 15) for i in range(1,

˓→13)]})

....:

In [56]: df
Out[56]:
A B C D E F
0 one A foo 0.341734 -0.317441 2013-01-01
1 one B foo 0.959726 -1.236269 2013-02-01
2 two C foo -1.110336 0.896171 2013-03-01
3 three A bar -0.619976 -0.487602 2013-04-01
4 one B bar 0.149748 -0.082240 2013-05-01
5 one C bar -0.732339 -2.182937 2013-06-01
6 two A foo 0.687738 0.380396 2013-07-01
.. ... .. ... ... ... ...
17 one C bar -0.345352 0.206053 2013-06-15
18 two A foo 1.314232 -0.251905 2013-07-15
19 three B foo 0.690579 -2.213588 2013-08-15
20 one C foo 0.995761 1.063327 2013-09-15
21 one A bar 2.396780 1.266143 2013-10-15
22 two B bar 0.014871 0.299368 2013-11-15
23 three C bar 3.357427 -0.863838 2013-12-15

[24 rows x 6 columns]

We can produce pivot tables from this data very easily:

18.5. Pivot tables 827

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [57]: pd.pivot_table(df, values='D', index=['A', 'B'], columns=['C'])

Out[57]:
C bar foo
A B
one A 1.120915 -0.514058
B -0.338421 0.002759
C -0.538846 0.699535
three A -1.181568 NaN
B NaN 0.433512
C 0.588783 NaN
two A NaN 1.000985
B 0.158248 NaN
C NaN 0.176180

In [58]: pd.pivot_table(df, values='D', index=['B'], columns=['A', 'C'], aggfunc=np.

˓→sum)

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

A one three two

C bar foo bar foo bar foo
B
A 2.241830 -1.028115 -2.363137 NaN NaN 2.001971
B -0.676843 0.005518 NaN 0.867024 0.316495 NaN
C -1.077692 1.399070 1.177566 NaN NaN 0.352360

In [59]: pd.pivot_table(df, values=['D','E'], index=['B'], columns=['A', 'C'],

˓→aggfunc=np.sum)

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

D E \
A one three two one
C bar foo bar foo bar foo bar
B
A 2.241830 -1.028115 -2.363137 NaN NaN 2.001971 2.786113
B -0.676843 0.005518 NaN 0.867024 0.316495 NaN 1.368280
C -1.077692 1.399070 1.177566 NaN NaN 0.352360 -1.976883

A three two
C foo bar foo bar foo
B
A -0.043211 1.922577 NaN NaN 0.128491
B -1.103384 NaN -2.128743 -0.194294 NaN
C 1.495717 -0.263660 NaN NaN 0.872482

The result object is a DataFrame having potentially hierarchical indexes on the rows and columns. If the values
column name is not given, the pivot table will include all of the data that can be aggregated in an additional level of
hierarchy in the columns:
In [60]: pd.pivot_table(df, index=['A', 'B'], columns=['C'])
Out[60]:
D E
C bar foo bar foo
A B
one A 1.120915 -0.514058 1.393057 -0.021605
B -0.338421 0.002759 0.684140 -0.551692
C -0.538846 0.699535 -0.988442 0.747859
three A -1.181568 NaN 0.961289 NaN

828 Chapter 18. Reshaping and Pivot Tables

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

B NaN 0.433512 NaN -1.064372

C 0.588783 NaN -0.131830 NaN
two A NaN 1.000985 NaN 0.064245
B 0.158248 NaN -0.097147 NaN
C NaN 0.176180 NaN 0.436241

Also, you can use Grouper for index and columns keywords. For detail of Grouper, see Grouping with a
Grouper specification.

In [61]: pd.pivot_table(df, values='D', index=pd.Grouper(freq='M', key='F'), columns=

˓→'C')

Out[61]:
C bar foo
F
2013-01-31 NaN -0.514058
2013-02-28 NaN 0.002759
2013-03-31 NaN 0.176180
2013-04-30 -1.181568 NaN
2013-05-31 -0.338421 NaN
2013-06-30 -0.538846 NaN
2013-07-31 NaN 1.000985
2013-08-31 NaN 0.433512
2013-09-30 NaN 0.699535
2013-10-31 1.120915 NaN
2013-11-30 0.158248 NaN
2013-12-31 0.588783 NaN

You can render a nice output of the table omitting the missing values by calling to_string if you wish:

In [62]: table = pd.pivot_table(df, index=['A', 'B'], columns=['C'])

In [63]: print(table.to_string(na_rep=''))
D E
C bar foo bar foo
A B
one A 1.120915 -0.514058 1.393057 -0.021605
B -0.338421 0.002759 0.684140 -0.551692
C -0.538846 0.699535 -0.988442 0.747859
three A -1.181568 0.961289
B 0.433512 -1.064372
C 0.588783 -0.131830
two A 1.000985 0.064245
B 0.158248 -0.097147
C 0.176180 0.436241

Note that pivot_table is also available as an instance method on DataFrame.

18.5.1 Adding margins

If you pass margins=True to pivot_table, special All columns and rows will be added with partial group
aggregates across the categories on the rows and columns:

In [64]: df.pivot_table(index=['A', 'B'], columns='C', margins=True, aggfunc=np.std)

Out[64]:
D E
C bar foo All bar foo All

18.5. Pivot tables 829

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

A B
one A 1.804346 1.210272 1.569879 0.179483 0.418374 0.858005
B 0.690376 1.353355 0.898998 1.083825 0.968138 1.101401
C 0.273641 0.418926 0.771139 1.689271 0.446140 1.422136
three A 0.794212 NaN 0.794212 2.049040 NaN 2.049040
B NaN 0.363548 0.363548 NaN 1.625237 1.625237
C 3.915454 NaN 3.915454 1.035215 NaN 1.035215
two A NaN 0.442998 0.442998 NaN 0.447104 0.447104
B 0.202765 NaN 0.202765 0.560757 NaN 0.560757
C NaN 1.819408 1.819408 NaN 0.650439 0.650439
All 1.556686 0.952552 1.246608 1.250924 0.899904 1.059389

18.6 Cross tabulations

Use the crosstab function to compute a cross-tabulation of two (or more) factors. By default crosstab computes
a frequency table of the factors unless an array of values and an aggregation function are passed.
It takes a number of arguments
• index: array-like, values to group by in the rows
• columns: array-like, values to group by in the columns
• values: array-like, optional, array of values to aggregate according to the factors
• aggfunc: function, optional, If no values array is passed, computes a frequency table
• rownames: sequence, default None, must match number of row arrays passed
• colnames: sequence, default None, if passed, must match number of column arrays passed
• margins: boolean, default False, Add row/column margins (subtotals)
• normalize: boolean, {‘all’, ‘index’, ‘columns’}, or {0,1}, default False. Normalize by dividing all values
by the sum of values.
Any Series passed will have their name attributes used unless row or column names for the cross-tabulation are speci-
fied
For example:

In [65]: foo, bar, dull, shiny, one, two = 'foo', 'bar', 'dull', 'shiny', 'one', 'two'

In [66]: a = np.array([foo, foo, bar, bar, foo, foo], dtype=object)

In [67]: b = np.array([one, one, two, one, two, one], dtype=object)

In [68]: c = np.array([dull, dull, shiny, dull, dull, shiny], dtype=object)

In [69]: pd.crosstab(a, [b, c], rownames=['a'], colnames=['b', 'c'])

Out[69]:
b one two
c dull shiny dull shiny
a
bar 1 0 0 1
foo 2 1 1 0

If crosstab receives only two Series, it will provide a frequency table.

830 Chapter 18. Reshaping and Pivot Tables

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [70]: df = pd.DataFrame({'A': [1, 2, 2, 2, 2], 'B': [3, 3, 4, 4, 4],

....: 'C': [1, 1, np.nan, 1, 1]})
....:

In [71]: df
Out[71]:
A B C
0 1 3 1.0
1 2 3 1.0
2 2 4 NaN
3 2 4 1.0
4 2 4 1.0

In [72]: pd.crosstab(df.A, df.B)

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[72]:
˓→

B 3 4
A
1 1 0
2 1 3

Any input passed containing Categorical data will have all of its categories included in the cross-tabulation, even
if the actual data does not contain any instances of a particular category.
In [73]: foo = pd.Categorical(['a', 'b'], categories=['a', 'b', 'c'])

In [74]: bar = pd.Categorical(['d', 'e'], categories=['d', 'e', 'f'])

In [75]: pd.crosstab(foo, bar)

Out[75]:
col_0 d e f
row_0
a 1 0 0
b 0 1 0
c 0 0 0

18.6.1 Normalization

New in version 0.18.1.

Frequency tables can also be normalized to show percentages rather than counts using the normalize argument:
In [76]: pd.crosstab(df.A, df.B, normalize=True)
Out[76]:
B 3 4
A
1 0.2 0.0
2 0.2 0.6

normalize can also normalize values within each row or within each column:
In [77]: pd.crosstab(df.A, df.B, normalize='columns')
Out[77]:
B 3 4
A
1 0.5 0.0
2 0.5 1.0

18.6. Cross tabulations 831

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

crosstab can also be passed a third Series and an aggregation function (aggfunc) that will be applied to the values
of the third Series within each group defined by the first two Series:

In [78]: pd.crosstab(df.A, df.B, values=df.C, aggfunc=np.sum)

Out[78]:
B 3 4
A
1 1.0 NaN
2 1.0 2.0

18.6.2 Adding Margins

Finally, one can also add margins or normalize this output.

In [79]: pd.crosstab(df.A, df.B, values=df.C, aggfunc=np.sum, normalize=True,

....: margins=True)
....:
Out[79]:
B 3 4 All
A
1 0.25 0.0 0.25
2 0.25 0.5 0.75
All 0.50 0.5 1.00

18.7 Tiling

The cut function computes groupings for the values of the input array and is often used to transform continuous
variables to discrete or categorical variables:

In [80]: ages = np.array([10, 15, 13, 12, 23, 25, 28, 59, 60])

In [81]: pd.cut(ages, bins=3)

Out[81]:
[(9.95, 26.667], (9.95, 26.667], (9.95, 26.667], (9.95, 26.667], (9.95, 26.667], (9.
˓→95, 26.667], (26.667, 43.333], (43.333, 60.0], (43.333, 60.0]]

Categories (3, interval[float64]): [(9.95, 26.667] < (26.667, 43.333] < (43.333, 60.
˓→0]]

If the bins keyword is an integer, then equal-width bins are formed. Alternatively we can specify custom bin-edges:

In [82]: c = pd.cut(ages, bins=[0, 18, 35, 70])

In [83]: c
Out[83]:
[(0, 18], (0, 18], (0, 18], (0, 18], (18, 35], (18, 35], (18, 35], (35, 70], (35, 70]]
Categories (3, interval[int64]): [(0, 18] < (18, 35] < (35, 70]]

New in version 0.20.0.

If the bins keyword is an IntervalIndex, then these will be used to bin the passed data.
pd.cut([25, 20, 50], bins=c.categories)

832 Chapter 18. Reshaping and Pivot Tables

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

18.8 Computing indicator / dummy variables

To convert a categorical variable into a “dummy” or “indicator” DataFrame, for example a column in a DataFrame (a
Series) which has k distinct values, can derive a DataFrame containing k columns of 1s and 0s:
In [84]: df = pd.DataFrame({'key': list('bbacab'), 'data1': range(6)})

In [85]: pd.get_dummies(df['key'])
Out[85]:
a b c
0 0 1 0
1 0 1 0
2 1 0 0
3 0 0 1
4 1 0 0
5 0 1 0

Sometimes it’s useful to prefix the column names, for example when merging the result with the original DataFrame:
In [86]: dummies = pd.get_dummies(df['key'], prefix='key')

In [87]: dummies
Out[87]:
key_a key_b key_c
0 0 1 0
1 0 1 0
2 1 0 0
3 0 0 1
4 1 0 0
5 0 1 0

In [88]: df[['data1']].join(dummies)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

data1 key_a key_b key_c

0 0 0 1 0
1 1 0 1 0
2 2 1 0 0
3 3 0 0 1
4 4 1 0 0
5 5 0 1 0

This function is often used along with discretization functions like cut:
In [89]: values = np.random.randn(10)

In [90]: values
Out[90]:
array([ 0.4082, -1.0481, -0.0257, -0.9884, 0.0941, 1.2627, 1.29 ,
0.0824, -0.0558, 0.5366])

In [91]: bins = [0, 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8, 1]

In [92]: pd.get_dummies(pd.cut(values, bins))

Out[92]:
(0.0, 0.2] (0.2, 0.4] (0.4, 0.6] (0.6, 0.8] (0.8, 1.0]
0 0 0 1 0 0
1 0 0 0 0 0

18.8. Computing indicator / dummy variables 833

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

2 0 0 0 0 0
3 0 0 0 0 0
4 1 0 0 0 0
5 0 0 0 0 0
6 0 0 0 0 0
7 1 0 0 0 0
8 0 0 0 0 0
9 0 0 1 0 0

See also Series.str.get_dummies.

get_dummies() also accepts a DataFrame. By default all categorical variables (categorical in the statistical sense,
those with object or categorical dtype) are encoded as dummy variables.
In [93]: df = pd.DataFrame({'A': ['a', 'b', 'a'], 'B': ['c', 'c', 'b'],
....: 'C': [1, 2, 3]})
....:

In [94]: pd.get_dummies(df)
Out[94]:
C A_a A_b B_b B_c
0 1 1 0 0 1
1 2 0 1 0 1
2 3 1 0 1 0

All non-object columns are included untouched in the output.

You can control the columns that are encoded with the columns keyword.
In [95]: pd.get_dummies(df, columns=['A'])
Out[95]:
B C A_a A_b
0 c 1 1 0
1 c 2 0 1
2 b 3 1 0

Notice that the B column is still included in the output, it just hasn’t been encoded. You can drop B before calling
get_dummies if you don’t want to include it in the output.
As with the Series version, you can pass values for the prefix and prefix_sep. By default the column name is
used as the prefix, and ‘_’ as the prefix separator. You can specify prefix and prefix_sep in 3 ways
• string: Use the same value for prefix or prefix_sep for each column to be encoded
• list: Must be the same length as the number of columns being encoded.
• dict: Mapping column name to prefix
In [96]: simple = pd.get_dummies(df, prefix='new_prefix')

In [97]: simple
Out[97]:
C new_prefix_a new_prefix_b new_prefix_b new_prefix_c
0 1 1 0 0 1
1 2 0 1 0 1
2 3 1 0 1 0

In [98]: from_list = pd.get_dummies(df, prefix=['from_A', 'from_B'])

In [99]: from_list

834 Chapter 18. Reshaping and Pivot Tables

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Out[99]:
C from_A_a from_A_b from_B_b from_B_c
0 1 1 0 0 1
1 2 0 1 0 1
2 3 1 0 1 0

In [100]: from_dict = pd.get_dummies(df, prefix={'B': 'from_B', 'A': 'from_A'})

In [101]: from_dict
Out[101]:
C from_A_a from_A_b from_B_b from_B_c
0 1 1 0 0 1
1 2 0 1 0 1
2 3 1 0 1 0

New in version 0.18.0.

Sometimes it will be useful to only keep k-1 levels of a categorical variable to avoid collinearity when feeding the
result to statistical models. You can switch to this mode by turn on drop_first.

In [102]: s = pd.Series(list('abcaa'))

In [103]: pd.get_dummies(s)
Out[103]:
a b c
0 1 0 0
1 0 1 0
2 0 0 1
3 1 0 0
4 1 0 0

In [104]: pd.get_dummies(s, drop_first=True)

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[104]:
˓→

b c
0 0 0
1 1 0
2 0 1
3 0 0
4 0 0

When a column contains only one level, it will be omitted in the result.

In [105]: df = pd.DataFrame({'A':list('aaaaa'),'B':list('ababc')})

In [106]: pd.get_dummies(df)
Out[106]:
A_a B_a B_b B_c
0 1 1 0 0
1 1 0 1 0
2 1 1 0 0
3 1 0 1 0
4 1 0 0 1

In [107]: pd.get_dummies(df, drop_first=True)

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

B_b B_c

18.8. Computing indicator / dummy variables 835

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

0 0 0
1 1 0
2 0 0
3 1 0
4 0 1

18.9 Factorizing values

To encode 1-d values as an enumerated type use factorize:

In [108]: x = pd.Series(['A', 'A', np.nan, 'B', 3.14, np.inf])

In [109]: x
Out[109]:
0 A
1 A
2 NaN
3 B
4 3.14
5 inf
dtype: object

In [110]: labels, uniques = pd.factorize(x)

In [111]: labels
Out[111]: array([ 0, 0, -1, 1, 2, 3])

In [112]: uniques
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[112]: Index(['A', 'B', 3.14, inf],
˓→dtype='object')

Note that factorize is similar to numpy.unique, but differs in its handling of NaN:

Note: The following numpy.unique will fail under Python 3 with a TypeError because of an ordering bug. See
also Here

In [2]: pd.factorize(x, sort=True)

Out[2]:
(array([ 2, 2, -1, 3, 0, 1]),
Index([3.14, inf, u'A', u'B'], dtype='object'))

In [3]: np.unique(x, return_inverse=True)[::-1]

Out[3]: (array([3, 3, 0, 4, 1, 2]), array([nan, 3.14, inf, 'A', 'B'], dtype=object))

Note: If you just want to handle one column as a categorical variable (like R’s factor), you can use df["cat_col"]
= pd.Categorical(df["col"]) or df["cat_col"] = df["col"].astype("category"). For
full docs on Categorical, see the Categorical introduction and the API documentation.

836 Chapter 18. Reshaping and Pivot Tables

 CHAPTER

NINETEEN

TIME SERIES / DATE FUNCTIONALITY

pandas has proven very successful as a tool for working with time series data, especially in the financial data anal-
ysis space. Using the NumPy datetime64 and timedelta64 dtypes, we have consolidated a large number of
features from other Python libraries like scikits.timeseries as well as created a tremendous amount of new
functionality for manipulating time series data.
In working with time series data, we will frequently seek to:
• generate sequences of fixed-frequency dates and time spans
• conform or convert time series to a particular frequency
• compute “relative” dates based on various non-standard time increments (e.g. 5 business days before the last
business day of the year), or “roll” dates forward or backward
pandas provides a relatively compact and self-contained set of tools for performing the above tasks.
Create a range of dates:

# 72 hours starting with midnight Jan 1st, 2011

In [1]: rng = pd.date_range('1/1/2011', periods=72, freq='H')

In [2]: rng[:5]
Out[2]:
DatetimeIndex(['2011-01-01 00:00:00', '2011-01-01 01:00:00',
'2011-01-01 02:00:00', '2011-01-01 03:00:00',
'2011-01-01 04:00:00'],
dtype='datetime64[ns]', freq='H')

Index pandas objects with dates:

In [3]: ts = pd.Series(np.random.randn(len(rng)), index=rng)

In [4]: ts.head()
Out[4]:
2011-01-01 00:00:00 0.469112
2011-01-01 01:00:00 -0.282863
2011-01-01 02:00:00 -1.509059
2011-01-01 03:00:00 -1.135632
2011-01-01 04:00:00 1.212112
Freq: H, dtype: float64

Change frequency and fill gaps:

# to 45 minute frequency and forward fill

In [5]: converted = ts.asfreq('45Min', method='pad')

837
pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [6]: converted.head()
Out[6]:
2011-01-01 00:00:00 0.469112
2011-01-01 00:45:00 0.469112
2011-01-01 01:30:00 -0.282863
2011-01-01 02:15:00 -1.509059
2011-01-01 03:00:00 -1.135632
Freq: 45T, dtype: float64

Resample:

# Daily means
In [7]: ts.resample('D').mean()
Out[7]:
2011-01-01 -0.319569
2011-01-02 -0.337703
2011-01-03 0.117258
Freq: D, dtype: float64

19.1 Overview

Following table shows the type of time-related classes pandas can handle and how to create them.
Class Remarks How to create
Timestamp Represents a single to_datetime, Timestamp
timestamp
DatetimeIndex Index of Timestamp to_datetime, date_range, bdate_range,
DatetimeIndex
Period Represents a single time Period
span
PeriodIndex Index of Period period_range, PeriodIndex

19.2 Timestamps vs. Time Spans

Timestamped data is the most basic type of time series data that associates values with points in time. For pandas
objects it means using the points in time.

In [8]: pd.Timestamp(datetime(2012, 5, 1))

Out[8]: Timestamp('2012-05-01 00:00:00')

In [9]: pd.Timestamp('2012-05-01')
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[9]: Timestamp('2012-05-01 00:00:00')

In [10]: pd.Timestamp(2012, 5, 1)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[10]:
˓→Timestamp('2012-05-01 00:00:00')

However, in many cases it is more natural to associate things like change variables with a time span instead. The span
represented by Period can be specified explicitly, or inferred from datetime string format.
For example:

838 Chapter 19. Time Series / Date functionality

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [11]: pd.Period('2011-01')
Out[11]: Period('2011-01', 'M')

In [12]: pd.Period('2012-05', freq='D')

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[12]: Period('2012-05-01', 'D')

Timestamp and Period can be the index. Lists of Timestamp and Period are automatically coerced to
DatetimeIndex and PeriodIndex respectively.

In [13]: dates = [pd.Timestamp('2012-05-01'), pd.Timestamp('2012-05-02'), pd.

˓→Timestamp('2012-05-03')]

In [14]: ts = pd.Series(np.random.randn(3), dates)

In [15]: type(ts.index)
Out[15]: pandas.core.indexes.datetimes.DatetimeIndex

In [16]: ts.index
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[16]: DatetimeIndex(['2012-05-
˓→01', '2012-05-02', '2012-05-03'], dtype='datetime64[ns]', freq=None)

In [17]: ts
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

2012-05-01 -0.410001
2012-05-02 -0.078638
2012-05-03 0.545952
dtype: float64

In [18]: periods = [pd.Period('2012-01'), pd.Period('2012-02'), pd.Period('2012-03')]

In [19]: ts = pd.Series(np.random.randn(3), periods)

In [20]: type(ts.index)
Out[20]: pandas.core.indexes.period.PeriodIndex

In [21]: ts.index
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[21]: PeriodIndex(['2012-01',
˓→'2012-02', '2012-03'], dtype='period[M]', freq='M')

In [22]: ts
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

2012-01 -1.219217
2012-02 -1.226825
2012-03 0.769804
Freq: M, dtype: float64

pandas allows you to capture both representations and convert between them. Under the hood, pandas represents
timestamps using instances of Timestamp and sequences of timestamps using instances of DatetimeIndex. For
regular time spans, pandas uses Period objects for scalar values and PeriodIndex for sequences of spans. Better
support for irregular intervals with arbitrary start and end points are forth-coming in future releases.

19.2. Timestamps vs. Time Spans 839

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

19.3 Converting to Timestamps

To convert a Series or list-like object of date-like objects e.g. strings, epochs, or a mixture, you can use the
to_datetime function. When passed a Series, this returns a Series (with the same index), while a list-like is
converted to a DatetimeIndex:

In [23]: pd.to_datetime(pd.Series(['Jul 31, 2009', '2010-01-10', None]))

Out[23]:
0 2009-07-31
1 2010-01-10
2 NaT
dtype: datetime64[ns]

In [24]: pd.to_datetime(['2005/11/23', '2010.12.31'])

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[24]:
˓→DatetimeIndex(['2005-11-23', '2010-12-31'], dtype='datetime64[ns]', freq=None)

If you use dates which start with the day first (i.e. European style), you can pass the dayfirst flag:

In [25]: pd.to_datetime(['04-01-2012 10:00'], dayfirst=True)

Out[25]: DatetimeIndex(['2012-01-04 10:00:00'], dtype='datetime64[ns]', freq=None)

In [26]: pd.to_datetime(['14-01-2012', '01-14-2012'], dayfirst=True)

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[26]:
˓→DatetimeIndex(['2012-01-14', '2012-01-14'], dtype='datetime64[ns]', freq=None)

Warning: You see in the above example that dayfirst isn’t strict, so if a date can’t be parsed with the day
being first it will be parsed as if dayfirst were False.

If you pass a single string to to_datetime, it returns a single Timestamp. Timestamp can also accept string
input, but it doesn’t accept string parsing options like dayfirst or format, so use to_datetime if these are
required.

In [27]: pd.to_datetime('2010/11/12')
Out[27]: Timestamp('2010-11-12 00:00:00')

In [28]: pd.Timestamp('2010/11/12')
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[28]: Timestamp('2010-11-12 00:00:00')

19.3.1 Providing a Format Argument

In addition to the required datetime string, a format argument can be passed to ensure specific parsing. This could
also potentially speed up the conversion considerably.

In [29]: pd.to_datetime('2010/11/12', format='%Y/%m/%d')

Out[29]: Timestamp('2010-11-12 00:00:00')

In [30]: pd.to_datetime('12-11-2010 00:00', format='%d-%m-%Y %H:%M')

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[30]: Timestamp('2010-11-12 00:00:00')

For more information on how to specify the format options, see https://docs.python.org/3/library/datetime.html#
strftime-and-strptime-behavior.

840 Chapter 19. Time Series / Date functionality

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

19.3.2 Assembling Datetime from Multiple DataFrame Columns

New in version 0.18.1.

You can also pass a DataFrame of integer or string columns to assemble into a Series of Timestamps.

In [31]: df = pd.DataFrame({'year': [2015, 2016],

....: 'month': [2, 3],
....: 'day': [4, 5],
....: 'hour': [2, 3]})
....:

In [32]: pd.to_datetime(df)
Out[32]:
0 2015-02-04 02:00:00
1 2016-03-05 03:00:00
dtype: datetime64[ns]

You can pass only the columns that you need to assemble.

In [33]: pd.to_datetime(df[['year', 'month', 'day']])

Out[33]:
0 2015-02-04
1 2016-03-05
dtype: datetime64[ns]

pd.to_datetime looks for standard designations of the datetime component in the column names, including:
• required: year, month, day
• optional: hour, minute, second, millisecond, microsecond, nanosecond

19.3.3 Invalid Data

Note: In version 0.17.0, the default for to_datetime is now errors='raise', rather than
errors='ignore'. This means that invalid parsing will raise rather that return the original input as in previous
versions.

The default behavior, errors='raise', is to raise when unparseable:

In [2]: pd.to_datetime(['2009/07/31', 'asd'], errors='raise')

ValueError: Unknown string format

Pass errors='ignore' to return the original input when unparseable:

In [34]: pd.to_datetime(['2009/07/31', 'asd'], errors='ignore')

Out[34]: array(['2009/07/31', 'asd'], dtype=object)

Pass errors='coerce' to convert unparseable data to NaT (not a time):

In [35]: pd.to_datetime(['2009/07/31', 'asd'], errors='coerce')

Out[35]: DatetimeIndex(['2009-07-31', 'NaT'], dtype='datetime64[ns]', freq=None)

19.3. Converting to Timestamps 841

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

19.3.4 Epoch Timestamps

pandas supports converting integer or float epoch times to Timestamp and DatetimeIndex. The default unit is
nanoseconds, since that is how Timestamp objects are stored internally. However, epochs are often stored in another
unit which can be specified. These are computed from the starting point specified by the origin parameter.

In [36]: pd.to_datetime([1349720105, 1349806505, 1349892905,

....: 1349979305, 1350065705], unit='s')
....:
Out[36]:
DatetimeIndex(['2012-10-08 18:15:05', '2012-10-09 18:15:05',
'2012-10-10 18:15:05', '2012-10-11 18:15:05',
'2012-10-12 18:15:05'],
dtype='datetime64[ns]', freq=None)

In [37]: pd.to_datetime([1349720105100, 1349720105200, 1349720105300,

....: 1349720105400, 1349720105500 ], unit='ms')
....:
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

DatetimeIndex(['2012-10-08 18:15:05.100000', '2012-10-08 18:15:05.200000',

'2012-10-08 18:15:05.300000', '2012-10-08 18:15:05.400000',
'2012-10-08 18:15:05.500000'],
dtype='datetime64[ns]', freq=None)

Note: Epoch times will be rounded to the nearest nanosecond.

Warning: Conversion of float epoch times can lead to inaccurate and unexpected results. Python floats have
about 15 digits precision in decimal. Rounding during conversion from float to high precision Timestamp is
unavoidable. The only way to achieve exact precision is to use a fixed-width types (e.g. an int64).
In [38]: pd.to_datetime([1490195805.433, 1490195805.433502912], unit='s')
Out[38]: DatetimeIndex(['2017-03-22 15:16:45.433000', '2017-03-22 15:16:45.433503'],
˓→ dtype='datetime64[ns]', freq=None)

In [39]: pd.to_datetime(1490195805433502912, unit='ns')

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→Timestamp('2017-03-22 15:16:45.433502912')

See also:
Using the origin Parameter

19.3.5 From Timestamps to Epoch

To invert the operation from above, namely, to convert from a Timestamp to a ‘unix’ epoch:

In [40]: stamps = pd.date_range('2012-10-08 18:15:05', periods=4, freq='D')

In [41]: stamps
Out[41]:
DatetimeIndex(['2012-10-08 18:15:05', '2012-10-09 18:15:05',

842 Chapter 19. Time Series / Date functionality

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

'2012-10-10 18:15:05', '2012-10-11 18:15:05'],

dtype='datetime64[ns]', freq='D')

We convert the DatetimeIndex to an int64 array, then divide by the conversion unit.

In [42]: stamps.view('int64') // pd.Timedelta(1, unit='s')

Out[42]: array([1349720105, 1349806505, 1349892905, 1349979305])

19.3.6 Using the origin Parameter

New in version 0.20.0.

Using the origin parameter, one can specify an alternative starting point for creation of a DatetimeIndex. For
example, to use 1960-01-01 as the starting date:

In [43]: pd.to_datetime([1, 2, 3], unit='D', origin=pd.Timestamp('1960-01-01'))

Out[43]: DatetimeIndex(['1960-01-02', '1960-01-03', '1960-01-04'], dtype=
˓→'datetime64[ns]', freq=None)

The default is set at origin='unix', which defaults to 1970-01-01 00:00:00. Commonly called ‘unix
epoch’ or POSIX time.

In [44]: pd.to_datetime([1, 2, 3], unit='D')

Out[44]: DatetimeIndex(['1970-01-02', '1970-01-03', '1970-01-04'], dtype=
˓→'datetime64[ns]', freq=None)

19.4 Generating Ranges of Timestamps

To generate an index with timestamps, you can use either the DatetimeIndex or Index constructor and pass in a
list of datetime objects:

In [45]: dates = [datetime(2012, 5, 1), datetime(2012, 5, 2), datetime(2012, 5, 3)]

# Note the frequency information

In [46]: index = pd.DatetimeIndex(dates)

In [47]: index
Out[47]: DatetimeIndex(['2012-05-01', '2012-05-02', '2012-05-03'], dtype=
˓→'datetime64[ns]', freq=None)

# Automatically converted to DatetimeIndex

In [48]: index = pd.Index(dates)

In [49]: index
Out[49]: DatetimeIndex(['2012-05-01', '2012-05-02', '2012-05-03'], dtype=
˓→'datetime64[ns]', freq=None)

In practice this becomes very cumbersome because we often need a very long index with a large number of timestamps.
If we need timestamps on a regular frequency, we can use the date_range() and bdate_range() functions
to create a DatetimeIndex. The default frequency for date_range is a calendar day while the default for
bdate_range is a business day:

19.4. Generating Ranges of Timestamps 843

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [50]: start = datetime(2011, 1, 1)

In [51]: end = datetime(2012, 1, 1)

In [52]: index = pd.date_range(start, end)

In [53]: index
Out[53]:
DatetimeIndex(['2011-01-01', '2011-01-02', '2011-01-03', '2011-01-04',
'2011-01-05', '2011-01-06', '2011-01-07', '2011-01-08',
'2011-01-09', '2011-01-10',
...
'2011-12-23', '2011-12-24', '2011-12-25', '2011-12-26',
'2011-12-27', '2011-12-28', '2011-12-29', '2011-12-30',
'2011-12-31', '2012-01-01'],
dtype='datetime64[ns]', length=366, freq='D')

In [54]: index = pd.bdate_range(start, end)

In [55]: index
Out[55]:
DatetimeIndex(['2011-01-03', '2011-01-04', '2011-01-05', '2011-01-06',
'2011-01-07', '2011-01-10', '2011-01-11', '2011-01-12',
'2011-01-13', '2011-01-14',
...
'2011-12-19', '2011-12-20', '2011-12-21', '2011-12-22',
'2011-12-23', '2011-12-26', '2011-12-27', '2011-12-28',
'2011-12-29', '2011-12-30'],
dtype='datetime64[ns]', length=260, freq='B')

Convenience functions like date_range and bdate_range can utilize a variety of frequency aliases:

In [56]: pd.date_range(start, periods=1000, freq='M')

Out[56]:
DatetimeIndex(['2011-01-31', '2011-02-28', '2011-03-31', '2011-04-30',
'2011-05-31', '2011-06-30', '2011-07-31', '2011-08-31',
'2011-09-30', '2011-10-31',
...
'2093-07-31', '2093-08-31', '2093-09-30', '2093-10-31',
'2093-11-30', '2093-12-31', '2094-01-31', '2094-02-28',
'2094-03-31', '2094-04-30'],
dtype='datetime64[ns]', length=1000, freq='M')

In [57]: pd.bdate_range(start, periods=250, freq='BQS')

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

DatetimeIndex(['2011-01-03', '2011-04-01', '2011-07-01', '2011-10-03',

'2012-01-02', '2012-04-02', '2012-07-02', '2012-10-01',
'2013-01-01', '2013-04-01',
...
'2071-01-01', '2071-04-01', '2071-07-01', '2071-10-01',
'2072-01-01', '2072-04-01', '2072-07-01', '2072-10-03',
'2073-01-02', '2073-04-03'],
dtype='datetime64[ns]', length=250, freq='BQS-JAN')

date_range and bdate_range make it easy to generate a range of dates using various combinations of parame-
ters like start, end, periods, and freq. The start and end dates are strictly inclusive, so dates outside of those
specified will not be generated:

844 Chapter 19. Time Series / Date functionality

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [58]: pd.date_range(start, end, freq='BM')

Out[58]:
DatetimeIndex(['2011-01-31', '2011-02-28', '2011-03-31', '2011-04-29',
'2011-05-31', '2011-06-30', '2011-07-29', '2011-08-31',
'2011-09-30', '2011-10-31', '2011-11-30', '2011-12-30'],
dtype='datetime64[ns]', freq='BM')

In [59]: pd.date_range(start, end, freq='W')

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

DatetimeIndex(['2011-01-02', '2011-01-09', '2011-01-16', '2011-01-23',

'2011-01-30', '2011-02-06', '2011-02-13', '2011-02-20',
'2011-02-27', '2011-03-06', '2011-03-13', '2011-03-20',
'2011-03-27', '2011-04-03', '2011-04-10', '2011-04-17',
'2011-04-24', '2011-05-01', '2011-05-08', '2011-05-15',
'2011-05-22', '2011-05-29', '2011-06-05', '2011-06-12',
'2011-06-19', '2011-06-26', '2011-07-03', '2011-07-10',
'2011-07-17', '2011-07-24', '2011-07-31', '2011-08-07',
'2011-08-14', '2011-08-21', '2011-08-28', '2011-09-04',
'2011-09-11', '2011-09-18', '2011-09-25', '2011-10-02',
'2011-10-09', '2011-10-16', '2011-10-23', '2011-10-30',
'2011-11-06', '2011-11-13', '2011-11-20', '2011-11-27',
'2011-12-04', '2011-12-11', '2011-12-18', '2011-12-25',
'2012-01-01'],
dtype='datetime64[ns]', freq='W-SUN')

In [60]: pd.bdate_range(end=end, periods=20)

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

DatetimeIndex(['2011-12-05', '2011-12-06', '2011-12-07', '2011-12-08',

'2011-12-09', '2011-12-12', '2011-12-13', '2011-12-14',
'2011-12-15', '2011-12-16', '2011-12-19', '2011-12-20',
'2011-12-21', '2011-12-22', '2011-12-23', '2011-12-26',
'2011-12-27', '2011-12-28', '2011-12-29', '2011-12-30'],
dtype='datetime64[ns]', freq='B')

In [61]: pd.bdate_range(start=start, periods=20)

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

DatetimeIndex(['2011-01-03', '2011-01-04', '2011-01-05', '2011-01-06',

'2011-01-07', '2011-01-10', '2011-01-11', '2011-01-12',
'2011-01-13', '2011-01-14', '2011-01-17', '2011-01-18',
'2011-01-19', '2011-01-20', '2011-01-21', '2011-01-24',
'2011-01-25', '2011-01-26', '2011-01-27', '2011-01-28'],
dtype='datetime64[ns]', freq='B')

19.4.1 Custom Frequency Ranges

Warning: This functionality was originally exclusive to cdate_range, which is deprecated as of version 0.21.0
in favor of bdate_range. Note that cdate_range only utilizes the weekmask and holidays parameters
when custom business day, ‘C’, is passed as the frequency string. Support has been expanded with bdate_range
to work with any custom frequency string.

New in version 0.21.0.

19.4. Generating Ranges of Timestamps 845

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

bdate_range can also generate a range of custom frequency dates by using the weekmask and holidays pa-
rameters. These parameters will only be used if a custom frequency string is passed.

In [62]: weekmask = 'Mon Wed Fri'

In [63]: holidays = [datetime(2011, 1, 5), datetime(2011, 3, 14)]

In [64]: pd.bdate_range(start, end, freq='C', weekmask=weekmask, holidays=holidays)

Out[64]:
DatetimeIndex(['2011-01-03', '2011-01-07', '2011-01-10', '2011-01-12',
'2011-01-14', '2011-01-17', '2011-01-19', '2011-01-21',
'2011-01-24', '2011-01-26',
...
'2011-12-09', '2011-12-12', '2011-12-14', '2011-12-16',
'2011-12-19', '2011-12-21', '2011-12-23', '2011-12-26',
'2011-12-28', '2011-12-30'],
dtype='datetime64[ns]', length=154, freq='C')

In [65]: pd.bdate_range(start, end, freq='CBMS', weekmask=weekmask)

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

DatetimeIndex(['2011-01-03', '2011-02-02', '2011-03-02', '2011-04-01',

'2011-05-02', '2011-06-01', '2011-07-01', '2011-08-01',
'2011-09-02', '2011-10-03', '2011-11-02', '2011-12-02'],
dtype='datetime64[ns]', freq='CBMS')

See also:
Custom Business Days

19.5 Timestamp Limitations

Since pandas represents timestamps in nanosecond resolution, the time span that can be represented using a 64-bit
integer is limited to approximately 584 years:

In [66]: pd.Timestamp.min
Out[66]: Timestamp('1677-09-21 00:12:43.145225')

In [67]: pd.Timestamp.max
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[67]: Timestamp('2262-04-11
˓→23:47:16.854775807')

See also:
Representing Out-of-Bounds Spans

19.6 Indexing

One of the main uses for DatetimeIndex is as an index for pandas objects. The DatetimeIndex class contains
many time series related optimizations:
• A large range of dates for various offsets are pre-computed and cached under the hood in order to make gener-
ating subsequent date ranges very fast (just have to grab a slice)
• Fast shifting using the shift and tshift method on pandas objects

846 Chapter 19. Time Series / Date functionality

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Unioning of overlapping DatetimeIndex objects with the same frequency is very fast (important for fast
data alignment)
• Quick access to date fields via properties such as year, month, etc.
• Regularization functions like snap and very fast asof logic
DatetimeIndex objects have all the basic functionality of regular Index objects, and a smorgasbord of advanced
time series specific methods for easy frequency processing.
See also:
Reindexing methods

Note: While pandas does not force you to have a sorted date index, some of these methods may have unexpected or
incorrect behavior if the dates are unsorted.

DatetimeIndex can be used like a regular index and offers all of its intelligent functionality like selection, slicing,
etc.

In [68]: rng = pd.date_range(start, end, freq='BM')

In [69]: ts = pd.Series(np.random.randn(len(rng)), index=rng)

In [70]: ts.index
Out[70]:
DatetimeIndex(['2011-01-31', '2011-02-28', '2011-03-31', '2011-04-29',
'2011-05-31', '2011-06-30', '2011-07-29', '2011-08-31',
'2011-09-30', '2011-10-31', '2011-11-30', '2011-12-30'],
dtype='datetime64[ns]', freq='BM')

In [71]: ts[:5].index
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

DatetimeIndex(['2011-01-31', '2011-02-28', '2011-03-31', '2011-04-29',

'2011-05-31'],
dtype='datetime64[ns]', freq='BM')

In [72]: ts[::2].index
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

DatetimeIndex(['2011-01-31', '2011-03-31', '2011-05-31', '2011-07-29',

'2011-09-30', '2011-11-30'],
dtype='datetime64[ns]', freq='2BM')

19.6.1 Partial String Indexing

Dates and strings that parse to timestamps can be passed as indexing parameters:

In [73]: ts['1/31/2011']
Out[73]: -1.2812473076599531

In [74]: ts[datetime(2011, 12, 25):]

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[74]:
2011-12-30 0.687738
Freq: BM, dtype: float64

19.6. Indexing 847

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [75]: ts['10/31/2011':'12/31/2011']
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[75]:
˓→

2011-10-31 0.149748
2011-11-30 -0.732339
2011-12-30 0.687738
Freq: BM, dtype: float64

To provide convenience for accessing longer time series, you can also pass in the year or year and month as strings:
In [76]: ts['2011']
Out[76]:
2011-01-31 -1.281247
2011-02-28 -0.727707
2011-03-31 -0.121306
2011-04-29 -0.097883
2011-05-31 0.695775
2011-06-30 0.341734
2011-07-29 0.959726
2011-08-31 -1.110336
2011-09-30 -0.619976
2011-10-31 0.149748
2011-11-30 -0.732339
2011-12-30 0.687738
Freq: BM, dtype: float64

In [77]: ts['2011-6']
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

2011-06-30 0.341734
Freq: BM, dtype: float64

This type of slicing will work on a DataFrame with a DatetimeIndex as well. Since the partial string selection
is a form of label slicing, the endpoints will be included. This would include matching times on an included date:
In [78]: dft = pd.DataFrame(randn(100000,1),
....: columns=['A'],
....: index=pd.date_range('20130101',periods=100000,freq='T'))
....:

In [79]: dft
Out[79]:
A
2013-01-01 00:00:00 0.176444
2013-01-01 00:01:00 0.403310
2013-01-01 00:02:00 -0.154951
2013-01-01 00:03:00 0.301624
2013-01-01 00:04:00 -2.179861
2013-01-01 00:05:00 -1.369849
2013-01-01 00:06:00 -0.954208
... ...
2013-03-11 10:33:00 -0.293083
2013-03-11 10:34:00 -0.059881
2013-03-11 10:35:00 1.252450
2013-03-11 10:36:00 0.046611
2013-03-11 10:37:00 0.059478
2013-03-11 10:38:00 -0.286539
2013-03-11 10:39:00 0.841669

848 Chapter 19. Time Series / Date functionality

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

[100000 rows x 1 columns]

In [80]: dft['2013']
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

A
2013-01-01 00:00:00 0.176444
2013-01-01 00:01:00 0.403310
2013-01-01 00:02:00 -0.154951
2013-01-01 00:03:00 0.301624
2013-01-01 00:04:00 -2.179861
2013-01-01 00:05:00 -1.369849
2013-01-01 00:06:00 -0.954208
... ...
2013-03-11 10:33:00 -0.293083
2013-03-11 10:34:00 -0.059881
2013-03-11 10:35:00 1.252450
2013-03-11 10:36:00 0.046611
2013-03-11 10:37:00 0.059478
2013-03-11 10:38:00 -0.286539
2013-03-11 10:39:00 0.841669

[100000 rows x 1 columns]

This starts on the very first time in the month, and includes the last date & time for the month

In [81]: dft['2013-1':'2013-2']
Out[81]:
A
2013-01-01 00:00:00 0.176444
2013-01-01 00:01:00 0.403310
2013-01-01 00:02:00 -0.154951
2013-01-01 00:03:00 0.301624
2013-01-01 00:04:00 -2.179861
2013-01-01 00:05:00 -1.369849
2013-01-01 00:06:00 -0.954208
... ...
2013-02-28 23:53:00 0.103114
2013-02-28 23:54:00 -1.303422
2013-02-28 23:55:00 0.451943
2013-02-28 23:56:00 0.220534
2013-02-28 23:57:00 -1.624220
2013-02-28 23:58:00 0.093915
2013-02-28 23:59:00 -1.087454

[84960 rows x 1 columns]

This specifies a stop time that includes all of the times on the last day

In [82]: dft['2013-1':'2013-2-28']
Out[82]:
A
2013-01-01 00:00:00 0.176444
2013-01-01 00:01:00 0.403310
2013-01-01 00:02:00 -0.154951
2013-01-01 00:03:00 0.301624
2013-01-01 00:04:00 -2.179861

19.6. Indexing 849

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

2013-01-01 00:05:00 -1.369849

2013-01-01 00:06:00 -0.954208
... ...
2013-02-28 23:53:00 0.103114
2013-02-28 23:54:00 -1.303422
2013-02-28 23:55:00 0.451943
2013-02-28 23:56:00 0.220534
2013-02-28 23:57:00 -1.624220
2013-02-28 23:58:00 0.093915
2013-02-28 23:59:00 -1.087454

[84960 rows x 1 columns]

This specifies an exact stop time (and is not the same as the above)

In [83]: dft['2013-1':'2013-2-28 00:00:00']

Out[83]:
A
2013-01-01 00:00:00 0.176444
2013-01-01 00:01:00 0.403310
2013-01-01 00:02:00 -0.154951
2013-01-01 00:03:00 0.301624
2013-01-01 00:04:00 -2.179861
2013-01-01 00:05:00 -1.369849
2013-01-01 00:06:00 -0.954208
... ...
2013-02-27 23:54:00 0.897051
2013-02-27 23:55:00 -0.309230
2013-02-27 23:56:00 1.944713
2013-02-27 23:57:00 0.369265
2013-02-27 23:58:00 0.053071
2013-02-27 23:59:00 -0.019734
2013-02-28 00:00:00 1.388189

[83521 rows x 1 columns]

We are stopping on the included end-point as it is part of the index

In [84]: dft['2013-1-15':'2013-1-15 12:30:00']

Out[84]:
A
2013-01-15 00:00:00 0.501288
2013-01-15 00:01:00 -0.605198
2013-01-15 00:02:00 0.215146
2013-01-15 00:03:00 0.924732
2013-01-15 00:04:00 -2.228519
2013-01-15 00:05:00 1.517331
2013-01-15 00:06:00 -1.188774
... ...
2013-01-15 12:24:00 1.358314
2013-01-15 12:25:00 -0.737727
2013-01-15 12:26:00 1.838323
2013-01-15 12:27:00 -0.774090
2013-01-15 12:28:00 0.622261
2013-01-15 12:29:00 -0.631649
2013-01-15 12:30:00 0.193284

[751 rows x 1 columns]

850 Chapter 19. Time Series / Date functionality

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

New in version 0.18.0.

DatetimeIndex partial string indexing also works on a DataFrame with a MultiIndex:

In [85]: dft2 = pd.DataFrame(np.random.randn(20, 1),

....: columns=['A'],
....: index=pd.MultiIndex.from_product([pd.date_range('20130101
˓→',

....:
˓→periods=10,

....: freq='12H
˓→'),

....: ['a', 'b']]))

....:

In [86]: dft2
Out[86]:
A
2013-01-01 00:00:00 a -0.659574
b 1.494522
2013-01-01 12:00:00 a -0.778425
b -0.253355
2013-01-02 00:00:00 a -2.816159
b -1.210929
2013-01-02 12:00:00 a 0.144669
... ...
2013-01-04 00:00:00 b -1.624463
2013-01-04 12:00:00 a 0.056912
b 0.149867
2013-01-05 00:00:00 a -1.256173
b 2.324544
2013-01-05 12:00:00 a -1.067396
b -0.660996

[20 rows x 1 columns]

In [87]: dft2.loc['2013-01-05']
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

A
2013-01-05 00:00:00 a -1.256173
b 2.324544
2013-01-05 12:00:00 a -1.067396
b -0.660996

In [88]: idx = pd.IndexSlice

In [89]: dft2 = dft2.swaplevel(0, 1).sort_index()

In [90]: dft2.loc[idx[:, '2013-01-05'], :]

Out[90]:
A
a 2013-01-05 00:00:00 -1.256173
2013-01-05 12:00:00 -1.067396
b 2013-01-05 00:00:00 2.324544
2013-01-05 12:00:00 -0.660996

19.6. Indexing 851

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

19.6.2 Slice vs. Exact Match

Changed in version 0.20.0.

The same string used as an indexing parameter can be treated either as a slice or as an exact match depending on the
resolution of the index. If the string is less accurate than the index, it will be treated as a slice, otherwise as an exact
match.
Consider a Series object with a minute resolution index:

In [91]: series_minute = pd.Series([1, 2, 3],

....: pd.DatetimeIndex(['2011-12-31 23:59:00',
....: '2012-01-01 00:00:00',
....: '2012-01-01 00:02:00']))
....:

In [92]: series_minute.index.resolution
Out[92]: 'minute'

A timestamp string less accurate than a minute gives a Series object.

In [93]: series_minute['2011-12-31 23']

Out[93]:
2011-12-31 23:59:00 1
dtype: int64

A timestamp string with minute resolution (or more accurate), gives a scalar instead, i.e. it is not casted to a slice.

In [94]: series_minute['2011-12-31 23:59']

Out[94]: 1

In [95]: series_minute['2011-12-31 23:59:00']

\\\\\\\\\\\Out[95]: 1

If index resolution is second, then, the minute-accurate timestamp gives a Series.

In [96]: series_second = pd.Series([1, 2, 3],

....: pd.DatetimeIndex(['2011-12-31 23:59:59',
....: '2012-01-01 00:00:00',
....: '2012-01-01 00:00:01']))
....:

In [97]: series_second.index.resolution
Out[97]: 'second'

In [98]: series_second['2011-12-31 23:59']

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[98]:
2011-12-31 23:59:59 1
dtype: int64

If the timestamp string is treated as a slice, it can be used to index DataFrame with [] as well.

In [99]: dft_minute = pd.DataFrame({'a': [1, 2, 3], 'b': [4, 5, 6]},

....: index=series_minute.index)
....:

In [100]: dft_minute['2011-12-31 23']

Out[100]:

852 Chapter 19. Time Series / Date functionality

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

a b
2011-12-31 23:59:00 1 4

Warning: However, if the string is treated as an exact match, the selection in DataFrame‘s [] will be column-
wise and not row-wise, see Indexing Basics. For example dft_minute['2011-12-31 23:59'] will raise
KeyError as '2012-12-31 23:59' has the same resolution as the index and there is no column with such
name:
To always have unambiguous selection, whether the row is treated as a slice or a single selection, use .loc.
In [101]: dft_minute.loc['2011-12-31 23:59']
Out[101]:
a 1
b 4
Name: 2011-12-31 23:59:00, dtype: int64

Note also that DatetimeIndex resolution cannot be less precise than day.

In [102]: series_monthly = pd.Series([1, 2, 3],

.....: pd.DatetimeIndex(['2011-12',
.....: '2012-01',
.....: '2012-02']))
.....:

In [103]: series_monthly.index.resolution
Out[103]: 'day'

In [104]: series_monthly['2011-12'] # returns Series

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[104]:
2011-12-01 1
dtype: int64

19.6.3 Exact Indexing

As discussed in previous section, indexing a DatetimeIndex with a partial string depends on the “accuracy” of the
period, in other words how specific the interval is in relation to the resolution of the index. In contrast, indexing with
Timestamp or datetime objects is exact, because the objects have exact meaning. These also follow the semantics
of including both endpoints.
These Timestamp and datetime objects have exact hours, minutes, and seconds, even though they were
not explicitly specified (they are 0).

In [105]: dft[datetime(2013, 1, 1):datetime(2013,2,28)]

Out[105]:
A
2013-01-01 00:00:00 0.176444
2013-01-01 00:01:00 0.403310
2013-01-01 00:02:00 -0.154951
2013-01-01 00:03:00 0.301624
2013-01-01 00:04:00 -2.179861
2013-01-01 00:05:00 -1.369849
2013-01-01 00:06:00 -0.954208
... ...
2013-02-27 23:54:00 0.897051

19.6. Indexing 853

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

2013-02-27 23:55:00 -0.309230

2013-02-27 23:56:00 1.944713
2013-02-27 23:57:00 0.369265
2013-02-27 23:58:00 0.053071
2013-02-27 23:59:00 -0.019734
2013-02-28 00:00:00 1.388189

[83521 rows x 1 columns]

With no defaults.

In [106]: dft[datetime(2013, 1, 1, 10, 12, 0):datetime(2013, 2, 28, 10, 12, 0)]

Out[106]:
A
2013-01-01 10:12:00 -0.246733
2013-01-01 10:13:00 -1.429225
2013-01-01 10:14:00 -1.265339
2013-01-01 10:15:00 0.710986
2013-01-01 10:16:00 -0.818200
2013-01-01 10:17:00 0.543542
2013-01-01 10:18:00 1.577713
... ...
2013-02-28 10:06:00 0.311249
2013-02-28 10:07:00 2.366080
2013-02-28 10:08:00 -0.490372
2013-02-28 10:09:00 0.373340
2013-02-28 10:10:00 0.638442
2013-02-28 10:11:00 1.330135
2013-02-28 10:12:00 -0.945450

[83521 rows x 1 columns]

19.6.4 Truncating & Fancy Indexing

A truncate convenience function is provided that is similar to slicing. Note that truncate assumes a 0 value for
any unspecified date component in a DatetimeIndex in contrast to slicing which returns any partially matching
dates:

In [107]: rng2 = pd.date_range('2011-01-01', '2012-01-01', freq='W')

In [108]: ts2 = pd.Series(np.random.randn(len(rng2)), index=rng2)

In [109]: ts2.truncate(before='2011-11', after='2011-12')

Out[109]:
2011-11-06 -0.773743
2011-11-13 0.247216
2011-11-20 0.591308
2011-11-27 2.228500
Freq: W-SUN, dtype: float64

In [110]: ts2['2011-11':'2011-12']
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

2011-11-06 -0.773743
2011-11-13 0.247216
2011-11-20 0.591308

854 Chapter 19. Time Series / Date functionality

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

2011-11-27 2.228500
2011-12-04 0.838769
2011-12-11 0.658538
2011-12-18 0.567353
2011-12-25 -1.076735
Freq: W-SUN, dtype: float64

Even complicated fancy indexing that breaks the DatetimeIndex frequency regularity will result in a
DatetimeIndex, although frequency is lost:

In [111]: ts2[[0, 2, 6]].index

Out[111]: DatetimeIndex(['2011-01-02', '2011-01-16', '2011-02-13'], dtype=
˓→'datetime64[ns]', freq=None)

19.7 Time/Date Components

There are several time/date properties that one can access from Timestamp or a collection of timestamps like a
DatetimeIndex.
Property Description
year The year of the datetime
month The month of the datetime
day The days of the datetime
hour The hour of the datetime
minute The minutes of the datetime
second The seconds of the datetime
microsecond The microseconds of the datetime
nanosecond The nanoseconds of the datetime
date Returns datetime.date (does not contain timezone information)
time Returns datetime.time (does not contain timezone information)
dayofyear The ordinal day of year
weekofyear The week ordinal of the year
week The week ordinal of the year
dayofweek The number of the day of the week with Monday=0, Sunday=6
weekday The number of the day of the week with Monday=0, Sunday=6
weekday_name The name of the day in a week (ex: Friday)
quarter Quarter of the date: Jan-Mar = 1, Apr-Jun = 2, etc.
days_in_month The number of days in the month of the datetime
is_month_start Logical indicating if first day of month (defined by frequency)
is_month_end Logical indicating if last day of month (defined by frequency)
is_quarter_start Logical indicating if first day of quarter (defined by frequency)
is_quarter_end Logical indicating if last day of quarter (defined by frequency)
is_year_start Logical indicating if first day of year (defined by frequency)
is_year_end Logical indicating if last day of year (defined by frequency)
is_leap_year Logical indicating if the date belongs to a leap year
Furthermore, if you have a Series with datetimelike values, then you can access these properties via the .dt
accessor, see the docs

19.7. Time/Date Components 855

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

19.8 DateOffset Objects

In the preceding examples, we created DatetimeIndex objects at various frequencies by passing in frequency
strings like ‘M’, ‘W’, and ‘BM to the freq keyword. Under the hood, these frequency strings are being translated
into an instance of pandas DateOffset, which represents a regular frequency increment. Specific offset logic like
“month”, “business day”, or “one hour” is represented in its various subclasses.

Class name Description

DateOffset Generic offset class, defaults to 1 calendar day
BDay business day (weekday)
CDay custom business day
Week one week, optionally anchored on a day of the week
WeekOfMonth the x-th day of the y-th week of each month
LastWeekOfMonth the x-th day of the last week of each month
MonthEnd calendar month end
MonthBegin calendar month begin
BMonthEnd business month end
BMonthBegin business month begin
CBMonthEnd custom business month end
CBMonthBegin custom business month begin
SemiMonthEnd 15th (or other day_of_month) and calendar month end
SemiMonthBegin 15th (or other day_of_month) and calendar month begin
QuarterEnd calendar quarter end
QuarterBegin calendar quarter begin
BQuarterEnd business quarter end
BQuarterBegin business quarter begin
FY5253Quarter retail (aka 52-53 week) quarter
YearEnd calendar year end
YearBegin calendar year begin
BYearEnd business year end
BYearBegin business year begin
FY5253 retail (aka 52-53 week) year
BusinessHour business hour
CustomBusinessHour custom business hour
Hour one hour
Minute one minute
Second one second
Milli one millisecond
Micro one microsecond
Nano one nanosecond

The basic DateOffset takes the same arguments as dateutil.relativedelta, which works like:

In [112]: d = datetime(2008, 8, 18, 9, 0)

In [113]: d + relativedelta(months=4, days=5)

Out[113]: datetime.datetime(2008, 12, 23, 9, 0)

We could have done the same thing with DateOffset:

In [114]: from pandas.tseries.offsets import *

856 Chapter 19. Time Series / Date functionality

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [115]: d + DateOffset(months=4, days=5)

Out[115]: Timestamp('2008-12-23 09:00:00')

The key features of a DateOffset object are:

• it can be added / subtracted to/from a datetime object to obtain a shifted date
• it can be multiplied by an integer (positive or negative) so that the increment will be applied multiple times
• it has rollforward and rollback methods for moving a date forward or backward to the next or previous
“offset date”
Subclasses of DateOffset define the apply function which dictates custom date increment logic, such as adding
business days:
class BDay(DateOffset):
"""DateOffset increments between business days"""
def apply(self, other):
...

In [116]: d - 5 * BDay()
Out[116]: Timestamp('2008-08-11 09:00:00')

In [117]: d + BMonthEnd()
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[117]: Timestamp('2008-08-29 09:00:00')

The rollforward and rollback methods do exactly what you would expect:
In [118]: d
Out[118]: datetime.datetime(2008, 8, 18, 9, 0)

In [119]: offset = BMonthEnd()

In [120]: offset.rollforward(d)
Out[120]: Timestamp('2008-08-29 09:00:00')

In [121]: offset.rollback(d)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[121]: Timestamp('2008-07-31 09:00:00')

It’s definitely worth exploring the pandas.tseries.offsets module and the various docstrings for the classes.
These operations (apply, rollforward and rollback) preserves time (hour, minute, etc) information by de-
fault. To reset time, use normalize=True keyword when creating the offset instance. If normalize=True,
result is normalized after the function is applied.
In [122]: day = Day()

In [123]: day.apply(pd.Timestamp('2014-01-01 09:00'))

Out[123]: Timestamp('2014-01-02 09:00:00')

In [124]: day = Day(normalize=True)

In [125]: day.apply(pd.Timestamp('2014-01-01 09:00'))

Out[125]: Timestamp('2014-01-02 00:00:00')

In [126]: hour = Hour()

In [127]: hour.apply(pd.Timestamp('2014-01-01 22:00'))

Out[127]: Timestamp('2014-01-01 23:00:00')

19.8. DateOffset Objects 857

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [128]: hour = Hour(normalize=True)

In [129]: hour.apply(pd.Timestamp('2014-01-01 22:00'))

Out[129]: Timestamp('2014-01-01 00:00:00')

In [130]: hour.apply(pd.Timestamp('2014-01-01 23:00'))

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[130]: Timestamp('2014-01-02 00:00:00')

19.8.1 Parametric Offsets

Some of the offsets can be “parameterized” when created to result in different behaviors. For example, the Week
offset for generating weekly data accepts a weekday parameter which results in the generated dates always lying on
a particular day of the week:

In [131]: d
Out[131]: datetime.datetime(2008, 8, 18, 9, 0)

In [132]: d + Week()
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[132]: Timestamp('2008-08-25
˓→09:00:00')

In [133]: d + Week(weekday=4)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[133]:
˓→Timestamp('2008-08-22 09:00:00')

In [134]: (d + Week(weekday=4)).weekday()
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→4

In [135]: d - Week()
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→Timestamp('2008-08-11 09:00:00')

normalize option will be effective for addition and subtraction.

In [136]: d + Week(normalize=True)
Out[136]: Timestamp('2008-08-25 00:00:00')

In [137]: d - Week(normalize=True)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[137]: Timestamp('2008-08-11 00:00:00')

Another example is parameterizing YearEnd with the specific ending month:

In [138]: d + YearEnd()
Out[138]: Timestamp('2008-12-31 09:00:00')

In [139]: d + YearEnd(month=6)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[139]: Timestamp('2009-06-30 09:00:00')

19.8.2 Using Offsets with Series / DatetimeIndex

Offsets can be used with either a Series or DatetimeIndex to apply the offset to each element.

858 Chapter 19. Time Series / Date functionality

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [140]: rng = pd.date_range('2012-01-01', '2012-01-03')

In [141]: s = pd.Series(rng)

In [142]: rng
Out[142]: DatetimeIndex(['2012-01-01', '2012-01-02', '2012-01-03'], dtype=
˓→'datetime64[ns]', freq='D')

In [143]: rng + DateOffset(months=2)

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→DatetimeIndex(['2012-03-01', '2012-03-02', '2012-03-03'], dtype='datetime64[ns]',

˓→freq='D')

In [144]: s + DateOffset(months=2)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

0 2012-03-01
1 2012-03-02
2 2012-03-03
dtype: datetime64[ns]

In [145]: s - DateOffset(months=2)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

0 2011-11-01
1 2011-11-02
2 2011-11-03
dtype: datetime64[ns]

If the offset class maps directly to a Timedelta (Day, Hour, Minute, Second, Micro, Milli, Nano) it can be
used exactly like a Timedelta - see the Timedelta section for more examples.

In [146]: s - Day(2)
Out[146]:
0 2011-12-30
1 2011-12-31
2 2012-01-01
dtype: datetime64[ns]

In [147]: td = s - pd.Series(pd.date_range('2011-12-29', '2011-12-31'))

In [148]: td
Out[148]:
0 3 days
1 3 days
2 3 days
dtype: timedelta64[ns]

In [149]: td + Minute(15)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[149]:
0 3 days 00:15:00
1 3 days 00:15:00
2 3 days 00:15:00
dtype: timedelta64[ns]

Note that some offsets (such as BQuarterEnd) do not have a vectorized implementation. They can still be used but
may calculate significantly slower and will show a PerformanceWarning

19.8. DateOffset Objects 859

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [150]: rng + BQuarterEnd()

Out[150]: DatetimeIndex(['2012-03-30', '2012-03-30', '2012-03-30'], dtype=
˓→'datetime64[ns]', freq=None)

19.8.3 Custom Business Days

The CDay or CustomBusinessDay class provides a parametric BusinessDay class which can be used to create
customized business day calendars which account for local holidays and local weekend conventions.
As an interesting example, let’s look at Egypt where a Friday-Saturday weekend is observed.

In [151]: from pandas.tseries.offsets import CustomBusinessDay

In [152]: weekmask_egypt = 'Sun Mon Tue Wed Thu'

# They also observe International Workers' Day so let's

# add that for a couple of years
In [153]: holidays = ['2012-05-01', datetime(2013, 5, 1), np.datetime64('2014-05-01')]

In [154]: bday_egypt = CustomBusinessDay(holidays=holidays, weekmask=weekmask_egypt)

In [155]: dt = datetime(2013, 4, 30)

In [156]: dt + 2 * bday_egypt
Out[156]: Timestamp('2013-05-05 00:00:00')

Let’s map to the weekday names

In [157]: dts = pd.date_range(dt, periods=5, freq=bday_egypt)

In [158]: pd.Series(dts.weekday, dts).map(pd.Series('Mon Tue Wed Thu Fri Sat Sun'.

˓→split()))

Out[158]:
2013-04-30 Tue
2013-05-02 Thu
2013-05-05 Sun
2013-05-06 Mon
2013-05-07 Tue
Freq: C, dtype: object

Holiday calendars can be used to provide the list of holidays. See the holiday calendar section for more information.

In [159]: from pandas.tseries.holiday import USFederalHolidayCalendar

In [160]: bday_us = CustomBusinessDay(calendar=USFederalHolidayCalendar())

# Friday before MLK Day

In [161]: dt = datetime(2014, 1, 17)

# Tuesday after MLK Day (Monday is skipped because it's a holiday)

In [162]: dt + bday_us
Out[162]: Timestamp('2014-01-21 00:00:00')

Monthly offsets that respect a certain holiday calendar can be defined in the usual way.

860 Chapter 19. Time Series / Date functionality

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [163]: from pandas.tseries.offsets import CustomBusinessMonthBegin

In [164]: bmth_us = CustomBusinessMonthBegin(calendar=USFederalHolidayCalendar())

# Skip new years

In [165]: dt = datetime(2013, 12, 17)

In [166]: dt + bmth_us
Out[166]: Timestamp('2014-01-02 00:00:00')

# Define date index with custom offset

In [167]: pd.DatetimeIndex(start='20100101',end='20120101',freq=bmth_us)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[167]:
DatetimeIndex(['2010-01-04', '2010-02-01', '2010-03-01', '2010-04-01',
'2010-05-03', '2010-06-01', '2010-07-01', '2010-08-02',
'2010-09-01', '2010-10-01', '2010-11-01', '2010-12-01',
'2011-01-03', '2011-02-01', '2011-03-01', '2011-04-01',
'2011-05-02', '2011-06-01', '2011-07-01', '2011-08-01',
'2011-09-01', '2011-10-03', '2011-11-01', '2011-12-01'],
dtype='datetime64[ns]', freq='CBMS')

Note: The frequency string ‘C’ is used to indicate that a CustomBusinessDay DateOffset is used, it is important to
note that since CustomBusinessDay is a parameterised type, instances of CustomBusinessDay may differ and this is
not detectable from the ‘C’ frequency string. The user therefore needs to ensure that the ‘C’ frequency string is used
consistently within the user’s application.

19.8.4 Business Hour

The BusinessHour class provides a business hour representation on BusinessDay, allowing to use specific start
and end times.
By default, BusinessHour uses 9:00 - 17:00 as business hours. Adding BusinessHour will increment
Timestamp by hourly. If target Timestamp is out of business hours, move to the next business hour then in-
crement it. If the result exceeds the business hours end, remaining is added to the next business day.

In [168]: bh = BusinessHour()

In [169]: bh
Out[169]: <BusinessHour: BH=09:00-17:00>

# 2014-08-01 is Friday
In [170]: pd.Timestamp('2014-08-01 10:00').weekday()
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[170]: 4

In [171]: pd.Timestamp('2014-08-01 10:00') + bh

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[171]: Timestamp('2014-08-01
˓→11:00:00')

# Below example is the same as: pd.Timestamp('2014-08-01 09:00') + bh

In [172]: pd.Timestamp('2014-08-01 08:00') + bh
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[1
˓→Timestamp('2014-08-01 10:00:00')

# If the results is on the end time, move to the next business day

19.8. DateOffset Objects 861

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [173]: pd.Timestamp('2014-08-01 16:00') + bh

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→Timestamp('2014-08-04 09:00:00')

# Remainings are added to the next day

In [174]: pd.Timestamp('2014-08-01 16:30') + bh
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→Timestamp('2014-08-04 09:30:00')

# Adding 2 business hours

In [175]: pd.Timestamp('2014-08-01 10:00') + BusinessHour(2)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→Timestamp('2014-08-01 12:00:00')

# Subtracting 3 business hours

In [176]: pd.Timestamp('2014-08-01 10:00') + BusinessHour(-3)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→Timestamp('2014-07-31 15:00:00')

Also, you can specify start and end time by keywords. Argument must be str which has hour:minute repre-
sentation or datetime.time instance. Specifying seconds, microseconds and nanoseconds as business hour results
in ValueError.
In [177]: bh = BusinessHour(start='11:00', end=time(20, 0))

In [178]: bh
Out[178]: <BusinessHour: BH=11:00-20:00>

In [179]: pd.Timestamp('2014-08-01 13:00') + bh

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[179]: Timestamp('2014-08-01 14:00:00')

In [180]: pd.Timestamp('2014-08-01 09:00') + bh

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[180]:
˓→Timestamp('2014-08-01 12:00:00')

In [181]: pd.Timestamp('2014-08-01 18:00') + bh

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→Timestamp('2014-08-01 19:00:00')

Passing start time later than end represents midnight business hour. In this case, business hour exceeds midnight
and overlap to the next day. Valid business hours are distinguished by whether it started from valid BusinessDay.
In [182]: bh = BusinessHour(start='17:00', end='09:00')

In [183]: bh
Out[183]: <BusinessHour: BH=17:00-09:00>

In [184]: pd.Timestamp('2014-08-01 17:00') + bh

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[184]: Timestamp('2014-08-01 18:00:00')

In [185]: pd.Timestamp('2014-08-01 23:00') + bh

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[185]:
˓→Timestamp('2014-08-02 00:00:00')

# Although 2014-08-02 is Satuaday,

# it is valid because it starts from 08-01 (Friday).
In [186]: pd.Timestamp('2014-08-02 04:00') + bh
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→Timestamp('2014-08-02 05:00:00')

862 Chapter 19. Time Series / Date functionality

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

# Although 2014-08-04 is Monday,

# it is out of business hours because it starts from 08-03 (Sunday).
In [187]: pd.Timestamp('2014-08-04 04:00') + bh
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→Timestamp('2014-08-04 18:00:00')

Applying BusinessHour.rollforward and rollback to out of business hours results in the next business
hour start or previous day’s end. Different from other offsets, BusinessHour.rollforward may output different
results from apply by definition.
This is because one day’s business hour end is equal to next day’s business hour start. For example, under the de-
fault business hours (9:00 - 17:00), there is no gap (0 minutes) between 2014-08-01 17:00 and 2014-08-04
09:00.
# This adjusts a Timestamp to business hour edge
In [188]: BusinessHour().rollback(pd.Timestamp('2014-08-02 15:00'))
Out[188]: Timestamp('2014-08-01 17:00:00')

In [189]: BusinessHour().rollforward(pd.Timestamp('2014-08-02 15:00'))

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[189]: Timestamp('2014-08-04 09:00:00')

# It is the same as BusinessHour().apply(pd.Timestamp('2014-08-01 17:00')).

# And it is the same as BusinessHour().apply(pd.Timestamp('2014-08-04 09:00'))
In [190]: BusinessHour().apply(pd.Timestamp('2014-08-02 15:00'))
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[190]:
˓→Timestamp('2014-08-04 10:00:00')

# BusinessDay results (for reference)

In [191]: BusinessHour().rollforward(pd.Timestamp('2014-08-02'))
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→Timestamp('2014-08-04 09:00:00')

# It is the same as BusinessDay().apply(pd.Timestamp('2014-08-01'))

# The result is the same as rollworward because BusinessDay never overlap.
In [192]: BusinessHour().apply(pd.Timestamp('2014-08-02'))
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→Timestamp('2014-08-04 10:00:00')

BusinessHour regards Saturday and Sunday as holidays. To use arbitrary holidays, you can use
CustomBusinessHour offset, see Custom Business Hour:

19.8.5 Custom Business Hour

New in version 0.18.1.

The CustomBusinessHour is a mixture of BusinessHour and CustomBusinessDay which allows you to
specify arbitrary holidays. CustomBusinessHour works as the same as BusinessHour except that it skips
specified custom holidays.
In [193]: from pandas.tseries.holiday import USFederalHolidayCalendar

In [194]: bhour_us = CustomBusinessHour(calendar=USFederalHolidayCalendar())

# Friday before MLK Day

In [195]: dt = datetime(2014, 1, 17, 15)

19.8. DateOffset Objects 863

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [196]: dt + bhour_us
Out[196]: Timestamp('2014-01-17 16:00:00')

# Tuesday after MLK Day (Monday is skipped because it's a holiday)

In [197]: dt + bhour_us * 2
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[197]: Timestamp('2014-01-21 09:00:00')

You can use keyword arguments supported by either BusinessHour and CustomBusinessDay.
In [198]: bhour_mon = CustomBusinessHour(start='10:00', weekmask='Tue Wed Thu Fri')

# Monday is skipped because it's a holiday, business hour starts from 10:00
In [199]: dt + bhour_mon * 2
Out[199]: Timestamp('2014-01-21 10:00:00')

19.8.6 Offset Aliases

A number of string aliases are given to useful common time series frequencies. We will refer to these aliases as offset
aliases.
Alias Description
B business day frequency
C custom business day frequency
D calendar day frequency
W weekly frequency
M month end frequency
SM semi-month end frequency (15th and end of month)
BM business month end frequency
CBM custom business month end frequency
MS month start frequency
SMS semi-month start frequency (1st and 15th)
BMS business month start frequency
CBMS custom business month start frequency
Q quarter end frequency
BQ business quarter end frequency
QS quarter start frequency
BQS business quarter start frequency
A, Y year end frequency
BA, BY business year end frequency
AS, YS year start frequency
BAS, BYS business year start frequency
BH business hour frequency
H hourly frequency
T, min minutely frequency
S secondly frequency
L, ms milliseconds
U, us microseconds
N nanoseconds

19.8.7 Combining Aliases

As we have seen previously, the alias and the offset instance are fungible in most functions:

864 Chapter 19. Time Series / Date functionality

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [200]: pd.date_range(start, periods=5, freq='B')

Out[200]:
DatetimeIndex(['2011-01-03', '2011-01-04', '2011-01-05', '2011-01-06',
'2011-01-07'],
dtype='datetime64[ns]', freq='B')

In [201]: pd.date_range(start, periods=5, freq=BDay())

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

DatetimeIndex(['2011-01-03', '2011-01-04', '2011-01-05', '2011-01-06',

'2011-01-07'],
dtype='datetime64[ns]', freq='B')

You can combine together day and intraday offsets:

In [202]: pd.date_range(start, periods=10, freq='2h20min')

Out[202]:
DatetimeIndex(['2011-01-01 00:00:00', '2011-01-01 02:20:00',
'2011-01-01 04:40:00', '2011-01-01 07:00:00',
'2011-01-01 09:20:00', '2011-01-01 11:40:00',
'2011-01-01 14:00:00', '2011-01-01 16:20:00',
'2011-01-01 18:40:00', '2011-01-01 21:00:00'],
dtype='datetime64[ns]', freq='140T')

In [203]: pd.date_range(start, periods=10, freq='1D10U')

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

DatetimeIndex([ '2011-01-01 00:00:00', '2011-01-02 00:00:00.000010',

'2011-01-03 00:00:00.000020', '2011-01-04 00:00:00.000030',
'2011-01-05 00:00:00.000040', '2011-01-06 00:00:00.000050',
'2011-01-07 00:00:00.000060', '2011-01-08 00:00:00.000070',
'2011-01-09 00:00:00.000080', '2011-01-10 00:00:00.000090'],
dtype='datetime64[ns]', freq='86400000010U')

19.8.8 Anchored Offsets

For some frequencies you can specify an anchoring suffix:

Alias Description
W-SUN weekly frequency (Sundays). Same as ‘W’
W-MON weekly frequency (Mondays)
W-TUE weekly frequency (Tuesdays)
W-WED weekly frequency (Wednesdays)
W-THU weekly frequency (Thursdays)
W-FRI weekly frequency (Fridays)
W-SAT weekly frequency (Saturdays)
(B)Q(S)-DEC quarterly frequency, year ends in December. Same as ‘Q’
(B)Q(S)-JAN quarterly frequency, year ends in January
(B)Q(S)-FEB quarterly frequency, year ends in February
(B)Q(S)-MAR quarterly frequency, year ends in March
(B)Q(S)-APR quarterly frequency, year ends in April
(B)Q(S)-MAY quarterly frequency, year ends in May
(B)Q(S)-JUN quarterly frequency, year ends in June
Continued on next page

19.8. DateOffset Objects 865

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Table 19.2 – continued from previous page

Alias Description
(B)Q(S)-JUL quarterly frequency, year ends in July
(B)Q(S)-AUG quarterly frequency, year ends in August
(B)Q(S)-SEP quarterly frequency, year ends in September
(B)Q(S)-OCT quarterly frequency, year ends in October
(B)Q(S)-NOV quarterly frequency, year ends in November
(B)A(S)-DEC annual frequency, anchored end of December. Same as ‘A’
(B)A(S)-JAN annual frequency, anchored end of January
(B)A(S)-FEB annual frequency, anchored end of February
(B)A(S)-MAR annual frequency, anchored end of March
(B)A(S)-APR annual frequency, anchored end of April
(B)A(S)-MAY annual frequency, anchored end of May
(B)A(S)-JUN annual frequency, anchored end of June
(B)A(S)-JUL annual frequency, anchored end of July
(B)A(S)-AUG annual frequency, anchored end of August
(B)A(S)-SEP annual frequency, anchored end of September
(B)A(S)-OCT annual frequency, anchored end of October
(B)A(S)-NOV annual frequency, anchored end of November

These can be used as arguments to date_range, bdate_range, constructors for DatetimeIndex, as well as
various other timeseries-related functions in pandas.

19.8.9 Anchored Offset Semantics

For those offsets that are anchored to the start or end of specific frequency (MonthEnd, MonthBegin, WeekEnd,
etc) the following rules apply to rolling forward and backwards.
When n is not 0, if the given date is not on an anchor point, it snapped to the next(previous) anchor point, and moved
|n|-1 additional steps forwards or backwards.

In [204]: pd.Timestamp('2014-01-02') + MonthBegin(n=1)

Out[204]: Timestamp('2014-02-01 00:00:00')

In [205]: pd.Timestamp('2014-01-02') + MonthEnd(n=1)

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[205]: Timestamp('2014-01-31 00:00:00')

In [206]: pd.Timestamp('2014-01-02') - MonthBegin(n=1)

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[206]:
˓→Timestamp('2014-01-01 00:00:00')

In [207]: pd.Timestamp('2014-01-02') - MonthEnd(n=1)

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→Timestamp('2013-12-31 00:00:00')

In [208]: pd.Timestamp('2014-01-02') + MonthBegin(n=4)

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→Timestamp('2014-05-01 00:00:00')

In [209]: pd.Timestamp('2014-01-02') - MonthBegin(n=4)

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→Timestamp('2013-10-01 00:00:00')

If the given date is on an anchor point, it is moved |n| points forwards or backwards.

866 Chapter 19. Time Series / Date functionality

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [210]: pd.Timestamp('2014-01-01') + MonthBegin(n=1)

Out[210]: Timestamp('2014-02-01 00:00:00')

In [211]: pd.Timestamp('2014-01-31') + MonthEnd(n=1)

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[211]: Timestamp('2014-02-28 00:00:00')

In [212]: pd.Timestamp('2014-01-01') - MonthBegin(n=1)

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[212]:
˓→Timestamp('2013-12-01 00:00:00')

In [213]: pd.Timestamp('2014-01-31') - MonthEnd(n=1)

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→Timestamp('2013-12-31 00:00:00')

In [214]: pd.Timestamp('2014-01-01') + MonthBegin(n=4)

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→Timestamp('2014-05-01 00:00:00')

In [215]: pd.Timestamp('2014-01-31') - MonthBegin(n=4)

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→Timestamp('2013-10-01 00:00:00')

For the case when n=0, the date is not moved if on an anchor point, otherwise it is rolled forward to the next anchor
point.

In [216]: pd.Timestamp('2014-01-02') + MonthBegin(n=0)

Out[216]: Timestamp('2014-02-01 00:00:00')

In [217]: pd.Timestamp('2014-01-02') + MonthEnd(n=0)

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[217]: Timestamp('2014-01-31 00:00:00')

In [218]: pd.Timestamp('2014-01-01') + MonthBegin(n=0)

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[218]:
˓→Timestamp('2014-01-01 00:00:00')

In [219]: pd.Timestamp('2014-01-31') + MonthEnd(n=0)

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→Timestamp('2014-01-31 00:00:00')

19.8.10 Holidays / Holiday Calendars

Holidays and calendars provide a simple way to define holiday rules to be used with CustomBusinessDay or
in other analysis that requires a predefined set of holidays. The AbstractHolidayCalendar class provides all
the necessary methods to return a list of holidays and only rules need to be defined in a specific holiday calendar
class. Further, start_date and end_date class attributes determine over what date range holidays are generated.
These should be overwritten on the AbstractHolidayCalendar class to have the range apply to all calendar
subclasses. USFederalHolidayCalendar is the only calendar that exists and primarily serves as an example for
developing other calendars.
For holidays that occur on fixed dates (e.g., US Memorial Day or July 4th) an observance rule determines when that
holiday is observed if it falls on a weekend or some other non-observed day. Defined observance rules are:

19.8. DateOffset Objects 867

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Rule Description
nearest_workday move Saturday to Friday and Sunday to Monday
sunday_to_monday move Sunday to following Monday
next_monday_or_tuesday move Saturday to Monday and Sunday/Monday to Tuesday
previous_friday move Saturday and Sunday to previous Friday”
next_monday move Saturday and Sunday to following Monday
An example of how holidays and holiday calendars are defined:

In [220]: from pandas.tseries.holiday import Holiday, USMemorialDay,\

.....: AbstractHolidayCalendar, nearest_workday, MO
.....:

In [221]: class ExampleCalendar(AbstractHolidayCalendar):

.....: rules = [
.....: USMemorialDay,
.....: Holiday('July 4th', month=7, day=4, observance=nearest_workday),
.....: Holiday('Columbus Day', month=10, day=1,
.....: offset=DateOffset(weekday=MO(2))), #same as 2*Week(weekday=2)
.....: ]
.....:

In [222]: cal = ExampleCalendar()

In [223]: cal.holidays(datetime(2012, 1, 1), datetime(2012, 12, 31))

Out[223]: DatetimeIndex(['2012-05-28', '2012-07-04', '2012-10-08'], dtype=
˓→'datetime64[ns]', freq=None)

Using this calendar, creating an index or doing offset arithmetic skips weekends and holidays (i.e., Memorial Day/July
4th). For example, the below defines a custom business day offset using the ExampleCalendar. Like any other
offset, it can be used to create a DatetimeIndex or added to datetime or Timestamp objects.

In [224]: from pandas.tseries.offsets import CDay

In [225]: pd.DatetimeIndex(start='7/1/2012', end='7/10/2012',

.....: freq=CDay(calendar=cal)).to_pydatetime()
.....:
Out[225]:
array([datetime.datetime(2012, 7, 2, 0, 0),
datetime.datetime(2012, 7, 3, 0, 0),
datetime.datetime(2012, 7, 5, 0, 0),
datetime.datetime(2012, 7, 6, 0, 0),
datetime.datetime(2012, 7, 9, 0, 0),
datetime.datetime(2012, 7, 10, 0, 0)], dtype=object)

In [226]: offset = CustomBusinessDay(calendar=cal)

In [227]: datetime(2012, 5, 25) + offset

Out[227]: Timestamp('2012-05-29 00:00:00')

In [228]: datetime(2012, 7, 3) + offset

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[228]: Timestamp('2012-07-05 00:00:00')

In [229]: datetime(2012, 7, 3) + 2 * offset

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[229]:
˓→Timestamp('2012-07-06 00:00:00')

In [230]: datetime(2012, 7, 6) + offset

868 Chapter 19. Time Series / Date functionality

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→Timestamp('2012-07-09 00:00:00')

Ranges are defined by the start_date and end_date class attributes of AbstractHolidayCalendar. The
defaults are below.

In [231]: AbstractHolidayCalendar.start_date
Out[231]: Timestamp('1970-01-01 00:00:00')

In [232]: AbstractHolidayCalendar.end_date
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[232]: Timestamp('2030-12-31 00:00:00')

These dates can be overwritten by setting the attributes as datetime/Timestamp/string.

In [233]: AbstractHolidayCalendar.start_date = datetime(2012, 1, 1)

In [234]: AbstractHolidayCalendar.end_date = datetime(2012, 12, 31)

In [235]: cal.holidays()
Out[235]: DatetimeIndex(['2012-05-28', '2012-07-04', '2012-10-08'], dtype=
˓→'datetime64[ns]', freq=None)

Every calendar class is accessible by name using the get_calendar function which returns a holiday class instance.
Any imported calendar class will automatically be available by this function. Also, HolidayCalendarFactory
provides an easy interface to create calendars that are combinations of calendars or calendars with additional rules.

In [236]: from pandas.tseries.holiday import get_calendar, HolidayCalendarFactory,\

.....: USLaborDay
.....:

In [237]: cal = get_calendar('ExampleCalendar')

In [238]: cal.rules
Out[238]:
[Holiday: MemorialDay (month=5, day=31, offset=<DateOffset: kwds={'weekday': MO(-1)}>
˓→),

Holiday: July 4th (month=7, day=4, observance=<function nearest_workday at

˓→0x131922e18>),

Holiday: Columbus Day (month=10, day=1, offset=<DateOffset: kwds={'weekday': MO(+2)}>

˓→)]

In [239]: new_cal = HolidayCalendarFactory('NewExampleCalendar', cal, USLaborDay)

In [240]: new_cal.rules
Out[240]:
[Holiday: Labor Day (month=9, day=1, offset=<DateOffset: kwds={'weekday': MO(+1)}>),
Holiday: MemorialDay (month=5, day=31, offset=<DateOffset: kwds={'weekday': MO(-1)}>
˓→),

Holiday: July 4th (month=7, day=4, observance=<function nearest_workday at

˓→0x131922e18>),

Holiday: Columbus Day (month=10, day=1, offset=<DateOffset: kwds={'weekday': MO(+2)}>

˓→)]

19.8. DateOffset Objects 869

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

19.9 Time Series-Related Instance Methods

19.9.1 Shifting / Lagging

One may want to shift or lag the values in a time series back and forward in time. The method for this is shift,
which is available on all of the pandas objects.

In [241]: ts = ts[:5]

In [242]: ts.shift(1)
Out[242]:
2011-01-31 NaN
2011-02-28 -1.281247
2011-03-31 -0.727707
2011-04-29 -0.121306
2011-05-31 -0.097883
Freq: BM, dtype: float64

The shift method accepts an freq argument which can accept a DateOffset class or other timedelta-like object
or also a offset alias:

In [243]: ts.shift(5, freq=offsets.BDay())

Out[243]:
2011-02-07 -1.281247
2011-03-07 -0.727707
2011-04-07 -0.121306
2011-05-06 -0.097883
2011-06-07 0.695775
dtype: float64

In [244]: ts.shift(5, freq='BM')

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

2011-06-30 -1.281247
2011-07-29 -0.727707
2011-08-31 -0.121306
2011-09-30 -0.097883
2011-10-31 0.695775
Freq: BM, dtype: float64

Rather than changing the alignment of the data and the index, DataFrame and Series objects also have a tshift
convenience method that changes all the dates in the index by a specified number of offsets:

In [245]: ts.tshift(5, freq='D')

Out[245]:
2011-02-05 -1.281247
2011-03-05 -0.727707
2011-04-05 -0.121306
2011-05-04 -0.097883
2011-06-05 0.695775
dtype: float64

Note that with tshift, the leading entry is no longer NaN because the data is not being realigned.

870 Chapter 19. Time Series / Date functionality

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

19.9.2 Frequency Conversion

The primary function for changing frequencies is the asfreq function. For a DatetimeIndex, this is basically
just a thin, but convenient wrapper around reindex which generates a date_range and calls reindex.

In [246]: dr = pd.date_range('1/1/2010', periods=3, freq=3 * offsets.BDay())

In [247]: ts = pd.Series(randn(3), index=dr)

In [248]: ts
Out[248]:
2010-01-01 0.155932
2010-01-06 1.486218
2010-01-11 -2.148675
Freq: 3B, dtype: float64

In [249]: ts.asfreq(BDay())
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

2010-01-01 0.155932
2010-01-04 NaN
2010-01-05 NaN
2010-01-06 1.486218
2010-01-07 NaN
2010-01-08 NaN
2010-01-11 -2.148675
Freq: B, dtype: float64

asfreq provides a further convenience so you can specify an interpolation method for any gaps that may appear after
the frequency conversion

In [250]: ts.asfreq(BDay(), method='pad')

Out[250]:
2010-01-01 0.155932
2010-01-04 0.155932
2010-01-05 0.155932
2010-01-06 1.486218
2010-01-07 1.486218
2010-01-08 1.486218
2010-01-11 -2.148675
Freq: B, dtype: float64

19.9.3 Filling Forward / Backward

Related to asfreq and reindex is the fillna function documented in the missing data section.

19.9.4 Converting to Python Datetimes

DatetimeIndex can be converted to an array of Python native datetime.datetime objects using the
to_pydatetime method.

19.9. Time Series-Related Instance Methods 871

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

19.10 Resampling

Warning: The interface to .resample has changed in 0.18.0 to be more groupby-like and hence more flexible.
See the whatsnew docs for a comparison with prior versions.

Pandas has a simple, powerful, and efficient functionality for performing resampling operations during frequency
conversion (e.g., converting secondly data into 5-minutely data). This is extremely common in, but not limited to,
financial applications.
.resample() is a time-based groupby, followed by a reduction method on each of its groups. See some cookbook
examples for some advanced strategies
Starting in version 0.18.1, the resample() function can be used directly from DataFrameGroupBy objects, see
the groupby docs.

Note: .resample() is similar to using a .rolling() operation with a time-based offset, see a discussion here

19.10.1 Basics

In [251]: rng = pd.date_range('1/1/2012', periods=100, freq='S')

In [252]: ts = pd.Series(np.random.randint(0, 500, len(rng)), index=rng)

In [253]: ts.resample('5Min').sum()
Out[253]:
2012-01-01 25653
Freq: 5T, dtype: int64

The resample function is very flexible and allows you to specify many different parameters to control the frequency
conversion and resampling operation.
Any function available via dispatching is available as a method of the returned object, including sum, mean, std,
sem, max, min, median, first, last, ohlc:

In [254]: ts.resample('5Min').mean()
Out[254]:
2012-01-01 256.53
Freq: 5T, dtype: float64

In [255]: ts.resample('5Min').ohlc()
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[255]:
open high low close
2012-01-01 296 496 6 449

In [256]: ts.resample('5Min').max()
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

2012-01-01 496
Freq: 5T, dtype: int64

For downsampling, closed can be set to ‘left’ or ‘right’ to specify which end of the interval is closed:

872 Chapter 19. Time Series / Date functionality

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [257]: ts.resample('5Min', closed='right').mean()

Out[257]:
2011-12-31 23:55:00 296.000000
2012-01-01 00:00:00 256.131313
Freq: 5T, dtype: float64

In [258]: ts.resample('5Min', closed='left').mean()

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

2012-01-01 256.53
Freq: 5T, dtype: float64

Parameters like label and loffset are used to manipulate the resulting labels. label specifies whether the result
is labeled with the beginning or the end of the interval. loffset performs a time adjustment on the output labels.
In [259]: ts.resample('5Min').mean() # by default label='left'
Out[259]:
2012-01-01 256.53
Freq: 5T, dtype: float64

In [260]: ts.resample('5Min', label='left').mean()

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[260]:
2012-01-01 256.53
Freq: 5T, dtype: float64

In [261]: ts.resample('5Min', label='left', loffset='1s').mean()

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

2012-01-01 00:00:01 256.53

dtype: float64

Note: The default values for label and closed is ‘left’ for all frequency offsets except for ‘M’, ‘A’, ‘Q’, ‘BM’,
‘BA’, ‘BQ’, and ‘W’ which all have a default of ‘right’.
In [262]: rng2 = pd.date_range('1/1/2012', end='3/31/2012', freq='D')

In [263]: ts2 = pd.Series(range(len(rng2)), index=rng2)

# default: label='right', closed='right'

In [264]: ts2.resample('M').max()
Out[264]:
2012-01-31 30
2012-02-29 59
2012-03-31 90
Freq: M, dtype: int64

# default: label='left', closed='left'

In [265]: ts2.resample('SM').max()
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[265]:
˓→

2011-12-31 13
2012-01-15 29
2012-01-31 44
2012-02-15 58
2012-02-29 73
2012-03-15 89
2012-03-31 90

19.10. Resampling 873

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Freq: SM-15, dtype: int64

In [266]: ts2.resample('SM', label='right', closed='right').max()

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

2012-01-15 14.0
2012-01-31 30.0
2012-02-15 45.0
2012-02-29 59.0
2012-03-15 74.0
2012-03-31 90.0
2012-04-15 NaN
Freq: SM-15, dtype: float64

The axis parameter can be set to 0 or 1 and allows you to resample the specified axis for a DataFrame.
kind can be set to ‘timestamp’ or ‘period’ to convert the resulting index to/from timestamp and time span represen-
tations. By default resample retains the input representation.
convention can be set to ‘start’ or ‘end’ when resampling period data (detail below). It specifies how low frequency
periods are converted to higher frequency periods.

19.10.2 Upsampling

For upsampling, you can specify a way to upsample and the limit parameter to interpolate over the gaps that are
created:

# from secondly to every 250 milliseconds

In [267]: ts[:2].resample('250L').asfreq()
Out[267]:
2012-01-01 00:00:00.000 296.0
2012-01-01 00:00:00.250 NaN
2012-01-01 00:00:00.500 NaN
2012-01-01 00:00:00.750 NaN
2012-01-01 00:00:01.000 199.0
Freq: 250L, dtype: float64

In [268]: ts[:2].resample('250L').ffill()
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

2012-01-01 00:00:00.000 296

2012-01-01 00:00:00.250 296
2012-01-01 00:00:00.500 296
2012-01-01 00:00:00.750 296
2012-01-01 00:00:01.000 199
Freq: 250L, dtype: int64

In [269]: ts[:2].resample('250L').ffill(limit=2)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

2012-01-01 00:00:00.000 296.0

2012-01-01 00:00:00.250 296.0
2012-01-01 00:00:00.500 296.0
2012-01-01 00:00:00.750 NaN
2012-01-01 00:00:01.000 199.0
Freq: 250L, dtype: float64

874 Chapter 19. Time Series / Date functionality

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

19.10.3 Sparse Resampling

Sparse timeseries are ones where you have a lot fewer points relative to the amount of time you are looking to resample.
Naively upsampling a sparse series can potentially generate lots of intermediate values. When you don’t want to use a
method to fill these values, e.g. fill_method is None, then intermediate values will be filled with NaN.
Since resample is a time-based groupby, the following is a method to efficiently resample only the groups that are
not all NaN

In [270]: rng = pd.date_range('2014-1-1', periods=100, freq='D') + pd.Timedelta('1s')

In [271]: ts = pd.Series(range(100), index=rng)

If we want to resample to the full range of the series

In [272]: ts.resample('3T').sum()
Out[272]:
2014-01-01 00:00:00 0.0
2014-01-01 00:03:00 NaN
2014-01-01 00:06:00 NaN
2014-01-01 00:09:00 NaN
2014-01-01 00:12:00 NaN
2014-01-01 00:15:00 NaN
2014-01-01 00:18:00 NaN
...
2014-04-09 23:42:00 NaN
2014-04-09 23:45:00 NaN
2014-04-09 23:48:00 NaN
2014-04-09 23:51:00 NaN
2014-04-09 23:54:00 NaN
2014-04-09 23:57:00 NaN
2014-04-10 00:00:00 99.0
Freq: 3T, Length: 47521, dtype: float64

We can instead only resample those groups where we have points as follows:

In [273]: from functools import partial

In [274]: from pandas.tseries.frequencies import to_offset

In [275]: def round(t, freq):

.....: freq = to_offset(freq)
.....: return pd.Timestamp((t.value // freq.delta.value) * freq.delta.value)
.....:

In [276]: ts.groupby(partial(round, freq='3T')).sum()

Out[276]:
2014-01-01 0
2014-01-02 1
2014-01-03 2
2014-01-04 3
2014-01-05 4
2014-01-06 5
2014-01-07 6
..
2014-04-04 93
2014-04-05 94
2014-04-06 95

19.10. Resampling 875

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

2014-04-07 96
2014-04-08 97
2014-04-09 98
2014-04-10 99
Length: 100, dtype: int64

19.10.4 Aggregation

Similar to the aggregating API, groupby API, and the window functions API, a Resampler can be selectively resam-
pled.
Resampling a DataFrame, the default will be to act on all columns with the same function.

In [277]: df = pd.DataFrame(np.random.randn(1000, 3),

.....: index=pd.date_range('1/1/2012', freq='S', periods=1000),
.....: columns=['A', 'B', 'C'])
.....:

In [278]: r = df.resample('3T')

In [279]: r.mean()
Out[279]:
A B C
2012-01-01 00:00:00 -0.038580 -0.085117 -0.024750
2012-01-01 00:03:00 0.052387 -0.061477 0.029548
2012-01-01 00:06:00 0.121377 -0.010630 -0.043691
2012-01-01 00:09:00 -0.106814 -0.053819 0.097222
2012-01-01 00:12:00 0.032560 0.080543 0.167380
2012-01-01 00:15:00 0.060486 -0.057602 -0.106213

We can select a specific column or columns using standard getitem.

In [280]: r['A'].mean()
Out[280]:
2012-01-01 00:00:00 -0.038580
2012-01-01 00:03:00 0.052387
2012-01-01 00:06:00 0.121377
2012-01-01 00:09:00 -0.106814
2012-01-01 00:12:00 0.032560
2012-01-01 00:15:00 0.060486
Freq: 3T, Name: A, dtype: float64

In [281]: r[['A','B']].mean()
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

A B
2012-01-01 00:00:00 -0.038580 -0.085117
2012-01-01 00:03:00 0.052387 -0.061477
2012-01-01 00:06:00 0.121377 -0.010630
2012-01-01 00:09:00 -0.106814 -0.053819
2012-01-01 00:12:00 0.032560 0.080543
2012-01-01 00:15:00 0.060486 -0.057602

You can pass a list or dict of functions to do aggregation with, outputting a DataFrame:

876 Chapter 19. Time Series / Date functionality

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [282]: r['A'].agg([np.sum, np.mean, np.std])

Out[282]:
sum mean std
2012-01-01 00:00:00 -6.944481 -0.038580 0.985150
2012-01-01 00:03:00 9.429707 0.052387 1.078022
2012-01-01 00:06:00 21.847876 0.121377 0.996365
2012-01-01 00:09:00 -19.226593 -0.106814 0.914070
2012-01-01 00:12:00 5.860874 0.032560 1.100055
2012-01-01 00:15:00 6.048588 0.060486 1.001532

On a resampled DataFrame, you can pass a list of functions to apply to each column, which produces an aggregated
result with a hierarchical index:
In [283]: r.agg([np.sum, np.mean])
Out[283]:
A B C \
sum mean sum mean sum
2012-01-01 00:00:00 -6.944481 -0.038580 -15.320993 -0.085117 -4.454941
2012-01-01 00:03:00 9.429707 0.052387 -11.065916 -0.061477 5.318688
2012-01-01 00:06:00 21.847876 0.121377 -1.913420 -0.010630 -7.864429
2012-01-01 00:09:00 -19.226593 -0.106814 -9.687468 -0.053819 17.499920
2012-01-01 00:12:00 5.860874 0.032560 14.497725 0.080543 30.128432
2012-01-01 00:15:00 6.048588 0.060486 -5.760208 -0.057602 -10.621260

mean
2012-01-01 00:00:00 -0.024750
2012-01-01 00:03:00 0.029548
2012-01-01 00:06:00 -0.043691
2012-01-01 00:09:00 0.097222
2012-01-01 00:12:00 0.167380
2012-01-01 00:15:00 -0.106213

By passing a dict to aggregate you can apply a different aggregation to the columns of a DataFrame:
In [284]: r.agg({'A' : np.sum,
.....: 'B' : lambda x: np.std(x, ddof=1)})
.....:
Out[284]:
A B
2012-01-01 00:00:00 -6.944481 1.087752
2012-01-01 00:03:00 9.429707 1.014552
2012-01-01 00:06:00 21.847876 0.954588
2012-01-01 00:09:00 -19.226593 1.027990
2012-01-01 00:12:00 5.860874 1.021503
2012-01-01 00:15:00 6.048588 1.004984

The function names can also be strings. In order for a string to be valid it must be implemented on the Resampled
object
In [285]: r.agg({'A' : 'sum', 'B' : 'std'})
Out[285]:
A B
2012-01-01 00:00:00 -6.944481 1.087752
2012-01-01 00:03:00 9.429707 1.014552
2012-01-01 00:06:00 21.847876 0.954588
2012-01-01 00:09:00 -19.226593 1.027990
2012-01-01 00:12:00 5.860874 1.021503

19.10. Resampling 877

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

2012-01-01 00:15:00 6.048588 1.004984

Furthermore, you can also specify multiple aggregation functions for each column separately.

In [286]: r.agg({'A' : ['sum','std'], 'B' : ['mean','std'] })

Out[286]:
A B
sum std mean std
2012-01-01 00:00:00 -6.944481 0.985150 -0.085117 1.087752
2012-01-01 00:03:00 9.429707 1.078022 -0.061477 1.014552
2012-01-01 00:06:00 21.847876 0.996365 -0.010630 0.954588
2012-01-01 00:09:00 -19.226593 0.914070 -0.053819 1.027990
2012-01-01 00:12:00 5.860874 1.100055 0.080543 1.021503
2012-01-01 00:15:00 6.048588 1.001532 -0.057602 1.004984

If a DataFrame does not have a datetimelike index, but instead you want to resample based on datetimelike column
in the frame, it can passed to the on keyword.

In [287]: df = pd.DataFrame({'date': pd.date_range('2015-01-01', freq='W', periods=5),

.....: 'a': np.arange(5)},
.....: index=pd.MultiIndex.from_arrays([
.....: [1,2,3,4,5],
.....: pd.date_range('2015-01-01', freq='W',
˓→periods=5)],

.....: names=['v','d']))
.....:

In [288]: df
Out[288]:
a date
v d
1 2015-01-04 0 2015-01-04
2 2015-01-11 1 2015-01-11
3 2015-01-18 2 2015-01-18
4 2015-01-25 3 2015-01-25
5 2015-02-01 4 2015-02-01

In [289]: df.resample('M', on='date').sum()

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

a
date
2015-01-31 6
2015-02-28 4

Similarly, if you instead want to resample by a datetimelike level of MultiIndex, its name or location can be passed
to the level keyword.

In [290]: df.resample('M', level='d').sum()

Out[290]:
a
d
2015-01-31 6
2015-02-28 4

878 Chapter 19. Time Series / Date functionality

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

19.11 Time Span Representation

Regular intervals of time are represented by Period objects in pandas while sequences of Period objects are
collected in a PeriodIndex, which can be created with the convenience function period_range.

19.11.1 Period

A Period represents a span of time (e.g., a day, a month, a quarter, etc). You can specify the span via freq keyword
using a frequency alias like below. Because freq represents a span of Period, it cannot be negative like “-3D”.

In [291]: pd.Period('2012', freq='A-DEC')

Out[291]: Period('2012', 'A-DEC')

In [292]: pd.Period('2012-1-1', freq='D')

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[292]: Period('2012-01-01', 'D')

In [293]: pd.Period('2012-1-1 19:00', freq='H')

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[293]:
˓→Period('2012-01-01 19:00', 'H')

In [294]: pd.Period('2012-1-1 19:00', freq='5H')

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→Period('2012-01-01 19:00', '5H')

Adding and subtracting integers from periods shifts the period by its own frequency. Arithmetic is not allowed between
Period with different freq (span).

In [295]: p = pd.Period('2012', freq='A-DEC')

In [296]: p + 1
Out[296]: Period('2013', 'A-DEC')

In [297]: p - 3
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[297]: Period('2009', 'A-DEC')

In [298]: p = pd.Period('2012-01', freq='2M')

In [299]: p + 2
Out[299]: Period('2012-05', '2M')

In [300]: p - 1
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[300]: Period('2011-11', '2M')

In [301]: p == pd.Period('2012-01', freq='3M')

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\------------------
˓→---------------------------------------------------------

IncompatibleFrequency Traceback (most recent call last)

<ipython-input-301-ff54ce3238f5> in <module>()
----> 1 p == pd.Period('2012-01', freq='3M')

~/Envs/pandas-dev/lib/python3.6/site-packages/pandas/pandas/_libs/period.pyx in
˓→pandas._libs.period._Period.__richcmp__()

IncompatibleFrequency: Input has different freq=3M from Period(freq=2M)

If Period freq is daily or higher (D, H, T, S, L, U, N), offsets and timedelta-like can be added if the result can

19.11. Time Span Representation 879

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

have the same freq. Otherwise, ValueError will be raised.

In [302]: p = pd.Period('2014-07-01 09:00', freq='H')

In [303]: p + Hour(2)
Out[303]: Period('2014-07-01 11:00', 'H')

In [304]: p + timedelta(minutes=120)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[304]: Period('2014-07-01 11:00', 'H')

In [305]: p + np.timedelta64(7200, 's')

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[305]:
˓→Period('2014-07-01 11:00', 'H')

In [1]: p + Minute(5)
Traceback
...
ValueError: Input has different freq from Period(freq=H)

If Period has other freqs, only the same offsets can be added. Otherwise, ValueError will be raised.

In [306]: p = pd.Period('2014-07', freq='M')

In [307]: p + MonthEnd(3)
Out[307]: Period('2014-10', 'M')

In [1]: p + MonthBegin(3)
Traceback
...
ValueError: Input has different freq from Period(freq=M)

Taking the difference of Period instances with the same frequency will return the number of frequency units between
them:

In [308]: pd.Period('2012', freq='A-DEC') - pd.Period('2002', freq='A-DEC')

Out[308]: 10

19.11.2 PeriodIndex and period_range

Regular sequences of Period objects can be collected in a PeriodIndex, which can be constructed using the
period_range convenience function:

In [309]: prng = pd.period_range('1/1/2011', '1/1/2012', freq='M')

In [310]: prng
Out[310]:
PeriodIndex(['2011-01', '2011-02', '2011-03', '2011-04', '2011-05', '2011-06',
'2011-07', '2011-08', '2011-09', '2011-10', '2011-11', '2011-12',
'2012-01'],
dtype='period[M]', freq='M')

The PeriodIndex constructor can also be used directly:

In [311]: pd.PeriodIndex(['2011-1', '2011-2', '2011-3'], freq='M')

Out[311]: PeriodIndex(['2011-01', '2011-02', '2011-03'], dtype='period[M]', freq='M')

880 Chapter 19. Time Series / Date functionality

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Passing multiplied frequency outputs a sequence of Period which has multiplied span.
In [312]: pd.PeriodIndex(start='2014-01', freq='3M', periods=4)
Out[312]: PeriodIndex(['2014-01', '2014-04', '2014-07', '2014-10'], dtype='period[3M]
˓→', freq='3M')

If start or end are Period objects, they will be used as anchor endpoints for a PeriodIndex with frequency
matching that of the PeriodIndex constructor.
In [313]: pd.PeriodIndex(start=pd.Period('2017Q1', freq='Q'),
.....: end=pd.Period('2017Q2', freq='Q'), freq='M')
.....:
Out[313]: PeriodIndex(['2017-03', '2017-04', '2017-05', '2017-06'], dtype='period[M]',
˓→ freq='M')

Just like DatetimeIndex, a PeriodIndex can also be used to index pandas objects:
In [314]: ps = pd.Series(np.random.randn(len(prng)), prng)

In [315]: ps
Out[315]:
2011-01 0.258318
2011-02 -2.503700
2011-03 -0.303053
2011-04 0.270509
2011-05 1.004841
2011-06 -0.129044
2011-07 -1.406335
2011-08 -1.310412
2011-09 0.769439
2011-10 -0.542325
2011-11 2.010541
2011-12 1.001558
2012-01 -0.087453
Freq: M, dtype: float64

PeriodIndex supports addition and subtraction with the same rule as Period.
In [316]: idx = pd.period_range('2014-07-01 09:00', periods=5, freq='H')

In [317]: idx
Out[317]:
PeriodIndex(['2014-07-01 09:00', '2014-07-01 10:00', '2014-07-01 11:00',
'2014-07-01 12:00', '2014-07-01 13:00'],
dtype='period[H]', freq='H')

In [318]: idx + Hour(2)

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

PeriodIndex(['2014-07-01 11:00', '2014-07-01 12:00', '2014-07-01 13:00',

'2014-07-01 14:00', '2014-07-01 15:00'],
dtype='period[H]', freq='H')

In [319]: idx = pd.period_range('2014-07', periods=5, freq='M')

In [320]: idx
Out[320]: PeriodIndex(['2014-07', '2014-08', '2014-09', '2014-10', '2014-11'], dtype=
˓→'period[M]', freq='M')

19.11. Time Span Representation 881

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [321]: idx + MonthEnd(3)

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→PeriodIndex(['2014-10', '2014-11', '2014-12', '2015-01', '2015-02'], dtype=

˓→'period[M]', freq='M')

PeriodIndex has its own dtype named period, refer to Period Dtypes.

19.11.3 Period Dtypes

New in version 0.19.0.

PeriodIndex has a custom period dtype. This is a pandas extension dtype similar to the timezone aware dtype
(datetime64[ns, tz]).
The period dtype holds the freq attribute and is represented with period[freq] like period[D] or
period[M], using frequency strings.

In [322]: pi = pd.period_range('2016-01-01', periods=3, freq='M')

In [323]: pi
Out[323]: PeriodIndex(['2016-01', '2016-02', '2016-03'], dtype='period[M]', freq='M')

In [324]: pi.dtype
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[324]:
˓→period[M]

The period dtype can be used in .astype(...). It allows one to change the freq of a PeriodIndex like
.asfreq() and convert a DatetimeIndex to PeriodIndex like to_period():

# change monthly freq to daily freq

In [325]: pi.astype('period[D]')
Out[325]: PeriodIndex(['2016-01-31', '2016-02-29', '2016-03-31'], dtype='period[D]',
˓→freq='D')

# convert to DatetimeIndex
In [326]: pi.astype('datetime64[ns]')
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[32
˓→DatetimeIndex(['2016-01-01', '2016-02-01', '2016-03-01'], dtype='datetime64[ns]',

˓→freq='MS')

# convert to PeriodIndex
In [327]: dti = pd.date_range('2011-01-01', freq='M', periods=3)

In [328]: dti
Out[328]: DatetimeIndex(['2011-01-31', '2011-02-28', '2011-03-31'], dtype=
˓→'datetime64[ns]', freq='M')

In [329]: dti.astype('period[M]')
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→PeriodIndex(['2011-01', '2011-02', '2011-03'], dtype='period[M]', freq='M')

19.11.4 PeriodIndex Partial String Indexing

You can pass in dates and strings to Series and DataFrame with PeriodIndex, in the same manner as
DatetimeIndex. For details, refer to DatetimeIndex Partial String Indexing.

882 Chapter 19. Time Series / Date functionality

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [330]: ps['2011-01']
Out[330]: 0.25831819727391592

In [331]: ps[datetime(2011, 12, 25):]

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[331]:
2011-12 1.001558
2012-01 -0.087453
Freq: M, dtype: float64

In [332]: ps['10/31/2011':'12/31/2011']
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

2011-10 -0.542325
2011-11 2.010541
2011-12 1.001558
Freq: M, dtype: float64

Passing a string representing a lower frequency than PeriodIndex returns partial sliced data.

In [333]: ps['2011']
Out[333]:
2011-01 0.258318
2011-02 -2.503700
2011-03 -0.303053
2011-04 0.270509
2011-05 1.004841
2011-06 -0.129044
2011-07 -1.406335
2011-08 -1.310412
2011-09 0.769439
2011-10 -0.542325
2011-11 2.010541
2011-12 1.001558
Freq: M, dtype: float64

In [334]: dfp = pd.DataFrame(np.random.randn(600,1),

.....: columns=['A'],
.....: index=pd.period_range('2013-01-01 9:00', periods=600,
˓→freq='T'))

.....:

In [335]: dfp
Out[335]:
A
2013-01-01 09:00 0.005210
2013-01-01 09:01 -0.014385
2013-01-01 09:02 -0.212404
2013-01-01 09:03 -1.227760
2013-01-01 09:04 -0.809722
2013-01-01 09:05 -1.719723
2013-01-01 09:06 -0.808486
... ...
2013-01-01 18:53 -0.783098
2013-01-01 18:54 0.755005
2013-01-01 18:55 -1.116732
2013-01-01 18:56 -0.940692
2013-01-01 18:57 0.228536
2013-01-01 18:58 0.109472

19.11. Time Span Representation 883

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

2013-01-01 18:59 0.235414

[600 rows x 1 columns]

In [336]: dfp['2013-01-01 10H']

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

A
2013-01-01 10:00 -0.148998
2013-01-01 10:01 2.154810
2013-01-01 10:02 -1.605646
2013-01-01 10:03 0.021024
2013-01-01 10:04 -0.623737
2013-01-01 10:05 1.451612
2013-01-01 10:06 1.062463
... ...
2013-01-01 10:53 0.273119
2013-01-01 10:54 -0.994071
2013-01-01 10:55 -1.222179
2013-01-01 10:56 -1.167118
2013-01-01 10:57 0.262822
2013-01-01 10:58 -0.283786
2013-01-01 10:59 1.190726

[60 rows x 1 columns]

As with DatetimeIndex, the endpoints will be included in the result. The example below slices data starting from
10:00 to 11:59.

In [337]: dfp['2013-01-01 10H':'2013-01-01 11H']

Out[337]:
A
2013-01-01 10:00 -0.148998
2013-01-01 10:01 2.154810
2013-01-01 10:02 -1.605646
2013-01-01 10:03 0.021024
2013-01-01 10:04 -0.623737
2013-01-01 10:05 1.451612
2013-01-01 10:06 1.062463
... ...
2013-01-01 11:53 -1.477914
2013-01-01 11:54 0.594465
2013-01-01 11:55 -0.903243
2013-01-01 11:56 1.182131
2013-01-01 11:57 0.621345
2013-01-01 11:58 -0.996113
2013-01-01 11:59 -0.191659

[120 rows x 1 columns]

19.11.5 Frequency Conversion and Resampling with PeriodIndex

The frequency of Period and PeriodIndex can be converted via the asfreq method. Let’s start with the fiscal
year 2011, ending in December:

884 Chapter 19. Time Series / Date functionality

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [338]: p = pd.Period('2011', freq='A-DEC')

In [339]: p
Out[339]: Period('2011', 'A-DEC')

We can convert it to a monthly frequency. Using the how parameter, we can specify whether to return the starting or
ending month:

In [340]: p.asfreq('M', how='start')

Out[340]: Period('2011-01', 'M')

In [341]: p.asfreq('M', how='end')

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[341]: Period('2011-12', 'M')

The shorthands ‘s’ and ‘e’ are provided for convenience:

In [342]: p.asfreq('M', 's')

Out[342]: Period('2011-01', 'M')

In [343]: p.asfreq('M', 'e')

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[343]: Period('2011-12', 'M')

Converting to a “super-period” (e.g., annual frequency is a super-period of quarterly frequency) automatically returns
the super-period that includes the input period:

In [344]: p = pd.Period('2011-12', freq='M')

In [345]: p.asfreq('A-NOV')
Out[345]: Period('2012', 'A-NOV')

Note that since we converted to an annual frequency that ends the year in November, the monthly period of December
2011 is actually in the 2012 A-NOV period. Period conversions with anchored frequencies are particularly useful
for working with various quarterly data common to economics, business, and other fields. Many organizations define
quarters relative to the month in which their fiscal year starts and ends. Thus, first quarter of 2011 could start in 2010
or a few months into 2011. Via anchored frequencies, pandas works for all quarterly frequencies Q-JAN through
Q-DEC.
Q-DEC define regular calendar quarters:

In [346]: p = pd.Period('2012Q1', freq='Q-DEC')

In [347]: p.asfreq('D', 's')

Out[347]: Period('2012-01-01', 'D')

In [348]: p.asfreq('D', 'e')

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[348]: Period('2012-03-31', 'D')

Q-MAR defines fiscal year end in March:

In [349]: p = pd.Period('2011Q4', freq='Q-MAR')

In [350]: p.asfreq('D', 's')

Out[350]: Period('2011-01-01', 'D')

In [351]: p.asfreq('D', 'e')

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[351]: Period('2011-03-31', 'D')

19.11. Time Span Representation 885

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

19.12 Converting Between Representations

Timestamped data can be converted to PeriodIndex-ed data using to_period and vice-versa using
to_timestamp:

In [352]: rng = pd.date_range('1/1/2012', periods=5, freq='M')

In [353]: ts = pd.Series(np.random.randn(len(rng)), index=rng)

In [354]: ts
Out[354]:
2012-01-31 -0.898547
2012-02-29 -1.332247
2012-03-31 -0.741645
2012-04-30 0.094321
2012-05-31 -0.438813
Freq: M, dtype: float64

In [355]: ps = ts.to_period()

In [356]: ps
Out[356]:
2012-01 -0.898547
2012-02 -1.332247
2012-03 -0.741645
2012-04 0.094321
2012-05 -0.438813
Freq: M, dtype: float64

In [357]: ps.to_timestamp()
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

2012-01-01 -0.898547
2012-02-01 -1.332247
2012-03-01 -0.741645
2012-04-01 0.094321
2012-05-01 -0.438813
Freq: MS, dtype: float64

Remember that ‘s’ and ‘e’ can be used to return the timestamps at the start or end of the period:

In [358]: ps.to_timestamp('D', how='s')

Out[358]:
2012-01-01 -0.898547
2012-02-01 -1.332247
2012-03-01 -0.741645
2012-04-01 0.094321
2012-05-01 -0.438813
Freq: MS, dtype: float64

Converting between period and timestamp enables some convenient arithmetic functions to be used. In the following
example, we convert a quarterly frequency with year ending in November to 9am of the end of the month following
the quarter end:

In [359]: prng = pd.period_range('1990Q1', '2000Q4', freq='Q-NOV')

In [360]: ts = pd.Series(np.random.randn(len(prng)), prng)

886 Chapter 19. Time Series / Date functionality

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [361]: ts.index = (prng.asfreq('M', 'e') + 1).asfreq('H', 's') + 9

In [362]: ts.head()
Out[362]:
1990-03-01 09:00 -0.564874
1990-06-01 09:00 -1.426510
1990-09-01 09:00 1.295437
1990-12-01 09:00 1.124017
1991-03-01 09:00 0.840428
Freq: H, dtype: float64

19.13 Representing Out-of-Bounds Spans

If you have data that is outside of the Timestamp bounds, see Timestamp limitations, then you can use a
PeriodIndex and/or Series of Periods to do computations.
In [363]: span = pd.period_range('1215-01-01', '1381-01-01', freq='D')

In [364]: span
Out[364]:
PeriodIndex(['1215-01-01', '1215-01-02', '1215-01-03', '1215-01-04',
'1215-01-05', '1215-01-06', '1215-01-07', '1215-01-08',
'1215-01-09', '1215-01-10',
...
'1380-12-23', '1380-12-24', '1380-12-25', '1380-12-26',
'1380-12-27', '1380-12-28', '1380-12-29', '1380-12-30',
'1380-12-31', '1381-01-01'],
dtype='period[D]', length=60632, freq='D')

To convert from an int64 based YYYYMMDD representation.

In [365]: s = pd.Series([20121231, 20141130, 99991231])

In [366]: s
Out[366]:
0 20121231
1 20141130
2 99991231
dtype: int64

In [367]: def conv(x):

.....: return pd.Period(year = x // 10000, month = x//100 % 100, day = x%100,
˓→freq='D')

.....:

In [368]: s.apply(conv)
Out[368]:
0 2012-12-31
1 2014-11-30
2 9999-12-31
dtype: object

In [369]: s.apply(conv)[2]
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[369]:
˓→Period('9999-12-31', 'D')

19.13. Representing Out-of-Bounds Spans 887

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

These can easily be converted to a PeriodIndex

In [370]: span = pd.PeriodIndex(s.apply(conv))

In [371]: span
Out[371]: PeriodIndex(['2012-12-31', '2014-11-30', '9999-12-31'], dtype='period[D]',
˓→freq='D')

19.14 Time Zone Handling

Pandas provides rich support for working with timestamps in different time zones using pytz and dateutil li-
braries. dateutil currently is only supported for fixed offset and tzfile zones. The default library is pytz. Support
for dateutil is provided for compatibility with other applications e.g. if you use dateutil in other python
packages.

19.14.1 Working with Time Zones

By default, pandas objects are time zone unaware:

In [372]: rng = pd.date_range('3/6/2012 00:00', periods=15, freq='D')

In [373]: rng.tz is None

Out[373]: True

To supply the time zone, you can use the tz keyword to date_range and other functions. Dateutil time zone strings
are distinguished from pytz time zones by starting with dateutil/.
• In pytz you can find a list of common (and less common) time zones using from pytz import
common_timezones, all_timezones.
• dateutil uses the OS timezones so there isn’t a fixed list available. For common zones, the names are the
same as pytz.

# pytz
In [374]: rng_pytz = pd.date_range('3/6/2012 00:00', periods=10, freq='D',
.....: tz='Europe/London')
.....:

In [375]: rng_pytz.tz
Out[375]: <DstTzInfo 'Europe/London' LMT-1 day, 23:59:00 STD>

# dateutil
In [376]: rng_dateutil = pd.date_range('3/6/2012 00:00', periods=10, freq='D',
.....: tz='dateutil/Europe/London')
.....:

In [377]: rng_dateutil.tz
Out[377]: tzfile('/usr/share/zoneinfo/Europe/London')

# dateutil - utc special case

In [378]: rng_utc = pd.date_range('3/6/2012 00:00', periods=10, freq='D',
.....: tz=dateutil.tz.tzutc())
.....:

888 Chapter 19. Time Series / Date functionality

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [379]: rng_utc.tz
Out[379]: tzutc()

Note that the UTC timezone is a special case in dateutil and should be constructed explicitly as an instance of
dateutil.tz.tzutc. You can also construct other timezones explicitly first, which gives you more control over
which time zone is used:

# pytz
In [380]: tz_pytz = pytz.timezone('Europe/London')

In [381]: rng_pytz = pd.date_range('3/6/2012 00:00', periods=10, freq='D',

.....: tz=tz_pytz)
.....:

In [382]: rng_pytz.tz == tz_pytz

Out[382]: True

# dateutil
In [383]: tz_dateutil = dateutil.tz.gettz('Europe/London')

In [384]: rng_dateutil = pd.date_range('3/6/2012 00:00', periods=10, freq='D',

.....: tz=tz_dateutil)
.....:

In [385]: rng_dateutil.tz == tz_dateutil

Out[385]: True

Timestamps, like Python’s datetime.datetime object can be either time zone naive or time zone aware. Naive
time series and DatetimeIndex objects can be localized using tz_localize:

In [386]: ts = pd.Series(np.random.randn(len(rng)), rng)

In [387]: ts_utc = ts.tz_localize('UTC')

In [388]: ts_utc
Out[388]:
2012-03-06 00:00:00+00:00 0.037206
2012-03-07 00:00:00+00:00 2.313998
2012-03-08 00:00:00+00:00 1.458296
2012-03-09 00:00:00+00:00 -0.620431
2012-03-10 00:00:00+00:00 -0.000111
2012-03-11 00:00:00+00:00 -0.342783
2012-03-12 00:00:00+00:00 -0.664322
2012-03-13 00:00:00+00:00 0.654814
2012-03-14 00:00:00+00:00 1.550680
2012-03-15 00:00:00+00:00 0.174511
2012-03-16 00:00:00+00:00 1.360491
2012-03-17 00:00:00+00:00 0.799737
2012-03-18 00:00:00+00:00 0.449149
2012-03-19 00:00:00+00:00 0.111346
2012-03-20 00:00:00+00:00 -0.435531
Freq: D, dtype: float64

Again, you can explicitly construct the timezone object first. You can use the tz_convert method to convert pandas
objects to convert tz-aware data to another time zone:

19.14. Time Zone Handling 889

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [389]: ts_utc.tz_convert('US/Eastern')
Out[389]:
2012-03-05 19:00:00-05:00 0.037206
2012-03-06 19:00:00-05:00 2.313998
2012-03-07 19:00:00-05:00 1.458296
2012-03-08 19:00:00-05:00 -0.620431
2012-03-09 19:00:00-05:00 -0.000111
2012-03-10 19:00:00-05:00 -0.342783
2012-03-11 20:00:00-04:00 -0.664322
2012-03-12 20:00:00-04:00 0.654814
2012-03-13 20:00:00-04:00 1.550680
2012-03-14 20:00:00-04:00 0.174511
2012-03-15 20:00:00-04:00 1.360491
2012-03-16 20:00:00-04:00 0.799737
2012-03-17 20:00:00-04:00 0.449149
2012-03-18 20:00:00-04:00 0.111346
2012-03-19 20:00:00-04:00 -0.435531
Freq: D, dtype: float64

Warning: Be wary of conversions between libraries. For some zones pytz and dateutil have different
definitions of the zone. This is more of a problem for unusual timezones than for ‘standard’ zones like US/
Eastern.

Warning: Be aware that a timezone definition across versions of timezone libraries may not be considered equal.
This may cause problems when working with stored data that is localized using one version and operated on with
a different version. See here for how to handle such a situation.

Warning: It is incorrect to pass a timezone directly into the datetime.datetime constructor (e.g.,
datetime.datetime(2011, 1, 1, tz=timezone('US/Eastern')). Instead, the datetime needs
to be localized using the the localize method on the timezone.

Under the hood, all timestamps are stored in UTC. Scalar values from a DatetimeIndex with a time zone will have
their fields (day, hour, minute) localized to the time zone. However, timestamps with the same UTC value are still
considered to be equal even if they are in different time zones:

In [390]: rng_eastern = rng_utc.tz_convert('US/Eastern')

In [391]: rng_berlin = rng_utc.tz_convert('Europe/Berlin')

In [392]: rng_eastern[5]
Out[392]: Timestamp('2012-03-10 19:00:00-0500', tz='US/Eastern', freq='D')

In [393]: rng_berlin[5]
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[393]:
˓→Timestamp('2012-03-11 01:00:00+0100', tz='Europe/Berlin', freq='D')

In [394]: rng_eastern[5] == rng_berlin[5]

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→True

Like Series, DataFrame, and DatetimeIndex, Timestamp``s can be converted to other

890 Chapter 19. Time Series / Date functionality

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

time zones using ``tz_convert:

In [395]: rng_eastern[5]
Out[395]: Timestamp('2012-03-10 19:00:00-0500', tz='US/Eastern', freq='D')

In [396]: rng_berlin[5]
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[396]:
˓→Timestamp('2012-03-11 01:00:00+0100', tz='Europe/Berlin', freq='D')

In [397]: rng_eastern[5].tz_convert('Europe/Berlin')
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→Timestamp('2012-03-11 01:00:00+0100', tz='Europe/Berlin')

Localization of Timestamp functions just like DatetimeIndex and Series:

In [398]: rng[5]
Out[398]: Timestamp('2012-03-11 00:00:00', freq='D')

In [399]: rng[5].tz_localize('Asia/Shanghai')
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[399]: Timestamp('2012-03-11
˓→00:00:00+0800', tz='Asia/Shanghai')

Operations between Series in different time zones will yield UTC Series, aligning the data on the UTC times-
tamps:

In [400]: eastern = ts_utc.tz_convert('US/Eastern')

In [401]: berlin = ts_utc.tz_convert('Europe/Berlin')

In [402]: result = eastern + berlin

In [403]: result
Out[403]:
2012-03-06 00:00:00+00:00 0.074412
2012-03-07 00:00:00+00:00 4.627997
2012-03-08 00:00:00+00:00 2.916592
2012-03-09 00:00:00+00:00 -1.240863
2012-03-10 00:00:00+00:00 -0.000221
2012-03-11 00:00:00+00:00 -0.685566
2012-03-12 00:00:00+00:00 -1.328643
2012-03-13 00:00:00+00:00 1.309628
2012-03-14 00:00:00+00:00 3.101359
2012-03-15 00:00:00+00:00 0.349022
2012-03-16 00:00:00+00:00 2.720983
2012-03-17 00:00:00+00:00 1.599475
2012-03-18 00:00:00+00:00 0.898297
2012-03-19 00:00:00+00:00 0.222691
2012-03-20 00:00:00+00:00 -0.871062
Freq: D, dtype: float64

In [404]: result.index
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

DatetimeIndex(['2012-03-06', '2012-03-07', '2012-03-08', '2012-03-09',

'2012-03-10', '2012-03-11', '2012-03-12', '2012-03-13',
'2012-03-14', '2012-03-15', '2012-03-16', '2012-03-17',
'2012-03-18', '2012-03-19', '2012-03-20'],
dtype='datetime64[ns, UTC]', freq='D')

19.14. Time Zone Handling 891

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

To remove timezone from tz-aware DatetimeIndex, use tz_localize(None) or tz_convert(None).

tz_localize(None) will remove timezone holding local time representations. tz_convert(None) will re-
move timezone after converting to UTC time.

In [405]: didx = pd.DatetimeIndex(start='2014-08-01 09:00', freq='H', periods=10, tz=

˓→'US/Eastern')

In [406]: didx
Out[406]:
DatetimeIndex(['2014-08-01 09:00:00-04:00', '2014-08-01 10:00:00-04:00',
'2014-08-01 11:00:00-04:00', '2014-08-01 12:00:00-04:00',
'2014-08-01 13:00:00-04:00', '2014-08-01 14:00:00-04:00',
'2014-08-01 15:00:00-04:00', '2014-08-01 16:00:00-04:00',
'2014-08-01 17:00:00-04:00', '2014-08-01 18:00:00-04:00'],
dtype='datetime64[ns, US/Eastern]', freq='H')

In [407]: didx.tz_localize(None)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

DatetimeIndex(['2014-08-01 09:00:00', '2014-08-01 10:00:00',

'2014-08-01 11:00:00', '2014-08-01 12:00:00',
'2014-08-01 13:00:00', '2014-08-01 14:00:00',
'2014-08-01 15:00:00', '2014-08-01 16:00:00',
'2014-08-01 17:00:00', '2014-08-01 18:00:00'],
dtype='datetime64[ns]', freq='H')

In [408]: didx.tz_convert(None)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

DatetimeIndex(['2014-08-01 13:00:00', '2014-08-01 14:00:00',

'2014-08-01 15:00:00', '2014-08-01 16:00:00',
'2014-08-01 17:00:00', '2014-08-01 18:00:00',
'2014-08-01 19:00:00', '2014-08-01 20:00:00',
'2014-08-01 21:00:00', '2014-08-01 22:00:00'],
dtype='datetime64[ns]', freq='H')

# tz_convert(None) is identical with tz_convert('UTC').tz_localize(None)

In [409]: didx.tz_convert('UCT').tz_localize(None)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

DatetimeIndex(['2014-08-01 13:00:00', '2014-08-01 14:00:00',

'2014-08-01 15:00:00', '2014-08-01 16:00:00',
'2014-08-01 17:00:00', '2014-08-01 18:00:00',
'2014-08-01 19:00:00', '2014-08-01 20:00:00',
'2014-08-01 21:00:00', '2014-08-01 22:00:00'],
dtype='datetime64[ns]', freq='H')

19.14.2 Ambiguous Times when Localizing

In some cases, localize cannot determine the DST and non-DST hours when there are duplicates. This often hap-
pens when reading files or database records that simply duplicate the hours. Passing ambiguous='infer'
(infer_dst argument in prior releases) into tz_localize will attempt to determine the right offset. Below
the top example will fail as it contains ambiguous times and the bottom will infer the right offset.

In [410]: rng_hourly = pd.DatetimeIndex(['11/06/2011 00:00', '11/06/2011 01:00',

.....: '11/06/2011 01:00', '11/06/2011 02:00',

892 Chapter 19. Time Series / Date functionality

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

.....: '11/06/2011 03:00'])

.....:

This will fail as there are ambiguous times

In [2]: rng_hourly.tz_localize('US/Eastern')
AmbiguousTimeError: Cannot infer dst time from Timestamp('2011-11-06 01:00:00'), try
˓→using the 'ambiguous' argument

Infer the ambiguous times

In [411]: rng_hourly_eastern = rng_hourly.tz_localize('US/Eastern', ambiguous='infer')

In [412]: rng_hourly_eastern.tolist()
Out[412]:
[Timestamp('2011-11-06 00:00:00-0400', tz='US/Eastern'),
Timestamp('2011-11-06 01:00:00-0400', tz='US/Eastern'),
Timestamp('2011-11-06 01:00:00-0500', tz='US/Eastern'),
Timestamp('2011-11-06 02:00:00-0500', tz='US/Eastern'),
Timestamp('2011-11-06 03:00:00-0500', tz='US/Eastern')]

In addition to ‘infer’, there are several other arguments supported. Passing an array-like of bools or 0s/1s where True
represents a DST hour and False a non-DST hour, allows for distinguishing more than one DST transition (e.g., if you
have multiple records in a database each with their own DST transition). Or passing ‘NaT’ will fill in transition times
with not-a-time values. These methods are available in the DatetimeIndex constructor as well as tz_localize.
In [413]: rng_hourly_dst = np.array([1, 1, 0, 0, 0])

In [414]: rng_hourly.tz_localize('US/Eastern', ambiguous=rng_hourly_dst).tolist()

Out[414]:
[Timestamp('2011-11-06 00:00:00-0400', tz='US/Eastern'),
Timestamp('2011-11-06 01:00:00-0400', tz='US/Eastern'),
Timestamp('2011-11-06 01:00:00-0500', tz='US/Eastern'),
Timestamp('2011-11-06 02:00:00-0500', tz='US/Eastern'),
Timestamp('2011-11-06 03:00:00-0500', tz='US/Eastern')]

In [415]: rng_hourly.tz_localize('US/Eastern', ambiguous='NaT').tolist()

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

[Timestamp('2011-11-06 00:00:00-0400', tz='US/Eastern'),

NaT,
NaT,
Timestamp('2011-11-06 02:00:00-0500', tz='US/Eastern'),
Timestamp('2011-11-06 03:00:00-0500', tz='US/Eastern')]

In [416]: didx = pd.DatetimeIndex(start='2014-08-01 09:00', freq='H', periods=10, tz=

˓→'US/Eastern')

In [417]: didx
Out[417]:
DatetimeIndex(['2014-08-01 09:00:00-04:00', '2014-08-01 10:00:00-04:00',
'2014-08-01 11:00:00-04:00', '2014-08-01 12:00:00-04:00',
'2014-08-01 13:00:00-04:00', '2014-08-01 14:00:00-04:00',
'2014-08-01 15:00:00-04:00', '2014-08-01 16:00:00-04:00',
'2014-08-01 17:00:00-04:00', '2014-08-01 18:00:00-04:00'],
dtype='datetime64[ns, US/Eastern]', freq='H')

In [418]: didx.tz_localize(None)

19.14. Time Zone Handling 893

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

DatetimeIndex(['2014-08-01 09:00:00', '2014-08-01 10:00:00',

'2014-08-01 11:00:00', '2014-08-01 12:00:00',
'2014-08-01 13:00:00', '2014-08-01 14:00:00',
'2014-08-01 15:00:00', '2014-08-01 16:00:00',
'2014-08-01 17:00:00', '2014-08-01 18:00:00'],
dtype='datetime64[ns]', freq='H')

In [419]: didx.tz_convert(None)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

DatetimeIndex(['2014-08-01 13:00:00', '2014-08-01 14:00:00',

'2014-08-01 15:00:00', '2014-08-01 16:00:00',
'2014-08-01 17:00:00', '2014-08-01 18:00:00',
'2014-08-01 19:00:00', '2014-08-01 20:00:00',
'2014-08-01 21:00:00', '2014-08-01 22:00:00'],
dtype='datetime64[ns]', freq='H')

# tz_convert(None) is identical with tz_convert('UTC').tz_localize(None)

In [420]: didx.tz_convert('UCT').tz_localize(None)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

DatetimeIndex(['2014-08-01 13:00:00', '2014-08-01 14:00:00',

'2014-08-01 15:00:00', '2014-08-01 16:00:00',
'2014-08-01 17:00:00', '2014-08-01 18:00:00',
'2014-08-01 19:00:00', '2014-08-01 20:00:00',
'2014-08-01 21:00:00', '2014-08-01 22:00:00'],
dtype='datetime64[ns]', freq='H')

19.14.3 TZ Aware Dtypes

New in version 0.17.0.

Series/DatetimeIndex with a timezone naive value are represented with a dtype of datetime64[ns].

In [421]: s_naive = pd.Series(pd.date_range('20130101',periods=3))

In [422]: s_naive
Out[422]:
0 2013-01-01
1 2013-01-02
2 2013-01-03
dtype: datetime64[ns]

Series/DatetimeIndex with a timezone aware value are represented with a dtype of datetime64[ns,
tz].

In [423]: s_aware = pd.Series(pd.date_range('20130101',periods=3,tz='US/Eastern'))

In [424]: s_aware
Out[424]:
0 2013-01-01 00:00:00-05:00
1 2013-01-02 00:00:00-05:00
2 2013-01-03 00:00:00-05:00
dtype: datetime64[ns, US/Eastern]

894 Chapter 19. Time Series / Date functionality

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Both of these Series can be manipulated via the .dt accessor, see here.
For example, to localize and convert a naive stamp to timezone aware.
In [425]: s_naive.dt.tz_localize('UTC').dt.tz_convert('US/Eastern')
Out[425]:
0 2012-12-31 19:00:00-05:00
1 2013-01-01 19:00:00-05:00
2 2013-01-02 19:00:00-05:00
dtype: datetime64[ns, US/Eastern]

Further more you can .astype(...) timezone aware (and naive). This operation is effectively a localize AND
convert on a naive stamp, and a convert on an aware stamp.
# localize and convert a naive timezone
In [426]: s_naive.astype('datetime64[ns, US/Eastern]')
Out[426]:
0 2012-12-31 19:00:00-05:00
1 2013-01-01 19:00:00-05:00
2 2013-01-02 19:00:00-05:00
dtype: datetime64[ns, US/Eastern]

# make an aware tz naive

In [427]: s_aware.astype('datetime64[ns]')
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

0 2013-01-01 05:00:00
1 2013-01-02 05:00:00
2 2013-01-03 05:00:00
dtype: datetime64[ns]

# convert to a new timezone

In [428]: s_aware.astype('datetime64[ns, CET]')
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

0 2013-01-01 06:00:00+01:00
1 2013-01-02 06:00:00+01:00
2 2013-01-03 06:00:00+01:00
dtype: datetime64[ns, CET]

Note: Using the .values accessor on a Series, returns an numpy array of the data. These values are converted
to UTC, as numpy does not currently support timezones (even though it is printing in the local timezone!).
In [429]: s_naive.values
Out[429]:
array(['2013-01-01T00:00:00.000000000', '2013-01-02T00:00:00.000000000',
'2013-01-03T00:00:00.000000000'], dtype='datetime64[ns]')

In [430]: s_aware.values
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

array(['2013-01-01T05:00:00.000000000', '2013-01-02T05:00:00.000000000',
'2013-01-03T05:00:00.000000000'], dtype='datetime64[ns]')

Further note that once converted to a numpy array these would lose the tz tenor.
In [431]: pd.Series(s_aware.values)
Out[431]:

19.14. Time Zone Handling 895

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

0 2013-01-01 05:00:00
1 2013-01-02 05:00:00
2 2013-01-03 05:00:00
dtype: datetime64[ns]

However, these can be easily converted

In [432]: pd.Series(s_aware.values).dt.tz_localize('UTC').dt.tz_convert('US/Eastern')
Out[432]:
0 2013-01-01 00:00:00-05:00
1 2013-01-02 00:00:00-05:00
2 2013-01-03 00:00:00-05:00
dtype: datetime64[ns, US/Eastern]

896 Chapter 19. Time Series / Date functionality

 CHAPTER

TWENTY

TIME DELTAS

Timedeltas are differences in times, expressed in difference units, e.g. days, hours, minutes, seconds. They can be
both positive and negative.
Timedelta is a subclass of datetime.timedelta, and behaves in a similar manner, but allows compatibility
with np.timedelta64 types as well as a host of custom representation, parsing, and attributes.

20.1 Parsing

You can construct a Timedelta scalar through various arguments:

# strings
In [1]: pd.Timedelta('1 days')
Out[1]: Timedelta('1 days 00:00:00')

In [2]: pd.Timedelta('1 days 00:00:00')

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[2]: Timedelta('1 days 00:00:00')

In [3]: pd.Timedelta('1 days 2 hours')

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[3]:
˓→Timedelta('1 days 02:00:00')

In [4]: pd.Timedelta('-1 days 2 min 3us')

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→Timedelta('-2 days +23:57:59.999997')

# like datetime.timedelta
# note: these MUST be specified as keyword arguments
In [5]: pd.Timedelta(days=1, seconds=1)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→Timedelta('1 days 00:00:01')

# integers with a unit

In [6]: pd.Timedelta(1, unit='d')
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→Timedelta('1 days 00:00:00')

# from a datetime.timedelta/np.timedelta64
In [7]: pd.Timedelta(datetime.timedelta(days=1, seconds=1))
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→Timedelta('1 days 00:00:01')

In [8]: pd.Timedelta(np.timedelta64(1, 'ms'))

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→Timedelta('0 days 00:00:00.001000')

897
pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

# negative Timedeltas have this string repr

# to be more consistent with datetime.timedelta conventions
In [9]: pd.Timedelta('-1us')
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→Timedelta('-1 days +23:59:59.999999')

# a NaT
In [10]: pd.Timedelta('nan')
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→NaT

In [11]: pd.Timedelta('nat')
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→NaT

DateOffsets (Day, Hour, Minute, Second, Milli, Micro, Nano) can also be used in construction.
In [12]: pd.Timedelta(Second(2))
Out[12]: Timedelta('0 days 00:00:02')

Further, operations among the scalars yield another scalar Timedelta.

In [13]: pd.Timedelta(Day(2)) + pd.Timedelta(Second(2)) + pd.Timedelta('00:00:00.
˓→000123')

Out[13]: Timedelta('2 days 00:00:02.000123')

20.1.1 to_timedelta

Using the top-level pd.to_timedelta, you can convert a scalar, array, list, or Series from a recognized timedelta
format / value into a Timedelta type. It will construct Series if the input is a Series, a scalar if the input is scalar-like,
otherwise it will output a TimedeltaIndex.
You can parse a single string to a Timedelta:
In [14]: pd.to_timedelta('1 days 06:05:01.00003')
Out[14]: Timedelta('1 days 06:05:01.000030')

In [15]: pd.to_timedelta('15.5us')
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[15]: Timedelta('0 days 00:00:00.
˓→000015')

or a list/array of strings:
In [16]: pd.to_timedelta(['1 days 06:05:01.00003', '15.5us', 'nan'])
Out[16]: TimedeltaIndex(['1 days 06:05:01.000030', '0 days 00:00:00.000015', NaT],
˓→dtype='timedelta64[ns]', freq=None)

The unit keyword argument specifies the unit of the Timedelta:

In [17]: pd.to_timedelta(np.arange(5), unit='s')
Out[17]: TimedeltaIndex(['00:00:00', '00:00:01', '00:00:02', '00:00:03', '00:00:04'],
˓→dtype='timedelta64[ns]', freq=None)

In [18]: pd.to_timedelta(np.arange(5), unit='d')

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→TimedeltaIndex(['0 days', '1 days', '2 days', '3 days', '4 days'], dtype=

˓→'timedelta64[ns]', freq=None)

898 Chapter 20. Time Deltas

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

20.1.2 Timedelta limitations

Pandas represents Timedeltas in nanosecond resolution using 64 bit integers. As such, the 64 bit integer limits
determine the Timedelta limits.
In [19]: pd.Timedelta.min
Out[19]: Timedelta('-106752 days +00:12:43.145224')

In [20]: pd.Timedelta.max
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[20]: Timedelta('106751 days
˓→23:47:16.854775')

20.2 Operations

You can operate on Series/DataFrames and construct timedelta64[ns] Series through subtraction operations on
datetime64[ns] Series, or Timestamps.
In [21]: s = pd.Series(pd.date_range('2012-1-1', periods=3, freq='D'))

In [22]: td = pd.Series([ pd.Timedelta(days=i) for i in range(3) ])

In [23]: df = pd.DataFrame(dict(A = s, B = td))

In [24]: df
Out[24]:
A B
0 2012-01-01 0 days
1 2012-01-02 1 days
2 2012-01-03 2 days

In [25]: df['C'] = df['A'] + df['B']

In [26]: df
Out[26]:
A B C
0 2012-01-01 0 days 2012-01-01
1 2012-01-02 1 days 2012-01-03
2 2012-01-03 2 days 2012-01-05

In [27]: df.dtypes
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

A datetime64[ns]
B timedelta64[ns]
C datetime64[ns]
dtype: object

In [28]: s - s.max()
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

0 -2 days
1 -1 days
2 0 days

20.2. Operations 899

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

dtype: timedelta64[ns]

In [29]: s - datetime.datetime(2011, 1, 1, 3, 5)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

0 364 days 20:55:00

1 365 days 20:55:00
2 366 days 20:55:00
dtype: timedelta64[ns]

In [30]: s + datetime.timedelta(minutes=5)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

0 2012-01-01 00:05:00
1 2012-01-02 00:05:00
2 2012-01-03 00:05:00
dtype: datetime64[ns]

In [31]: s + Minute(5)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

0 2012-01-01 00:05:00
1 2012-01-02 00:05:00
2 2012-01-03 00:05:00
dtype: datetime64[ns]

In [32]: s + Minute(5) + Milli(5)

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

0 2012-01-01 00:05:00.005
1 2012-01-02 00:05:00.005
2 2012-01-03 00:05:00.005
dtype: datetime64[ns]

Operations with scalars from a timedelta64[ns] series:

In [33]: y = s - s[0]

In [34]: y
Out[34]:
0 0 days
1 1 days
2 2 days
dtype: timedelta64[ns]

Series of timedeltas with NaT values are supported:

In [35]: y = s - s.shift()

In [36]: y
Out[36]:
0 NaT
1 1 days
2 1 days
dtype: timedelta64[ns]

Elements can be set to NaT using np.nan analogously to datetimes:

900 Chapter 20. Time Deltas

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [37]: y[1] = np.nan

In [38]: y
Out[38]:
0 NaT
1 NaT
2 1 days
dtype: timedelta64[ns]

Operands can also appear in a reversed order (a singular object operated with a Series):

In [39]: s.max() - s
Out[39]:
0 2 days
1 1 days
2 0 days
dtype: timedelta64[ns]

In [40]: datetime.datetime(2011, 1, 1, 3, 5) - s
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[40]:
0 -365 days +03:05:00
1 -366 days +03:05:00
2 -367 days +03:05:00
dtype: timedelta64[ns]

In [41]: datetime.timedelta(minutes=5) + s
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

0 2012-01-01 00:05:00
1 2012-01-02 00:05:00
2 2012-01-03 00:05:00
dtype: datetime64[ns]

min, max and the corresponding idxmin, idxmax operations are supported on frames:

In [42]: A = s - pd.Timestamp('20120101') - pd.Timedelta('00:05:05')

In [43]: B = s - pd.Series(pd.date_range('2012-1-2', periods=3, freq='D'))

In [44]: df = pd.DataFrame(dict(A=A, B=B))

In [45]: df
Out[45]:
A B
0 -1 days +23:54:55 -1 days
1 0 days 23:54:55 -1 days
2 1 days 23:54:55 -1 days

In [46]: df.min()
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

A -1 days +23:54:55
B -1 days +00:00:00
dtype: timedelta64[ns]

In [47]: df.min(axis=1)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

20.2. Operations 901

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

0 -1 days
1 -1 days
2 -1 days
dtype: timedelta64[ns]

In [48]: df.idxmin()
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

A 0
B 0
dtype: int64

In [49]: df.idxmax()
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

A 2
B 0
dtype: int64

min, max, idxmin, idxmax operations are supported on Series as well. A scalar result will be a Timedelta.

In [50]: df.min().max()
Out[50]: Timedelta('-1 days +23:54:55')

In [51]: df.min(axis=1).min()
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[51]: Timedelta('-1 days +00:00:00')

In [52]: df.min().idxmax()
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[52]:
˓→'A'

In [53]: df.min(axis=1).idxmin()
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[53]:
˓→0

You can fillna on timedeltas. Integers will be interpreted as seconds. You can pass a timedelta to get a particular value.

In [54]: y.fillna(0)
Out[54]:
0 0 days
1 0 days
2 1 days
dtype: timedelta64[ns]

In [55]: y.fillna(10)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[55]:
0 0 days 00:00:10
1 0 days 00:00:10
2 1 days 00:00:00
dtype: timedelta64[ns]

In [56]: y.fillna(pd.Timedelta('-1 days, 00:00:05'))

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

0 -1 days +00:00:05
1 -1 days +00:00:05
2 1 days 00:00:00
dtype: timedelta64[ns]

902 Chapter 20. Time Deltas

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

You can also negate, multiply and use abs on Timedeltas:

In [57]: td1 = pd.Timedelta('-1 days 2 hours 3 seconds')

In [58]: td1
Out[58]: Timedelta('-2 days +21:59:57')

In [59]: -1 * td1
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[59]: Timedelta('1 days 02:00:03')

In [60]: - td1
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[60]:
˓→Timedelta('1 days 02:00:03')

In [61]: abs(td1)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→Timedelta('1 days 02:00:03')

20.3 Reductions

Numeric reduction operation for timedelta64[ns] will return Timedelta objects. As usual NaT are skipped
during evaluation.
In [62]: y2 = pd.Series(pd.to_timedelta(['-1 days +00:00:05', 'nat', '-1 days
˓→+00:00:05', '1 days']))

In [63]: y2
Out[63]:
0 -1 days +00:00:05
1 NaT
2 -1 days +00:00:05
3 1 days 00:00:00
dtype: timedelta64[ns]

In [64]: y2.mean()
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→Timedelta('-1 days +16:00:03.333333')

In [65]: y2.median()
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→Timedelta('-1 days +00:00:05')

In [66]: y2.quantile(.1)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→Timedelta('-1 days +00:00:05')

In [67]: y2.sum()
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→Timedelta('-1 days +00:00:10')

20.4 Frequency Conversion

Timedelta Series, TimedeltaIndex, and Timedelta scalars can be converted to other ‘frequencies’ by dividing
by another timedelta, or by astyping to a specific timedelta type. These operations yield Series and propagate NaT ->

20.3. Reductions 903

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

nan. Note that division by the numpy scalar is true division, while astyping is equivalent of floor division.
In [68]: td = pd.Series(pd.date_range('20130101', periods=4)) - \
....: pd.Series(pd.date_range('20121201', periods=4))
....:

In [69]: td[2] += datetime.timedelta(minutes=5, seconds=3)

In [70]: td[3] = np.nan

In [71]: td
Out[71]:
0 31 days 00:00:00
1 31 days 00:00:00
2 31 days 00:05:03
3 NaT
dtype: timedelta64[ns]

# to days
In [72]: td / np.timedelta64(1, 'D')
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

0 31.000000
1 31.000000
2 31.003507
3 NaN
dtype: float64

In [73]: td.astype('timedelta64[D]')
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

0 31.0
1 31.0
2 31.0
3 NaN
dtype: float64

# to seconds
In [74]: td / np.timedelta64(1, 's')
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

0 2678400.0
1 2678400.0
2 2678703.0
3 NaN
dtype: float64

In [75]: td.astype('timedelta64[s]')
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

0 2678400.0
1 2678400.0
2 2678703.0
3 NaN
dtype: float64

# to months (these are constant months)

In [76]: td / np.timedelta64(1, 'M')
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

904 Chapter 20. Time Deltas

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

0 1.018501
1 1.018501
2 1.018617
3 NaN
dtype: float64

Dividing or multiplying a timedelta64[ns] Series by an integer or integer Series yields another

timedelta64[ns] dtypes Series.

In [77]: td * -1
Out[77]:
0 -31 days +00:00:00
1 -31 days +00:00:00
2 -32 days +23:54:57
3 NaT
dtype: timedelta64[ns]

In [78]: td * pd.Series([1, 2, 3, 4])

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

0 31 days 00:00:00
1 62 days 00:00:00
2 93 days 00:15:09
3 NaT
dtype: timedelta64[ns]

20.5 Attributes

You can access various components of the Timedelta or TimedeltaIndex directly using the attributes
days,seconds,microseconds,nanoseconds. These are identical to the values returned by datetime.
timedelta, in that, for example, the .seconds attribute represents the number of seconds >= 0 and < 1 day.
These are signed according to whether the Timedelta is signed.
These operations can also be directly accessed via the .dt property of the Series as well.

Note: Note that the attributes are NOT the displayed values of the Timedelta. Use .components to retrieve the
displayed values.

For a Series:

In [79]: td.dt.days
Out[79]:
0 31.0
1 31.0
2 31.0
3 NaN
dtype: float64

In [80]: td.dt.seconds
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[80]:
0 0.0
1 0.0
2 303.0

20.5. Attributes 905

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

3 NaN
dtype: float64

You can access the value of the fields for a scalar Timedelta directly.
In [81]: tds = pd.Timedelta('31 days 5 min 3 sec')

In [82]: tds.days
Out[82]: 31

In [83]: tds.seconds
\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[83]: 303

In [84]: (-tds).seconds
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[84]: 86097

You can use the .components property to access a reduced form of the timedelta. This returns a DataFrame
indexed similarly to the Series. These are the displayed values of the Timedelta.
In [85]: td.dt.components
Out[85]:
days hours minutes seconds milliseconds microseconds nanoseconds
0 31.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
1 31.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
2 31.0 0.0 5.0 3.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
3 NaN NaN NaN NaN NaN NaN NaN

In [86]: td.dt.components.seconds
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

0 0.0
1 0.0
2 3.0
3 NaN
Name: seconds, dtype: float64

You can convert a Timedelta to an ISO 8601 Duration string with the .isoformat method
New in version 0.20.0.
In [87]: pd.Timedelta(days=6, minutes=50, seconds=3,
....: milliseconds=10, microseconds=10,
....: nanoseconds=12).isoformat()
....:
Out[87]: 'P6DT0H50M3.010010012S'

20.6 TimedeltaIndex

To generate an index with time delta, you can use either the TimedeltaIndex or the timedelta_range con-
structor.
Using TimedeltaIndex you can pass string-like, Timedelta, timedelta, or np.timedelta64 objects.
Passing np.nan/pd.NaT/nat will represent missing values.
In [88]: pd.TimedeltaIndex(['1 days', '1 days, 00:00:05',
....: np.timedelta64(2,'D'), datetime.timedelta(days=2,
˓→seconds=2)])

906 Chapter 20. Time Deltas

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

....:
Out[88]:
TimedeltaIndex(['1 days 00:00:00', '1 days 00:00:05', '2 days 00:00:00',
'2 days 00:00:02'],
dtype='timedelta64[ns]', freq=None)

Similarly to date_range, you can construct regular ranges of a TimedeltaIndex:

In [89]: pd.timedelta_range(start='1 days', periods=5, freq='D')

Out[89]: TimedeltaIndex(['1 days', '2 days', '3 days', '4 days', '5 days'], dtype=
˓→'timedelta64[ns]', freq='D')

In [90]: pd.timedelta_range(start='1 days', end='2 days', freq='30T')

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

TimedeltaIndex(['1 days 00:00:00', '1 days 00:30:00', '1 days 01:00:00',

'1 days 01:30:00', '1 days 02:00:00', '1 days 02:30:00',
'1 days 03:00:00', '1 days 03:30:00', '1 days 04:00:00',
'1 days 04:30:00', '1 days 05:00:00', '1 days 05:30:00',
'1 days 06:00:00', '1 days 06:30:00', '1 days 07:00:00',
'1 days 07:30:00', '1 days 08:00:00', '1 days 08:30:00',
'1 days 09:00:00', '1 days 09:30:00', '1 days 10:00:00',
'1 days 10:30:00', '1 days 11:00:00', '1 days 11:30:00',
'1 days 12:00:00', '1 days 12:30:00', '1 days 13:00:00',
'1 days 13:30:00', '1 days 14:00:00', '1 days 14:30:00',
'1 days 15:00:00', '1 days 15:30:00', '1 days 16:00:00',
'1 days 16:30:00', '1 days 17:00:00', '1 days 17:30:00',
'1 days 18:00:00', '1 days 18:30:00', '1 days 19:00:00',
'1 days 19:30:00', '1 days 20:00:00', '1 days 20:30:00',
'1 days 21:00:00', '1 days 21:30:00', '1 days 22:00:00',
'1 days 22:30:00', '1 days 23:00:00', '1 days 23:30:00',
'2 days 00:00:00'],
dtype='timedelta64[ns]', freq='30T')

20.6.1 Using the TimedeltaIndex

Similarly to other of the datetime-like indices, DatetimeIndex and PeriodIndex, you can use
TimedeltaIndex as the index of pandas objects.

In [91]: s = pd.Series(np.arange(100),
....: index=pd.timedelta_range('1 days', periods=100, freq='h'))
....:

In [92]: s
Out[92]:
1 days 00:00:00 0
1 days 01:00:00 1
1 days 02:00:00 2
1 days 03:00:00 3
1 days 04:00:00 4
1 days 05:00:00 5
1 days 06:00:00 6
..
4 days 21:00:00 93
4 days 22:00:00 94
4 days 23:00:00 95

20.6. TimedeltaIndex 907

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

5 days 00:00:00 96
5 days 01:00:00 97
5 days 02:00:00 98
5 days 03:00:00 99
Freq: H, Length: 100, dtype: int64

Selections work similarly, with coercion on string-likes and slices:

In [93]: s['1 day':'2 day']

Out[93]:
1 days 00:00:00 0
1 days 01:00:00 1
1 days 02:00:00 2
1 days 03:00:00 3
1 days 04:00:00 4
1 days 05:00:00 5
1 days 06:00:00 6
..
2 days 17:00:00 41
2 days 18:00:00 42
2 days 19:00:00 43
2 days 20:00:00 44
2 days 21:00:00 45
2 days 22:00:00 46
2 days 23:00:00 47
Freq: H, Length: 48, dtype: int64

In [94]: s['1 day 01:00:00']

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→1

In [95]: s[pd.Timedelta('1 day 1h')]

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→1

Furthermore you can use partial string selection and the range will be inferred:

In [96]: s['1 day':'1 day 5 hours']

Out[96]:
1 days 00:00:00 0
1 days 01:00:00 1
1 days 02:00:00 2
1 days 03:00:00 3
1 days 04:00:00 4
1 days 05:00:00 5
Freq: H, dtype: int64

20.6.2 Operations

Finally, the combination of TimedeltaIndex with DatetimeIndex allow certain combination operations that
are NaT preserving:

In [97]: tdi = pd.TimedeltaIndex(['1 days', pd.NaT, '2 days'])

In [98]: tdi.tolist()
Out[98]: [Timedelta('1 days 00:00:00'), NaT, Timedelta('2 days 00:00:00')]

908 Chapter 20. Time Deltas

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [99]: dti = pd.date_range('20130101', periods=3)

In [100]: dti.tolist()
Out[100]:
[Timestamp('2013-01-01 00:00:00', freq='D'),
Timestamp('2013-01-02 00:00:00', freq='D'),
Timestamp('2013-01-03 00:00:00', freq='D')]

In [101]: (dti + tdi).tolist()

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→[Timestamp('2013-01-02 00:00:00'), NaT, Timestamp('2013-01-05 00:00:00')]

In [102]: (dti - tdi).tolist()

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→[Timestamp('2012-12-31 00:00:00'), NaT, Timestamp('2013-01-01 00:00:00')]

20.6.3 Conversions

Similarly to frequency conversion on a Series above, you can convert these indices to yield another Index.

In [103]: tdi / np.timedelta64(1,'s')

Out[103]: Float64Index([86400.0, nan, 172800.0], dtype='float64')

In [104]: tdi.astype('timedelta64[s]')
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[104]:
˓→Float64Index([86400.0, nan, 172800.0], dtype='float64')

Scalars type ops work as well. These can potentially return a different type of index.

# adding or timedelta and date -> datelike

In [105]: tdi + pd.Timestamp('20130101')
Out[105]: DatetimeIndex(['2013-01-02', 'NaT', '2013-01-03'], dtype='datetime64[ns]',
˓→freq=None)

# subtraction of a date and a timedelta -> datelike

# note that trying to subtract a date from a Timedelta will raise an exception
In [106]: (pd.Timestamp('20130101') - tdi).tolist()
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[1
˓→[Timestamp('2012-12-31 00:00:00'), NaT, Timestamp('2012-12-30 00:00:00')]

# timedelta + timedelta -> timedelta

In [107]: tdi + pd.Timedelta('10 days')
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→TimedeltaIndex(['11 days', NaT, '12 days'], dtype='timedelta64[ns]', freq=None)

# division can result in a Timedelta if the divisor is an integer

In [108]: tdi / 2
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→TimedeltaIndex(['0 days 12:00:00', NaT, '1 days 00:00:00'], dtype='timedelta64[ns]',

˓→ freq=None)

# or a Float64Index if the divisor is a Timedelta

In [109]: tdi / tdi[0]
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→Float64Index([1.0, nan, 2.0], dtype='float64')

20.6. TimedeltaIndex 909

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

20.7 Resampling

Similar to timeseries resampling, we can resample with a TimedeltaIndex.

In [110]: s.resample('D').mean()
Out[110]:
1 days 11.5
2 days 35.5
3 days 59.5
4 days 83.5
5 days 97.5
Freq: D, dtype: float64

910 Chapter 20. Time Deltas

 CHAPTER

TWENTYONE

CATEGORICAL DATA

This is an introduction to pandas categorical data type, including a short comparison with R’s factor.
Categoricals are a pandas data type, which correspond to categorical variables in statistics: a variable, which can take
on only a limited, and usually fixed, number of possible values (categories; levels in R). Examples are gender, social
class, blood types, country affiliations, observation time or ratings via Likert scales.
In contrast to statistical categorical variables, categorical data might have an order (e.g. ‘strongly agree’ vs ‘agree’ or
‘first observation’ vs. ‘second observation’), but numerical operations (additions, divisions, ...) are not possible.
All values of categorical data are either in categories or np.nan. Order is defined by the order of categories, not lexical
order of the values. Internally, the data structure consists of a categories array and an integer array of codes which
point to the real value in the categories array.
The categorical data type is useful in the following cases:
• A string variable consisting of only a few different values. Converting such a string variable to a categorical
variable will save some memory, see here.
• The lexical order of a variable is not the same as the logical order (“one”, “two”, “three”). By converting to a
categorical and specifying an order on the categories, sorting and min/max will use the logical order instead of
the lexical order, see here.
• As a signal to other python libraries that this column should be treated as a categorical variable (e.g. to use
suitable statistical methods or plot types).
See also the API docs on categoricals.

21.1 Object Creation

Categorical Series or columns in a DataFrame can be created in several ways:

By specifying dtype="category" when constructing a Series:

In [1]: s = pd.Series(["a","b","c","a"], dtype="category")

In [2]: s
Out[2]:
0 a
1 b
2 c
3 a
dtype: category
Categories (3, object): [a, b, c]

911
pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

By converting an existing Series or column to a category dtype:

In [3]: df = pd.DataFrame({"A":["a","b","c","a"]})

In [4]: df["B"] = df["A"].astype('category')

In [5]: df
Out[5]:
A B
0 a a
1 b b
2 c c
3 a a

By using some special functions:

In [6]: df = pd.DataFrame({'value': np.random.randint(0, 100, 20)})

In [7]: labels = [ "{0} - {1}".format(i, i + 9) for i in range(0, 100, 10) ]

In [8]: df['group'] = pd.cut(df.value, range(0, 105, 10), right=False, labels=labels)

In [9]: df.head(10)
Out[9]:
value group
0 65 60 - 69
1 49 40 - 49
2 56 50 - 59
3 43 40 - 49
4 43 40 - 49
5 91 90 - 99
6 32 30 - 39
7 87 80 - 89
8 36 30 - 39
9 8 0 - 9

See documentation for cut().

By passing a pandas.Categorical object to a Series or assigning it to a DataFrame.

In [10]: raw_cat = pd.Categorical(["a","b","c","a"], categories=["b","c","d"],

....: ordered=False)
....:

In [11]: s = pd.Series(raw_cat)

In [12]: s
Out[12]:
0 NaN
1 b
2 c
3 NaN
dtype: category
Categories (3, object): [b, c, d]

In [13]: df = pd.DataFrame({"A":["a","b","c","a"]})

In [14]: df["B"] = raw_cat

912 Chapter 21. Categorical Data

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [15]: df
Out[15]:
A B
0 a NaN
1 b b
2 c c
3 a NaN

Anywhere above we passed a keyword dtype='category', we used the default behavior of

1. categories are inferred from the data
2. categories are unordered.
To control those behaviors, instead of passing 'category', use an instance of CategoricalDtype.

In [16]: from pandas.api.types import CategoricalDtype

In [17]: s = pd.Series(["a", "b", "c", "a"])

In [18]: cat_type = CategoricalDtype(categories=["b", "c", "d"],

....: ordered=True)
....:

In [19]: s_cat = s.astype(cat_type)

In [20]: s_cat
Out[20]:
0 NaN
1 b
2 c
3 NaN
dtype: category
Categories (3, object): [b < c < d]

Categorical data has a specific category dtype:

In [21]: df.dtypes
Out[21]:
A object
B category
dtype: object

Note: In contrast to R’s factor function, categorical data is not converting input values to strings and categories will
end up the same data type as the original values.

Note: In contrast to R’s factor function, there is currently no way to assign/change labels at creation time. Use
categories to change the categories after creation time.

To get back to the original Series or numpy array, use Series.astype(original_dtype) or np.
asarray(categorical):

In [22]: s = pd.Series(["a","b","c","a"])

In [23]: s

21.1. Object Creation 913

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Out[23]:
0 a
1 b
2 c
3 a
dtype: object

In [24]: s2 = s.astype('category')

In [25]: s2
Out[25]:
0 a
1 b
2 c
3 a
dtype: category
Categories (3, object): [a, b, c]

In [26]: s2.astype(str)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[26]:
˓→

0 a
1 b
2 c
3 a
dtype: object

In [27]: np.asarray(s2)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→array(['a', 'b', 'c', 'a'], dtype=object)

If you have already codes and categories, you can use the from_codes() constructor to save the factorize step
during normal constructor mode:
In [28]: splitter = np.random.choice([0,1], 5, p=[0.5,0.5])

In [29]: s = pd.Series(pd.Categorical.from_codes(splitter, categories=["train", "test

˓→"]))

21.2 CategoricalDtype

Changed in version 0.21.0.

A categorical’s type is fully described by
1. categories: a sequence of unique values and no missing values
2. ordered: a boolean
This information can be stored in a CategoricalDtype. The categories argument is optional, which implies
that the actual categories should be inferred from whatever is present in the data when the pandas.Categorical
is created. The categories are assumed to be unordered by default.
In [30]: from pandas.api.types import CategoricalDtype

In [31]: CategoricalDtype(['a', 'b', 'c'])

Out[31]: CategoricalDtype(categories=['a', 'b', 'c'], ordered=False)

914 Chapter 21. Categorical Data

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [32]: CategoricalDtype(['a', 'b', 'c'], ordered=True)

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[32]:
˓→CategoricalDtype(categories=['a', 'b', 'c'], ordered=True)

In [33]: CategoricalDtype()
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→CategoricalDtype(categories=None, ordered=False)

A CategoricalDtype can be used in any place pandas expects a dtype. For example pandas.read_csv(),
pandas.DataFrame.astype(), or in the Series constructor.

Note: As a convenience, you can use the string 'category' in place of a CategoricalDtype when you want
the default behavior of the categories being unordered, and equal to the set values present in the array. In other words,
dtype='category' is equivalent to dtype=CategoricalDtype().

21.2.1 Equality Semantics

Two instances of CategoricalDtype compare equal whenever they have the same categories and orderedness.
When comparing two unordered categoricals, the order of the categories is not considered
In [34]: c1 = CategoricalDtype(['a', 'b', 'c'], ordered=False)

# Equal, since order is not considered when ordered=False

In [35]: c1 == CategoricalDtype(['b', 'c', 'a'], ordered=False)
Out[35]: True

# Unequal, since the second CategoricalDtype is ordered

In [36]: c1 == CategoricalDtype(['a', 'b', 'c'], ordered=True)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[36]: False

All instances of CategoricalDtype compare equal to the string 'category'

In [37]: c1 == 'category'
Out[37]: True

Warning: Since dtype='category' is essentially CategoricalDtype(None, False), and since

all instances CategoricalDtype compare equal to 'category', all instances of CategoricalDtype
compare equal to a CategoricalDtype(None, False), regardless of categories or ordered.

21.3 Description

Using .describe() on categorical data will produce similar output to a Series or DataFrame of type string.
In [38]: cat = pd.Categorical(["a", "c", "c", np.nan], categories=["b", "a", "c"])

In [39]: df = pd.DataFrame({"cat":cat, "s":["a", "c", "c", np.nan]})

In [40]: df.describe()
Out[40]:

21.3. Description 915

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

cat s
count 3 3
unique 2 2
top c c
freq 2 2

In [41]: df["cat"].describe()
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[41]:
˓→

count 3
unique 2
top c
freq 2
Name: cat, dtype: object

21.4 Working with categories

Categorical data has a categories and a ordered property, which list their possible values and whether the ordering
matters or not. These properties are exposed as s.cat.categories and s.cat.ordered. If you don’t manually
specify categories and ordering, they are inferred from the passed in values.

In [42]: s = pd.Series(["a","b","c","a"], dtype="category")

In [43]: s.cat.categories
Out[43]: Index(['a', 'b', 'c'], dtype='object')

In [44]: s.cat.ordered
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[44]: False

It’s also possible to pass in the categories in a specific order:

In [45]: s = pd.Series(pd.Categorical(["a","b","c","a"], categories=["c","b","a"]))

In [46]: s.cat.categories
Out[46]: Index(['c', 'b', 'a'], dtype='object')

In [47]: s.cat.ordered
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[47]: False

Note: New categorical data are NOT automatically ordered. You must explicitly pass ordered=True to indicate
an ordered Categorical.

Note: The result of Series.unique() is not always the same as Series.cat.categories, because
Series.unique() has a couple of guarantees, namely that it returns categories in the order of appearance, and it
only includes values that are actually present.

In [48]: s = pd.Series(list('babc')).astype(CategoricalDtype(list('abcd')))

In [49]: s
Out[49]:
0 b
1 a

916 Chapter 21. Categorical Data

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

2 b
3 c
dtype: category
Categories (4, object): [a, b, c, d]

# categories
In [50]: s.cat.categories
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[50]:
˓→Index(['a', 'b', 'c', 'd'], dtype='object')

# uniques
In [51]: s.unique()
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

[b, a, c]
Categories (3, object): [b, a, c]

21.4.1 Renaming categories

Renaming categories is done by assigning new values to the Series.cat.categories property or by using the
Categorical.rename_categories() method:

In [52]: s = pd.Series(["a","b","c","a"], dtype="category")

In [53]: s
Out[53]:
0 a
1 b
2 c
3 a
dtype: category
Categories (3, object): [a, b, c]

In [54]: s.cat.categories = ["Group %s" % g for g in s.cat.categories]

In [55]: s
Out[55]:
0 Group a
1 Group b
2 Group c
3 Group a
dtype: category
Categories (3, object): [Group a, Group b, Group c]

In [56]: s.cat.rename_categories([1,2,3])
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

0 1
1 2
2 3
3 1
dtype: category
Categories (3, int64): [1, 2, 3]

In [57]: s

21.4. Working with categories 917

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

0 Group a
1 Group b
2 Group c
3 Group a
dtype: category
Categories (3, object): [Group a, Group b, Group c]

# You can also pass a dict-like object to map the renaming

In [58]: s.cat.rename_categories({1: 'x', 2: 'y', 3: 'z'})
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

0 Group a
1 Group b
2 Group c
3 Group a
dtype: category
Categories (3, object): [Group a, Group b, Group c]

In [59]: s
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

0 Group a
1 Group b
2 Group c
3 Group a
dtype: category
Categories (3, object): [Group a, Group b, Group c]

Note: In contrast to R’s factor, categorical data can have categories of other types than string.

Note: Be aware that assigning new categories is an inplace operations, while most other operation under Series.
cat per default return a new Series of dtype category.

Categories must be unique or a ValueError is raised:

In [60]: try:
....: s.cat.categories = [1,1,1]
....: except ValueError as e:
....: print("ValueError: " + str(e))
....:
ValueError: Categorical categories must be unique

Categories must also not be NaN or a ValueError is raised:

In [61]: try:
....: s.cat.categories = [1,2,np.nan]
....: except ValueError as e:
....: print("ValueError: " + str(e))
....:
ValueError: Categorial categories cannot be null

918 Chapter 21. Categorical Data

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

21.4.2 Appending new categories

Appending categories can be done by using the Categorical.add_categories() method:

In [62]: s = s.cat.add_categories([4])

In [63]: s.cat.categories
Out[63]: Index(['Group a', 'Group b', 'Group c', 4], dtype='object')

In [64]: s
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[64]:
0 Group a
1 Group b
2 Group c
3 Group a
dtype: category
Categories (4, object): [Group a, Group b, Group c, 4]

21.4.3 Removing categories

Removing categories can be done by using the Categorical.remove_categories() method. Values which
are removed are replaced by np.nan.:

In [65]: s = s.cat.remove_categories([4])

In [66]: s
Out[66]:
0 Group a
1 Group b
2 Group c
3 Group a
dtype: category
Categories (3, object): [Group a, Group b, Group c]

21.4.4 Removing unused categories

Removing unused categories can also be done:

In [67]: s = pd.Series(pd.Categorical(["a","b","a"], categories=["a","b","c","d"]))

In [68]: s
Out[68]:
0 a
1 b
2 a
dtype: category
Categories (4, object): [a, b, c, d]

In [69]: s.cat.remove_unused_categories()
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[69]:
˓→

0 a
1 b
2 a

21.4. Working with categories 919

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

dtype: category
Categories (2, object): [a, b]

21.4.5 Setting categories

If you want to do remove and add new categories in one step (which has some speed advantage), or simply set the
categories to a predefined scale, use Categorical.set_categories().
In [70]: s = pd.Series(["one","two","four", "-"], dtype="category")

In [71]: s
Out[71]:
0 one
1 two
2 four
3 -
dtype: category
Categories (4, object): [-, four, one, two]

In [72]: s = s.cat.set_categories(["one","two","three","four"])

In [73]: s
Out[73]:
0 one
1 two
2 four
3 NaN
dtype: category
Categories (4, object): [one, two, three, four]

Note: Be aware that Categorical.set_categories() cannot know whether some category is omitted in-
tentionally or because it is misspelled or (under Python3) due to a type difference (e.g., numpys S1 dtype and python
strings). This can result in surprising behaviour!

21.5 Sorting and Order

If categorical data is ordered (s.cat.ordered == True), then the order of the categories has a meaning and
certain operations are possible. If the categorical is unordered, .min()/.max() will raise a TypeError.
In [74]: s = pd.Series(pd.Categorical(["a","b","c","a"], ordered=False))

In [75]: s.sort_values(inplace=True)

In [76]: s = pd.Series(["a","b","c","a"]).astype(
....: CategoricalDtype(ordered=True)
....: )
....:

In [77]: s.sort_values(inplace=True)

In [78]: s
Out[78]:

920 Chapter 21. Categorical Data

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

0 a
3 a
1 b
2 c
dtype: category
Categories (3, object): [a < b < c]

In [79]: s.min(), s.max()

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[79]:
˓→('a', 'c')

You can set categorical data to be ordered by using as_ordered() or unordered by using as_unordered().
These will by default return a new object.
In [80]: s.cat.as_ordered()
Out[80]:
0 a
3 a
1 b
2 c
dtype: category
Categories (3, object): [a < b < c]

In [81]: s.cat.as_unordered()
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[81]:
˓→

0 a
3 a
1 b
2 c
dtype: category
Categories (3, object): [a, b, c]

Sorting will use the order defined by categories, not any lexical order present on the data type. This is even true for
strings and numeric data:
In [82]: s = pd.Series([1,2,3,1], dtype="category")

In [83]: s = s.cat.set_categories([2,3,1], ordered=True)

In [84]: s
Out[84]:
0 1
1 2
2 3
3 1
dtype: category
Categories (3, int64): [2 < 3 < 1]

In [85]: s.sort_values(inplace=True)

In [86]: s
Out[86]:
1 2
2 3
0 1
3 1
dtype: category

21.5. Sorting and Order 921

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Categories (3, int64): [2 < 3 < 1]

In [87]: s.min(), s.max()

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[87]:
˓→(2, 1)

21.5.1 Reordering

Reordering the categories is possible via the Categorical.reorder_categories() and the

Categorical.set_categories() methods. For Categorical.reorder_categories(), all old
categories must be included in the new categories and no new categories are allowed. This will necessarily make the
sort order the same as the categories order.

In [88]: s = pd.Series([1,2,3,1], dtype="category")

In [89]: s = s.cat.reorder_categories([2,3,1], ordered=True)

In [90]: s
Out[90]:
0 1
1 2
2 3
3 1
dtype: category
Categories (3, int64): [2 < 3 < 1]

In [91]: s.sort_values(inplace=True)

In [92]: s
Out[92]:
1 2
2 3
0 1
3 1
dtype: category
Categories (3, int64): [2 < 3 < 1]

In [93]: s.min(), s.max()

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[93]:
˓→(2, 1)

Note: Note the difference between assigning new categories and reordering the categories: the first renames categories
and therefore the individual values in the Series, but if the first position was sorted last, the renamed value will still be
sorted last. Reordering means that the way values are sorted is different afterwards, but not that individual values in
the Series are changed.

Note: If the Categorical is not ordered, Series.min() and Series.max() will raise TypeError. Numeric
operations like +, -, *, / and operations based on them (e.g. Series.median(), which would need to compute
the mean between two values if the length of an array is even) do not work and raise a TypeError.

922 Chapter 21. Categorical Data

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

21.5.2 Multi Column Sorting

A categorical dtyped column will participate in a multi-column sort in a similar manner to other columns. The ordering
of the categorical is determined by the categories of that column.

In [94]: dfs = pd.DataFrame({'A' : pd.Categorical(list('bbeebbaa'), categories=['e','a

˓→','b'], ordered=True),

....: 'B' : [1,2,1,2,2,1,2,1] })

....:

In [95]: dfs.sort_values(by=['A', 'B'])

Out[95]:
A B
2 e 1
3 e 2
7 a 1
6 a 2
0 b 1
5 b 1
1 b 2
4 b 2

Reordering the categories changes a future sort.

In [96]: dfs['A'] = dfs['A'].cat.reorder_categories(['a','b','e'])

In [97]: dfs.sort_values(by=['A','B'])
Out[97]:
A B
7 a 1
6 a 2
0 b 1
5 b 1
1 b 2
4 b 2
2 e 1
3 e 2

21.6 Comparisons

Comparing categorical data with other objects is possible in three cases:

• comparing equality (== and !=) to a list-like object (list, Series, array, ...) of the same length as the categorical
data.
• all comparisons (==, !=, >, >=, <, and <=) of categorical data to another categorical Series, when
ordered==True and the categories are the same.
• all comparisons of a categorical data to a scalar.
All other comparisons, especially “non-equality” comparisons of two categoricals with different categories or a cate-
gorical with any list-like object, will raise a TypeError.

Note: Any “non-equality” comparisons of categorical data with a Series, np.array, list or categorical data with
different categories or ordering will raise an TypeError because custom categories ordering could be interpreted in two

21.6. Comparisons 923

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

ways: one with taking into account the ordering and one without.

In [98]: cat = pd.Series([1,2,3]).astype(

....: CategoricalDtype([3, 2, 1], ordered=True)
....: )
....:

In [99]: cat_base = pd.Series([2,2,2]).astype(

....: CategoricalDtype([3, 2, 1], ordered=True)
....: )
....:

In [100]: cat_base2 = pd.Series([2,2,2]).astype(

.....: CategoricalDtype(ordered=True)
.....: )
.....:

In [101]: cat
Out[101]:
0 1
1 2
2 3
dtype: category
Categories (3, int64): [3 < 2 < 1]

In [102]: cat_base
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[102]:
˓→

0 2
1 2
2 2
dtype: category
Categories (3, int64): [3 < 2 < 1]

In [103]: cat_base2
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

0 2
1 2
2 2
dtype: category
Categories (1, int64): [2]

Comparing to a categorical with the same categories and ordering or to a scalar works:
In [104]: cat > cat_base
Out[104]:
0 True
1 False
2 False
dtype: bool

In [105]: cat > 2

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[105]:
0 True
1 False
2 False
dtype: bool

924 Chapter 21. Categorical Data

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Equality comparisons work with any list-like object of same length and scalars:
In [106]: cat == cat_base
Out[106]:
0 False
1 True
2 False
dtype: bool

In [107]: cat == np.array([1,2,3])

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[107]:
0 True
1 True
2 True
dtype: bool

In [108]: cat == 2
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

0 False
1 True
2 False
dtype: bool

This doesn’t work because the categories are not the same:
In [109]: try:
.....: cat > cat_base2
.....: except TypeError as e:
.....: print("TypeError: " + str(e))
.....:
TypeError: Categoricals can only be compared if 'categories' are the same. Categories
˓→are different lengths

If you want to do a “non-equality” comparison of a categorical series with a list-like object which is not categorical
data, you need to be explicit and convert the categorical data back to the original values:
In [110]: base = np.array([1,2,3])

In [111]: try:
.....: cat > base
.....: except TypeError as e:
.....: print("TypeError: " + str(e))
.....:
TypeError: Cannot compare a Categorical for op __gt__ with type <class 'numpy.ndarray
˓→'>.

If you want to compare values, use 'np.asarray(cat) <op> other'.

In [112]: np.asarray(cat) > base

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→array([False, False, False], dtype=bool)

When you compare two unordered categoricals with the same categories, the order is not considered:
In [113]: c1 = pd.Categorical(['a', 'b'], categories=['a', 'b'], ordered=False)

In [114]: c2 = pd.Categorical(['a', 'b'], categories=['b', 'a'], ordered=False)

21.6. Comparisons 925

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [115]: c1 == c2
Out[115]: array([ True, True], dtype=bool)

21.7 Operations

Apart from Series.min(), Series.max() and Series.mode(), the following operations are possible with
categorical data:
Series methods like Series.value_counts() will use all categories, even if some categories are not present in the data:

In [116]: s = pd.Series(pd.Categorical(["a","b","c","c"], categories=["c","a","b","d

˓→"]))

In [117]: s.value_counts()
Out[117]:
c 2
b 1
a 1
d 0
dtype: int64

Groupby will also show “unused” categories:

In [118]: cats = pd.Categorical(["a","b","b","b","c","c","c"], categories=["a","b","c

˓→","d"])

In [119]: df = pd.DataFrame({"cats":cats,"values":[1,2,2,2,3,4,5]})

In [120]: df.groupby("cats").mean()
Out[120]:
values
cats
a 1.0
b 2.0
c 4.0
d NaN

In [121]: cats2 = pd.Categorical(["a","a","b","b"], categories=["a","b","c"])

In [122]: df2 = pd.DataFrame({"cats":cats2,"B":["c","d","c","d"], "values":[1,2,3,4]})

In [123]: df2.groupby(["cats","B"]).mean()
Out[123]:
values
cats B
a c 1.0
d 2.0
b c 3.0
d 4.0
c c NaN
d NaN

Pivot tables:

926 Chapter 21. Categorical Data

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [124]: raw_cat = pd.Categorical(["a","a","b","b"], categories=["a","b","c"])

In [125]: df = pd.DataFrame({"A":raw_cat,"B":["c","d","c","d"], "values":[1,2,3,4]})

In [126]: pd.pivot_table(df, values='values', index=['A', 'B'])

Out[126]:
values
A B
a c 1.0
d 2.0
b c 3.0
d 4.0
c c NaN
d NaN

21.8 Data munging

The optimized pandas data access methods .loc, .iloc, .at, and .iat, work as normal. The only difference is
the return type (for getting) and that only values already in categories can be assigned.

21.8.1 Getting

If the slicing operation returns either a DataFrame or a column of type Series, the category dtype is preserved.

In [127]: idx = pd.Index(["h","i","j","k","l","m","n",])

In [128]: cats = pd.Series(["a","b","b","b","c","c","c"], dtype="category", index=idx)

In [129]: values= [1,2,2,2,3,4,5]

In [130]: df = pd.DataFrame({"cats":cats,"values":values}, index=idx)

In [131]: df.iloc[2:4,:]
Out[131]:
cats values
j b 2
k b 2

In [132]: df.iloc[2:4,:].dtypes
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[132]:
cats category
values int64
dtype: object

In [133]: df.loc["h":"j","cats"]
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

h a
i b
j b
Name: cats, dtype: category
Categories (3, object): [a, b, c]

In [134]: df[df["cats"] == "b"]

21.8. Data munging 927

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

cats values
i b 2
j b 2
k b 2

An example where the category type is not preserved is if you take one single row: the resulting Series is of dtype
object:
# get the complete "h" row as a Series
In [135]: df.loc["h", :]
Out[135]:
cats a
values 1
Name: h, dtype: object

Returning a single item from categorical data will also return the value, not a categorical of length “1”.
In [136]: df.iat[0,0]
Out[136]: 'a'

In [137]: df["cats"].cat.categories = ["x","y","z"]

In [138]: df.at["h","cats"] # returns a string

Out[138]: 'x'

Note: This is a difference to R’s factor function, where factor(c(1,2,3))[1] returns a single value factor.

To get a single value Series of type category pass in a list with a single value:
In [139]: df.loc[["h"],"cats"]
Out[139]:
h x
Name: cats, dtype: category
Categories (3, object): [x, y, z]

21.8.2 String and datetime accessors

New in version 0.17.1.

The accessors .dt and .str will work if the s.cat.categories are of an appropriate type:
In [140]: str_s = pd.Series(list('aabb'))

In [141]: str_cat = str_s.astype('category')

In [142]: str_cat
Out[142]:
0 a
1 a
2 b
3 b
dtype: category
Categories (2, object): [a, b]

928 Chapter 21. Categorical Data

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [143]: str_cat.str.contains("a")
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[143]:
˓→

0 True
1 True
2 False
3 False
dtype: bool

In [144]: date_s = pd.Series(pd.date_range('1/1/2015', periods=5))

In [145]: date_cat = date_s.astype('category')

In [146]: date_cat
Out[146]:
0 2015-01-01
1 2015-01-02
2 2015-01-03
3 2015-01-04
4 2015-01-05
dtype: category
Categories (5, datetime64[ns]): [2015-01-01, 2015-01-02, 2015-01-03, 2015-01-04, 2015-
˓→01-05]

In [147]: date_cat.dt.day
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

0 1
1 2
2 3
3 4
4 5
dtype: int64

Note: The returned Series (or DataFrame) is of the same type as if you used the .str.<method> / .dt.
<method> on a Series of that type (and not of type category!).

That means, that the returned values from methods and properties on the accessors of a Series and the returned
values from methods and properties on the accessors of this Series transformed to one of type category will be
equal:
In [148]: ret_s = str_s.str.contains("a")

In [149]: ret_cat = str_cat.str.contains("a")

In [150]: ret_s.dtype == ret_cat.dtype

Out[150]: True

In [151]: ret_s == ret_cat

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[151]:
0 True
1 True
2 True
3 True
dtype: bool

21.8. Data munging 929

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Note: The work is done on the categories and then a new Series is constructed. This has some performance
implication if you have a Series of type string, where lots of elements are repeated (i.e. the number of unique
elements in the Series is a lot smaller than the length of the Series). In this case it can be faster to convert the
original Series to one of type category and use .str.<method> or .dt.<property> on that.

21.8.3 Setting

Setting values in a categorical column (or Series) works as long as the value is included in the categories:
In [152]: idx = pd.Index(["h","i","j","k","l","m","n"])

In [153]: cats = pd.Categorical(["a","a","a","a","a","a","a"], categories=["a","b"])

In [154]: values = [1,1,1,1,1,1,1]

In [155]: df = pd.DataFrame({"cats":cats,"values":values}, index=idx)

In [156]: df.iloc[2:4,:] = [["b",2],["b",2]]

In [157]: df
Out[157]:
cats values
h a 1
i a 1
j b 2
k b 2
l a 1
m a 1
n a 1

In [158]: try:
.....: df.iloc[2:4,:] = [["c",3],["c",3]]
.....: except ValueError as e:
.....: print("ValueError: " + str(e))
.....:
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→Cannot setitem on a Categorical with a new category, set the categories first

Setting values by assigning categorical data will also check that the categories match:
In [159]: df.loc["j":"k","cats"] = pd.Categorical(["a","a"], categories=["a","b"])

In [160]: df
Out[160]:
cats values
h a 1
i a 1
j a 2
k a 2
l a 1
m a 1
n a 1

In [161]: try:
.....: df.loc["j":"k","cats"] = pd.Categorical(["b","b"], categories=["a","b",
˓→"c"])

930 Chapter 21. Categorical Data

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

.....: except ValueError as e:

.....: print("ValueError: " + str(e))
.....:
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→Cannot set a Categorical with another, without identical categories

Assigning a Categorical to parts of a column of other types will use the values:

In [162]: df = pd.DataFrame({"a":[1,1,1,1,1], "b":["a","a","a","a","a"]})

In [163]: df.loc[1:2,"a"] = pd.Categorical(["b","b"], categories=["a","b"])

In [164]: df.loc[2:3,"b"] = pd.Categorical(["b","b"], categories=["a","b"])

In [165]: df
Out[165]:
a b
0 1 a
1 b a
2 b b
3 1 b
4 1 a

In [166]: df.dtypes
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[166]:
a object
b object
dtype: object

21.8.4 Merging

You can concat two DataFrames containing categorical data together, but the categories of these categoricals need to
be the same:

In [167]: cat = pd.Series(["a","b"], dtype="category")

In [168]: vals = [1,2]

In [169]: df = pd.DataFrame({"cats":cat, "vals":vals})

In [170]: res = pd.concat([df,df])

In [171]: res
Out[171]:
cats vals
0 a 1
1 b 2
0 a 1
1 b 2

In [172]: res.dtypes
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[172]:
cats category
vals int64
dtype: object

21.8. Data munging 931

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In this case the categories are not the same and so an error is raised:
In [173]: df_different = df.copy()

In [174]: df_different["cats"].cat.categories = ["c","d"]

In [175]: try:
.....: pd.concat([df,df_different])
.....: except ValueError as e:
.....: print("ValueError: " + str(e))
.....:

The same applies to df.append(df_different).

See also the section on merge dtypes for notes about preserving merge dtypes and performance.

21.8.5 Unioning

New in version 0.19.0.

If you want to combine categoricals that do not necessarily have the same categories, the union_categoricals
function will combine a list-like of categoricals. The new categories will be the union of the categories being combined.
In [176]: from pandas.api.types import union_categoricals

In [177]: a = pd.Categorical(["b", "c"])

In [178]: b = pd.Categorical(["a", "b"])

In [179]: union_categoricals([a, b])

Out[179]:
[b, c, a, b]
Categories (3, object): [b, c, a]

By default, the resulting categories will be ordered as they appear in the data. If you want the categories to be lexsorted,
use sort_categories=True argument.
In [180]: union_categoricals([a, b], sort_categories=True)
Out[180]:
[b, c, a, b]
Categories (3, object): [a, b, c]

union_categoricals also works with the “easy” case of combining two categoricals of the same categories and
order information (e.g. what you could also append for).
In [181]: a = pd.Categorical(["a", "b"], ordered=True)

In [182]: b = pd.Categorical(["a", "b", "a"], ordered=True)

In [183]: union_categoricals([a, b])

Out[183]:
[a, b, a, b, a]
Categories (2, object): [a < b]

The below raises TypeError because the categories are ordered and not identical.
In [1]: a = pd.Categorical(["a", "b"], ordered=True)
In [2]: b = pd.Categorical(["a", "b", "c"], ordered=True)

932 Chapter 21. Categorical Data

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [3]: union_categoricals([a, b])

Out[3]:
TypeError: to union ordered Categoricals, all categories must be the same

New in version 0.20.0.

Ordered categoricals with different categories or orderings can be combined by using the ignore_ordered=True
argument.
In [184]: a = pd.Categorical(["a", "b", "c"], ordered=True)

In [185]: b = pd.Categorical(["c", "b", "a"], ordered=True)

In [186]: union_categoricals([a, b], ignore_order=True)

Out[186]:
[a, b, c, c, b, a]
Categories (3, object): [a, b, c]

union_categoricals also works with a CategoricalIndex, or Series containing categorical data, but
note that the resulting array will always be a plain Categorical
In [187]: a = pd.Series(["b", "c"], dtype='category')

In [188]: b = pd.Series(["a", "b"], dtype='category')

In [189]: union_categoricals([a, b])

Out[189]:
[b, c, a, b]
Categories (3, object): [b, c, a]

Note: union_categoricals may recode the integer codes for categories when combining categoricals. This is
likely what you want, but if you are relying on the exact numbering of the categories, be aware.
In [190]: c1 = pd.Categorical(["b", "c"])

In [191]: c2 = pd.Categorical(["a", "b"])

In [192]: c1
Out[192]:
[b, c]
Categories (2, object): [b, c]

# "b" is coded to 0
In [193]: c1.codes
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[193]: array([0, 1], dtype=int8)

In [194]: c2
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[194]:
˓→

[a, b]
Categories (2, object): [a, b]

# "b" is coded to 1
In [195]: c2.codes
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→array([0, 1], dtype=int8)

21.8. Data munging 933

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [196]: c = union_categoricals([c1, c2])

In [197]: c
Out[197]:
[b, c, a, b]
Categories (3, object): [b, c, a]

# "b" is coded to 0 throughout, same as c1, different from c2

In [198]: c.codes
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[198]: array([0, 1, 2,
˓→0], dtype=int8)

21.8.6 Concatenation

This section describes concatenations specific to category dtype. See Concatenating objects for general description.
By default, Series or DataFrame concatenation which contains the same categories results in category dtype,
otherwise results in object dtype. Use .astype or union_categoricals to get category result.

# same categories
In [199]: s1 = pd.Series(['a', 'b'], dtype='category')

In [200]: s2 = pd.Series(['a', 'b', 'a'], dtype='category')

In [201]: pd.concat([s1, s2])

Out[201]:
0 a
1 b
0 a
1 b
2 a
dtype: category
Categories (2, object): [a, b]

# different categories
In [202]: s3 = pd.Series(['b', 'c'], dtype='category')

In [203]: pd.concat([s1, s3])

Out[203]:
0 a
1 b
0 b
1 c
dtype: object

In [204]: pd.concat([s1, s3]).astype('category')

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[204]:
0 a
1 b
0 b
1 c
dtype: category
Categories (3, object): [a, b, c]

In [205]: union_categoricals([s1.values, s3.values])

934 Chapter 21. Categorical Data

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

[a, b, b, c]
Categories (3, object): [a, b, c]

Following table summarizes the results of Categoricals related concatenations.

arg1 arg2 result
category category (identical categories) category
category category (different categories, both not ordered) object (dtype is inferred)
category category (different categories, either one is ordered) object (dtype is inferred)
category not category object (dtype is inferred)

21.9 Getting Data In/Out

You can write data that contains category dtypes to a HDFStore. See here for an example and caveats.
It is also possible to write data to and reading data from Stata format files. See here for an example and caveats.
Writing to a CSV file will convert the data, effectively removing any information about the categorical (categories and
ordering). So if you read back the CSV file you have to convert the relevant columns back to category and assign the
right categories and categories ordering.

In [206]: s = pd.Series(pd.Categorical(['a', 'b', 'b', 'a', 'a', 'd']))

# rename the categories

In [207]: s.cat.categories = ["very good", "good", "bad"]

# reorder the categories and add missing categories

In [208]: s = s.cat.set_categories(["very bad", "bad", "medium", "good", "very good"])

In [209]: df = pd.DataFrame({"cats":s, "vals":[1,2,3,4,5,6]})

In [210]: csv = StringIO()

In [211]: df.to_csv(csv)

In [212]: df2 = pd.read_csv(StringIO(csv.getvalue()))

In [213]: df2.dtypes
Out[213]:
Unnamed: 0 int64
cats object
vals int64
dtype: object

In [214]: df2["cats"]
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[214]:
˓→

0 very good
1 good
2 good
3 very good
4 very good
5 bad
Name: cats, dtype: object

21.9. Getting Data In/Out 935

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

# Redo the category

In [215]: df2["cats"] = df2["cats"].astype("category")

In [216]: df2["cats"].cat.set_categories(["very bad", "bad", "medium", "good", "very

˓→good"],

.....: inplace=True)
.....:

In [217]: df2.dtypes
Out[217]:
Unnamed: 0 int64
cats category
vals int64
dtype: object

In [218]: df2["cats"]
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[218
˓→

0 very good
1 good
2 good
3 very good
4 very good
5 bad
Name: cats, dtype: category
Categories (5, object): [very bad, bad, medium, good, very good]

The same holds for writing to a SQL database with to_sql.

21.10 Missing Data

pandas primarily uses the value np.nan to represent missing data. It is by default not included in computations. See
the Missing Data section.
Missing values should not be included in the Categorical’s categories, only in the values. Instead, it is under-
stood that NaN is different, and is always a possibility. When working with the Categorical’s codes, missing values
will always have a code of -1.
In [219]: s = pd.Series(["a", "b", np.nan, "a"], dtype="category")

# only two categories

In [220]: s
Out[220]:
0 a
1 b
2 NaN
3 a
dtype: category
Categories (2, object): [a, b]

In [221]: s.cat.codes
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[221
˓→

0 0
1 1

936 Chapter 21. Categorical Data

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

2 -1
3 0
dtype: int8

Methods for working with missing data, e.g. isna(), fillna(), dropna(), all work normally:

In [222]: s = pd.Series(["a", "b", np.nan], dtype="category")

In [223]: s
Out[223]:
0 a
1 b
2 NaN
dtype: category
Categories (2, object): [a, b]

In [224]: pd.isna(s)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[224]:
˓→

0 False
1 False
2 True
dtype: bool

In [225]: s.fillna("a")
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

0 a
1 b
2 a
dtype: category
Categories (2, object): [a, b]

21.11 Differences to R’s factor

The following differences to R’s factor functions can be observed:

• R’s levels are named categories
• R’s levels are always of type string, while categories in pandas can be of any dtype.
• It’s not possible to specify labels at creation time. Use s.cat.rename_categories(new_labels)
afterwards.
• In contrast to R’s factor function, using categorical data as the sole input to create a new categorical series will
not remove unused categories but create a new categorical series which is equal to the passed in one!
• R allows for missing values to be included in its levels (pandas’ categories). Pandas does not allow NaN
categories, but missing values can still be in the values.

21.11. Differences to R’s factor 937

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

21.12 Gotchas

21.12.1 Memory Usage

The memory usage of a Categorical is proportional to the number of categories plus the length of the data. In
contrast, an object dtype is a constant times the length of the data.

In [226]: s = pd.Series(['foo','bar']*1000)

# object dtype
In [227]: s.nbytes
Out[227]: 16000

# category dtype
In [228]: s.astype('category').nbytes
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[228]: 2016

Note: If the number of categories approaches the length of the data, the Categorical will use nearly the same or
more memory than an equivalent object dtype representation.

In [229]: s = pd.Series(['foo%04d' % i for i in range(2000)])

# object dtype
In [230]: s.nbytes
Out[230]: 16000

# category dtype
In [231]: s.astype('category').nbytes
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[231]: 20000

21.12.2 Categorical is not a numpy array

Currently, categorical data and the underlying Categorical is implemented as a python object and not as a low-level
numpy array dtype. This leads to some problems.
numpy itself doesn’t know about the new dtype:

In [232]: try:
.....: np.dtype("category")
.....: except TypeError as e:
.....: print("TypeError: " + str(e))
.....:
TypeError: data type "category" not understood

In [233]: dtype = pd.Categorical(["a"]).dtype

In [234]: try:
.....: np.dtype(dtype)
.....: except TypeError as e:
.....: print("TypeError: " + str(e))
.....:
TypeError: data type not understood

938 Chapter 21. Categorical Data

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Dtype comparisons work:

In [235]: dtype == np.str_

Out[235]: False

In [236]: np.str_ == dtype

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[236]: False

To check if a Series contains Categorical data, use hasattr(s, 'cat'):

In [237]: hasattr(pd.Series(['a'], dtype='category'), 'cat')

Out[237]: True

In [238]: hasattr(pd.Series(['a']), 'cat')

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[238]: False

Using numpy functions on a Series of type category should not work as Categoricals are not numeric data (even in
the case that .categories is numeric).

In [239]: s = pd.Series(pd.Categorical([1,2,3,4]))

In [240]: try:
.....: np.sum(s)
.....: except TypeError as e:
.....: print("TypeError: " + str(e))
.....:
TypeError: Categorical cannot perform the operation sum

Note: If such a function works, please file a bug at https://github.com/pandas-dev/pandas!

21.12.3 dtype in apply

Pandas currently does not preserve the dtype in apply functions: If you apply along rows you get a Series of object
dtype (same as getting a row -> getting one element will return a basic type) and applying along columns will also
convert to object.

In [241]: df = pd.DataFrame({"a":[1,2,3,4],
.....: "b":["a","b","c","d"],
.....: "cats":pd.Categorical([1,2,3,2])})
.....:

In [242]: df.apply(lambda row: type(row["cats"]), axis=1)

Out[242]:
0 <class 'int'>
1 <class 'int'>
2 <class 'int'>
3 <class 'int'>
dtype: object

In [243]: df.apply(lambda col: col.dtype, axis=0)

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

a object
b object

21.12. Gotchas 939

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

cats object
dtype: object

21.12.4 Categorical Index

CategoricalIndex is a type of index that is useful for supporting indexing with duplicates. This is a container
around a Categorical and allows efficient indexing and storage of an index with a large number of duplicated
elements. See the advanced indexing docs for a more detailed explanation.
Setting the index will create a CategoricalIndex
In [244]: cats = pd.Categorical([1,2,3,4], categories=[4,2,3,1])

In [245]: strings = ["a","b","c","d"]

In [246]: values = [4,2,3,1]

In [247]: df = pd.DataFrame({"strings":strings, "values":values}, index=cats)

In [248]: df.index
Out[248]: CategoricalIndex([1, 2, 3, 4], categories=[4, 2, 3, 1], ordered=False,
˓→dtype='category')

# This now sorts by the categories order

In [249]: df.sort_index()
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Ou
˓→

strings values
4 d 1
2 b 2
3 c 3
1 a 4

21.12.5 Side Effects

Constructing a Series from a Categorical will not copy the input Categorical. This means that changes to the Series
will in most cases change the original Categorical:
In [250]: cat = pd.Categorical([1,2,3,10], categories=[1,2,3,4,10])

In [251]: s = pd.Series(cat, name="cat")

In [252]: cat
Out[252]:
[1, 2, 3, 10]
Categories (5, int64): [1, 2, 3, 4, 10]

In [253]: s.iloc[0:2] = 10

In [254]: cat
Out[254]:
[10, 10, 3, 10]
Categories (5, int64): [1, 2, 3, 4, 10]

In [255]: df = pd.DataFrame(s)

940 Chapter 21. Categorical Data

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [256]: df["cat"].cat.categories = [1,2,3,4,5]

In [257]: cat
Out[257]:
[5, 5, 3, 5]
Categories (5, int64): [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]

Use copy=True to prevent such a behaviour or simply don’t reuse Categoricals:

In [258]: cat = pd.Categorical([1,2,3,10], categories=[1,2,3,4,10])

In [259]: s = pd.Series(cat, name="cat", copy=True)

In [260]: cat
Out[260]:
[1, 2, 3, 10]
Categories (5, int64): [1, 2, 3, 4, 10]

In [261]: s.iloc[0:2] = 10

In [262]: cat
Out[262]:
[1, 2, 3, 10]
Categories (5, int64): [1, 2, 3, 4, 10]

Note: This also happens in some cases when you supply a numpy array instead of a Categorical: using an int
array (e.g. np.array([1,2,3,4])) will exhibit the same behaviour, while using a string array (e.g. np.
array(["a","b","c","a"])) will not.

21.12. Gotchas 941

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

942 Chapter 21. Categorical Data

 CHAPTER

TWENTYTWO

VISUALIZATION

We use the standard convention for referencing the matplotlib API:

In [1]: import matplotlib.pyplot as plt

We provide the basics in pandas to easily create decent looking plots. See the ecosystem section for visualization
libraries that go beyond the basics documented here.

Note: All calls to np.random are seeded with 123456.

22.1 Basic Plotting: plot

See the cookbook for some advanced strategies

The plot method on Series and DataFrame is just a simple wrapper around plt.plot():

In [2]: ts = pd.Series(np.random.randn(1000), index=pd.date_range('1/1/2000',

˓→periods=1000))

In [3]: ts = ts.cumsum()

In [4]: ts.plot()
Out[4]: <matplotlib.axes._subplots.AxesSubplot at 0x128f4bcc0>

943
pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

If the index consists of dates, it calls gcf().autofmt_xdate() to try to format the x-axis nicely as per above.
On DataFrame, plot() is a convenience to plot all of the columns with labels:

In [5]: df = pd.DataFrame(np.random.randn(1000, 4), index=ts.index, columns=list('ABCD

˓→'))

In [6]: df = df.cumsum()

In [7]: plt.figure(); df.plot();

944 Chapter 22. Visualization

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

You can plot one column versus another using the x and y keywords in plot():

In [8]: df3 = pd.DataFrame(np.random.randn(1000, 2), columns=['B', 'C']).cumsum()

In [9]: df3['A'] = pd.Series(list(range(len(df))))

In [10]: df3.plot(x='A', y='B')

Out[10]: <matplotlib.axes._subplots.AxesSubplot at 0x128bed5f8>

22.1. Basic Plotting: plot 945

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Note: For more formatting and styling options, see below.

22.2 Other Plots

Plotting methods allow for a handful of plot styles other than the default Line plot. These methods can be provided as
the kind keyword argument to plot(). These include:
• ‘bar’ or ‘barh’ for bar plots
• ‘hist’ for histogram
• ‘box’ for boxplot
• ‘kde’ or 'density' for density plots
• ‘area’ for area plots
• ‘scatter’ for scatter plots
• ‘hexbin’ for hexagonal bin plots
• ‘pie’ for pie plots
For example, a bar plot can be created the following way:

In [11]: plt.figure();

In [12]: df.iloc[5].plot(kind='bar');

946 Chapter 22. Visualization

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

New in version 0.17.0.

You can also create these other plots using the methods DataFrame.plot.<kind> instead of providing the kind
keyword argument. This makes it easier to discover plot methods and the specific arguments they use:

In [13]: df = pd.DataFrame()

In [14]: df.plot.<TAB>
df.plot.area df.plot.barh df.plot.density df.plot.hist df.plot.line
˓→df.plot.scatter

df.plot.bar df.plot.box df.plot.hexbin df.plot.kde df.plot.pie

In addition to these kind s, there are the DataFrame.hist(), and DataFrame.boxplot() methods, which use a separate
interface.
Finally, there are several plotting functions in pandas.plotting that take a Series or DataFrame as an argu-
ment. These include:
• Scatter Matrix
• Andrews Curves
• Parallel Coordinates
• Lag Plot
• Autocorrelation Plot
• Bootstrap Plot
• RadViz
Plots may also be adorned with errorbars or tables.

22.2. Other Plots 947

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

22.2.1 Bar plots

For labeled, non-time series data, you may wish to produce a bar plot:

In [15]: plt.figure();

In [16]: df.iloc[5].plot.bar(); plt.axhline(0, color='k')

Out[16]: <matplotlib.lines.Line2D at 0x120654be0>

Calling a DataFrame’s plot.bar() method produces a multiple bar plot:

In [17]: df2 = pd.DataFrame(np.random.rand(10, 4), columns=['a', 'b', 'c', 'd'])

In [18]: df2.plot.bar();

948 Chapter 22. Visualization

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

To produce a stacked bar plot, pass stacked=True:

In [19]: df2.plot.bar(stacked=True);

22.2. Other Plots 949

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

To get horizontal bar plots, use the barh method:

In [20]: df2.plot.barh(stacked=True);

22.2.2 Histograms

Histogram can be drawn by using the DataFrame.plot.hist() and Series.plot.hist() methods.

In [21]: df4 = pd.DataFrame({'a': np.random.randn(1000) + 1, 'b': np.random.

˓→randn(1000),

....: 'c': np.random.randn(1000) - 1}, columns=['a', 'b', 'c'])

....:

In [22]: plt.figure();

In [23]: df4.plot.hist(alpha=0.5)
Out[23]: <matplotlib.axes._subplots.AxesSubplot at 0x1150fb6a0>

950 Chapter 22. Visualization

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Histogram can be stacked by stacked=True. Bin size can be changed by bins keyword.

In [24]: plt.figure();

In [25]: df4.plot.hist(stacked=True, bins=20)

Out[25]: <matplotlib.axes._subplots.AxesSubplot at 0x12d400eb8>

22.2. Other Plots 951

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

You can pass other keywords supported by matplotlib hist. For example, horizontal and cumulative histogram can
be drawn by orientation='horizontal' and cumulative=True.

In [26]: plt.figure();

In [27]: df4['a'].plot.hist(orientation='horizontal', cumulative=True)

Out[27]: <matplotlib.axes._subplots.AxesSubplot at 0x128ea3da0>

952 Chapter 22. Visualization

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

See the hist method and the matplotlib hist documentation for more.
The existing interface DataFrame.hist to plot histogram still can be used.

In [28]: plt.figure();

In [29]: df['A'].diff().hist()
Out[29]: <matplotlib.axes._subplots.AxesSubplot at 0x12ee45a20>

22.2. Other Plots 953

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

DataFrame.hist() plots the histograms of the columns on multiple subplots:

In [30]: plt.figure()
Out[30]: <matplotlib.figure.Figure at 0x12b6df208>

In [31]: df.diff().hist(color='k', alpha=0.5, bins=50)

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[31]:
array([[<matplotlib.axes._subplots.AxesSubplot object at 0x1150d7748>,
<matplotlib.axes._subplots.AxesSubplot object at 0x12266cb38>],
[<matplotlib.axes._subplots.AxesSubplot object at 0x131130240>,
<matplotlib.axes._subplots.AxesSubplot object at 0x128691080>]], dtype=object)

954 Chapter 22. Visualization

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

The by keyword can be specified to plot grouped histograms:

In [32]: data = pd.Series(np.random.randn(1000))

In [33]: data.hist(by=np.random.randint(0, 4, 1000), figsize=(6, 4))

Out[33]:
array([[<matplotlib.axes._subplots.AxesSubplot object at 0x12a7855c0>,
<matplotlib.axes._subplots.AxesSubplot object at 0x12616ea58>],
[<matplotlib.axes._subplots.AxesSubplot object at 0x12a173908>,
<matplotlib.axes._subplots.AxesSubplot object at 0x12a41ef28>]], dtype=object)

22.2. Other Plots 955

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

22.2.3 Box Plots

Boxplot can be drawn calling Series.plot.box() and DataFrame.plot.box(), or DataFrame.

boxplot() to visualize the distribution of values within each column.
For instance, here is a boxplot representing five trials of 10 observations of a uniform random variable on [0,1).

In [34]: df = pd.DataFrame(np.random.rand(10, 5), columns=['A', 'B', 'C', 'D', 'E'])

In [35]: df.plot.box()
Out[35]: <matplotlib.axes._subplots.AxesSubplot at 0x128eb0080>

956 Chapter 22. Visualization

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Boxplot can be colorized by passing color keyword. You can pass a dict whose keys are boxes, whiskers,
medians and caps. If some keys are missing in the dict, default colors are used for the corresponding artists.
Also, boxplot has sym keyword to specify fliers style.
When you pass other type of arguments via color keyword, it will be directly passed to matplotlib for all the boxes,
whiskers, medians and caps colorization.
The colors are applied to every boxes to be drawn. If you want more complicated colorization, you can get each drawn
artists by passing return_type.

In [36]: color = dict(boxes='DarkGreen', whiskers='DarkOrange',

....: medians='DarkBlue', caps='Gray')
....:

In [37]: df.plot.box(color=color, sym='r+')

Out[37]: <matplotlib.axes._subplots.AxesSubplot at 0x1279f08d0>

22.2. Other Plots 957

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Also, you can pass other keywords supported by matplotlib boxplot. For example, horizontal and custom-positioned
boxplot can be drawn by vert=False and positions keywords.

In [38]: df.plot.box(vert=False, positions=[1, 4, 5, 6, 8])

Out[38]: <matplotlib.axes._subplots.AxesSubplot at 0x13134c7b8>

958 Chapter 22. Visualization

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

See the boxplot method and the matplotlib boxplot documentation for more.
The existing interface DataFrame.boxplot to plot boxplot still can be used.

In [39]: df = pd.DataFrame(np.random.rand(10,5))

In [40]: plt.figure();

In [41]: bp = df.boxplot()

22.2. Other Plots 959

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

You can create a stratified boxplot using the by keyword argument to create groupings. For instance,

In [42]: df = pd.DataFrame(np.random.rand(10,2), columns=['Col1', 'Col2'] )

In [43]: df['X'] = pd.Series(['A','A','A','A','A','B','B','B','B','B'])

In [44]: plt.figure();

In [45]: bp = df.boxplot(by='X')

960 Chapter 22. Visualization

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

You can also pass a subset of columns to plot, as well as group by multiple columns:

In [46]: df = pd.DataFrame(np.random.rand(10,3), columns=['Col1', 'Col2', 'Col3'])

In [47]: df['X'] = pd.Series(['A','A','A','A','A','B','B','B','B','B'])

In [48]: df['Y'] = pd.Series(['A','B','A','B','A','B','A','B','A','B'])

In [49]: plt.figure();

In [50]: bp = df.boxplot(column=['Col1','Col2'], by=['X','Y'])

22.2. Other Plots 961

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Warning: The default changed from 'dict' to 'axes' in version 0.19.0.

In boxplot, the return type can be controlled by the return_type, keyword. The valid choices are {"axes",
"dict", "both", None}. Faceting, created by DataFrame.boxplot with the by keyword, will affect the
output type as well:
return_type= Faceted Output type
None No axes
None Yes 2-D ndarray of axes
'axes' No axes
'axes' Yes Series of axes
'dict' No dict of artists
'dict' Yes Series of dicts of artists
'both' No namedtuple
'both' Yes Series of namedtuples
Groupby.boxplot always returns a Series of return_type.

In [51]: np.random.seed(1234)

In [52]: df_box = pd.DataFrame(np.random.randn(50, 2))

In [53]: df_box['g'] = np.random.choice(['A', 'B'], size=50)

In [54]: df_box.loc[df_box['g'] == 'B', 1] += 3

962 Chapter 22. Visualization

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [55]: bp = df_box.boxplot(by='g')

Compare to:

In [56]: bp = df_box.groupby('g').boxplot()

22.2. Other Plots 963

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

22.2.4 Area Plot

You can create area plots with Series.plot.area() and DataFrame.plot.area(). Area plots are stacked
by default. To produce stacked area plot, each column must be either all positive or all negative values.
When input data contains NaN, it will be automatically filled by 0. If you want to drop or fill by different values, use
dataframe.dropna() or dataframe.fillna() before calling plot.

In [57]: df = pd.DataFrame(np.random.rand(10, 4), columns=['a', 'b', 'c', 'd'])

In [58]: df.plot.area();

964 Chapter 22. Visualization

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

To produce an unstacked plot, pass stacked=False. Alpha value is set to 0.5 unless otherwise specified:

In [59]: df.plot.area(stacked=False);

22.2. Other Plots 965

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

22.2.5 Scatter Plot

Scatter plot can be drawn by using the DataFrame.plot.scatter() method. Scatter plot requires numeric
columns for x and y axis. These can be specified by x and y keywords each.

In [60]: df = pd.DataFrame(np.random.rand(50, 4), columns=['a', 'b', 'c', 'd'])

In [61]: df.plot.scatter(x='a', y='b');

966 Chapter 22. Visualization

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

To plot multiple column groups in a single axes, repeat plot method specifying target ax. It is recommended to
specify color and label keywords to distinguish each groups.

In [62]: ax = df.plot.scatter(x='a', y='b', color='DarkBlue', label='Group 1');

In [63]: df.plot.scatter(x='c', y='d', color='DarkGreen', label='Group 2', ax=ax);

22.2. Other Plots 967

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

The keyword c may be given as the name of a column to provide colors for each point:

In [64]: df.plot.scatter(x='a', y='b', c='c', s=50);

968 Chapter 22. Visualization

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

You can pass other keywords supported by matplotlib scatter. Below example shows a bubble chart using a
dataframe column values as bubble size.

In [65]: df.plot.scatter(x='a', y='b', s=df['c']*200);

22.2. Other Plots 969

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

See the scatter method and the matplotlib scatter documentation for more.

22.2.6 Hexagonal Bin Plot

You can create hexagonal bin plots with DataFrame.plot.hexbin(). Hexbin plots can be a useful alternative
to scatter plots if your data are too dense to plot each point individually.

In [66]: df = pd.DataFrame(np.random.randn(1000, 2), columns=['a', 'b'])

In [67]: df['b'] = df['b'] + np.arange(1000)

In [68]: df.plot.hexbin(x='a', y='b', gridsize=25)

Out[68]: <matplotlib.axes._subplots.AxesSubplot at 0x12cdb8588>

970 Chapter 22. Visualization

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

A useful keyword argument is gridsize; it controls the number of hexagons in the x-direction, and defaults to 100.
A larger gridsize means more, smaller bins.
By default, a histogram of the counts around each (x, y) point is computed. You can specify alternative aggregations
by passing values to the C and reduce_C_function arguments. C specifies the value at each (x, y) point and
reduce_C_function is a function of one argument that reduces all the values in a bin to a single number (e.g.
mean, max, sum, std). In this example the positions are given by columns a and b, while the value is given by
column z. The bins are aggregated with numpy’s max function.

In [69]: df = pd.DataFrame(np.random.randn(1000, 2), columns=['a', 'b'])

In [70]: df['b'] = df['b'] = df['b'] + np.arange(1000)

In [71]: df['z'] = np.random.uniform(0, 3, 1000)

In [72]: df.plot.hexbin(x='a', y='b', C='z', reduce_C_function=np.max,

....: gridsize=25)
....:
Out[72]: <matplotlib.axes._subplots.AxesSubplot at 0x12df6f978>

22.2. Other Plots 971

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

See the hexbin method and the matplotlib hexbin documentation for more.

22.2.7 Pie plot

You can create a pie plot with DataFrame.plot.pie() or Series.plot.pie(). If your data includes any
NaN, they will be automatically filled with 0. A ValueError will be raised if there are any negative values in your
data.

In [73]: series = pd.Series(3 * np.random.rand(4), index=['a', 'b', 'c', 'd'], name=

˓→'series')

In [74]: series.plot.pie(figsize=(6, 6))

Out[74]: <matplotlib.axes._subplots.AxesSubplot at 0x12da00438>

972 Chapter 22. Visualization

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

For pie plots it’s best to use square figures, one’s with an equal aspect ratio. You can create the figure with equal
width and height, or force the aspect ratio to be equal after plotting by calling ax.set_aspect('equal') on the
returned axes object.
Note that pie plot with DataFrame requires that you either specify a target column by the y argument or
subplots=True. When y is specified, pie plot of selected column will be drawn. If subplots=True is spec-
ified, pie plots for each column are drawn as subplots. A legend will be drawn in each pie plots by default; specify
legend=False to hide it.

In [75]: df = pd.DataFrame(3 * np.random.rand(4, 2), index=['a', 'b', 'c', 'd'],

˓→columns=['x', 'y'])

In [76]: df.plot.pie(subplots=True, figsize=(8, 4))

Out[76]:
array([<matplotlib.axes._subplots.AxesSubplot object at 0x128f2bf60>,
<matplotlib.axes._subplots.AxesSubplot object at 0x127ebcc50>], dtype=object)

22.2. Other Plots 973

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

You can use the labels and colors keywords to specify the labels and colors of each wedge.

Warning: Most pandas plots use the the label and color arguments (note the lack of “s” on those). To be
consistent with matplotlib.pyplot.pie() you must use labels and colors.

If you want to hide wedge labels, specify labels=None. If fontsize is specified, the value will be applied to
wedge labels. Also, other keywords supported by matplotlib.pyplot.pie() can be used.

In [77]: series.plot.pie(labels=['AA', 'BB', 'CC', 'DD'], colors=['r', 'g', 'b', 'c'],

....: autopct='%.2f', fontsize=20, figsize=(6, 6))
....:
Out[77]: <matplotlib.axes._subplots.AxesSubplot at 0x12cdb8b38>

974 Chapter 22. Visualization

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

If you pass values whose sum total is less than 1.0, matplotlib draws a semicircle.

In [78]: series = pd.Series([0.1] * 4, index=['a', 'b', 'c', 'd'], name='series2')

In [79]: series.plot.pie(figsize=(6, 6))

Out[79]: <matplotlib.axes._subplots.AxesSubplot at 0x128f2b908>

22.2. Other Plots 975

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

See the matplotlib pie documentation for more.

22.3 Plotting with Missing Data

Pandas tries to be pragmatic about plotting DataFrames or Series that contain missing data. Missing values are
dropped, left out, or filled depending on the plot type.
Plot Type NaN Handling
Line Leave gaps at NaNs
Line (stacked) Fill 0’s
Bar Fill 0’s
Scatter Drop NaNs
Histogram Drop NaNs (column-wise)
Box Drop NaNs (column-wise)
Area Fill 0’s
KDE Drop NaNs (column-wise)
Hexbin Drop NaNs
Pie Fill 0’s
If any of these defaults are not what you want, or if you want to be explicit about how missing values are handled,
consider using fillna() or dropna() before plotting.

976 Chapter 22. Visualization

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

22.4 Plotting Tools

These functions can be imported from pandas.plotting and take a Series or DataFrame as an argument.

22.4.1 Scatter Matrix Plot

You can create a scatter plot matrix using the scatter_matrix method in pandas.plotting:

In [80]: from pandas.plotting import scatter_matrix

In [81]: df = pd.DataFrame(np.random.randn(1000, 4), columns=['a', 'b', 'c', 'd'])

In [82]: scatter_matrix(df, alpha=0.2, figsize=(6, 6), diagonal='kde')

Out[82]:
array([[<matplotlib.axes._subplots.AxesSubplot object at 0x128dd3470>,
<matplotlib.axes._subplots.AxesSubplot object at 0x12d75d898>,
<matplotlib.axes._subplots.AxesSubplot object at 0x12d787630>,
<matplotlib.axes._subplots.AxesSubplot object at 0x1299fe860>],
[<matplotlib.axes._subplots.AxesSubplot object at 0x12997c0f0>,
<matplotlib.axes._subplots.AxesSubplot object at 0x12997c128>,
<matplotlib.axes._subplots.AxesSubplot object at 0x12da681d0>,
<matplotlib.axes._subplots.AxesSubplot object at 0x1291a2a20>],
[<matplotlib.axes._subplots.AxesSubplot object at 0x12da2a8d0>,
<matplotlib.axes._subplots.AxesSubplot object at 0x127a748d0>,
<matplotlib.axes._subplots.AxesSubplot object at 0x131116940>,
<matplotlib.axes._subplots.AxesSubplot object at 0x12914e940>],
[<matplotlib.axes._subplots.AxesSubplot object at 0x1266b2940>,
<matplotlib.axes._subplots.AxesSubplot object at 0x12d6e4400>,
<matplotlib.axes._subplots.AxesSubplot object at 0x12d82d470>,
<matplotlib.axes._subplots.AxesSubplot object at 0x128d07470>]], dtype=object)

22.4. Plotting Tools 977

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

22.4.2 Density Plot

You can create density plots using the Series.plot.kde() and DataFrame.plot.kde() methods.

In [83]: ser = pd.Series(np.random.randn(1000))

In [84]: ser.plot.kde()
Out[84]: <matplotlib.axes._subplots.AxesSubplot at 0x12a98acf8>

978 Chapter 22. Visualization

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

22.4.3 Andrews Curves

Andrews curves allow one to plot multivariate data as a large number of curves that are created using the attributes
of samples as coefficients for Fourier series. By coloring these curves differently for each class it is possible to
visualize data clustering. Curves belonging to samples of the same class will usually be closer together and form
larger structures.
Note: The “Iris” dataset is available here.

In [85]: from pandas.plotting import andrews_curves

In [86]: data = pd.read_csv('data/iris.data')

In [87]: plt.figure()
Out[87]: <matplotlib.figure.Figure at 0x128db1470>

In [88]: andrews_curves(data, 'Name')

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[88]: <matplotlib.axes._
˓→subplots.AxesSubplot at 0x12e27ed68>

22.4. Plotting Tools 979

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

22.4.4 Parallel Coordinates

Parallel coordinates is a plotting technique for plotting multivariate data. It allows one to see clusters in data and to
estimate other statistics visually. Using parallel coordinates points are represented as connected line segments. Each
vertical line represents one attribute. One set of connected line segments represents one data point. Points that tend to
cluster will appear closer together.

In [89]: from pandas.plotting import parallel_coordinates

In [90]: data = pd.read_csv('data/iris.data')

In [91]: plt.figure()
Out[91]: <matplotlib.figure.Figure at 0x12e2ef4a8>

In [92]: parallel_coordinates(data, 'Name')

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[92]: <matplotlib.axes._
˓→subplots.AxesSubplot at 0x12aa8bf60>

980 Chapter 22. Visualization

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

22.4.5 Lag Plot

Lag plots are used to check if a data set or time series is random. Random data should not exhibit any structure in the
lag plot. Non-random structure implies that the underlying data are not random.

In [93]: from pandas.plotting import lag_plot

In [94]: plt.figure()
Out[94]: <matplotlib.figure.Figure at 0x12e27e0f0>

In [95]: data = pd.Series(0.1 * np.random.rand(1000) +

....: 0.9 * np.sin(np.linspace(-99 * np.pi, 99 * np.pi, num=1000)))
....:

In [96]: lag_plot(data)
Out[96]: <matplotlib.axes._subplots.AxesSubplot at 0x12a294940>

22.4. Plotting Tools 981

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

22.4.6 Autocorrelation Plot

Autocorrelation plots are often used for checking randomness in time series. This is done by computing autocorrela-
tions for data values at varying time lags. If time series is random, such autocorrelations should be near zero for any
and all time-lag separations. If time series is non-random then one or more of the autocorrelations will be significantly
non-zero. The horizontal lines displayed in the plot correspond to 95% and 99% confidence bands. The dashed line is
99% confidence band.

In [97]: from pandas.plotting import autocorrelation_plot

In [98]: plt.figure()
Out[98]: <matplotlib.figure.Figure at 0x12a218550>

In [99]: data = pd.Series(0.7 * np.random.rand(1000) +

....: 0.3 * np.sin(np.linspace(-9 * np.pi, 9 * np.pi, num=1000)))
....:

In [100]: autocorrelation_plot(data)
Out[100]: <matplotlib.axes._subplots.AxesSubplot at 0x12e31b278>

982 Chapter 22. Visualization

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

22.4.7 Bootstrap Plot

Bootstrap plots are used to visually assess the uncertainty of a statistic, such as mean, median, midrange, etc. A
random subset of a specified size is selected from a data set, the statistic in question is computed for this subset and
the process is repeated a specified number of times. Resulting plots and histograms are what constitutes the bootstrap
plot.

In [101]: from pandas.plotting import bootstrap_plot

In [102]: data = pd.Series(np.random.rand(1000))

In [103]: bootstrap_plot(data, size=50, samples=500, color='grey')

Out[103]: <matplotlib.figure.Figure at 0x1255c7a58>

22.4. Plotting Tools 983

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

22.4.8 RadViz

RadViz is a way of visualizing multi-variate data. It is based on a simple spring tension minimization algorithm.
Basically you set up a bunch of points in a plane. In our case they are equally spaced on a unit circle. Each point
represents a single attribute. You then pretend that each sample in the data set is attached to each of these points
by a spring, the stiffness of which is proportional to the numerical value of that attribute (they are normalized to
unit interval). The point in the plane, where our sample settles to (where the forces acting on our sample are at an
equilibrium) is where a dot representing our sample will be drawn. Depending on which class that sample belongs it
will be colored differently.
Note: The “Iris” dataset is available here.

In [104]: from pandas.plotting import radviz

In [105]: data = pd.read_csv('data/iris.data')

In [106]: plt.figure()
Out[106]: <matplotlib.figure.Figure at 0x127ae4898>

In [107]: radviz(data, 'Name')

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[107]: <matplotlib.axes._
˓→subplots.AxesSubplot at 0x12dbe79b0>

984 Chapter 22. Visualization

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

22.5 Plot Formatting

22.5.1 Setting the plot style

From version 1.5 and up, matplotlib offers a range of preconfigured plotting styles. Setting the style can be
used to easily give plots the general look that you want. Setting the style is as easy as calling matplotlib.
style.use(my_plot_style) before creating your plot. For example you could do matplotlib.style.
use('ggplot') for ggplot-style plots.
You can see the various available style names at matplotlib.style.available and it’s very easy to try them
out.

22.5.2 General plot style arguments

Most plotting methods have a set of keyword arguments that control the layout and formatting of the returned plot:

In [108]: plt.figure(); ts.plot(style='k--', label='Series');

22.5. Plot Formatting 985

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

For each kind of plot (e.g. line, bar, scatter) any additional arguments keywords are passed along to the corresponding
matplotlib function (ax.plot(), ax.bar(), ax.scatter()). These can be used to control additional styling,
beyond what pandas provides.

22.5.3 Controlling the Legend

You may set the legend argument to False to hide the legend, which is shown by default.

In [109]: df = pd.DataFrame(np.random.randn(1000, 4), index=ts.index, columns=list(

˓→'ABCD'))

In [110]: df = df.cumsum()

In [111]: df.plot(legend=False)
Out[111]: <matplotlib.axes._subplots.AxesSubplot at 0x128f9b7b8>

986 Chapter 22. Visualization

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

22.5.4 Scales

You may pass logy to get a log-scale Y axis.

In [112]: ts = pd.Series(np.random.randn(1000), index=pd.date_range('1/1/2000',

˓→periods=1000))

In [113]: ts = np.exp(ts.cumsum())

In [114]: ts.plot(logy=True)
Out[114]: <matplotlib.axes._subplots.AxesSubplot at 0x1299f2ac8>

22.5. Plot Formatting 987

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

See also the logx and loglog keyword arguments.

22.5.5 Plotting on a Secondary Y-axis

To plot data on a secondary y-axis, use the secondary_y keyword:

In [115]: df.A.plot()
Out[115]: <matplotlib.axes._subplots.AxesSubplot at 0x120619d30>

In [116]: df.B.plot(secondary_y=True, style='g')

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[116]:
˓→<matplotlib.axes._subplots.AxesSubplot at 0x12d6b59b0>

988 Chapter 22. Visualization

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

To plot some columns in a DataFrame, give the column names to the secondary_y keyword:

In [117]: plt.figure()
Out[117]: <matplotlib.figure.Figure at 0x12de88710>

In [118]: ax = df.plot(secondary_y=['A', 'B'])

In [119]: ax.set_ylabel('CD scale')

Out[119]: Text(0,0.5,'CD scale')

In [120]: ax.right_ax.set_ylabel('AB scale')

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[120]: Text(0,0.5,'AB scale')

22.5. Plot Formatting 989

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Note that the columns plotted on the secondary y-axis is automatically marked with “(right)” in the legend. To turn off
the automatic marking, use the mark_right=False keyword:

In [121]: plt.figure()
Out[121]: <matplotlib.figure.Figure at 0x12d261e80>

In [122]: df.plot(secondary_y=['A', 'B'], mark_right=False)

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[122]: <matplotlib.axes._
˓→subplots.AxesSubplot at 0x129918978>

990 Chapter 22. Visualization

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

22.5.6 Suppressing Tick Resolution Adjustment

pandas includes automatic tick resolution adjustment for regular frequency time-series data. For limited cases where
pandas cannot infer the frequency information (e.g., in an externally created twinx), you can choose to suppress this
behavior for alignment purposes.
Here is the default behavior, notice how the x-axis tick labelling is performed:

In [123]: plt.figure()
Out[123]: <matplotlib.figure.Figure at 0x12ed98cf8>

In [124]: df.A.plot()
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[124]: <matplotlib.axes._
˓→subplots.AxesSubplot at 0x13106dda0>

22.5. Plot Formatting 991

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Using the x_compat parameter, you can suppress this behavior:

In [125]: plt.figure()
Out[125]: <matplotlib.figure.Figure at 0x12edb0ba8>

In [126]: df.A.plot(x_compat=True)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[126]: <matplotlib.axes._
˓→subplots.AxesSubplot at 0x12ec991d0>

992 Chapter 22. Visualization

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

If you have more than one plot that needs to be suppressed, the use method in pandas.plotting.
plot_params can be used in a with statement:

In [127]: plt.figure()
Out[127]: <matplotlib.figure.Figure at 0x12ec98198>

In [128]: with pd.plotting.plot_params.use('x_compat', True):

.....: df.A.plot(color='r')
.....: df.B.plot(color='g')
.....: df.C.plot(color='b')
.....:

22.5. Plot Formatting 993

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

22.5.7 Automatic Date Tick Adjustment

New in version 0.20.0.

TimedeltaIndex now uses the native matplotlib tick locator methods, it is useful to call the automatic date tick
adjustment from matplotlib for figures whose ticklabels overlap.
See the autofmt_xdate method and the matplotlib documentation for more.

22.5.8 Subplots

Each Series in a DataFrame can be plotted on a different axis with the subplots keyword:

In [129]: df.plot(subplots=True, figsize=(6, 6));

994 Chapter 22. Visualization

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

22.5.9 Using Layout and Targeting Multiple Axes

The layout of subplots can be specified by layout keyword. It can accept (rows, columns). The layout
keyword can be used in hist and boxplot also. If input is invalid, ValueError will be raised.
The number of axes which can be contained by rows x columns specified by layout must be larger than the number
of required subplots. If layout can contain more axes than required, blank axes are not drawn. Similar to a numpy
array’s reshape method, you can use -1 for one dimension to automatically calculate the number of rows or columns
needed, given the other.

In [130]: df.plot(subplots=True, layout=(2, 3), figsize=(6, 6), sharex=False);

22.5. Plot Formatting 995

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

The above example is identical to using

In [131]: df.plot(subplots=True, layout=(2, -1), figsize=(6, 6), sharex=False);

The required number of columns (3) is inferred from the number of series to plot and the given number of rows (2).
Also, you can pass multiple axes created beforehand as list-like via ax keyword. This allows to use more complicated
layout. The passed axes must be the same number as the subplots being drawn.
When multiple axes are passed via ax keyword, layout, sharex and sharey keywords don’t affect to the output.
You should explicitly pass sharex=False and sharey=False, otherwise you will see a warning.
In [132]: fig, axes = plt.subplots(4, 4, figsize=(6, 6));

In [133]: plt.subplots_adjust(wspace=0.5, hspace=0.5);

In [134]: target1 = [axes[0][0], axes[1][1], axes[2][2], axes[3][3]]

In [135]: target2 = [axes[3][0], axes[2][1], axes[1][2], axes[0][3]]

In [136]: df.plot(subplots=True, ax=target1, legend=False, sharex=False,

˓→sharey=False);

In [137]: (-df).plot(subplots=True, ax=target2, legend=False, sharex=False,

˓→sharey=False);

996 Chapter 22. Visualization

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Another option is passing an ax argument to Series.plot() to plot on a particular axis:

In [138]: fig, axes = plt.subplots(nrows=2, ncols=2)

In [139]: df['A'].plot(ax=axes[0,0]); axes[0,0].set_title('A');

In [140]: df['B'].plot(ax=axes[0,1]); axes[0,1].set_title('B');

In [141]: df['C'].plot(ax=axes[1,0]); axes[1,0].set_title('C');

In [142]: df['D'].plot(ax=axes[1,1]); axes[1,1].set_title('D');

22.5. Plot Formatting 997

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

22.5.10 Plotting With Error Bars

Plotting with error bars is now supported in the DataFrame.plot() and Series.plot()
Horizontal and vertical errorbars can be supplied to the xerr and yerr keyword arguments to plot(). The error
values can be specified using a variety of formats.
• As a DataFrame or dict of errors with column names matching the columns attribute of the plotting
DataFrame or matching the name attribute of the Series
• As a str indicating which of the columns of plotting DataFrame contain the error values
• As raw values (list, tuple, or np.ndarray). Must be the same length as the plotting
DataFrame/Series
Asymmetrical error bars are also supported, however raw error values must be provided in this case. For a M
length Series, a Mx2 array should be provided indicating lower and upper (or left and right) errors. For a MxN
DataFrame, asymmetrical errors should be in a Mx2xN array.
Here is an example of one way to easily plot group means with standard deviations from the raw data.

# Generate the data

In [143]: ix3 = pd.MultiIndex.from_arrays([['a', 'a', 'a', 'a', 'b', 'b', 'b', 'b'], [
˓→'foo', 'foo', 'bar', 'bar', 'foo', 'foo', 'bar', 'bar']], names=['letter', 'word'])

In [144]: df3 = pd.DataFrame({'data1': [3, 2, 4, 3, 2, 4, 3, 2], 'data2': [6, 5, 7, 5,

˓→ 4, 5, 6, 5]}, index=ix3)

998 Chapter 22. Visualization

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

# Group by index labels and take the means and standard deviations for each group
In [145]: gp3 = df3.groupby(level=('letter', 'word'))

In [146]: means = gp3.mean()

In [147]: errors = gp3.std()

In [148]: means
Out[148]:
data1 data2
letter word
a bar 3.5 6.0
foo 2.5 5.5
b bar 2.5 5.5
foo 3.0 4.5

In [149]: errors
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

data1 data2
letter word
a bar 0.707107 1.414214
foo 0.707107 0.707107
b bar 0.707107 0.707107
foo 1.414214 0.707107

# Plot
In [150]: fig, ax = plt.subplots()

In [151]: means.plot.bar(yerr=errors, ax=ax)

Out[151]: <matplotlib.axes._subplots.AxesSubplot at 0x1364c3c50>

22.5. Plot Formatting 999

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

22.5.11 Plotting Tables

Plotting with matplotlib table is now supported in DataFrame.plot() and Series.plot() with a table
keyword. The table keyword can accept bool, DataFrame or Series. The simple way to draw a table is to
specify table=True. Data will be transposed to meet matplotlib’s default layout.

In [152]: fig, ax = plt.subplots(1, 1)

In [153]: df = pd.DataFrame(np.random.rand(5, 3), columns=['a', 'b', 'c'])

In [154]: ax.get_xaxis().set_visible(False) # Hide Ticks

In [155]: df.plot(table=True, ax=ax)

Out[155]: <matplotlib.axes._subplots.AxesSubplot at 0x133634a58>

1000 Chapter 22. Visualization

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Also, you can pass different DataFrame or Series for table keyword. The data will be drawn as displayed in
print method (not transposed automatically). If required, it should be transposed manually as below example.

In [156]: fig, ax = plt.subplots(1, 1)

In [157]: ax.get_xaxis().set_visible(False) # Hide Ticks

In [158]: df.plot(table=np.round(df.T, 2), ax=ax)

Out[158]: <matplotlib.axes._subplots.AxesSubplot at 0x136543cc0>

22.5. Plot Formatting 1001

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Finally, there is a helper function pandas.plotting.table to create a table from DataFrame and Series,
and add it to an matplotlib.Axes. This function can accept keywords which matplotlib table has.

In [159]: from pandas.plotting import table

In [160]: fig, ax = plt.subplots(1, 1)

In [161]: table(ax, np.round(df.describe(), 2),

.....: loc='upper right', colWidths=[0.2, 0.2, 0.2])
.....:
Out[161]: <matplotlib.table.Table at 0x1295b7a58>

In [162]: df.plot(ax=ax, ylim=(0, 2), legend=None)

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[162]: <matplotlib.axes._
˓→subplots.AxesSubplot at 0x12d52f470>

1002 Chapter 22. Visualization

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Note: You can get table instances on the axes using axes.tables property for further decorations. See the mat-
plotlib table documentation for more.

22.5.12 Colormaps

A potential issue when plotting a large number of columns is that it can be difficult to distinguish some series due to
repetition in the default colors. To remedy this, DataFrame plotting supports the use of the colormap= argument,
which accepts either a Matplotlib colormap or a string that is a name of a colormap registered with Matplotlib. A
visualization of the default matplotlib colormaps is available here.
As matplotlib does not directly support colormaps for line-based plots, the colors are selected based on an even spacing
determined by the number of columns in the DataFrame. There is no consideration made for background color, so
some colormaps will produce lines that are not easily visible.
To use the cubehelix colormap, we can simply pass 'cubehelix' to colormap=

In [163]: df = pd.DataFrame(np.random.randn(1000, 10), index=ts.index)

In [164]: df = df.cumsum()

In [165]: plt.figure()
Out[165]: <matplotlib.figure.Figure at 0x1295c48d0>

In [166]: df.plot(colormap='cubehelix')
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[166]: <matplotlib.axes._
˓→subplots.AxesSubplot at 0x115d0fba8>

22.5. Plot Formatting 1003

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

or we can pass the colormap itself

In [167]: from matplotlib import cm

In [168]: plt.figure()
Out[168]: <matplotlib.figure.Figure at 0x115ce9cf8>

In [169]: df.plot(colormap=cm.cubehelix)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[169]: <matplotlib.axes._
˓→subplots.AxesSubplot at 0x12d1efbe0>

1004 Chapter 22. Visualization

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Colormaps can also be used other plot types, like bar charts:

In [170]: dd = pd.DataFrame(np.random.randn(10, 10)).applymap(abs)

In [171]: dd = dd.cumsum()

In [172]: plt.figure()
Out[172]: <matplotlib.figure.Figure at 0x12eb384e0>

In [173]: dd.plot.bar(colormap='Greens')
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[173]: <matplotlib.axes._
˓→subplots.AxesSubplot at 0x12a0287b8>

22.5. Plot Formatting 1005

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Parallel coordinates charts:

In [174]: plt.figure()
Out[174]: <matplotlib.figure.Figure at 0x115d0f400>

In [175]: parallel_coordinates(data, 'Name', colormap='gist_rainbow')

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[175]: <matplotlib.axes._
˓→subplots.AxesSubplot at 0x12365ac18>

1006 Chapter 22. Visualization

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Andrews curves charts:

In [176]: plt.figure()
Out[176]: <matplotlib.figure.Figure at 0x115d0f048>

In [177]: andrews_curves(data, 'Name', colormap='winter')

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[177]: <matplotlib.axes._
˓→subplots.AxesSubplot at 0x12a4dd1d0>

22.5. Plot Formatting 1007

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

22.6 Plotting directly with matplotlib

In some situations it may still be preferable or necessary to prepare plots directly with matplotlib, for instance when
a certain type of plot or customization is not (yet) supported by pandas. Series and DataFrame objects behave like
arrays and can therefore be passed directly to matplotlib functions without explicit casts.
pandas also automatically registers formatters and locators that recognize date indices, thereby extending date and
time support to practically all plot types available in matplotlib. Although this formatting does not provide the same
level of refinement you would get when plotting via pandas, it can be faster when plotting a large number of points.

In [178]: price = pd.Series(np.random.randn(150).cumsum(),

.....: index=pd.date_range('2000-1-1', periods=150, freq='B'))
.....:

In [179]: ma = price.rolling(20).mean()

In [180]: mstd = price.rolling(20).std()

In [181]: plt.figure()
Out[181]: <matplotlib.figure.Figure at 0x128ee9080>

In [182]: plt.plot(price.index, price, 'k')

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[182]: [<matplotlib.lines.
˓→Line2D at 0x1292f6668>]

In [183]: plt.plot(ma.index, ma, 'b')

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→[<matplotlib.lines.Line2D at 0x129a1bf28>]

1008 Chapter 22. Visualization

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [184]: plt.fill_between(mstd.index, ma-2*mstd, ma+2*mstd, color='b', alpha=0.2)

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→<matplotlib.collections.PolyCollection at 0x12db7d710>

22.7 Trellis plotting interface

Warning: The rplot trellis plotting interface has been removed. Please use external packages like seaborn for
similar but more refined functionality and refer to our 0.18.1 documentation here for how to convert to using it.

22.7. Trellis plotting interface 1009

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

1010 Chapter 22. Visualization

 CHAPTER

TWENTYTHREE

STYLING

New in version 0.17.1

Provisional: This is a new feature and still under development. We’ll be adding features and possibly making breaking
changes in future releases. We’d love to hear your feedback.
This document is written as a Jupyter Notebook, and can be viewed or downloaded here.
You can apply conditional formatting, the visual styling of a DataFrame depending on the data within, by using
the DataFrame.style property. This is a property that returns a Styler object, which has useful methods for
formatting and displaying DataFrames.
The styling is accomplished using CSS. You write “style functions” that take scalars, DataFrames or Series, and
return like-indexed DataFrames or Series with CSS "attribute: value" pairs for the values. These functions
can be incrementally passed to the Styler which collects the styles before rendering.

23.1 Building Styles

Pass your style functions into one of the following methods:

• Styler.applymap: elementwise
• Styler.apply: column-/row-/table-wise
Both of those methods take a function (and some other keyword arguments) and applies your function to the DataFrame
in a certain way. Styler.applymap works through the DataFrame elementwise. Styler.apply passes each
column or row into your DataFrame one-at-a-time or the entire table at once, depending on the axis keyword argu-
ment. For columnwise use axis=0, rowwise use axis=1, and for the entire table at once use axis=None.
For Styler.applymap your function should take a scalar and return a single string with the CSS attribute-value
pair.
For Styler.apply your function should take a Series or DataFrame (depending on the axis parameter), and return
a Series or DataFrame with an identical shape where each value is a string with a CSS attribute-value pair.
Let’s see some examples.
In [2]: import pandas as pd
import numpy as np

np.random.seed(24)
df = pd.DataFrame({'A': np.linspace(1, 10, 10)})
df = pd.concat([df, pd.DataFrame(np.random.randn(10, 4), columns=list('BCDE'))],
axis=1)
df.iloc[0, 2] = np.nan

Here’s a boring example of rendering a DataFrame, without any (visible) styles:

1011
pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [3]: df.style
Out[3]: <pandas.io.formats.style.Styler at 0x10654ee80>

Note: The DataFrame.style attribute is a property that returns a Styler object. Styler has a _repr_html_
method defined on it so they are rendered automatically. If you want the actual HTML back for further processing or
for writing to file call the .render() method which returns a string.
The above output looks very similar to the standard DataFrame HTML representation. But we’ve done some work
behind the scenes to attach CSS classes to each cell. We can view these by calling the .render method.
In [4]: df.style.highlight_null().render().split('\n')[:10]
Out[4]: ['<style type="text/css" >',
' #T_a298eba8_bb2c_11e7_bd17_186590cd1c87row0_col2 {',
' background-color: red;',
' }</style> ',
'<table id="T_a298eba8_bb2c_11e7_bd17_186590cd1c87" > ',
'<thead> <tr> ',
' <th class="blank level0" ></th> ',
' <th class="col_heading level0 col0" >A</th> ',
' <th class="col_heading level0 col1" >B</th> ',
' <th class="col_heading level0 col2" >C</th> ']

The row0_col2 is the identifier for that particular cell. We’ve also prepended each row/column identifier with a
UUID unique to each DataFrame so that the style from one doesn’t collide with the styling from another within the
same notebook or page (you can set the uuid if you’d like to tie together the styling of two DataFrames).
When writing style functions, you take care of producing the CSS attribute / value pairs you want. Pandas matches
those up with the CSS classes that identify each cell.
Let’s write a simple style function that will color negative numbers red and positive numbers black.
In [5]: def color_negative_red(val):
"""
Takes a scalar and returns a string with
the css property `'color: red'` for negative
strings, black otherwise.
"""
color = 'red' if val < 0 else 'black'
return 'color: %s' % color

In this case, the cell’s style depends only on it’s own value. That means we should use the Styler.applymap
method which works elementwise.
In [6]: s = df.style.applymap(color_negative_red)
s
Out[6]: <pandas.io.formats.style.Styler at 0x103c04eb8>
Notice the similarity with the standard df.applymap, which operates on DataFrames elementwise. We want you to
be able to reuse your existing knowledge of how to interact with DataFrames.
Notice also that our function returned a string containing the CSS attribute and value, separated by a colon just like in
a <style> tag. This will be a common theme.
Finally, the input shapes matched. Styler.applymap calls the function on each scalar input, and the function
returns a scalar output.
Now suppose you wanted to highlight the maximum value in each column. We can’t use .applymap anymore since
that operated elementwise. Instead, we’ll turn to .apply which operates columnwise (or rowwise using the axis
keyword). Later on we’ll see that something like highlight_max is already defined on Styler so you wouldn’t
need to write this yourself.

1012 Chapter 23. Styling

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [7]: def highlight_max(s):

'''
highlight the maximum in a Series yellow.
'''
is_max = s == s.max()
return ['background-color: yellow' if v else '' for v in is_max]
In [8]: df.style.apply(highlight_max)
Out[8]: <pandas.io.formats.style.Styler at 0x103c2e048>

In this case the input is a Series, one column at a time. Notice that the output shape of highlight_max matches
the input shape, an array with len(s) items.
We encourage you to use method chains to build up a style piecewise, before finally rending at the end of the chain.
In [9]: df.style.\
applymap(color_negative_red).\
apply(highlight_max)
Out[9]: <pandas.io.formats.style.Styler at 0x103c28400>
Above we used Styler.apply to pass in each column one at a time.
Debugging Tip: If you’re having trouble writing your style function, try just passing it into DataFrame.apply. Inter-
nally, Styler.apply uses DataFrame.apply so the result should be the same.
What if you wanted to highlight just the maximum value in the entire table? Use .apply(function,
axis=None) to indicate that your function wants the entire table, not one column or row at a time. Let’s try that
next.
We’ll rewrite our highlight-max to handle either Series (from .apply(axis=0 or 1)) or DataFrames (from
.apply(axis=None)). We’ll also allow the color to be adjustable, to demonstrate that .apply, and .applymap
pass along keyword arguments.
In [10]: def highlight_max(data, color='yellow'):
'''
highlight the maximum in a Series or DataFrame
'''
attr = 'background-color: {}'.format(color)
if data.ndim == 1: # Series from .apply(axis=0) or axis=1
is_max = data == data.max()
return [attr if v else '' for v in is_max]
else: # from .apply(axis=None)
is_max = data == data.max().max()
return pd.DataFrame(np.where(is_max, attr, ''),
index=data.index, columns=data.columns)

When using Styler.apply(func, axis=None), the function must return a DataFrame with the same index
and column labels.
In [11]: df.style.apply(highlight_max, color='darkorange', axis=None)
Out[11]: <pandas.io.formats.style.Styler at 0x103c344a8>

23.1.1 Building Styles Summary

Style functions should return strings with one or more CSS attribute: value delimited by semicolons. Use
• Styler.applymap(func) for elementwise styles
• Styler.apply(func, axis=0) for columnwise styles
• Styler.apply(func, axis=1) for rowwise styles

23.1. Building Styles 1013

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Styler.apply(func, axis=None) for tablewise styles

And crucially the input and output shapes of func must match. If x is the input then func(x).shape == x.
shape.

23.2 Finer Control: Slicing

Both Styler.apply, and Styler.applymap accept a subset keyword. This allows you to apply styles to
specific rows or columns, without having to code that logic into your style function.
The value passed to subset behaves simlar to slicing a DataFrame.
• A scalar is treated as a column label
• A list (or series or numpy array)
• A tuple is treated as (row_indexer, column_indexer)
Consider using pd.IndexSlice to construct the tuple for the last one.
In [12]: df.style.apply(highlight_max, subset=['B', 'C', 'D'])
Out[12]: <pandas.io.formats.style.Styler at 0x103c2e208>

For row and column slicing, any valid indexer to .loc will work.
In [13]: df.style.applymap(color_negative_red,
subset=pd.IndexSlice[2:5, ['B', 'D']])
Out[13]: <pandas.io.formats.style.Styler at 0x103c2e6d8>
Only label-based slicing is supported right now, not positional.
If your style function uses a subset or axis keyword argument, consider wrapping your function in a
functools.partial, partialing out that keyword.

my_func2 = functools.partial(my_func, subset=42)

23.3 Finer Control: Display Values

We distinguish the display value from the actual value in Styler. To control the display value, the text is printed in
each cell, use Styler.format. Cells can be formatted according to a format spec string or a callable that takes a
single value and returns a string.
In [14]: df.style.format("{:.2%}")
Out[14]: <pandas.io.formats.style.Styler at 0x103c2e5c0>

Use a dictionary to format specific columns.

In [15]: df.style.format({'B': "{:0<4.0f}", 'D': '{:+.2f}'})
Out[15]: <pandas.io.formats.style.Styler at 0x103c2e908>
Or pass in a callable (or dictionary of callables) for more flexible handling.
In [16]: df.style.format({"B": lambda x: "±{:.2f}".format(abs(x))})
Out[16]: <pandas.io.formats.style.Styler at 0x103c2edd8>

1014 Chapter 23. Styling

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

23.4 Builtin Styles

Finally, we expect certain styling functions to be common enough that we’ve included a few “built-in” to the Styler,
so you don’t have to write them yourself.
In [17]: df.style.highlight_null(null_color='red')
Out[17]: <pandas.io.formats.style.Styler at 0x103c2e7b8>
You can create “heatmaps” with the background_gradient method. These require matplotlib, and we’ll use
Seaborn to get a nice colormap.
In [18]: import seaborn as sns

cm = sns.light_palette("green", as_cmap=True)

s = df.style.background_gradient(cmap=cm)
s
/Users/taugspurger/Envs/pandas-dev/lib/python3.6/site-packages/matplotlib/colors.py:489: RuntimeWarni
np.copyto(xa, -1, where=xa < 0.0)
Out[18]: <pandas.io.formats.style.Styler at 0x10531c438>
Styler.background_gradient takes the keyword arguments low and high. Roughly speaking these extend
the range of your data by low and high percent so that when we convert the colors, the colormap’s entire range isn’t
used. This is useful so that you can actually read the text still.
In [19]: # Uses the full color range
df.loc[:4].style.background_gradient(cmap='viridis')
/Users/taugspurger/Envs/pandas-dev/lib/python3.6/site-packages/matplotlib/colors.py:489: RuntimeWarni
np.copyto(xa, -1, where=xa < 0.0)
Out[19]: <pandas.io.formats.style.Styler at 0x103c2e5f8>
In [20]: # Compress the color range
(df.loc[:4]
.style
.background_gradient(cmap='viridis', low=.5, high=0)
.highlight_null('red'))
/Users/taugspurger/Envs/pandas-dev/lib/python3.6/site-packages/matplotlib/colors.py:489: RuntimeWarni
np.copyto(xa, -1, where=xa < 0.0)
Out[20]: <pandas.io.formats.style.Styler at 0x10a091f28>

There’s also .highlight_min and .highlight_max.

In [21]: df.style.highlight_max(axis=0)
Out[21]: <pandas.io.formats.style.Styler at 0x10a091cc0>
Use Styler.set_properties when the style doesn’t actually depend on the values.
In [22]: df.style.set_properties(**{'background-color': 'black',
'color': 'lawngreen',
'border-color': 'white'})
Out[22]: <pandas.io.formats.style.Styler at 0x10a15b320>

23.4.1 Bar charts

You can include “bar charts” in your DataFrame.

23.4. Builtin Styles 1015

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [23]: df.style.bar(subset=['A', 'B'], color='#d65f5f')

Out[23]: <pandas.io.formats.style.Styler at 0x10a091b00>

New in version 0.20.0 is the ability to customize further the bar chart: You can now have the df.style.bar be
centered on zero or midpoint value (in addition to the already existing way of having the min value at the left side of
the cell), and you can pass a list of [color_negative, color_positive].
Here’s how you can change the above with the new align='mid' option:
In [24]: df.style.bar(subset=['A', 'B'], align='mid', color=['#d65f5f', '#5fba7d'])
Out[24]: <pandas.io.formats.style.Styler at 0x10a224278>

The following example aims to give a highlight of the behavior of the new align options:
In [25]: import pandas as pd
from IPython.display import HTML

# Test series
test1 = pd.Series([-100,-60,-30,-20], name='All Negative')
test2 = pd.Series([10,20,50,100], name='All Positive')
test3 = pd.Series([-10,-5,0,90], name='Both Pos and Neg')

head = """
<table>
<thead>
<th>Align</th>
<th>All Negative</th>
<th>All Positive</th>
<th>Both Neg and Pos</th>
</thead>
</tbody>

"""

aligns = ['left','zero','mid']
for align in aligns:
row = "<tr><th>{}</th>".format(align)
for serie in [test1,test2,test3]:
s = serie.copy()
s.name=''
row += "<td>{}</td>".format(s.to_frame().style.bar(align=align,
color=['#d65f5f', '#5fba7d'],
width=100).render()) #testn['widt
row += '</tr>'
head += row

head+= """
</tbody>
</table>"""

HTML(head)
Out[25]: <IPython.core.display.HTML object>

1016 Chapter 23. Styling

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

23.5 Sharing Styles

Say you have a lovely style built up for a DataFrame, and now you want to apply the same style to a second DataFrame.
Export the style with df1.style.export, and import it on the second DataFrame with df1.style.set
In [26]: df2 = -df
style1 = df.style.applymap(color_negative_red)
style1
Out[26]: <pandas.io.formats.style.Styler at 0x10a21ce48>
In [27]: style2 = df2.style
style2.use(style1.export())
style2
Out[27]: <pandas.io.formats.style.Styler at 0x10a257eb8>

Notice that you’re able share the styles even though they’re data aware. The styles are re-evaluated on the new
DataFrame they’ve been used upon.

23.6 Other Options

You’ve seen a few methods for data-driven styling. Styler also provides a few other options for styles that don’t
depend on the data.
• precision
• captions
• table-wide styles
Each of these can be specified in two ways:
• A keyword argument to Styler.__init__
• A call to one of the .set_ methods, e.g. .set_caption
The best method to use depends on the context. Use the Styler constructor when building many styled DataFrames
that should all share the same properties. For interactive use, the.set_ methods are more convenient.

23.6.1 Precision

You can control the precision of floats using pandas’ regular display.precision option.
In [28]: with pd.option_context('display.precision', 2):
html = (df.style
.applymap(color_negative_red)
.apply(highlight_max))
html
Out[28]: <pandas.io.formats.style.Styler at 0x10a22fda0>

Or through a set_precision method.

In [29]: df.style\
.applymap(color_negative_red)\
.apply(highlight_max)\
.set_precision(2)
Out[29]: <pandas.io.formats.style.Styler at 0x10a2576a0>

23.5. Sharing Styles 1017

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Setting the precision only affects the printed number; the full-precision values are always passed to your style func-
tions. You can always use df.round(2).style if you’d prefer to round from the start.

23.6.2 Captions

Regular table captions can be added in a few ways.

In [30]: df.style.set_caption('Colormaps, with a caption.')\
.background_gradient(cmap=cm)
/Users/taugspurger/Envs/pandas-dev/lib/python3.6/site-packages/matplotlib/colors.py:489: RuntimeWarni
np.copyto(xa, -1, where=xa < 0.0)
Out[30]: <pandas.io.formats.style.Styler at 0x10a22ff28>

23.6.3 Table Styles

The next option you have are “table styles”. These are styles that apply to the table as a whole, but don’t look at the
data. Certain sytlings, including pseudo-selectors like :hover can only be used this way.
In [31]: from IPython.display import HTML

def hover(hover_color="#ffff99"):
return dict(selector="tr:hover",
props=[("background-color", "%s" % hover_color)])

styles = [
hover(),
dict(selector="th", props=[("font-size", "150%"),
("text-align", "center")]),
dict(selector="caption", props=[("caption-side", "bottom")])
]
html = (df.style.set_table_styles(styles)
.set_caption("Hover to highlight."))
html
Out[31]: <pandas.io.formats.style.Styler at 0x103c2ef98>

table_styles should be a list of dictionaries. Each dictionary should have the selector and props keys.
The value for selector should be a valid CSS selector. Recall that all the styles are already attached to an id,
unique to each Styler. This selector is in addition to that id. The value for props should be a list of tuples of
('attribute', 'value').
table_styles are extremely flexible, but not as fun to type out by hand. We hope to collect some useful ones
either in pandas, or preferable in a new package that builds on top the tools here.

23.6.4 CSS Classes

Certain CSS classes are attached to cells.

• Index and Column names include index_name and level<k> where k is its level in a MultiIndex
• Index label cells include
• row_heading
• row<n> where n is the numeric position of the row
• level<k> where k is the level in a MultiIndex

1018 Chapter 23. Styling

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Column label cells include

• col_heading
• col<n> where n is the numeric position of the column
• level<k> where k is the level in a MultiIndex
• Blank cells include blank
• Data cells include data

23.6.5 Limitations

• DataFrame only (use Series.to_frame().style)

• The index and columns must be unique
• No large repr, and performance isn’t great; this is intended for summary DataFrames
• You can only style the values, not the index or columns
• You can only apply styles, you can’t insert new HTML entities
Some of these will be addressed in the future.

23.6.6 Terms

• Style function: a function that’s passed into Styler.apply or Styler.applymap and returns values like
'css attribute: value'
• Builtin style functions: style functions that are methods on Styler
• table style: a dictionary with the two keys selector and props. selector is the CSS selector that props
will apply to. props is a list of (attribute, value) tuples. A list of table styles passed into Styler.

23.7 Fun stuff

Here are a few interesting examples.

Styler interacts pretty well with widgets. If you’re viewing this online instead of running the notebook yourself,
you’re missing out on interactively adjusting the color palette.
In [32]: from IPython.html import widgets
@widgets.interact
def f(h_neg=(0, 359, 1), h_pos=(0, 359), s=(0., 99.9), l=(0., 99.9)):
return df.style.background_gradient(
cmap=sns.palettes.diverging_palette(h_neg=h_neg, h_pos=h_pos, s=s, l=l,
as_cmap=True)
)
/Users/taugspurger/Envs/pandas-dev/lib/python3.6/site-packages/matplotlib/colors.py:489: RuntimeWarni
np.copyto(xa, -1, where=xa < 0.0)
<pandas.io.formats.style.Styler at 0x10a15b748>
In [33]: def magnify():
return [dict(selector="th",
props=[("font-size", "4pt")]),
dict(selector="td",

23.7. Fun stuff 1019

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

props=[('padding', "0em 0em")]),

dict(selector="th:hover",
props=[("font-size", "12pt")]),
dict(selector="tr:hover td:hover",
props=[('max-width', '200px'),
('font-size', '12pt')])
]
In [34]: np.random.seed(25)
cmap = cmap=sns.diverging_palette(5, 250, as_cmap=True)
bigdf = pd.DataFrame(np.random.randn(20, 25)).cumsum()

bigdf.style.background_gradient(cmap, axis=1)\
.set_properties(**{'max-width': '80px', 'font-size': '1pt'})\
.set_caption("Hover to magnify")\
.set_precision(2)\
.set_table_styles(magnify())
Out[34]: <pandas.io.formats.style.Styler at 0x10a22f5c0>

23.8 Export to Excel

New in version 0.20.0

Experimental: This is a new feature and still under development. We’ll be adding features and possibly making
breaking changes in future releases. We’d love to hear your feedback.
Some support is available for exporting styled DataFrames to Excel worksheets using the OpenPyXL engine.
CSS2.2 properties handled include:
• background-color
• border-style, border-width, border-color and their {top, right, bottom, left variants}
• color
• font-family
• font-style
• font-weight
• text-align
• text-decoration
• vertical-align
• white-space: nowrap
Only CSS2 named colors and hex colors of the form #rgb or #rrggbb are currently supported.
In [35]: df.style.\
applymap(color_negative_red).\
apply(highlight_max).\
to_excel('styled.xlsx', engine='openpyxl')

A screenshot of the output:

1020 Chapter 23. Styling

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Fig. 23.1: Excel spreadsheet with styled DataFrame

23.9 Extensibility

The core of pandas is, and will remain, its “high-performance, easy-to-use data structures”. With that in mind, we
hope that DataFrame.style accomplishes two goals
• Provide an API that is pleasing to use interactively and is “good enough” for many tasks
• Provide the foundations for dedicated libraries to build on
If you build a great library on top of this, let us know and we’ll link to it.

23.9.1 Subclassing

If the default template doesn’t quite suit your needs, you can subclass Styler and extend or override the template. We’ll
show an example of extending the default template to insert a custom header before each table.
In [36]: from jinja2 import Environment, ChoiceLoader, FileSystemLoader
from IPython.display import HTML
from pandas.io.formats.style import Styler
In [37]: %mkdir templates

This next cell writes the custom template. We extend the template html.tpl, which comes with pandas.
In [38]: %%file templates/myhtml.tpl
{% extends "html.tpl" %}
{% block table %}
<h1>{{ table_title|default("My Table") }}</h1>
{{ super() }}
{% endblock table %}
Writing templates/myhtml.tpl

Now that we’ve created a template, we need to set up a subclass of Styler that knows about it.

23.9. Extensibility 1021

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [39]: class MyStyler(Styler):

env = Environment(
loader=ChoiceLoader([
FileSystemLoader("templates"), # contains ours
Styler.loader, # the default
])
)
template = env.get_template("myhtml.tpl")

Notice that we include the original loader in our environment’s loader. That’s because we extend the original template,
so the Jinja environment needs to be able to find it.
Now we can use that custom styler. It’s __init__ takes a DataFrame.
In [40]: MyStyler(df)
Out[40]: <__main__.MyStyler at 0x10c66fe10>
Our custom template accepts a table_title keyword. We can provide the value in the .render method.
In [41]: HTML(MyStyler(df).render(table_title="Extending Example"))
Out[41]: <IPython.core.display.HTML object>

For convenience, we provide the Styler.from_custom_template method that does the same as the custom
subclass.
In [42]: EasyStyler = Styler.from_custom_template("templates", "myhtml.tpl")
EasyStyler(df)
Out[42]: <pandas.io.formats.style.Styler.from_custom_template.<locals>.MyStyler at 0x10c66fdd8>

Here’s the template structure:

In [43]: with open("template_structure.html") as f:
structure = f.read()

HTML(structure)
Out[43]: <IPython.core.display.HTML object>
See the template in the GitHub repo for more details.

1022 Chapter 23. Styling

 CHAPTER

TWENTYFOUR

IO TOOLS (TEXT, CSV, HDF5, ...)

The pandas I/O API is a set of top level reader functions accessed like pd.read_csv() that generally return a
pandas object. The corresponding writer functions are object methods that are accessed like df.to_csv()
Format Type Data Description Reader Writer
text CSV read_csv to_csv
text JSON read_json to_json
text HTML read_html to_html
text Local clipboard read_clipboard to_clipboard
binary MS Excel read_excel to_excel
binary HDF5 Format read_hdf to_hdf
binary Feather Format read_feather to_feather
binary Parquet Format read_parquet to_parquet
binary Msgpack read_msgpack to_msgpack
binary Stata read_stata to_stata
binary SAS read_sas
binary Python Pickle Format read_pickle to_pickle
SQL SQL read_sql to_sql
SQL Google Big Query read_gbq to_gbq
Here is an informal performance comparison for some of these IO methods.

Note: For examples that use the StringIO class, make sure you import it according to your Python version, i.e.
from StringIO import StringIO for Python 2 and from io import StringIO for Python 3.

24.1 CSV & Text files

The two workhorse functions for reading text files (a.k.a. flat files) are read_csv() and read_table(). They
both use the same parsing code to intelligently convert tabular data into a DataFrame object. See the cookbook for
some advanced strategies.

24.1.1 Parsing options

read_csv() and read_table() accept the following arguments:

1023
pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

24.1.1.1 Basic

filepath_or_buffer [various] Either a path to a file (a str, pathlib.Path, or py._path.local.

LocalPath), URL (including http, ftp, and S3 locations), or any object with a read() method (such as
an open file or StringIO).
sep [str, defaults to ',' for read_csv(), \t for read_table()] Delimiter to use. If sep is None, the C engine
cannot automatically detect the separator, but the Python parsing engine can, meaning the latter will be used
and automatically detect the separator by Python’s builtin sniffer tool, csv.Sniffer. In addition, separators
longer than 1 character and different from '\s+' will be interpreted as regular expressions and will also force
the use of the Python parsing engine. Note that regex delimiters are prone to ignoring quoted data. Regex
example: '\\r\\t'.
delimiter [str, default None] Alternative argument name for sep.
delim_whitespace [boolean, default False] Specifies whether or not whitespace (e.g. ' ' or '\t') will be used as
the delimiter. Equivalent to setting sep='\s+'. If this option is set to True, nothing should be passed in for
the delimiter parameter.
New in version 0.18.1: support for the Python parser.

24.1.1.2 Column and Index Locations and Names

header [int or list of ints, default 'infer'] Row number(s) to use as the column names, and the start of the data.
Default behavior is as if header=0 if no names passed, otherwise as if header=None. Explicitly pass
header=0 to be able to replace existing names. The header can be a list of ints that specify row locations
for a multi-index on the columns e.g. [0,1,3]. Intervening rows that are not specified will be skipped
(e.g. 2 in this example is skipped). Note that this parameter ignores commented lines and empty lines if
skip_blank_lines=True, so header=0 denotes the first line of data rather than the first line of the file.
names [array-like, default None] List of column names to use. If file contains no header row, then you should
explicitly pass header=None. Duplicates in this list will cause
a UserWarning to be issued.
index_col [int or sequence or False, default None] Column to use as the row labels of the DataFrame. If a sequence
is given, a MultiIndex is used. If you have a malformed file with delimiters at the end of each line, you might
consider index_col=False to force pandas to not use the first column as the index (row names).
usecols [array-like or callable, default None] Return a subset of the columns. If array-like, all elements must either be
positional (i.e. integer indices into the document columns) or strings that correspond to column names provided
either by the user in names or inferred from the document header row(s). For example, a valid array-like usecols
parameter would be [0, 1, 2] or [’foo’, ‘bar’, ‘baz’].
If callable, the callable function will be evaluated against the column names, returning names where the callable
function evaluates to True:
In [1]: data = 'col1,col2,col3\na,b,1\na,b,2\nc,d,3'

In [2]: pd.read_csv(StringIO(data))
Out[2]:
col1 col2 col3
0 a b 1
1 a b 2
2 c d 3

In [3]: pd.read_csv(StringIO(data), usecols=lambda x: x.upper() in ['COL1', 'COL3

˓→'])

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[3]:
˓→

1024 Chapter 24. IO Tools (Text, CSV, HDF5, ...)

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

col1 col3
0 a 1
1 a 2
2 c 3

Using this parameter results in much faster parsing time and lower memory usage.
as_recarray [boolean, default False] Deprecated since version 0.18.2: Please call pd.read_csv(...).
to_records() instead.
Return a NumPy recarray instead of a DataFrame after parsing the data. If set to True, this option takes
precedence over the squeeze parameter. In addition, as row indices are not available in such a format, the
index_col parameter will be ignored.
squeeze [boolean, default False] If the parsed data only contains one column then return a Series.
prefix [str, default None] Prefix to add to column numbers when no header, e.g. ‘X’ for X0, X1, ...
mangle_dupe_cols [boolean, default True] Duplicate columns will be specified as ‘X.0’...’X.N’, rather than
‘X’...’X’. Passing in False will cause data to be overwritten if there are duplicate names in the columns.

24.1.1.3 General Parsing Configuration

dtype [Type name or dict of column -> type, default None] Data type for data or columns. E.g. {'a': np.
float64, 'b': np.int32} (unsupported with engine='python'). Use str or object to preserve
and not interpret dtype.
New in version 0.20.0: support for the Python parser.
engine [{'c', 'python'}] Parser engine to use. The C engine is faster while the python engine is currently more
feature-complete.
converters [dict, default None] Dict of functions for converting values in certain columns. Keys can either be integers
or column labels.
true_values [list, default None] Values to consider as True.
false_values [list, default None] Values to consider as False.
skipinitialspace [boolean, default False] Skip spaces after delimiter.
skiprows [list-like or integer, default None] Line numbers to skip (0-indexed) or number of lines to skip (int) at the
start of the file.
If callable, the callable function will be evaluated against the row indices, returning True if the row should be
skipped and False otherwise:
In [4]: data = 'col1,col2,col3\na,b,1\na,b,2\nc,d,3'

In [5]: pd.read_csv(StringIO(data))
Out[5]:
col1 col2 col3
0 a b 1
1 a b 2
2 c d 3

In [6]: pd.read_csv(StringIO(data), skiprows=lambda x: x % 2 != 0)

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[6]:
˓→

col1 col2 col3

0 a b 2

24.1. CSV & Text files 1025

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

skipfooter [int, default 0] Number of lines at bottom of file to skip (unsupported with engine=’c’).
skip_footer [int, default 0] Deprecated since version 0.19.0: Use the skipfooter parameter instead, as they are
identical
nrows [int, default None] Number of rows of file to read. Useful for reading pieces of large files.
low_memory [boolean, default True] Internally process the file in chunks, resulting in lower memory use while
parsing, but possibly mixed type inference. To ensure no mixed types either set False, or specify the type with
the dtype parameter. Note that the entire file is read into a single DataFrame regardless, use the chunksize
or iterator parameter to return the data in chunks. (Only valid with C parser)
buffer_lines [int, default None] Deprecated since version 0.19.0: Argument removed because its value is not re-
spected by the parser
compact_ints [boolean, default False] Deprecated since version 0.19.0: Argument moved to pd.to_numeric
If compact_ints is True, then for any column that is of integer dtype, the parser will attempt to cast it
as the smallest integer dtype possible, either signed or unsigned depending on the specification from the
use_unsigned parameter.
use_unsigned [boolean, default False] Deprecated since version 0.18.2: Argument moved to pd.to_numeric
If integer columns are being compacted (i.e. compact_ints=True), specify whether the column should be
compacted to the smallest signed or unsigned integer dtype.
memory_map [boolean, default False] If a filepath is provided for filepath_or_buffer, map the file object
directly onto memory and access the data directly from there. Using this option can improve performance
because there is no longer any I/O overhead.

24.1.1.4 NA and Missing Data Handling

na_values [scalar, str, list-like, or dict, default None] Additional strings to recognize as NA/NaN. If dict passed,
specific per-column NA values. See na values const below for a list of the values interpreted as NaN by default.
keep_default_na [boolean, default True] If na_values are specified and keep_default_na is False the default NaN
values are overridden, otherwise they’re appended to.
na_filter [boolean, default True] Detect missing value markers (empty strings and the value of na_values). In data
without any NAs, passing na_filter=False can improve the performance of reading a large file.
verbose [boolean, default False] Indicate number of NA values placed in non-numeric columns.
skip_blank_lines [boolean, default True] If True, skip over blank lines rather than interpreting as NaN values.

24.1.1.5 Datetime Handling

parse_dates [boolean or list of ints or names or list of lists or dict, default False.]
• If True -> try parsing the index.
• If [1, 2, 3] -> try parsing columns 1, 2, 3 each as a separate date column.
• If [[1, 3]] -> combine columns 1 and 3 and parse as a single date column.
• If {'foo' : [1, 3]} -> parse columns 1, 3 as date and call result ‘foo’. A fast-path exists for
iso8601-formatted dates.
infer_datetime_format [boolean, default False] If True and parse_dates is enabled for a column, attempt to infer
the datetime format to speed up the processing.

1026 Chapter 24. IO Tools (Text, CSV, HDF5, ...)

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

keep_date_col [boolean, default False] If True and parse_dates specifies combining multiple columns then keep
the original columns.
date_parser [function, default None] Function to use for converting a sequence of string columns to an array of
datetime instances. The default uses dateutil.parser.parser to do the conversion. Pandas will try to
call date_parser in three different ways, advancing to the next if an exception occurs: 1) Pass one or more arrays
(as defined by parse_dates) as arguments; 2) concatenate (row-wise) the string values from the columns defined
by parse_dates into a single array and pass that; and 3) call date_parser once for each row using one or more
strings (corresponding to the columns defined by parse_dates) as arguments.
dayfirst [boolean, default False] DD/MM format dates, international and European format.

24.1.1.6 Iteration

iterator [boolean, default False] Return TextFileReader object for iteration or getting chunks with get_chunk().
chunksize [int, default None] Return TextFileReader object for iteration. See iterating and chunking below.

24.1.1.7 Quoting, Compression, and File Format

compression [{'infer', 'gzip', 'bz2', 'zip', 'xz', None}, default 'infer'] For on-the-fly decompres-
sion of on-disk data. If ‘infer’, then use gzip, bz2, zip, or xz if filepath_or_buffer is a string ending in ‘.gz’,
‘.bz2’, ‘.zip’, or ‘.xz’, respectively, and no decompression otherwise. If using ‘zip’, the ZIP file must contain
only one data file to be read in. Set to None for no decompression.
New in version 0.18.1: support for ‘zip’ and ‘xz’ compression.
thousands [str, default None] Thousands separator.
decimal [str, default '.'] Character to recognize as decimal point. E.g. use ',' for European data.
float_precision [string, default None] Specifies which converter the C engine should use for floating-point values.
The options are None for the ordinary converter, high for the high-precision converter, and round_trip for
the round-trip converter.
lineterminator [str (length 1), default None] Character to break file into lines. Only valid with C parser.
quotechar [str (length 1)] The character used to denote the start and end of a quoted item. Quoted items can include
the delimiter and it will be ignored.
quoting [int or csv.QUOTE_* instance, default 0] Control field quoting behavior per csv.QUOTE_* constants.
Use one of QUOTE_MINIMAL (0), QUOTE_ALL (1), QUOTE_NONNUMERIC (2) or QUOTE_NONE (3).
doublequote [boolean, default True] When quotechar is specified and quoting is not QUOTE_NONE, indi-
cate whether or not to interpret two consecutive quotechar elements inside a field as a single quotechar
element.
escapechar [str (length 1), default None] One-character string used to escape delimiter when quoting is
QUOTE_NONE.
comment [str, default None] Indicates remainder of line should not be parsed. If found at the beginning of a line,
the line will be ignored altogether. This parameter must be a single character. Like empty lines (as long
as skip_blank_lines=True), fully commented lines are ignored by the parameter header but not by
skiprows. For example, if comment='#', parsing ‘#empty\na,b,c\n1,2,3’ with header=0 will result in ‘a,b,c’
being treated as the header.
encoding [str, default None] Encoding to use for UTF when reading/writing (e.g. 'utf-8'). List of Python standard
encodings.

24.1. CSV & Text files 1027

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

dialect [str or csv.Dialect instance, default None] If provided, this parameter will override values (default or
not) for the following parameters: delimiter, doublequote, escapechar, skipinitialspace, quotechar, and quoting.
If it is necessary to override values, a ParserWarning will be issued. See csv.Dialect documentation for
more details.
tupleize_cols [boolean, default False]
Deprecated since version 0.21.0.
This argument will be removed and will always convert to MultiIndex
Leave a list of tuples on columns as is (default is to convert to a MultiIndex on the columns).

24.1.1.8 Error Handling

error_bad_lines [boolean, default True] Lines with too many fields (e.g. a csv line with too many commas) will by
default cause an exception to be raised, and no DataFrame will be returned. If False, then these “bad lines”
will dropped from the DataFrame that is returned. See bad lines below.
warn_bad_lines [boolean, default True] If error_bad_lines is False, and warn_bad_lines is True, a warning for
each “bad line” will be output.

24.1.2 Specifying column data types

You can indicate the data type for the whole DataFrame or individual columns:
In [7]: data = 'a,b,c\n1,2,3\n4,5,6\n7,8,9'

In [8]: print(data)
a,b,c
1,2,3
4,5,6
7,8,9

In [9]: df = pd.read_csv(StringIO(data), dtype=object)

In [10]: df
Out[10]:
a b c
0 1 2 3
1 4 5 6
2 7 8 9

In [11]: df['a'][0]
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[11]: '1'

In [12]: df = pd.read_csv(StringIO(data), dtype={'b': object, 'c': np.float64})

In [13]: df.dtypes
Out[13]:
a int64
b object
c float64
dtype: object

Fortunately, pandas offers more than one way to ensure that your column(s) contain only one dtype. If you’re
unfamiliar with these concepts, you can see here to learn more about dtypes, and here to learn more about object
conversion in pandas.

1028 Chapter 24. IO Tools (Text, CSV, HDF5, ...)

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

For instance, you can use the converters argument of read_csv():

In [14]: data = "col_1\n1\n2\n'A'\n4.22"

In [15]: df = pd.read_csv(StringIO(data), converters={'col_1':str})

In [16]: df
Out[16]:
col_1
0 1
1 2
2 'A'
3 4.22

In [17]: df['col_1'].apply(type).value_counts()
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[17]:
<class 'str'> 4
Name: col_1, dtype: int64

Or you can use the to_numeric() function to coerce the dtypes after reading in the data,

In [18]: df2 = pd.read_csv(StringIO(data))

In [19]: df2['col_1'] = pd.to_numeric(df2['col_1'], errors='coerce')

In [20]: df2
Out[20]:
col_1
0 1.00
1 2.00
2 NaN
3 4.22

In [21]: df2['col_1'].apply(type).value_counts()
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[21]:
<class 'float'> 4
Name: col_1, dtype: int64

which would convert all valid parsing to floats, leaving the invalid parsing as NaN.
Ultimately, how you deal with reading in columns containing mixed dtypes depends on your specific needs. In the case
above, if you wanted to NaN out the data anomalies, then to_numeric() is probably your best option. However, if
you wanted for all the data to be coerced, no matter the type, then using the converters argument of read_csv()
would certainly be worth trying.
New in version 0.20.0: support for the Python parser.
The dtype option is supported by the ‘python’ engine

Note: In some cases, reading in abnormal data with columns containing mixed dtypes will result in an inconsistent
dataset. If you rely on pandas to infer the dtypes of your columns, the parsing engine will go and infer the dtypes for
different chunks of the data, rather than the whole dataset at once. Consequently, you can end up with column(s) with
mixed dtypes. For example,

In [22]: df = pd.DataFrame({'col_1': list(range(500000)) + ['a', 'b'] +

˓→list(range(500000))})

In [23]: df.to_csv('foo.csv')

24.1. CSV & Text files 1029

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [24]: mixed_df = pd.read_csv('foo.csv')

In [25]: mixed_df['col_1'].apply(type).value_counts()
Out[25]:
<class 'int'> 737858
<class 'str'> 262144
Name: col_1, dtype: int64

In [26]: mixed_df['col_1'].dtype
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[26]:
˓→dtype('O')

will result with mixed_df containing an int dtype for certain chunks of the column, and str for others due to the
mixed dtypes from the data that was read in. It is important to note that the overall column will be marked with a
dtype of object, which is used for columns with mixed dtypes.

24.1.3 Specifying Categorical dtype

New in version 0.19.0.

Categorical columns can be parsed directly by specifying dtype='category' or
dtype=CategoricalDtype(categories, ordered).

In [27]: data = 'col1,col2,col3\na,b,1\na,b,2\nc,d,3'

In [28]: pd.read_csv(StringIO(data))
Out[28]:
col1 col2 col3
0 a b 1
1 a b 2
2 c d 3

In [29]: pd.read_csv(StringIO(data)).dtypes
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[29]:
˓→

col1 object
col2 object
col3 int64
dtype: object

In [30]: pd.read_csv(StringIO(data), dtype='category').dtypes

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

col1 category
col2 category
col3 category
dtype: object

Individual columns can be parsed as a Categorical using a dict specification

In [31]: pd.read_csv(StringIO(data), dtype={'col1': 'category'}).dtypes

Out[31]:
col1 category
col2 object

1030 Chapter 24. IO Tools (Text, CSV, HDF5, ...)

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

col3 int64
dtype: object

New in version 0.21.0.

Specifying dtype='cateogry' will result in an unordered Categorical whose categories are the unique
values observed in the data. For more control on the categories and order, create a CategoricalDtype ahead of
time, and pass that for that column’s dtype.

In [32]: from pandas.api.types import CategoricalDtype

In [33]: dtype = CategoricalDtype(['d', 'c', 'b', 'a'], ordered=True)

In [34]: pd.read_csv(StringIO(data), dtype={'col1': dtype}).dtypes

Out[34]:
col1 category
col2 object
col3 int64
dtype: object

When using dtype=CategoricalDtype, “unexpected” values outside of dtype.categories are treated as

missing values.

In [35]: dtype = CategoricalDtype(['a', 'b', 'd']) # No 'c'

In [36]: pd.read_csv(StringIO(data), dtype={'col1': dtype}).col1

Out[36]:
0 a
1 a
2 NaN
Name: col1, dtype: category
Categories (3, object): [a, b, d]

This matches the behavior of Categorical.set_categories().

Note: With dtype='category', the resulting categories will always be parsed as strings (object dtype). If the
categories are numeric they can be converted using the to_numeric() function, or as appropriate, another converter
such as to_datetime().
When dtype is a CategoricalDtype with homogenous categories ( all numeric, all datetimes, etc.), the
conversion is done automatically.

In [37]: df = pd.read_csv(StringIO(data), dtype='category')

In [38]: df.dtypes
Out[38]:
col1 category
col2 category
col3 category
dtype: object

In [39]: df['col3']
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[39]:
0 1
1 2
2 3
Name: col3, dtype: category

24.1. CSV & Text files 1031

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Categories (3, object): [1, 2, 3]

In [40]: df['col3'].cat.categories = pd.to_numeric(df['col3'].cat.categories)

In [41]: df['col3']
Out[41]:
0 1
1 2
2 3
Name: col3, dtype: category
Categories (3, int64): [1, 2, 3]

24.1.4 Naming and Using Columns

24.1.4.1 Handling column names

A file may or may not have a header row. pandas assumes the first row should be used as the column names:
In [42]: data = 'a,b,c\n1,2,3\n4,5,6\n7,8,9'

In [43]: print(data)
a,b,c
1,2,3
4,5,6
7,8,9

In [44]: pd.read_csv(StringIO(data))
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[44]:
a b c
0 1 2 3
1 4 5 6
2 7 8 9

By specifying the names argument in conjunction with header you can indicate other names to use and whether or
not to throw away the header row (if any):
In [45]: print(data)
a,b,c
1,2,3
4,5,6
7,8,9

In [46]: pd.read_csv(StringIO(data), names=['foo', 'bar', 'baz'], header=0)

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[46]:
foo bar baz
0 1 2 3
1 4 5 6
2 7 8 9

In [47]: pd.read_csv(StringIO(data), names=['foo', 'bar', 'baz'], header=None)

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

foo bar baz

0 a b c
1 1 2 3

1032 Chapter 24. IO Tools (Text, CSV, HDF5, ...)

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

2 4 5 6
3 7 8 9

If the header is in a row other than the first, pass the row number to header. This will skip the preceding rows:
In [48]: data = 'skip this skip it\na,b,c\n1,2,3\n4,5,6\n7,8,9'

In [49]: pd.read_csv(StringIO(data), header=1)

Out[49]:
a b c
0 1 2 3
1 4 5 6
2 7 8 9

24.1.5 Duplicate names parsing

If the file or header contains duplicate names, pandas by default will deduplicate these names so as to prevent data
overwrite:
In [50]: data = 'a,b,a\n0,1,2\n3,4,5'

In [51]: pd.read_csv(StringIO(data))
Out[51]:
a b a.1
0 0 1 2
1 3 4 5

There is no more duplicate data because mangle_dupe_cols=True by default, which modifies a series of dupli-
cate columns ‘X’...’X’ to become ‘X.0’...’X.N’. If mangle_dupe_cols =False, duplicate data can arise:
In [2]: data = 'a,b,a\n0,1,2\n3,4,5'
In [3]: pd.read_csv(StringIO(data), mangle_dupe_cols=False)
Out[3]:
a b a
0 2 1 2
1 5 4 5

To prevent users from encountering this problem with duplicate data, a ValueError exception is raised if
mangle_dupe_cols != True:
In [2]: data = 'a,b,a\n0,1,2\n3,4,5'
In [3]: pd.read_csv(StringIO(data), mangle_dupe_cols=False)
...
ValueError: Setting mangle_dupe_cols=False is not supported yet

24.1.5.1 Filtering columns (usecols)

The usecols argument allows you to select any subset of the columns in a file, either using the column names,
position numbers or a callable:
New in version 0.20.0: support for callable usecols arguments
In [52]: data = 'a,b,c,d\n1,2,3,foo\n4,5,6,bar\n7,8,9,baz'

In [53]: pd.read_csv(StringIO(data))

24.1. CSV & Text files 1033

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Out[53]:
a b c d
0 1 2 3 foo
1 4 5 6 bar
2 7 8 9 baz

In [54]: pd.read_csv(StringIO(data), usecols=['b', 'd'])

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[54]:
b d
0 2 foo
1 5 bar
2 8 baz

In [55]: pd.read_csv(StringIO(data), usecols=[0, 2, 3])

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

a c d
0 1 3 foo
1 4 6 bar
2 7 9 baz

In [56]: pd.read_csv(StringIO(data), usecols=lambda x: x.upper() in ['A', 'C'])

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

a c
0 1 3
1 4 6
2 7 9

The usecols argument can also be used to specify which columns not to use in the final result:

In [57]: pd.read_csv(StringIO(data), usecols=lambda x: x not in ['a', 'c'])

Out[57]:
b d
0 2 foo
1 5 bar
2 8 baz

In this case, the callable is specifying that we exclude the “a” and “c” columns from the output.

24.1.6 Comments and Empty Lines

24.1.6.1 Ignoring line comments and empty lines

If the comment parameter is specified, then completely commented lines will be ignored. By default, completely
blank lines will be ignored as well.

In [58]: data = '\na,b,c\n \n# commented line\n1,2,3\n\n4,5,6'

In [59]: print(data)

a,b,c

# commented line
1,2,3

1034 Chapter 24. IO Tools (Text, CSV, HDF5, ...)

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

4,5,6

In [60]: pd.read_csv(StringIO(data), comment='#')

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[60]:
a b c
0 1 2 3
1 4 5 6

If skip_blank_lines=False, then read_csv will not ignore blank lines:

In [61]: data = 'a,b,c\n\n1,2,3\n\n\n4,5,6'

In [62]: pd.read_csv(StringIO(data), skip_blank_lines=False)

Out[62]:
a b c
0 NaN NaN NaN
1 1.0 2.0 3.0
2 NaN NaN NaN
3 NaN NaN NaN
4 4.0 5.0 6.0

Warning: The presence of ignored lines might create ambiguities involving line numbers; the parameter header
uses row numbers (ignoring commented/empty lines), while skiprows uses line numbers (including com-
mented/empty lines):
In [63]: data = '#comment\na,b,c\nA,B,C\n1,2,3'

In [64]: pd.read_csv(StringIO(data), comment='#', header=1)

Out[64]:
A B C
0 1 2 3

In [65]: data = 'A,B,C\n#comment\na,b,c\n1,2,3'

In [66]: pd.read_csv(StringIO(data), comment='#', skiprows=2)

Out[66]:
a b c
0 1 2 3

If both header and skiprows are specified, header will be relative to the end of skiprows. For example:
In [67]: data = '# empty\n# second empty line\n# third empty' \

In [67]: 'line\nX,Y,Z\n1,2,3\nA,B,C\n1,2.,4.\n5.,NaN,10.0'

In [68]: print(data)
# empty
# second empty line
# third emptyline
X,Y,Z
1,2,3
A,B,C
1,2.,4.
5.,NaN,10.0

In [69]: pd.read_csv(StringIO(data), comment='#', skiprows=4, header=1)

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[69]:
˓→

A B C
0 1.0 2.0 4.0
24.1.
1 5.0CSV NaN
& Text10.0
files 1035
pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

24.1.6.2 Comments

Sometimes comments or meta data may be included in a file:

In [70]: print(open('tmp.csv').read())
ID,level,category
Patient1,123000,x # really unpleasant
Patient2,23000,y # wouldn't take his medicine
Patient3,1234018,z # awesome

By default, the parser includes the comments in the output:

In [71]: df = pd.read_csv('tmp.csv')

In [72]: df
Out[72]:
ID level category
0 Patient1 123000 x # really unpleasant
1 Patient2 23000 y # wouldn't take his medicine
2 Patient3 1234018 z # awesome

We can suppress the comments using the comment keyword:

In [73]: df = pd.read_csv('tmp.csv', comment='#')

In [74]: df
Out[74]:
ID level category
0 Patient1 123000 x
1 Patient2 23000 y
2 Patient3 1234018 z

24.1.7 Dealing with Unicode Data

The encoding argument should be used for encoded unicode data, which will result in byte strings being decoded
to unicode in the result:

In [75]: data = b'word,length\nTr\xc3\xa4umen,7\nGr\xc3\xbc\xc3\x9fe,5'.decode('utf8

˓→').encode('latin-1')

In [76]: df = pd.read_csv(BytesIO(data), encoding='latin-1')

In [77]: df
Out[77]:
word length
0 Träumen 7
1 Grüße 5

In [78]: df['word'][1]
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[78]: 'Grüße'

Some formats which encode all characters as multiple bytes, like UTF-16, won’t parse correctly at all without speci-
fying the encoding. Full list of Python standard encodings

1036 Chapter 24. IO Tools (Text, CSV, HDF5, ...)

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

24.1.8 Index columns and trailing delimiters

If a file has one more column of data than the number of column names, the first column will be used as the
DataFrame’s row names:

In [79]: data = 'a,b,c\n4,apple,bat,5.7\n8,orange,cow,10'

In [80]: pd.read_csv(StringIO(data))
Out[80]:
a b c
4 apple bat 5.7
8 orange cow 10.0

In [81]: data = 'index,a,b,c\n4,apple,bat,5.7\n8,orange,cow,10'

In [82]: pd.read_csv(StringIO(data), index_col=0)

Out[82]:
a b c
index
4 apple bat 5.7
8 orange cow 10.0

Ordinarily, you can achieve this behavior using the index_col option.
There are some exception cases when a file has been prepared with delimiters at the end of each data line, confusing
the parser. To explicitly disable the index column inference and discard the last column, pass index_col=False:

In [83]: data = 'a,b,c\n4,apple,bat,\n8,orange,cow,'

In [84]: print(data)
a,b,c
4,apple,bat,
8,orange,cow,

In [85]: pd.read_csv(StringIO(data))
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[85]:
a b c
4 apple bat NaN
8 orange cow NaN

In [86]: pd.read_csv(StringIO(data), index_col=False)

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\O
˓→

a b c
0 4 apple bat
1 8 orange cow

If a subset of data is being parsed using the usecols option, the index_col specification is based on that subset,
not the original data.

In [87]: data = 'a,b,c\n4,apple,bat,\n8,orange,cow,'

In [88]: print(data)
a,b,c
4,apple,bat,
8,orange,cow,

In [89]: pd.read_csv(StringIO(data), usecols=['b', 'c'])

24.1. CSV & Text files 1037

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[89]:
b c
4 bat NaN
8 cow NaN

In [90]: pd.read_csv(StringIO(data), usecols=['b', 'c'], index_col=0)

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[90]:
b c
4 bat NaN
8 cow NaN

24.1.9 Date Handling

24.1.9.1 Specifying Date Columns

To better facilitate working with datetime data, read_csv() and read_table() use the keyword arguments
parse_dates and date_parser to allow users to specify a variety of columns and date/time formats to turn the
input text data into datetime objects.
The simplest case is to just pass in parse_dates=True:

# Use a column as an index, and parse it as dates.

In [91]: df = pd.read_csv('foo.csv', index_col=0, parse_dates=True)

In [92]: df
Out[92]:
A B C
date
2009-01-01 a 1 2
2009-01-02 b 3 4
2009-01-03 c 4 5

# These are python datetime objects

In [93]: df.index
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→DatetimeIndex(['2009-01-01', '2009-01-02', '2009-01-03'], dtype='datetime64[ns]',

˓→name='date', freq=None)

It is often the case that we may want to store date and time data separately, or store various date fields separately. the
parse_dates keyword can be used to specify a combination of columns to parse the dates and/or times from.
You can specify a list of column lists to parse_dates, the resulting date columns will be prepended to the output
(so as to not affect the existing column order) and the new column names will be the concatenation of the component
column names:

In [94]: print(open('tmp.csv').read())
KORD,19990127, 19:00:00, 18:56:00, 0.8100
KORD,19990127, 20:00:00, 19:56:00, 0.0100
KORD,19990127, 21:00:00, 20:56:00, -0.5900
KORD,19990127, 21:00:00, 21:18:00, -0.9900
KORD,19990127, 22:00:00, 21:56:00, -0.5900
KORD,19990127, 23:00:00, 22:56:00, -0.5900

In [95]: df = pd.read_csv('tmp.csv', header=None, parse_dates=[[1, 2], [1, 3]])

In [96]: df

1038 Chapter 24. IO Tools (Text, CSV, HDF5, ...)

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Out[96]:
1_2 1_3 0 4
0 1999-01-27 19:00:00 1999-01-27 18:56:00 KORD 0.81
1 1999-01-27 20:00:00 1999-01-27 19:56:00 KORD 0.01
2 1999-01-27 21:00:00 1999-01-27 20:56:00 KORD -0.59
3 1999-01-27 21:00:00 1999-01-27 21:18:00 KORD -0.99
4 1999-01-27 22:00:00 1999-01-27 21:56:00 KORD -0.59
5 1999-01-27 23:00:00 1999-01-27 22:56:00 KORD -0.59

By default the parser removes the component date columns, but you can choose to retain them via the
keep_date_col keyword:

In [97]: df = pd.read_csv('tmp.csv', header=None, parse_dates=[[1, 2], [1, 3]],

....: keep_date_col=True)
....:

In [98]: df
Out[98]:
1_2 1_3 0 1 2 \
0 1999-01-27 19:00:00 1999-01-27 18:56:00 KORD 19990127 19:00:00
1 1999-01-27 20:00:00 1999-01-27 19:56:00 KORD 19990127 20:00:00
2 1999-01-27 21:00:00 1999-01-27 20:56:00 KORD 19990127 21:00:00
3 1999-01-27 21:00:00 1999-01-27 21:18:00 KORD 19990127 21:00:00
4 1999-01-27 22:00:00 1999-01-27 21:56:00 KORD 19990127 22:00:00
5 1999-01-27 23:00:00 1999-01-27 22:56:00 KORD 19990127 23:00:00

3 4
0 18:56:00 0.81
1 19:56:00 0.01
2 20:56:00 -0.59
3 21:18:00 -0.99
4 21:56:00 -0.59
5 22:56:00 -0.59

Note that if you wish to combine multiple columns into a single date column, a nested list must be used. In other
words, parse_dates=[1, 2] indicates that the second and third columns should each be parsed as separate date
columns while parse_dates=[[1, 2]] means the two columns should be parsed into a single column.
You can also use a dict to specify custom name columns:

In [99]: date_spec = {'nominal': [1, 2], 'actual': [1, 3]}

In [100]: df = pd.read_csv('tmp.csv', header=None, parse_dates=date_spec)

In [101]: df
Out[101]:
nominal actual 0 4
0 1999-01-27 19:00:00 1999-01-27 18:56:00 KORD 0.81
1 1999-01-27 20:00:00 1999-01-27 19:56:00 KORD 0.01
2 1999-01-27 21:00:00 1999-01-27 20:56:00 KORD -0.59
3 1999-01-27 21:00:00 1999-01-27 21:18:00 KORD -0.99
4 1999-01-27 22:00:00 1999-01-27 21:56:00 KORD -0.59
5 1999-01-27 23:00:00 1999-01-27 22:56:00 KORD -0.59

It is important to remember that if multiple text columns are to be parsed into a single date column, then a new column
is prepended to the data. The index_col specification is based off of this new set of columns rather than the original
data columns:

24.1. CSV & Text files 1039

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [102]: date_spec = {'nominal': [1, 2], 'actual': [1, 3]}

In [103]: df = pd.read_csv('tmp.csv', header=None, parse_dates=date_spec,

.....: index_col=0) #index is the nominal column
.....:

In [104]: df
Out[104]:
actual 0 4
nominal
1999-01-27 19:00:00 1999-01-27 18:56:00 KORD 0.81
1999-01-27 20:00:00 1999-01-27 19:56:00 KORD 0.01
1999-01-27 21:00:00 1999-01-27 20:56:00 KORD -0.59
1999-01-27 21:00:00 1999-01-27 21:18:00 KORD -0.99
1999-01-27 22:00:00 1999-01-27 21:56:00 KORD -0.59
1999-01-27 23:00:00 1999-01-27 22:56:00 KORD -0.59

Note: If a column or index contains an unparseable date, the entire column or index will be returned unaltered as an
object data type. For non-standard datetime parsing, use to_datetime() after pd.read_csv.

Note: read_csv has a fast_path for parsing datetime strings in iso8601 format, e.g “2000-01-01T00:01:02+00:00” and
similar variations. If you can arrange for your data to store datetimes in this format, load times will be significantly
faster, ~20x has been observed.

Note: When passing a dict as the parse_dates argument, the order of the columns prepended is not guaranteed,
because dict objects do not impose an ordering on their keys. On Python 2.7+ you may use collections.OrderedDict
instead of a regular dict if this matters to you. Because of this, when using a dict for ‘parse_dates’ in conjunction with
the index_col argument, it’s best to specify index_col as a column label rather then as an index on the resulting frame.

24.1.9.2 Date Parsing Functions

Finally, the parser allows you to specify a custom date_parser function to take full advantage of the flexibility of
the date parsing API:

In [105]: import pandas.io.date_converters as conv

In [106]: df = pd.read_csv('tmp.csv', header=None, parse_dates=date_spec,

.....: date_parser=conv.parse_date_time)
.....:

In [107]: df
Out[107]:
nominal actual 0 4
0 1999-01-27 19:00:00 1999-01-27 18:56:00 KORD 0.81
1 1999-01-27 20:00:00 1999-01-27 19:56:00 KORD 0.01
2 1999-01-27 21:00:00 1999-01-27 20:56:00 KORD -0.59
3 1999-01-27 21:00:00 1999-01-27 21:18:00 KORD -0.99
4 1999-01-27 22:00:00 1999-01-27 21:56:00 KORD -0.59
5 1999-01-27 23:00:00 1999-01-27 22:56:00 KORD -0.59

1040 Chapter 24. IO Tools (Text, CSV, HDF5, ...)

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Pandas will try to call the date_parser function in three different ways. If an exception is raised, the next one is
tried:
1. date_parser is first called with one or more arrays as arguments, as defined using parse_dates (e.g.,
date_parser(['2013', '2013'], ['1', '2']))
2. If #1 fails, date_parser is called with all the columns concatenated row-wise into a single array (e.g.,
date_parser(['2013 1', '2013 2']))
3. If #2 fails, date_parser is called once for every row with one or more string arguments from
the columns indicated with parse_dates (e.g., date_parser('2013', '1') for the first row,
date_parser('2013', '2') for the second, etc.)
Note that performance-wise, you should try these methods of parsing dates in order:
1. Try to infer the format using infer_datetime_format=True (see section below)
2. If you know the format, use pd.to_datetime(): date_parser=lambda x: pd.
to_datetime(x, format=...)
3. If you have a really non-standard format, use a custom date_parser function. For optimal performance, this
should be vectorized, i.e., it should accept arrays as arguments.
You can explore the date parsing functionality in date_converters.py and add your own. We would love to turn
this module into a community supported set of date/time parsers. To get you started, date_converters.py con-
tains functions to parse dual date and time columns, year/month/day columns, and year/month/day/hour/minute/second
columns. It also contains a generic_parser function so you can curry it with a function that deals with a single
date rather than the entire array.

24.1.9.3 Inferring Datetime Format

If you have parse_dates enabled for some or all of your columns, and your datetime strings are all formatted the
same way, you may get a large speed up by setting infer_datetime_format=True. If set, pandas will attempt
to guess the format of your datetime strings, and then use a faster means of parsing the strings. 5-10x parsing speeds
have been observed. pandas will fallback to the usual parsing if either the format cannot be guessed or the format that
was guessed cannot properly parse the entire column of strings. So in general, infer_datetime_format should
not have any negative consequences if enabled.
Here are some examples of datetime strings that can be guessed (All representing December 30th, 2011 at 00:00:00)
• “20111230”
• “2011/12/30”
• “20111230 00:00:00”
• “12/30/2011 00:00:00”
• “30/Dec/2011 00:00:00”
• “30/December/2011 00:00:00”
infer_datetime_format is sensitive to dayfirst. With dayfirst=True, it will guess “01/12/2011” to be
December 1st. With dayfirst=False (default) it will guess “01/12/2011” to be January 12th.
# Try to infer the format for the index column
In [108]: df = pd.read_csv('foo.csv', index_col=0, parse_dates=True,
.....: infer_datetime_format=True)
.....:

In [109]: df
Out[109]:

24.1. CSV & Text files 1041

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

A B C
date
2009-01-01 a 1 2
2009-01-02 b 3 4
2009-01-03 c 4 5

24.1.9.4 International Date Formats

While US date formats tend to be MM/DD/YYYY, many international formats use DD/MM/YYYY instead. For
convenience, a dayfirst keyword is provided:

In [110]: print(open('tmp.csv').read())
date,value,cat
1/6/2000,5,a
2/6/2000,10,b
3/6/2000,15,c

In [111]: pd.read_csv('tmp.csv', parse_dates=[0])

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[111]:
date value cat
0 2000-01-06 5 a
1 2000-02-06 10 b
2 2000-03-06 15 c

In [112]: pd.read_csv('tmp.csv', dayfirst=True, parse_dates=[0])

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

date value cat

0 2000-06-01 5 a
1 2000-06-02 10 b
2 2000-06-03 15 c

24.1.10 Specifying method for floating-point conversion

The parameter float_precision can be specified in order to use a specific floating-point converter during parsing
with the C engine. The options are the ordinary converter, the high-precision converter, and the round-trip converter
(which is guaranteed to round-trip values after writing to a file). For example:

In [113]: val = '0.3066101993807095471566981359501369297504425048828125'

In [114]: data = 'a,b,c\n1,2,{0}'.format(val)

In [115]: abs(pd.read_csv(StringIO(data), engine='c', float_precision=None)['c'][0] -

˓→float(val))

Out[115]: 1.1102230246251565e-16

In [116]: abs(pd.read_csv(StringIO(data), engine='c', float_precision='high')['c'][0]

˓→- float(val))

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[116]: 5.5511151231257827e-17

In [117]: abs(pd.read_csv(StringIO(data), engine='c', float_precision='round_trip')['c

˓→'][0] - float(val))

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[117]: 0.0

1042 Chapter 24. IO Tools (Text, CSV, HDF5, ...)

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

24.1.11 Thousand Separators

For large numbers that have been written with a thousands separator, you can set the thousands keyword to a string
of length 1 so that integers will be parsed correctly:
By default, numbers with a thousands separator will be parsed as strings

In [118]: print(open('tmp.csv').read())
ID|level|category
Patient1|123,000|x
Patient2|23,000|y
Patient3|1,234,018|z

In [119]: df = pd.read_csv('tmp.csv', sep='|')

In [120]: df
Out[120]:
ID level category
0 Patient1 123,000 x
1 Patient2 23,000 y
2 Patient3 1,234,018 z

In [121]: df.level.dtype
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→dtype('O')

The thousands keyword allows integers to be parsed correctly

In [122]: print(open('tmp.csv').read())
ID|level|category
Patient1|123,000|x
Patient2|23,000|y
Patient3|1,234,018|z

In [123]: df = pd.read_csv('tmp.csv', sep='|', thousands=',')

In [124]: df
Out[124]:
ID level category
0 Patient1 123000 x
1 Patient2 23000 y
2 Patient3 1234018 z

In [125]: df.level.dtype
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→dtype('int64')

24.1.12 NA Values

To control which values are parsed as missing values (which are signified by NaN), specifiy a string in na_values.
If you specify a list of strings, then all values in it are considered to be missing values. If you specify a number (a
float, like 5.0 or an integer like 5), the corresponding equivalent values will also imply a missing value (in this
case effectively [5.0,5] are recognized as NaN.
To completely override the default values that are recognized as missing, specify keep_default_na=False.
The default NaN recognized values are ['-1.#IND', '1.#QNAN', '1.#IND', '-1.#QNAN', '#N/A

24.1. CSV & Text files 1043

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

N/A', '#N/A', 'N/A', 'n/a', 'NA', '#NA', 'NULL', 'null', 'NaN', '-NaN', 'nan',
'-nan', ''].

read_csv(path, na_values=[5])

the default values, in addition to 5 , 5.0 when interpreted as numbers are recognized as NaN

read_csv(path, keep_default_na=False, na_values=[""])

only an empty field will be NaN

read_csv(path, keep_default_na=False, na_values=["NA", "0"])

only NA and 0 as strings are NaN

read_csv(path, na_values=["Nope"])

the default values, in addition to the string "Nope" are recognized as NaN

24.1.13 Infinity

inf like values will be parsed as np.inf (positive infinity), and -inf as -np.inf (negative infinity). These will
ignore the case of the value, meaning Inf, will also be parsed as np.inf.

24.1.14 Returning Series

Using the squeeze keyword, the parser will return output with a single column as a Series:

In [126]: print(open('tmp.csv').read())
level
Patient1,123000
Patient2,23000
Patient3,1234018

In [127]: output = pd.read_csv('tmp.csv', squeeze=True)

In [128]: output
Out[128]:
Patient1 123000
Patient2 23000
Patient3 1234018
Name: level, dtype: int64

In [129]: type(output)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[
˓→pandas.core.series.Series

24.1.15 Boolean values

The common values True, False, TRUE, and FALSE are all recognized as boolean. Sometime you would want to
recognize some other values as being boolean. To do this use the true_values and false_values options:

1044 Chapter 24. IO Tools (Text, CSV, HDF5, ...)

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [130]: data= 'a,b,c\n1,Yes,2\n3,No,4'

In [131]: print(data)
a,b,c
1,Yes,2
3,No,4

In [132]: pd.read_csv(StringIO(data))
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[132]:
a b c
0 1 Yes 2
1 3 No 4

In [133]: pd.read_csv(StringIO(data), true_values=['Yes'], false_values=['No'])

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[133]:
a b c
0 1 True 2
1 3 False 4

24.1.16 Handling “bad” lines

Some files may have malformed lines with too few fields or too many. Lines with too few fields will have NA values
filled in the trailing fields. Lines with too many will cause an error by default:
In [27]: data = 'a,b,c\n1,2,3\n4,5,6,7\n8,9,10'

In [28]: pd.read_csv(StringIO(data))
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
ParserError Traceback (most recent call last)
ParserError: Error tokenizing data. C error: Expected 3 fields in line 3, saw 4

You can elect to skip bad lines:

In [29]: pd.read_csv(StringIO(data), error_bad_lines=False)
Skipping line 3: expected 3 fields, saw 4

Out[29]:
a b c
0 1 2 3
1 8 9 10

You can also use the usecols parameter to eliminate extraneous column data that appear in some lines but not others:
In [30]: pd.read_csv(StringIO(data), usecols=[0, 1, 2])

Out[30]:
a b c
0 1 2 3
1 4 5 6
2 8 9 10

24.1.17 Dialect

The dialect keyword gives greater flexibility in specifying the file format. By default it uses the Excel dialect but
you can specify either the dialect name or a csv.Dialect instance.

24.1. CSV & Text files 1045

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Suppose you had data with unenclosed quotes:

In [134]: print(data)
label1,label2,label3
index1,"a,c,e
index2,b,d,f

By default, read_csv uses the Excel dialect and treats the double quote as the quote character, which causes it to
fail when it finds a newline before it finds the closing double quote.
We can get around this using dialect

In [135]: dia = csv.excel()

In [136]: dia.quoting = csv.QUOTE_NONE

In [137]: pd.read_csv(StringIO(data), dialect=dia)

Out[137]:
label1 label2 label3
index1 "a c e
index2 b d f

All of the dialect options can be specified separately by keyword arguments:

In [138]: data = 'a,b,c~1,2,3~4,5,6'

In [139]: pd.read_csv(StringIO(data), lineterminator='~')

Out[139]:
a b c
0 1 2 3
1 4 5 6

Another common dialect option is skipinitialspace, to skip any whitespace after a delimiter:

In [140]: data = 'a, b, c\n1, 2, 3\n4, 5, 6'

In [141]: print(data)
a, b, c
1, 2, 3
4, 5, 6

In [142]: pd.read_csv(StringIO(data), skipinitialspace=True)

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[142]:
a b c
0 1 2 3
1 4 5 6

The parsers make every attempt to “do the right thing” and not be very fragile. Type inference is a pretty big deal. So
if a column can be coerced to integer dtype without altering the contents, it will do so. Any non-numeric columns will
come through as object dtype as with the rest of pandas objects.

24.1.18 Quoting and Escape Characters

Quotes (and other escape characters) in embedded fields can be handled in any number of ways. One way is to use
backslashes; to properly parse this data, you should pass the escapechar option:

1046 Chapter 24. IO Tools (Text, CSV, HDF5, ...)

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [143]: data = 'a,b\n"hello, \\"Bob\\", nice to see you",5'

In [144]: print(data)
a,b
"hello, \"Bob\", nice to see you",5

In [145]: pd.read_csv(StringIO(data), escapechar='\\')

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[145]:
a b
0 hello, "Bob", nice to see you 5

24.1.19 Files with Fixed Width Columns

While read_csv reads delimited data, the read_fwf() function works with data files that have known and fixed
column widths. The function parameters to read_fwf are largely the same as read_csv with two extra parameters,
and a different usage of the delimiter parameter:
• colspecs: A list of pairs (tuples) giving the extents of the fixed-width fields of each line as half-open intervals
(i.e., [from, to[ ). String value ‘infer’ can be used to instruct the parser to try detecting the column specifications
from the first 100 rows of the data. Default behaviour, if not specified, is to infer.
• widths: A list of field widths which can be used instead of ‘colspecs’ if the intervals are contiguous.
• delimiter: Characters to consider as filler characters in the fixed-width file. Can be used to specify the filler
character of the fields if it is not spaces (e.g., ‘~’).
Consider a typical fixed-width data file:

In [146]: print(open('bar.csv').read())
id8141 360.242940 149.910199 11950.7
id1594 444.953632 166.985655 11788.4
id1849 364.136849 183.628767 11806.2
id1230 413.836124 184.375703 11916.8
id1948 502.953953 173.237159 12468.3

In order to parse this file into a DataFrame, we simply need to supply the column specifications to the read_fwf
function along with the file name:

#Column specifications are a list of half-intervals

In [147]: colspecs = [(0, 6), (8, 20), (21, 33), (34, 43)]

In [148]: df = pd.read_fwf('bar.csv', colspecs=colspecs, header=None, index_col=0)

In [149]: df
Out[149]:
1 2 3
0
id8141 360.242940 149.910199 11950.7
id1594 444.953632 166.985655 11788.4
id1849 364.136849 183.628767 11806.2
id1230 413.836124 184.375703 11916.8
id1948 502.953953 173.237159 12468.3

Note how the parser automatically picks column names X.<column number> when header=None argument is spec-
ified. Alternatively, you can supply just the column widths for contiguous columns:

24.1. CSV & Text files 1047

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

#Widths are a list of integers

In [150]: widths = [6, 14, 13, 10]

In [151]: df = pd.read_fwf('bar.csv', widths=widths, header=None)

In [152]: df
Out[152]:
0 1 2 3
0 id8141 360.242940 149.910199 11950.7
1 id1594 444.953632 166.985655 11788.4
2 id1849 364.136849 183.628767 11806.2
3 id1230 413.836124 184.375703 11916.8
4 id1948 502.953953 173.237159 12468.3

The parser will take care of extra white spaces around the columns so it’s ok to have extra separation between the
columns in the file.
By default, read_fwf will try to infer the file’s colspecs by using the first 100 rows of the file. It can do it
only in cases when the columns are aligned and correctly separated by the provided delimiter (default delimiter is
whitespace).

In [153]: df = pd.read_fwf('bar.csv', header=None, index_col=0)

In [154]: df
Out[154]:
1 2 3
0
id8141 360.242940 149.910199 11950.7
id1594 444.953632 166.985655 11788.4
id1849 364.136849 183.628767 11806.2
id1230 413.836124 184.375703 11916.8
id1948 502.953953 173.237159 12468.3

New in version 0.20.0.

read_fwf supports the dtype parameter for specifying the types of parsed columns to be different from the inferred
type.

In [155]: pd.read_fwf('bar.csv', header=None, index_col=0).dtypes

Out[155]:
1 float64
2 float64
3 float64
dtype: object

In [156]: pd.read_fwf('bar.csv', header=None, dtype={2: 'object'}).dtypes

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[156]:
0 object
1 float64
2 object
3 float64
dtype: object

1048 Chapter 24. IO Tools (Text, CSV, HDF5, ...)

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

24.1.20 Indexes

24.1.20.1 Files with an “implicit” index column

Consider a file with one less entry in the header than the number of data column:

In [157]: print(open('foo.csv').read())
A,B,C
20090101,a,1,2
20090102,b,3,4
20090103,c,4,5

In this special case, read_csv assumes that the first column is to be used as the index of the DataFrame:

In [158]: pd.read_csv('foo.csv')
Out[158]:
A B C
20090101 a 1 2
20090102 b 3 4
20090103 c 4 5

Note that the dates weren’t automatically parsed. In that case you would need to do as before:

In [159]: df = pd.read_csv('foo.csv', parse_dates=True)

In [160]: df.index
Out[160]: DatetimeIndex(['2009-01-01', '2009-01-02', '2009-01-03'], dtype=
˓→'datetime64[ns]', freq=None)

24.1.20.2 Reading an index with a MultiIndex

Suppose you have data indexed by two columns:

In [161]: print(open('data/mindex_ex.csv').read())
year,indiv,zit,xit
1977,"A",1.2,.6
1977,"B",1.5,.5
1977,"C",1.7,.8
1978,"A",.2,.06
1978,"B",.7,.2
1978,"C",.8,.3
1978,"D",.9,.5
1978,"E",1.4,.9
1979,"C",.2,.15
1979,"D",.14,.05
1979,"E",.5,.15
1979,"F",1.2,.5
1979,"G",3.4,1.9
1979,"H",5.4,2.7
1979,"I",6.4,1.2

The index_col argument to read_csv and read_table can take a list of column numbers to turn multiple
columns into a MultiIndex for the index of the returned object:

In [162]: df = pd.read_csv("data/mindex_ex.csv", index_col=[0,1])

24.1. CSV & Text files 1049

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [163]: df
Out[163]:
zit xit
year indiv
1977 A 1.20 0.60
B 1.50 0.50
C 1.70 0.80
1978 A 0.20 0.06
B 0.70 0.20
C 0.80 0.30
D 0.90 0.50
E 1.40 0.90
1979 C 0.20 0.15
D 0.14 0.05
E 0.50 0.15
F 1.20 0.50
G 3.40 1.90
H 5.40 2.70
I 6.40 1.20

In [164]: df.loc[1978]
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

zit xit
indiv
A 0.2 0.06
B 0.7 0.20
C 0.8 0.30
D 0.9 0.50
E 1.4 0.90

24.1.20.3 Reading columns with a MultiIndex

By specifying list of row locations for the header argument, you can read in a MultiIndex for the columns.
Specifying non-consecutive rows will skip the intervening rows.

In [165]: from pandas.util.testing import makeCustomDataframe as mkdf

In [166]: df = mkdf(5,3,r_idx_nlevels=2,c_idx_nlevels=4)

In [167]: df.to_csv('mi.csv')

In [168]: print(open('mi.csv').read())
C0,,C_l0_g0,C_l0_g1,C_l0_g2
C1,,C_l1_g0,C_l1_g1,C_l1_g2
C2,,C_l2_g0,C_l2_g1,C_l2_g2
C3,,C_l3_g0,C_l3_g1,C_l3_g2
R0,R1,,,
R_l0_g0,R_l1_g0,R0C0,R0C1,R0C2
R_l0_g1,R_l1_g1,R1C0,R1C1,R1C2
R_l0_g2,R_l1_g2,R2C0,R2C1,R2C2
R_l0_g3,R_l1_g3,R3C0,R3C1,R3C2
R_l0_g4,R_l1_g4,R4C0,R4C1,R4C2

In [169]: pd.read_csv('mi.csv',header=[0,1,2,3],index_col=[0,1])

1050 Chapter 24. IO Tools (Text, CSV, HDF5, ...)

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

C0 C_l0_g0 C_l0_g1 C_l0_g2

C1 C_l1_g0 C_l1_g1 C_l1_g2
C2 C_l2_g0 C_l2_g1 C_l2_g2
C3 C_l3_g0 C_l3_g1 C_l3_g2
R0 R1
R_l0_g0 R_l1_g0 R0C0 R0C1 R0C2
R_l0_g1 R_l1_g1 R1C0 R1C1 R1C2
R_l0_g2 R_l1_g2 R2C0 R2C1 R2C2
R_l0_g3 R_l1_g3 R3C0 R3C1 R3C2
R_l0_g4 R_l1_g4 R4C0 R4C1 R4C2

read_csv is also able to interpret a more common format of multi-columns indices.

In [170]: print(open('mi2.csv').read())
,a,a,a,b,c,c
,q,r,s,t,u,v
one,1,2,3,4,5,6
two,7,8,9,10,11,12

In [171]: pd.read_csv('mi2.csv',header=[0,1],index_col=0)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[171]:
a b c
q r s t u v
one 1 2 3 4 5 6
two 7 8 9 10 11 12

Note: If an index_col is not specified (e.g. you don’t have an index, or wrote it with df.to_csv(...,
index=False), then any names on the columns index will be lost.

24.1.21 Automatically “sniffing” the delimiter

read_csv is capable of inferring delimited (not necessarily comma-separated) files, as pandas uses the csv.
Sniffer class of the csv module. For this, you have to specify sep=None.

In [172]: print(open('tmp2.sv').read())
:0:1:2:3
0:0.4691122999071863:-0.2828633443286633:-1.5090585031735124:-1.1356323710171934
1:1.2121120250208506:-0.17321464905330858:0.11920871129693428:-1.0442359662799567
2:-0.8618489633477999:-2.1045692188948086:-0.4949292740687813:1.071803807037338
3:0.7215551622443669:-0.7067711336300845:-1.0395749851146963:0.27185988554282986
4:-0.42497232978883753:0.567020349793672:0.27623201927771873:-1.0874006912859915
5:-0.6736897080883706:0.1136484096888855:-1.4784265524372235:0.5249876671147047
6:0.4047052186802365:0.5770459859204836:-1.7150020161146375:-1.0392684835147725
7:-0.3706468582364464:-1.1578922506419993:-1.344311812731667:0.8448851414248841
8:1.0757697837155533:-0.10904997528022223:1.6435630703622064:-1.4693879595399115
9:0.35702056413309086:-0.6746001037299882:-1.776903716971867:-0.9689138124473498

In [173]: pd.read_csv('tmp2.sv', sep=None, engine='python')

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

Unnamed: 0 0 1 2 3
0 0 0.469112 -0.282863 -1.509059 -1.135632
1 1 1.212112 -0.173215 0.119209 -1.044236

24.1. CSV & Text files 1051

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

2 2 -0.861849 -2.104569 -0.494929 1.071804

3 3 0.721555 -0.706771 -1.039575 0.271860
4 4 -0.424972 0.567020 0.276232 -1.087401
5 5 -0.673690 0.113648 -1.478427 0.524988
6 6 0.404705 0.577046 -1.715002 -1.039268
7 7 -0.370647 -1.157892 -1.344312 0.844885
8 8 1.075770 -0.109050 1.643563 -1.469388
9 9 0.357021 -0.674600 -1.776904 -0.968914

24.1.22 Reading multiple files to create a single DataFrame

It’s best to use concat() to combine multiple files. See the cookbook for an example.

24.1.23 Iterating through files chunk by chunk

Suppose you wish to iterate through a (potentially very large) file lazily rather than reading the entire file into memory,
such as the following:
In [174]: print(open('tmp.sv').read())
|0|1|2|3
0|0.4691122999071863|-0.2828633443286633|-1.5090585031735124|-1.1356323710171934
1|1.2121120250208506|-0.17321464905330858|0.11920871129693428|-1.0442359662799567
2|-0.8618489633477999|-2.1045692188948086|-0.4949292740687813|1.071803807037338
3|0.7215551622443669|-0.7067711336300845|-1.0395749851146963|0.27185988554282986
4|-0.42497232978883753|0.567020349793672|0.27623201927771873|-1.0874006912859915
5|-0.6736897080883706|0.1136484096888855|-1.4784265524372235|0.5249876671147047
6|0.4047052186802365|0.5770459859204836|-1.7150020161146375|-1.0392684835147725
7|-0.3706468582364464|-1.1578922506419993|-1.344311812731667|0.8448851414248841
8|1.0757697837155533|-0.10904997528022223|1.6435630703622064|-1.4693879595399115
9|0.35702056413309086|-0.6746001037299882|-1.776903716971867|-0.9689138124473498

In [175]: table = pd.read_table('tmp.sv', sep='|')

In [176]: table
Out[176]:
Unnamed: 0 0 1 2 3
0 0 0.469112 -0.282863 -1.509059 -1.135632
1 1 1.212112 -0.173215 0.119209 -1.044236
2 2 -0.861849 -2.104569 -0.494929 1.071804
3 3 0.721555 -0.706771 -1.039575 0.271860
4 4 -0.424972 0.567020 0.276232 -1.087401
5 5 -0.673690 0.113648 -1.478427 0.524988
6 6 0.404705 0.577046 -1.715002 -1.039268
7 7 -0.370647 -1.157892 -1.344312 0.844885
8 8 1.075770 -0.109050 1.643563 -1.469388
9 9 0.357021 -0.674600 -1.776904 -0.968914

By specifying a chunksize to read_csv or read_table, the return value will be an iterable object of type
TextFileReader:
In [177]: reader = pd.read_table('tmp.sv', sep='|', chunksize=4)

In [178]: reader
Out[178]: <pandas.io.parsers.TextFileReader at 0x120341780>

1052 Chapter 24. IO Tools (Text, CSV, HDF5, ...)

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [179]: for chunk in reader:

.....: print(chunk)
.....:
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\ Unnamed: 0 0
˓→ 1 2 3
0 0 0.469112 -0.282863 -1.509059 -1.135632
1 1 1.212112 -0.173215 0.119209 -1.044236
2 2 -0.861849 -2.104569 -0.494929 1.071804
3 3 0.721555 -0.706771 -1.039575 0.271860
Unnamed: 0 0 1 2 3
4 4 -0.424972 0.567020 0.276232 -1.087401
5 5 -0.673690 0.113648 -1.478427 0.524988
6 6 0.404705 0.577046 -1.715002 -1.039268
7 7 -0.370647 -1.157892 -1.344312 0.844885
Unnamed: 0 0 1 2 3
8 8 1.075770 -0.10905 1.643563 -1.469388
9 9 0.357021 -0.67460 -1.776904 -0.968914

Specifying iterator=True will also return the TextFileReader object:

In [180]: reader = pd.read_table('tmp.sv', sep='|', iterator=True)

In [181]: reader.get_chunk(5)
Out[181]:
Unnamed: 0 0 1 2 3
0 0 0.469112 -0.282863 -1.509059 -1.135632
1 1 1.212112 -0.173215 0.119209 -1.044236
2 2 -0.861849 -2.104569 -0.494929 1.071804
3 3 0.721555 -0.706771 -1.039575 0.271860
4 4 -0.424972 0.567020 0.276232 -1.087401

24.1.24 Specifying the parser engine

Under the hood pandas uses a fast and efficient parser implemented in C as well as a python implementation which is
currently more feature-complete. Where possible pandas uses the C parser (specified as engine='c'), but may fall
back to python if C-unsupported options are specified. Currently, C-unsupported options include:
• sep other than a single character (e.g. regex separators)
• skipfooter
• sep=None with delim_whitespace=False
Specifying any of the above options will produce a ParserWarning unless the python engine is selected explicitly
using engine='python'.

24.1.25 Reading remote files

You can pass in a URL to a CSV file:

df = pd.read_csv('https://download.bls.gov/pub/time.series/cu/cu.item',
sep='\t')

S3 URLs are handled as well:

24.1. CSV & Text files 1053

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

df = pd.read_csv('s3://pandas-test/tips.csv')

24.1.26 Writing out Data

24.1.26.1 Writing to CSV format

The Series and DataFrame objects have an instance method to_csv which allows storing the contents of the object
as a comma-separated-values file. The function takes a number of arguments. Only the first is required.
• path_or_buf: A string path to the file to write or a StringIO
• sep : Field delimiter for the output file (default ”,”)
• na_rep: A string representation of a missing value (default ‘’)
• float_format: Format string for floating point numbers
• cols: Columns to write (default None)
• header: Whether to write out the column names (default True)
• index: whether to write row (index) names (default True)
• index_label: Column label(s) for index column(s) if desired. If None (default), and header and index are
True, then the index names are used. (A sequence should be given if the DataFrame uses MultiIndex).
• mode : Python write mode, default ‘w’
• encoding: a string representing the encoding to use if the contents are non-ASCII, for python versions prior
to 3
• line_terminator: Character sequence denoting line end (default ‘\n’)
• quoting: Set quoting rules as in csv module (default csv.QUOTE_MINIMAL). Note that if you have set
a float_format then floats are converted to strings and csv.QUOTE_NONNUMERIC will treat them as non-
numeric
• quotechar: Character used to quote fields (default ‘”’)
• doublequote: Control quoting of quotechar in fields (default True)
• escapechar: Character used to escape sep and quotechar when appropriate (default None)
• chunksize: Number of rows to write at a time
• tupleize_cols: If False (default), write as a list of tuples, otherwise write in an expanded line format
suitable for read_csv
• date_format: Format string for datetime objects

24.1.26.2 Writing a formatted string

The DataFrame object has an instance method to_string which allows control over the string representation of the
object. All arguments are optional:
• buf default None, for example a StringIO object
• columns default None, which columns to write
• col_space default None, minimum width of each column.
• na_rep default NaN, representation of NA value

1054 Chapter 24. IO Tools (Text, CSV, HDF5, ...)

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• formatters default None, a dictionary (by column) of functions each of which takes a single argument and
returns a formatted string
• float_format default None, a function which takes a single (float) argument and returns a formatted string;
to be applied to floats in the DataFrame.
• sparsify default True, set to False for a DataFrame with a hierarchical index to print every multiindex key at
each row.
• index_names default True, will print the names of the indices
• index default True, will print the index (ie, row labels)
• header default True, will print the column labels
• justify default left, will print column headers left- or right-justified
The Series object also has a to_string method, but with only the buf, na_rep, float_format arguments.
There is also a length argument which, if set to True, will additionally output the length of the Series.

24.2 JSON

Read and write JSON format files and strings.

24.2.1 Writing JSON

A Series or DataFrame can be converted to a valid JSON string. Use to_json with optional parameters:
• path_or_buf : the pathname or buffer to write the output This can be None in which case a JSON string is
returned
• orient :
Series :
– default is index
– allowed values are {split, records, index}
DataFrame
– default is columns
– allowed values are {split, records, index, columns, values}
The format of the JSON string
split dict like {index -> [index], columns -> [columns], data -> [values]}
records list like [{column -> value}, ... , {column -> value}]
index dict like {index -> {column -> value}}
columns dict like {column -> {index -> value}}
values just the values array
• date_format : string, type of date conversion, ‘epoch’ for timestamp, ‘iso’ for ISO8601.
• double_precision : The number of decimal places to use when encoding floating point values, default 10.
• force_ascii : force encoded string to be ASCII, default True.
• date_unit : The time unit to encode to, governs timestamp and ISO8601 precision. One of ‘s’, ‘ms’, ‘us’ or
‘ns’ for seconds, milliseconds, microseconds and nanoseconds respectively. Default ‘ms’.

24.2. JSON 1055

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• default_handler : The handler to call if an object cannot otherwise be converted to a suitable format for
JSON. Takes a single argument, which is the object to convert, and returns a serializable object.
• lines : If records orient, then will write each record per line as json.
Note NaN‘s, NaT‘s and None will be converted to null and datetime objects will be converted based on the
date_format and date_unit parameters.
In [182]: dfj = pd.DataFrame(randn(5, 2), columns=list('AB'))

In [183]: json = dfj.to_json()

In [184]: json
Out[184]: '{"A":{"0":-1.2945235903,"1":0.2766617129,"2":-0.0139597524,"3":-0.
˓→0061535699,"4":0.8957173022},"B":{"0":0.4137381054,"1":-0.472034511,"2":-0.

˓→3625429925,"3":-0.923060654,"4":0.8052440254}}'

24.2.1.1 Orient Options

There are a number of different options for the format of the resulting JSON file / string. Consider the following
DataFrame and Series:
In [185]: dfjo = pd.DataFrame(dict(A=range(1, 4), B=range(4, 7), C=range(7, 10)),
.....: columns=list('ABC'), index=list('xyz'))
.....:

In [186]: dfjo
Out[186]:
A B C
x 1 4 7
y 2 5 8
z 3 6 9

In [187]: sjo = pd.Series(dict(x=15, y=16, z=17), name='D')

In [188]: sjo
Out[188]:
x 15
y 16
z 17
Name: D, dtype: int64

Column oriented (the default for DataFrame) serializes the data as nested JSON objects with column labels acting
as the primary index:
In [189]: dfjo.to_json(orient="columns")
Out[189]: '{"A":{"x":1,"y":2,"z":3},"B":{"x":4,"y":5,"z":6},"C":{"x":7,"y":8,"z":9}}'

# Not available for Series

Index oriented (the default for Series) similar to column oriented but the index labels are now primary:
In [190]: dfjo.to_json(orient="index")
Out[190]: '{"x":{"A":1,"B":4,"C":7},"y":{"A":2,"B":5,"C":8},"z":{"A":3,"B":6,"C":9}}'

In [191]: sjo.to_json(orient="index")
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[191]:
˓→'{"x":15,"y":16,"z":17}'

1056 Chapter 24. IO Tools (Text, CSV, HDF5, ...)

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Record oriented serializes the data to a JSON array of column -> value records, index labels are not included. This is
useful for passing DataFrame data to plotting libraries, for example the JavaScript library d3.js:

In [192]: dfjo.to_json(orient="records")
Out[192]: '[{"A":1,"B":4,"C":7},{"A":2,"B":5,"C":8},{"A":3,"B":6,"C":9}]'

In [193]: sjo.to_json(orient="records")
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[193]:
˓→'[15,16,17]'

Value oriented is a bare-bones option which serializes to nested JSON arrays of values only, column and index labels
are not included:

In [194]: dfjo.to_json(orient="values")
Out[194]: '[[1,4,7],[2,5,8],[3,6,9]]'

# Not available for Series

Split oriented serializes to a JSON object containing separate entries for values, index and columns. Name is also
included for Series:

In [195]: dfjo.to_json(orient="split")
Out[195]: '{"columns":["A","B","C"],"index":["x","y","z"],"data":[[1,4,7],[2,5,8],[3,
˓→6,9]]}'

In [196]: sjo.to_json(orient="split")
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[196]
˓→'{"name":"D","index":["x","y","z"],"data":[15,16,17]}'

Note: Any orient option that encodes to a JSON object will not preserve the ordering of index and column labels
during round-trip serialization. If you wish to preserve label ordering use the split option as it uses ordered containers.

24.2.1.2 Date Handling

Writing in ISO date format

In [197]: dfd = pd.DataFrame(randn(5, 2), columns=list('AB'))

In [198]: dfd['date'] = pd.Timestamp('20130101')

In [199]: dfd = dfd.sort_index(1, ascending=False)

In [200]: json = dfd.to_json(date_format='iso')

In [201]: json
Out[201]: '{"date":{"0":"2013-01-01T00:00:00.000Z","1":"2013-01-01T00:00:00.000Z","2":
˓→"2013-01-01T00:00:00.000Z","3":"2013-01-01T00:00:00.000Z","4":"2013-01-01T00:00:00.

˓→000Z"},"B":{"0":2.5656459463,"1":1.3403088498,"2":-0.2261692849,"3":0.8138502857,"4

˓→":-0.8273169356},"A":{"0":-1.2064117817,"1":1.4312559863,"2":-1.1702987971,"3":0.

˓→4108345112,"4":0.1320031703}}'

Writing in ISO date format, with microseconds

24.2. JSON 1057

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [202]: json = dfd.to_json(date_format='iso', date_unit='us')

In [203]: json
Out[203]: '{"date":{"0":"2013-01-01T00:00:00.000000Z","1":"2013-01-01T00:00:00.000000Z
˓→","2":"2013-01-01T00:00:00.000000Z","3":"2013-01-01T00:00:00.000000Z","4":"2013-01-

˓→01T00:00:00.000000Z"},"B":{"0":2.5656459463,"1":1.3403088498,"2":-0.2261692849,"3

˓→":0.8138502857,"4":-0.8273169356},"A":{"0":-1.2064117817,"1":1.4312559863,"2":-1.

˓→1702987971,"3":0.4108345112,"4":0.1320031703}}'

Epoch timestamps, in seconds

In [204]: json = dfd.to_json(date_format='epoch', date_unit='s')

In [205]: json
Out[205]: '{"date":{"0":1356998400,"1":1356998400,"2":1356998400,"3":1356998400,"4
˓→":1356998400},"B":{"0":2.5656459463,"1":1.3403088498,"2":-0.2261692849,"3":0.

˓→8138502857,"4":-0.8273169356},"A":{"0":-1.2064117817,"1":1.4312559863,"2":-1.

˓→1702987971,"3":0.4108345112,"4":0.1320031703}}'

Writing to a file, with a date index and a date column

In [206]: dfj2 = dfj.copy()

In [207]: dfj2['date'] = pd.Timestamp('20130101')

In [208]: dfj2['ints'] = list(range(5))

In [209]: dfj2['bools'] = True

In [210]: dfj2.index = pd.date_range('20130101', periods=5)

In [211]: dfj2.to_json('test.json')

In [212]: open('test.json').read()
Out[212]: '{"A":{"1356998400000":-1.2945235903,"1357084800000":0.2766617129,
˓→"1357171200000":-0.0139597524,"1357257600000":-0.0061535699,"1357344000000":0.

˓→8957173022},"B":{"1356998400000":0.4137381054,"1357084800000":-0.472034511,

˓→"1357171200000":-0.3625429925,"1357257600000":-0.923060654,"1357344000000":0.

˓→8052440254},"date":{"1356998400000":1356998400000,"1357084800000":1356998400000,

˓→"1357171200000":1356998400000,"1357257600000":1356998400000,"1357344000000

˓→":1356998400000},"ints":{"1356998400000":0,"1357084800000":1,"1357171200000":2,

˓→"1357257600000":3,"1357344000000":4},"bools":{"1356998400000":true,"1357084800000

˓→":true,"1357171200000":true,"1357257600000":true,"1357344000000":true}}'

24.2.1.3 Fallback Behavior

If the JSON serializer cannot handle the container contents directly it will fallback in the following manner:
• if the dtype is unsupported (e.g. np.complex) then the default_handler, if provided, will be called for
each value, otherwise an exception is raised.
• if an object is unsupported it will attempt the following:
– check if the object has defined a toDict method and call it. A toDict method should return a dict
which will then be JSON serialized.
– invoke the default_handler if one was provided.

1058 Chapter 24. IO Tools (Text, CSV, HDF5, ...)

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

– convert the object to a dict by traversing its contents. However this will often fail with an
OverflowError or give unexpected results.
In general the best approach for unsupported objects or dtypes is to provide a default_handler. For example:

DataFrame([1.0, 2.0, complex(1.0, 2.0)]).to_json() # raises

RuntimeError: Unhandled numpy dtype 15

can be dealt with by specifying a simple default_handler:

In [213]: pd.DataFrame([1.0, 2.0, complex(1.0, 2.0)]).to_json(default_handler=str)

Out[213]: '{"0":{"0":"(1+0j)","1":"(2+0j)","2":"(1+2j)"}}'

24.2.2 Reading JSON

Reading a JSON string to pandas object can take a number of parameters. The parser will try to parse a DataFrame
if typ is not supplied or is None. To explicitly force Series parsing, pass typ=series
• filepath_or_buffer : a VALID JSON string or file handle / StringIO. The string could be a URL. Valid
URL schemes include http, ftp, S3, and file. For file URLs, a host is expected. For instance, a local file could be
file ://localhost/path/to/table.json
• typ : type of object to recover (series or frame), default ‘frame’
• orient :
Series :
– default is index
– allowed values are {split, records, index}
DataFrame
– default is columns
– allowed values are {split, records, index, columns, values}
The format of the JSON string
split dict like {index -> [index], columns -> [columns], data -> [values]}
records list like [{column -> value}, ... , {column -> value}]
index dict like {index -> {column -> value}}
columns dict like {column -> {index -> value}}
values just the values array
• dtype : if True, infer dtypes, if a dict of column to dtype, then use those, if False, then don’t infer dtypes at all,
default is True, apply only to the data
• convert_axes : boolean, try to convert the axes to the proper dtypes, default is True
• convert_dates : a list of columns to parse for dates; If True, then try to parse date-like columns, default is
True
• keep_default_dates : boolean, default True. If parsing dates, then parse the default date-like columns
• numpy : direct decoding to numpy arrays. default is False; Supports numeric data only, although labels may be
non-numeric. Also note that the JSON ordering MUST be the same for each term if numpy=True
• precise_float : boolean, default False. Set to enable usage of higher precision (strtod) function when
decoding string to double values. Default (False) is to use fast but less precise builtin functionality

24.2. JSON 1059

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• date_unit : string, the timestamp unit to detect if converting dates. Default None. By default the timestamp
precision will be detected, if this is not desired then pass one of ‘s’, ‘ms’, ‘us’ or ‘ns’ to force timestamp
precision to seconds, milliseconds, microseconds or nanoseconds respectively.
• lines : reads file as one json object per line.
• encoding : The encoding to use to decode py3 bytes.
• chunksize : when used in combination with lines=True, return a JsonReader which reads in chunksize
lines per iteration.
The parser will raise one of ValueError/TypeError/AssertionError if the JSON is not parseable.
If a non-default orient was used when encoding to JSON be sure to pass the same option here so that decoding
produces sensible results, see Orient Options for an overview.

24.2.2.1 Data Conversion

The default of convert_axes=True, dtype=True, and convert_dates=True will try to parse the axes, and
all of the data into appropriate types, including dates. If you need to override specific dtypes, pass a dict to dtype.
convert_axes should only be set to False if you need to preserve string-like numbers (e.g. ‘1’, ‘2’) in an axes.

Note: Large integer values may be converted to dates if convert_dates=True and the data and / or column labels
appear ‘date-like’. The exact threshold depends on the date_unit specified. ‘date-like’ means that the column label
meets one of the following criteria:
• it ends with '_at'
• it ends with '_time'
• it begins with 'timestamp'
• it is 'modified'
• it is 'date'

Warning: When reading JSON data, automatic coercing into dtypes has some quirks:
• an index can be reconstructed in a different order from serialization, that is, the returned order is not guaran-
teed to be the same as before serialization
• a column that was float data will be converted to integer if it can be done safely, e.g. a column of 1.
• bool columns will be converted to integer on reconstruction
Thus there are times where you may want to specify specific dtypes via the dtype keyword argument.

Reading from a JSON string:

In [214]: pd.read_json(json)
Out[214]:
A B date
0 -1.206412 2.565646 2013-01-01
1 1.431256 1.340309 2013-01-01
2 -1.170299 -0.226169 2013-01-01
3 0.410835 0.813850 2013-01-01
4 0.132003 -0.827317 2013-01-01

1060 Chapter 24. IO Tools (Text, CSV, HDF5, ...)

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Reading from a file:

In [215]: pd.read_json('test.json')
Out[215]:
A B bools date ints
2013-01-01 -1.294524 0.413738 True 2013-01-01 0
2013-01-02 0.276662 -0.472035 True 2013-01-01 1
2013-01-03 -0.013960 -0.362543 True 2013-01-01 2
2013-01-04 -0.006154 -0.923061 True 2013-01-01 3
2013-01-05 0.895717 0.805244 True 2013-01-01 4

Don’t convert any data (but still convert axes and dates):
In [216]: pd.read_json('test.json', dtype=object).dtypes
Out[216]:
A object
B object
bools object
date object
ints object
dtype: object

Specify dtypes for conversion:

In [217]: pd.read_json('test.json', dtype={'A' : 'float32', 'bools' : 'int8'}).dtypes
Out[217]:
A float32
B float64
bools int8
date datetime64[ns]
ints int64
dtype: object

Preserve string indices:

In [218]: si = pd.DataFrame(np.zeros((4, 4)),
.....: columns=list(range(4)),
.....: index=[str(i) for i in range(4)])
.....:

In [219]: si
Out[219]:
0 1 2 3
0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

In [220]: si.index
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→Index(['0', '1', '2', '3'], dtype='object')

In [221]: si.columns
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→Int64Index([0, 1, 2, 3], dtype='int64')

In [222]: json = si.to_json()

In [223]: sij = pd.read_json(json, convert_axes=False)

24.2. JSON 1061

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [224]: sij
Out[224]:
0 1 2 3
0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 0
2 0 0 0 0
3 0 0 0 0

In [225]: sij.index
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[225]:
˓→Index(['0', '1', '2', '3'], dtype='object')

In [226]: sij.columns
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→Index(['0', '1', '2', '3'], dtype='object')

Dates written in nanoseconds need to be read back in nanoseconds:

In [227]: json = dfj2.to_json(date_unit='ns')

# Try to parse timestamps as millseconds -> Won't Work

In [228]: dfju = pd.read_json(json, date_unit='ms')

In [229]: dfju
Out[229]:
A B bools date ints
1356998400000000000 -1.294524 0.413738 True 1356998400000000000 0
1357084800000000000 0.276662 -0.472035 True 1356998400000000000 1
1357171200000000000 -0.013960 -0.362543 True 1356998400000000000 2
1357257600000000000 -0.006154 -0.923061 True 1356998400000000000 3
1357344000000000000 0.895717 0.805244 True 1356998400000000000 4

# Let pandas detect the correct precision

In [230]: dfju = pd.read_json(json)

In [231]: dfju
Out[231]:
A B bools date ints
2013-01-01 -1.294524 0.413738 True 2013-01-01 0
2013-01-02 0.276662 -0.472035 True 2013-01-01 1
2013-01-03 -0.013960 -0.362543 True 2013-01-01 2
2013-01-04 -0.006154 -0.923061 True 2013-01-01 3
2013-01-05 0.895717 0.805244 True 2013-01-01 4

# Or specify that all timestamps are in nanoseconds

In [232]: dfju = pd.read_json(json, date_unit='ns')

In [233]: dfju
Out[233]:
A B bools date ints
2013-01-01 -1.294524 0.413738 True 2013-01-01 0
2013-01-02 0.276662 -0.472035 True 2013-01-01 1
2013-01-03 -0.013960 -0.362543 True 2013-01-01 2
2013-01-04 -0.006154 -0.923061 True 2013-01-01 3
2013-01-05 0.895717 0.805244 True 2013-01-01 4

1062 Chapter 24. IO Tools (Text, CSV, HDF5, ...)

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

24.2.2.2 The Numpy Parameter

Note: This supports numeric data only. Index and columns labels may be non-numeric, e.g. strings, dates etc.

If numpy=True is passed to read_json an attempt will be made to sniff an appropriate dtype during deserialization
and to subsequently decode directly to numpy arrays, bypassing the need for intermediate Python objects.
This can provide speedups if you are deserialising a large amount of numeric data:

In [234]: randfloats = np.random.uniform(-100, 1000, 10000)

In [235]: randfloats.shape = (1000, 10)

In [236]: dffloats = pd.DataFrame(randfloats, columns=list('ABCDEFGHIJ'))

In [237]: jsonfloats = dffloats.to_json()

In [238]: timeit pd.read_json(jsonfloats)

7.68 ms +- 85.3 us per loop (mean +- std. dev. of 7 runs, 100 loops each)

In [239]: timeit pd.read_json(jsonfloats, numpy=True)

5.19 ms +- 329 us per loop (mean +- std. dev. of 7 runs, 100 loops each)

The speedup is less noticeable for smaller datasets:

In [240]: jsonfloats = dffloats.head(100).to_json()

In [241]: timeit pd.read_json(jsonfloats)

4.15 ms +- 24.9 us per loop (mean +- std. dev. of 7 runs, 100 loops each)

In [242]: timeit pd.read_json(jsonfloats, numpy=True)

3.37 ms +- 45.5 us per loop (mean +- std. dev. of 7 runs, 100 loops each)

Warning: Direct numpy decoding makes a number of assumptions and may fail or produce unexpected output if
these assumptions are not satisfied:
• data is numeric.
• data is uniform. The dtype is sniffed from the first value decoded. A ValueError may be raised, or
incorrect output may be produced if this condition is not satisfied.
• labels are ordered. Labels are only read from the first container, it is assumed that each subsequent row /
column has been encoded in the same order. This should be satisfied if the data was encoded using to_json
but may not be the case if the JSON is from another source.

24.2.3 Normalization

pandas provides a utility function to take a dict or list of dicts and normalize this semi-structured data into a flat table.

In [243]: from pandas.io.json import json_normalize

In [244]: data = [{'id': 1, 'name': {'first': 'Coleen', 'last': 'Volk'}},

24.2. JSON 1063

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

.....: {'name': {'given': 'Mose', 'family': 'Regner'}},

.....: {'id': 2, 'name': 'Faye Raker'}]
.....:

In [245]: json_normalize(data)
Out[245]:
id name name.family name.first name.given name.last
0 1.0 NaN NaN Coleen NaN Volk
1 NaN NaN Regner NaN Mose NaN
2 2.0 Faye Raker NaN NaN NaN NaN

In [246]: data = [{'state': 'Florida',

.....: 'shortname': 'FL',
.....: 'info': {
.....: 'governor': 'Rick Scott'
.....: },
.....: 'counties': [{'name': 'Dade', 'population': 12345},
.....: {'name': 'Broward', 'population': 40000},
.....: {'name': 'Palm Beach', 'population': 60000}]},
.....: {'state': 'Ohio',
.....: 'shortname': 'OH',
.....: 'info': {
.....: 'governor': 'John Kasich'
.....: },
.....: 'counties': [{'name': 'Summit', 'population': 1234},
.....: {'name': 'Cuyahoga', 'population': 1337}]}]
.....:

In [247]: json_normalize(data, 'counties', ['state', 'shortname', ['info', 'governor

˓→']])

Out[247]:
name population state shortname info.governor
0 Dade 12345 Florida FL Rick Scott
1 Broward 40000 Florida FL Rick Scott
2 Palm Beach 60000 Florida FL Rick Scott
3 Summit 1234 Ohio OH John Kasich
4 Cuyahoga 1337 Ohio OH John Kasich

24.2.4 Line delimited json

New in version 0.19.0.

pandas is able to read and write line-delimited json files that are common in data processing pipelines using Hadoop
or Spark.
New in version 0.21.0.
For line-delimited json files, pandas can also return an iterator which reads in chunksize lines at a time. This can
be useful for large files or to read from a stream.
In [248]: jsonl = '''
.....: {"a":1,"b":2}
.....: {"a":3,"b":4}
.....: '''
.....:

In [249]: df = pd.read_json(jsonl, lines=True)

1064 Chapter 24. IO Tools (Text, CSV, HDF5, ...)

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [250]: df
Out[250]:
a b
0 1 2
1 3 4

In [251]: df.to_json(orient='records', lines=True)

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[251]: '{"a":1,"b":2}\n{"a":3,"b":4}'

# reader is an iterator that returns `chunksize` lines each iteration

In [252]: reader = pd.read_json(StringIO(jsonl), lines=True, chunksize=1)

In [253]: reader
Out[253]: <pandas.io.json.json.JsonReader at 0x122daa9b0>

In [254]: for chunk in reader:

.....: print(chunk)
.....:
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Empty DataFrame
Columns: []
Index: []
a b
0 1 2
a b
1 3 4

24.2.5 Table Schema

New in version 0.20.0.

Table Schema is a spec for describing tabular datasets as a JSON object. The JSON includes information on the field
names, types, and other attributes. You can use the orient table to build a JSON string with two fields, schema and
data.
In [255]: df = pd.DataFrame(
.....: {'A': [1, 2, 3],
.....: 'B': ['a', 'b', 'c'],
.....: 'C': pd.date_range('2016-01-01', freq='d', periods=3),
.....: }, index=pd.Index(range(3), name='idx'))
.....:

In [256]: df
Out[256]:
A B C
idx
0 1 a 2016-01-01
1 2 b 2016-01-02
2 3 c 2016-01-03

In [257]: df.to_json(orient='table', date_format="iso")

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→'{"schema": {"fields":[{"name":"idx","type":"integer"},{"name":"A","type":"integer"}

˓→,{"name":"B","type":"string"},{"name":"C","type":"datetime"}],"primaryKey":["idx"],

˓→"pandas_version":"0.20.0"}, "data": [{"idx":0,"A":1,"B":"a","C":"2016-01-

˓→01T00:00:00.000Z"},{"idx":1,"A":2,"B":"b","C":"2016-01-02T00:00:00.000Z"},{"idx":2,

˓→"A":3,"B":"c","C":"2016-01-03T00:00:00.000Z"}]}'

24.2. JSON 1065

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

The schema field contains the fields key, which itself contains a list of column name to type pairs, including the
Index or MultiIndex (see below for a list of types). The schema field also contains a primaryKey field if the
(Multi)index is unique.
The second field, data, contains the serialized data with the records orient. The index is included, and any
datetimes are ISO 8601 formatted, as required by the Table Schema spec.
The full list of types supported are described in the Table Schema spec. This table shows the mapping from pandas
types:
Pandas type Table Schema type
int64 integer
float64 number
bool boolean
datetime64[ns] datetime
timedelta64[ns] duration
categorical any
object str
A few notes on the generated table schema:
• The schema object contains a pandas_version field. This contains the version of pandas’ dialect of the
schema, and will be incremented with each revision.
• All dates are converted to UTC when serializing. Even timezone naïve values, which are treated as UTC with
an offset of 0.

In [258]: from pandas.io.json import build_table_schema

In [259]: s = pd.Series(pd.date_range('2016', periods=4))

In [260]: build_table_schema(s)
Out[260]:
{'fields': [{'name': 'index', 'type': 'integer'},
{'name': 'values', 'type': 'datetime'}],
'pandas_version': '0.20.0',
'primaryKey': ['index']}

• datetimes with a timezone (before serializing), include an additional field tz with the time zone name (e.g.
'US/Central').

In [261]: s_tz = pd.Series(pd.date_range('2016', periods=12,

.....: tz='US/Central'))
.....:

In [262]: build_table_schema(s_tz)
Out[262]:
{'fields': [{'name': 'index', 'type': 'integer'},
{'name': 'values', 'type': 'datetime', 'tz': 'US/Central'}],
'pandas_version': '0.20.0',
'primaryKey': ['index']}

• Periods are converted to timestamps before serialization, and so have the same behavior of being converted to
UTC. In addition, periods will contain and additional field freq with the period’s frequency, e.g. 'A-DEC'

In [263]: s_per = pd.Series(1, index=pd.period_range('2016', freq='A-DEC',

.....: periods=4))

1066 Chapter 24. IO Tools (Text, CSV, HDF5, ...)

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

.....:

In [264]: build_table_schema(s_per)
Out[264]:
{'fields': [{'freq': 'A-DEC', 'name': 'index', 'type': 'datetime'},
{'name': 'values', 'type': 'integer'}],
'pandas_version': '0.20.0',
'primaryKey': ['index']}

• Categoricals use the any type and an enum constraint listing the set of possible values. Additionally, an
ordered field is included

In [265]: s_cat = pd.Series(pd.Categorical(['a', 'b', 'a']))

In [266]: build_table_schema(s_cat)
Out[266]:
{'fields': [{'name': 'index', 'type': 'integer'},
{'constraints': {'enum': ['a', 'b']},
'name': 'values',
'ordered': False,
'type': 'any'}],
'pandas_version': '0.20.0',
'primaryKey': ['index']}

• A primaryKey field, containing an array of labels, is included if the index is unique:

In [267]: s_dupe = pd.Series([1, 2], index=[1, 1])

In [268]: build_table_schema(s_dupe)
Out[268]:
{'fields': [{'name': 'index', 'type': 'integer'},
{'name': 'values', 'type': 'integer'}],
'pandas_version': '0.20.0'}

• The primaryKey behavior is the same with MultiIndexes, but in this case the primaryKey is an array:

In [269]: s_multi = pd.Series(1, index=pd.MultiIndex.from_product([('a', 'b'),

.....: (0, 1)]))
.....:

In [270]: build_table_schema(s_multi)
Out[270]:
{'fields': [{'name': 'level_0', 'type': 'string'},
{'name': 'level_1', 'type': 'integer'},
{'name': 'values', 'type': 'integer'}],
'pandas_version': '0.20.0',
'primaryKey': FrozenList(['level_0', 'level_1'])}

• The default naming roughly follows these rules:

– For series, the object.name is used. If that’s none, then the name is values
– For DataFrames, the stringified version of the column name is used
– For Index (not MultiIndex), index.name is used, with a fallback to index if that is None.
– For MultiIndex, mi.names is used. If any level has no name, then level_<i> is used.
_Table Schema: http://specs.frictionlessdata.io/json-table-schema/

24.2. JSON 1067

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

24.3 HTML

24.3.1 Reading HTML Content

Warning: We highly encourage you to read the HTML Table Parsing gotchas below regarding the issues sur-
rounding the BeautifulSoup4/html5lib/lxml parsers.

The top-level read_html() function can accept an HTML string/file/URL and will parse HTML tables into list of
pandas DataFrames. Let’s look at a few examples.

Note: read_html returns a list of DataFrame objects, even if there is only a single table contained in the
HTML content

Read a URL with no options

In [271]: url = 'http://www.fdic.gov/bank/individual/failed/banklist.html'

In [272]: dfs = pd.read_html(url)

In [273]: dfs
Out[273]:
[ Bank Name City \
0 The Farmers and Merchants State Bank of Argonia Argonia
1 Fayette County Bank Saint Elmo
2 Guaranty Bank, (d/b/a BestBank in Georgia & Mi... Milwaukee
3 First NBC Bank New Orleans
4 Proficio Bank Cottonwood Heights
5 Seaway Bank and Trust Company Chicago
6 Harvest Community Bank Pennsville
.. ... ...
547 Hamilton Bank, NA En Espanol Miami
548 Sinclair National Bank Gravette
549 Superior Bank, FSB Hinsdale
550 Malta National Bank Malta
551 First Alliance Bank & Trust Co. Manchester
552 National State Bank of Metropolis Metropolis
553 Bank of Honolulu Honolulu

ST CERT Acquiring Institution Closing Date \

0 KS 17719 Conway Bank October 13, 2017
1 IL 1802 United Fidelity Bank, fsb May 26, 2017
2 WI 30003 First-Citizens Bank & Trust Company May 5, 2017
3 LA 58302 Whitney Bank April 28, 2017
4 UT 35495 Cache Valley Bank March 3, 2017
5 IL 19328 State Bank of Texas January 27, 2017
6 NJ 34951 First-Citizens Bank & Trust Company January 13, 2017
.. .. ... ... ...
547 FL 24382 Israel Discount Bank of New York January 11, 2002
548 AR 34248 Delta Trust & Bank September 7, 2001
549 IL 32646 Superior Federal, FSB July 27, 2001
550 OH 6629 North Valley Bank May 3, 2001
551 NH 34264 Southern New Hampshire Bank & Trust February 2, 2001
552 IL 3815 Banterra Bank of Marion December 14, 2000

1068 Chapter 24. IO Tools (Text, CSV, HDF5, ...)

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

553 HI 21029 Bank of the Orient October 13, 2000

Updated Date
0 October 20, 2017
1 July 26, 2017
2 July 26, 2017
3 July 26, 2017
4 May 18, 2017
5 May 18, 2017
6 May 18, 2017
.. ...
547 September 21, 2015
548 October 6, 2017
549 August 19, 2014
550 November 18, 2002
551 February 18, 2003
552 March 17, 2005
553 March 17, 2005

[554 rows x 7 columns]]

Note: The data from the above URL changes every Monday so the resulting data above and the data below may be
slightly different.

Read in the content of the file from the above URL and pass it to read_html as a string

In [274]: with open(file_path, 'r') as f:

.....: dfs = pd.read_html(f.read())
.....:

In [275]: dfs
Out[275]:
[ Bank Name City ST CERT \
0 Banks of Wisconsin d/b/a Bank of Kenosha Kenosha WI 35386
1 Central Arizona Bank Scottsdale AZ 34527
2 Sunrise Bank Valdosta GA 58185
3 Pisgah Community Bank Asheville NC 58701
4 Douglas County Bank Douglasville GA 21649
5 Parkway Bank Lenoir NC 57158
6 Chipola Community Bank Marianna FL 58034
.. ... ... .. ...
499 Hamilton Bank, NAEn Espanol Miami FL 24382
500 Sinclair National Bank Gravette AR 34248
501 Superior Bank, FSB Hinsdale IL 32646
502 Malta National Bank Malta OH 6629
503 First Alliance Bank & Trust Co. Manchester NH 34264
504 National State Bank of Metropolis Metropolis IL 3815
505 Bank of Honolulu Honolulu HI 21029

Acquiring Institution Closing Date Updated Date

0 North Shore Bank, FSB May 31, 2013 May 31, 2013
1 Western State Bank May 14, 2013 May 20, 2013
2 Synovus Bank May 10, 2013 May 21, 2013
3 Capital Bank, N.A. May 10, 2013 May 14, 2013
4 Hamilton State Bank April 26, 2013 May 16, 2013
5 CertusBank, National Association April 26, 2013 May 17, 2013

24.3. HTML 1069

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

6 First Federal Bank of Florida April 19, 2013 May 16, 2013
.. ... ... ...
499 Israel Discount Bank of New York January 11, 2002 June 5, 2012
500 Delta Trust & Bank September 7, 2001 February 10, 2004
501 Superior Federal, FSB July 27, 2001 June 5, 2012
502 North Valley Bank May 3, 2001 November 18, 2002
503 Southern New Hampshire Bank & Trust February 2, 2001 February 18, 2003
504 Banterra Bank of Marion December 14, 2000 March 17, 2005
505 Bank of the Orient October 13, 2000 March 17, 2005

[506 rows x 7 columns]]

You can even pass in an instance of StringIO if you so desire

In [276]: with open(file_path, 'r') as f:

.....: sio = StringIO(f.read())
.....:

In [277]: dfs = pd.read_html(sio)

In [278]: dfs
Out[278]:
[ Bank Name City ST CERT \
0 Banks of Wisconsin d/b/a Bank of Kenosha Kenosha WI 35386
1 Central Arizona Bank Scottsdale AZ 34527
2 Sunrise Bank Valdosta GA 58185
3 Pisgah Community Bank Asheville NC 58701
4 Douglas County Bank Douglasville GA 21649
5 Parkway Bank Lenoir NC 57158
6 Chipola Community Bank Marianna FL 58034
.. ... ... .. ...
499 Hamilton Bank, NAEn Espanol Miami FL 24382
500 Sinclair National Bank Gravette AR 34248
501 Superior Bank, FSB Hinsdale IL 32646
502 Malta National Bank Malta OH 6629
503 First Alliance Bank & Trust Co. Manchester NH 34264
504 National State Bank of Metropolis Metropolis IL 3815
505 Bank of Honolulu Honolulu HI 21029

Acquiring Institution Closing Date Updated Date

0 North Shore Bank, FSB May 31, 2013 May 31, 2013
1 Western State Bank May 14, 2013 May 20, 2013
2 Synovus Bank May 10, 2013 May 21, 2013
3 Capital Bank, N.A. May 10, 2013 May 14, 2013
4 Hamilton State Bank April 26, 2013 May 16, 2013
5 CertusBank, National Association April 26, 2013 May 17, 2013
6 First Federal Bank of Florida April 19, 2013 May 16, 2013
.. ... ... ...
499 Israel Discount Bank of New York January 11, 2002 June 5, 2012
500 Delta Trust & Bank September 7, 2001 February 10, 2004
501 Superior Federal, FSB July 27, 2001 June 5, 2012
502 North Valley Bank May 3, 2001 November 18, 2002
503 Southern New Hampshire Bank & Trust February 2, 2001 February 18, 2003
504 Banterra Bank of Marion December 14, 2000 March 17, 2005
505 Bank of the Orient October 13, 2000 March 17, 2005

[506 rows x 7 columns]]

1070 Chapter 24. IO Tools (Text, CSV, HDF5, ...)

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Note: The following examples are not run by the IPython evaluator due to the fact that having so many network-
accessing functions slows down the documentation build. If you spot an error or an example that doesn’t run, please
do not hesitate to report it over on pandas GitHub issues page.

Read a URL and match a table that contains specific text

match = 'Metcalf Bank'

df_list = pd.read_html(url, match=match)

Specify a header row (by default <th> or <td> elements located within a <thead> are used to form the column
index, if multiple rows are contained within <thead> then a multiindex is created); if specified, the header row is
taken from the data minus the parsed header elements (<th> elements).

dfs = pd.read_html(url, header=0)

Specify an index column

dfs = pd.read_html(url, index_col=0)

Specify a number of rows to skip

dfs = pd.read_html(url, skiprows=0)

Specify a number of rows to skip using a list (xrange (Python 2 only) works as well)

dfs = pd.read_html(url, skiprows=range(2))

Specify an HTML attribute

dfs1 = pd.read_html(url, attrs={'id': 'table'})

dfs2 = pd.read_html(url, attrs={'class': 'sortable'})
print(np.array_equal(dfs1[0], dfs2[0])) # Should be True

Specify values that should be converted to NaN

dfs = pd.read_html(url, na_values=['No Acquirer'])

New in version 0.19.

Specify whether to keep the default set of NaN values

dfs = pd.read_html(url, keep_default_na=False)

New in version 0.19.

Specify converters for columns. This is useful for numerical text data that has leading zeros. By default columns that
are numerical are cast to numeric types and the leading zeros are lost. To avoid this, we can convert these columns to
strings.

url_mcc = 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_country_code'
dfs = pd.read_html(url_mcc, match='Telekom Albania', header=0, converters={'MNC':
str})

New in version 0.19.

Use some combination of the above

24.3. HTML 1071

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

dfs = pd.read_html(url, match='Metcalf Bank', index_col=0)

Read in pandas to_html output (with some loss of floating point precision)
df = pd.DataFrame(randn(2, 2))
s = df.to_html(float_format='{0:.40g}'.format)
dfin = pd.read_html(s, index_col=0)

The lxml backend will raise an error on a failed parse if that is the only parser you provide (if you only have a single
parser you can provide just a string, but it is considered good practice to pass a list with one string if, for example, the
function expects a sequence of strings)
dfs = pd.read_html(url, 'Metcalf Bank', index_col=0, flavor=['lxml'])

or
dfs = pd.read_html(url, 'Metcalf Bank', index_col=0, flavor='lxml')

However, if you have bs4 and html5lib installed and pass None or ['lxml', 'bs4'] then the parse will most
likely succeed. Note that as soon as a parse succeeds, the function will return.
dfs = pd.read_html(url, 'Metcalf Bank', index_col=0, flavor=['lxml', 'bs4'])

24.3.2 Writing to HTML files

DataFrame objects have an instance method to_html which renders the contents of the DataFrame as an HTML
table. The function arguments are as in the method to_string described above.

Note: Not all of the possible options for DataFrame.to_html are shown here for brevity’s sake. See
to_html() for the full set of options.

In [279]: df = pd.DataFrame(randn(2, 2))

In [280]: df
Out[280]:
0 1
0 -0.184744 0.496971
1 -0.856240 1.857977

In [281]: print(df.to_html()) # raw html

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\<table
˓→border="1" class="dataframe">

<thead>
<tr style="text-align: right;">
<th></th>
<th>0</th>
<th>1</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr>
<th>0</th>
<td>-0.184744</td>
<td>0.496971</td>

1072 Chapter 24. IO Tools (Text, CSV, HDF5, ...)

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

</tr>
<tr>
<th>1</th>
<td>-0.856240</td>
<td>1.857977</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>

HTML:
The columns argument will limit the columns shown
In [282]: print(df.to_html(columns=[0]))
<table border="1" class="dataframe">
<thead>
<tr style="text-align: right;">
<th></th>
<th>0</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr>
<th>0</th>
<td>-0.184744</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>1</th>
<td>-0.856240</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>

HTML:
float_format takes a Python callable to control the precision of floating point values
In [283]: print(df.to_html(float_format='{0:.10f}'.format))
<table border="1" class="dataframe">
<thead>
<tr style="text-align: right;">
<th></th>
<th>0</th>
<th>1</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr>
<th>0</th>
<td>-0.1847438576</td>
<td>0.4969711327</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>1</th>
<td>-0.8562396763</td>
<td>1.8579766508</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>

24.3. HTML 1073

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

HTML:
bold_rows will make the row labels bold by default, but you can turn that off

In [284]: print(df.to_html(bold_rows=False))
<table border="1" class="dataframe">
<thead>
<tr style="text-align: right;">
<th></th>
<th>0</th>
<th>1</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr>
<td>0</td>
<td>-0.184744</td>
<td>0.496971</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>1</td>
<td>-0.856240</td>
<td>1.857977</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>

The classes argument provides the ability to give the resulting HTML table CSS classes. Note that these classes
are appended to the existing 'dataframe' class.

In [285]: print(df.to_html(classes=['awesome_table_class', 'even_more_awesome_class

˓→']))

<table border="1" class="dataframe awesome_table_class even_more_awesome_class">

<thead>
<tr style="text-align: right;">
<th></th>
<th>0</th>
<th>1</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr>
<th>0</th>
<td>-0.184744</td>
<td>0.496971</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>1</th>
<td>-0.856240</td>
<td>1.857977</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>

Finally, the escape argument allows you to control whether the “<”, “>” and “&” characters escaped in the resulting
HTML (by default it is True). So to get the HTML without escaped characters pass escape=False

1074 Chapter 24. IO Tools (Text, CSV, HDF5, ...)

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [286]: df = pd.DataFrame({'a': list('&<>'), 'b': randn(3)})

Escaped:

In [287]: print(df.to_html())
<table border="1" class="dataframe">
<thead>
<tr style="text-align: right;">
<th></th>
<th>a</th>
<th>b</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr>
<th>0</th>
<td>&amp;</td>
<td>-0.474063</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>1</th>
<td>&lt;</td>
<td>-0.230305</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>2</th>
<td>&gt;</td>
<td>-0.400654</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>

Not escaped:

In [288]: print(df.to_html(escape=False))
<table border="1" class="dataframe">
<thead>
<tr style="text-align: right;">
<th></th>
<th>a</th>
<th>b</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr>
<th>0</th>
<td>&</td>
<td>-0.474063</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>1</th>
<td><</td>
<td>-0.230305</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<th>2</th>
<td>></td>
<td>-0.400654</td>

24.3. HTML 1075

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

</tr>
</tbody>
</table>

Note: Some browsers may not show a difference in the rendering of the previous two HTML tables.

24.3.3 HTML Table Parsing Gotchas

There are some versioning issues surrounding the libraries that are used to parse HTML tables in the top-level pandas
io function read_html.
Issues with lxml
• Benefits
– lxml is very fast
– lxml requires Cython to install correctly.
• Drawbacks
– lxml does not make any guarantees about the results of its parse unless it is given strictly valid markup.
– In light of the above, we have chosen to allow you, the user, to use the lxml backend, but this backend
will use html5lib if lxml fails to parse
– It is therefore highly recommended that you install both BeautifulSoup4 and html5lib, so that you will
still get a valid result (provided everything else is valid) even if lxml fails.
Issues with BeautifulSoup4 using lxml as a backend
• The above issues hold here as well since BeautifulSoup4 is essentially just a wrapper around a parser backend.
Issues with BeautifulSoup4 using html5lib as a backend
• Benefits
– html5lib is far more lenient than lxml and consequently deals with real-life markup in a much saner way
rather than just, e.g., dropping an element without notifying you.
– html5lib generates valid HTML5 markup from invalid markup automatically. This is extremely important
for parsing HTML tables, since it guarantees a valid document. However, that does NOT mean that it is
“correct”, since the process of fixing markup does not have a single definition.
– html5lib is pure Python and requires no additional build steps beyond its own installation.
• Drawbacks
– The biggest drawback to using html5lib is that it is slow as molasses. However consider the fact that many
tables on the web are not big enough for the parsing algorithm runtime to matter. It is more likely that the
bottleneck will be in the process of reading the raw text from the URL over the web, i.e., IO (input-output).
For very large tables, this might not be true.

24.4 Excel files

The read_excel() method can read Excel 2003 (.xls) and Excel 2007+ (.xlsx) files using the xlrd Python
module. The to_excel() instance method is used for saving a DataFrame to Excel. Generally the semantics are
similar to working with csv data. See the cookbook for some advanced strategies

1076 Chapter 24. IO Tools (Text, CSV, HDF5, ...)

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

24.4.1 Reading Excel Files

In the most basic use-case, read_excel takes a path to an Excel file, and the sheet_name indicating which sheet
to parse.

# Returns a DataFrame
read_excel('path_to_file.xls', sheet_name='Sheet1')

24.4.1.1 ExcelFile class

To facilitate working with multiple sheets from the same file, the ExcelFile class can be used to wrap the file and
can be be passed into read_excel There will be a performance benefit for reading multiple sheets as the file is read
into memory only once.

xlsx = pd.ExcelFile('path_to_file.xls')
df = pd.read_excel(xlsx, 'Sheet1')

The ExcelFile class can also be used as a context manager.

with pd.ExcelFile('path_to_file.xls') as xls:

df1 = pd.read_excel(xls, 'Sheet1')
df2 = pd.read_excel(xls, 'Sheet2')

The sheet_names property will generate a list of the sheet names in the file.
The primary use-case for an ExcelFile is parsing multiple sheets with different parameters

data = {}
# For when Sheet1's format differs from Sheet2
with pd.ExcelFile('path_to_file.xls') as xls:
data['Sheet1'] = pd.read_excel(xls, 'Sheet1', index_col=None, na_values=['NA'])
data['Sheet2'] = pd.read_excel(xls, 'Sheet2', index_col=1)

Note that if the same parsing parameters are used for all sheets, a list of sheet names can simply be passed to
read_excel with no loss in performance.

# using the ExcelFile class

data = {}
with pd.ExcelFile('path_to_file.xls') as xls:
data['Sheet1'] = read_excel(xls, 'Sheet1', index_col=None, na_values=['NA'])
data['Sheet2'] = read_excel(xls, 'Sheet2', index_col=None, na_values=['NA'])

# equivalent using the read_excel function

data = read_excel('path_to_file.xls', ['Sheet1', 'Sheet2'], index_col=None, na_
˓→values=['NA'])

New in version 0.17.

read_excel can take an ExcelFile object as input

24.4.1.2 Specifying Sheets

Note: The second argument is sheet_name, not to be confused with ExcelFile.sheet_names

24.4. Excel files 1077

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Note: An ExcelFile’s attribute sheet_names provides access to a list of sheets.

• The arguments sheet_name allows specifying the sheet or sheets to read.

• The default value for sheet_name is 0, indicating to read the first sheet
• Pass a string to refer to the name of a particular sheet in the workbook.
• Pass an integer to refer to the index of a sheet. Indices follow Python convention, beginning at 0.
• Pass a list of either strings or integers, to return a dictionary of specified sheets.
• Pass a None to return a dictionary of all available sheets.
# Returns a DataFrame
read_excel('path_to_file.xls', 'Sheet1', index_col=None, na_values=['NA'])

Using the sheet index:

# Returns a DataFrame
read_excel('path_to_file.xls', 0, index_col=None, na_values=['NA'])

Using all default values:

# Returns a DataFrame
read_excel('path_to_file.xls')

Using None to get all sheets:

# Returns a dictionary of DataFrames
read_excel('path_to_file.xls',sheet_name=None)

Using a list to get multiple sheets:

# Returns the 1st and 4th sheet, as a dictionary of DataFrames.
read_excel('path_to_file.xls',sheet_name=['Sheet1',3])

read_excel can read more than one sheet, by setting sheet_name to either a list of sheet names, a list of sheet
positions, or None to read all sheets. Sheets can be specified by sheet index or sheet name, using an integer or string,
respectively.

24.4.1.3 Reading a MultiIndex

New in version 0.17.

read_excel can read a MultiIndex index, by passing a list of columns to index_col and a MultiIndex
column by passing a list of rows to header. If either the index or columns have serialized level names those will
be read in as well by specifying the rows/columns that make up the levels.
For example, to read in a MultiIndex index without names:
In [289]: df = pd.DataFrame({'a':[1,2,3,4], 'b':[5,6,7,8]},
.....: index=pd.MultiIndex.from_product([['a','b'],['c','d']]))
.....:

In [290]: df.to_excel('path_to_file.xlsx')

In [291]: df = pd.read_excel('path_to_file.xlsx', index_col=[0,1])

1078 Chapter 24. IO Tools (Text, CSV, HDF5, ...)

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [292]: df
Out[292]:
a b
a c 1 5
d 2 6
b c 3 7
d 4 8

If the index has level names, they will parsed as well, using the same parameters.

In [293]: df.index = df.index.set_names(['lvl1', 'lvl2'])

In [294]: df.to_excel('path_to_file.xlsx')

In [295]: df = pd.read_excel('path_to_file.xlsx', index_col=[0,1])

In [296]: df
Out[296]:
a b
lvl1 lvl2
a c 1 5
d 2 6
b c 3 7
d 4 8

If the source file has both MultiIndex index and columns, lists specifying each should be passed to index_col
and header

In [297]: df.columns = pd.MultiIndex.from_product([['a'],['b', 'd']], names=['c1', 'c2

˓→'])

In [298]: df.to_excel('path_to_file.xlsx')

In [299]: df = pd.read_excel('path_to_file.xlsx',
.....: index_col=[0,1], header=[0,1])
.....:

In [300]: df
Out[300]:
c1 a
c2 b d
lvl1 lvl2
a c 1 5
d 2 6
b c 3 7
d 4 8

24.4.1.4 Parsing Specific Columns

It is often the case that users will insert columns to do temporary computations in Excel and you may not want to read
in those columns. read_excel takes a usecols keyword to allow you to specify a subset of columns to parse.
If usecols is an integer, then it is assumed to indicate the last column to be parsed.

read_excel('path_to_file.xls', 'Sheet1', usecols=2)

24.4. Excel files 1079

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

If usecols is a list of integers, then it is assumed to be the file column indices to be parsed.
read_excel('path_to_file.xls', 'Sheet1', usecols=[0, 2, 3])

24.4.1.5 Parsing Dates

Datetime-like values are normally automatically converted to the appropriate dtype when reading the excel file. But
if you have a column of strings that look like dates (but are not actually formatted as dates in excel), you can use the
parse_dates keyword to parse those strings to datetimes:
read_excel('path_to_file.xls', 'Sheet1', parse_dates=['date_strings'])

24.4.1.6 Cell Converters

It is possible to transform the contents of Excel cells via the converters option. For instance, to convert a column to
boolean:
read_excel('path_to_file.xls', 'Sheet1', converters={'MyBools': bool})

This options handles missing values and treats exceptions in the converters as missing data. Transformations are
applied cell by cell rather than to the column as a whole, so the array dtype is not guaranteed. For instance, a column
of integers with missing values cannot be transformed to an array with integer dtype, because NaN is strictly a float.
You can manually mask missing data to recover integer dtype:
cfun = lambda x: int(x) if x else -1
read_excel('path_to_file.xls', 'Sheet1', converters={'MyInts': cfun})

24.4.1.7 dtype Specifications

New in version 0.20.

As an alternative to converters, the type for an entire column can be specified using the dtype keyword, which takes a
dictionary mapping column names to types. To interpret data with no type inference, use the type str or object.
read_excel('path_to_file.xls', dtype={'MyInts': 'int64', 'MyText': str})

24.4.2 Writing Excel Files

24.4.2.1 Writing Excel Files to Disk

To write a DataFrame object to a sheet of an Excel file, you can use the to_excel instance method. The arguments
are largely the same as to_csv described above, the first argument being the name of the excel file, and the optional
second argument the name of the sheet to which the DataFrame should be written. For example:
df.to_excel('path_to_file.xlsx', sheet_name='Sheet1')

Files with a .xls extension will be written using xlwt and those with a .xlsx extension will be written using
xlsxwriter (if available) or openpyxl.
The DataFrame will be written in a way that tries to mimic the REPL output. The index_label will be placed in the
second row instead of the first. You can place it in the first row by setting the merge_cells option in to_excel()
to False:

1080 Chapter 24. IO Tools (Text, CSV, HDF5, ...)

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

df.to_excel('path_to_file.xlsx', index_label='label', merge_cells=False)

The Panel class also has a to_excel instance method, which writes each DataFrame in the Panel to a separate sheet.
In order to write separate DataFrames to separate sheets in a single Excel file, one can pass an ExcelWriter.

with ExcelWriter('path_to_file.xlsx') as writer:

df1.to_excel(writer, sheet_name='Sheet1')
df2.to_excel(writer, sheet_name='Sheet2')

Note: Wringing a little more performance out of read_excel Internally, Excel stores all numeric data as floats.
Because this can produce unexpected behavior when reading in data, pandas defaults to trying to convert integers to
floats if it doesn’t lose information (1.0 --> 1). You can pass convert_float=False to disable this behavior,
which may give a slight performance improvement.

24.4.2.2 Writing Excel Files to Memory

New in version 0.17.

Pandas supports writing Excel files to buffer-like objects such as StringIO or BytesIO using ExcelWriter.
New in version 0.17.
Added support for Openpyxl >= 2.2

# Safe import for either Python 2.x or 3.x

try:
from io import BytesIO
except ImportError:
from cStringIO import StringIO as BytesIO

bio = BytesIO()

# By setting the 'engine' in the ExcelWriter constructor.

writer = ExcelWriter(bio, engine='xlsxwriter')
df.to_excel(writer, sheet_name='Sheet1')

# Save the workbook

writer.save()

# Seek to the beginning and read to copy the workbook to a variable in memory
bio.seek(0)
workbook = bio.read()

Note: engine is optional but recommended. Setting the engine determines the version of workbook produced.
Setting engine='xlrd' will produce an Excel 2003-format workbook (xls). Using either 'openpyxl' or
'xlsxwriter' will produce an Excel 2007-format workbook (xlsx). If omitted, an Excel 2007-formatted workbook
is produced.

24.4.3 Excel writer engines

pandas chooses an Excel writer via two methods:

24.4. Excel files 1081

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

1. the engine keyword argument

2. the filename extension (via the default specified in config options)
By default, pandas uses the XlsxWriter for .xlsx and openpyxl for .xlsm files and xlwt for .xls files. If you
have multiple engines installed, you can set the default engine through setting the config options io.excel.xlsx.
writer and io.excel.xls.writer. pandas will fall back on openpyxl for .xlsx files if Xlsxwriter is not
available.
To specify which writer you want to use, you can pass an engine keyword argument to to_excel and to
ExcelWriter. The built-in engines are:
• openpyxl: This includes stable support for Openpyxl from 1.6.1. However, it is advised to use version 2.2
and higher, especially when working with styles.
• xlsxwriter
• xlwt

# By setting the 'engine' in the DataFrame and Panel 'to_excel()' methods.

df.to_excel('path_to_file.xlsx', sheet_name='Sheet1', engine='xlsxwriter')

# By setting the 'engine' in the ExcelWriter constructor.

writer = ExcelWriter('path_to_file.xlsx', engine='xlsxwriter')

# Or via pandas configuration.

from pandas import options
options.io.excel.xlsx.writer = 'xlsxwriter'

df.to_excel('path_to_file.xlsx', sheet_name='Sheet1')

24.4.4 Style and Formatting

The look and feel of Excel worksheets created from pandas can be modified using the following parameters on the
DataFrame‘s to_excel method.
• float_format : Format string for floating point numbers (default None)
• freeze_panes : A tuple of two integers representing the bottommost row and rightmost column to freeze.
Each of these parameters is one-based, so (1, 1) will freeze the first row and first column (default None)

24.5 Clipboard

A handy way to grab data is to use the read_clipboard method, which takes the contents of the clipboard buffer
and passes them to the read_table method. For instance, you can copy the following text to the clipboard (CTRL-C
on many operating systems):

A B C
x 1 4 p
y 2 5 q
z 3 6 r

And then import the data directly to a DataFrame by calling:

clipdf = pd.read_clipboard()

1082 Chapter 24. IO Tools (Text, CSV, HDF5, ...)

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [301]: clipdf
Out[301]:
A B C
x 1 4 p
y 2 5 q
z 3 6 r

The to_clipboard method can be used to write the contents of a DataFrame to the clipboard. Following which
you can paste the clipboard contents into other applications (CTRL-V on many operating systems). Here we illustrate
writing a DataFrame into clipboard and reading it back.

In [302]: df = pd.DataFrame(randn(5,3))

In [303]: df
Out[303]:
0 1 2
0 -0.288267 -0.084905 0.004772
1 1.382989 0.343635 -1.253994
2 -0.124925 0.212244 0.496654
3 0.525417 1.238640 -1.210543
4 -1.175743 -0.172372 -0.734129

In [304]: df.to_clipboard()

In [305]: pd.read_clipboard()
Out[305]:
0 1 2
0 -0.288267 -0.084905 0.004772
1 1.382989 0.343635 -1.253994
2 -0.124925 0.212244 0.496654
3 0.525417 1.238640 -1.210543
4 -1.175743 -0.172372 -0.734129

We can see that we got the same content back, which we had earlier written to the clipboard.

Note: You may need to install xclip or xsel (with gtk or PyQt4 modules) on Linux to use these methods.

24.6 Pickling

All pandas objects are equipped with to_pickle methods which use Python’s cPickle module to save data
structures to disk using the pickle format.

In [306]: df
Out[306]:
0 1 2
0 -0.288267 -0.084905 0.004772
1 1.382989 0.343635 -1.253994
2 -0.124925 0.212244 0.496654
3 0.525417 1.238640 -1.210543
4 -1.175743 -0.172372 -0.734129

In [307]: df.to_pickle('foo.pkl')

24.6. Pickling 1083

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

The read_pickle function in the pandas namespace can be used to load any pickled pandas object (or any other
pickled object) from file:

In [308]: pd.read_pickle('foo.pkl')
Out[308]:
0 1 2
0 -0.288267 -0.084905 0.004772
1 1.382989 0.343635 -1.253994
2 -0.124925 0.212244 0.496654
3 0.525417 1.238640 -1.210543
4 -1.175743 -0.172372 -0.734129

Warning: Loading pickled data received from untrusted sources can be unsafe.
See: https://docs.python.org/3.6/library/pickle.html

Warning: Several internal refactorings have been done while still preserving compatibility with pickles created
with older versions of pandas. However, for such cases, pickled dataframes, series etc, must be read with pd.
read_pickle, rather than pickle.load.
See here and here for some examples of compatibility-breaking changes. See this question for a detailed explana-
tion.

24.6.1 Compressed pickle files

New in version 0.20.0.

read_pickle(), DataFrame.to_pickle() and Series.to_pickle() can read and write compressed
pickle files. The compression types of gzip, bz2, xz are supported for reading and writing. zip‘ file supports read
only and must contain only one data file to be read in.
The compression type can be an explicit parameter or be inferred from the file extension. If ‘infer’, then use gzip,
bz2, zip, or xz if filename ends in '.gz', '.bz2', '.zip', or '.xz', respectively.

In [309]: df = pd.DataFrame({
.....: 'A': np.random.randn(1000),
.....: 'B': 'foo',
.....: 'C': pd.date_range('20130101', periods=1000, freq='s')})
.....:

In [310]: df
Out[310]:
A B C
0 0.478412 foo 2013-01-01 00:00:00
1 -0.783748 foo 2013-01-01 00:00:01
2 1.403558 foo 2013-01-01 00:00:02
3 -0.539282 foo 2013-01-01 00:00:03
4 -1.651012 foo 2013-01-01 00:00:04
5 0.692072 foo 2013-01-01 00:00:05
6 1.022171 foo 2013-01-01 00:00:06
.. ... ... ...
993 -1.613932 foo 2013-01-01 00:16:33
994 1.088104 foo 2013-01-01 00:16:34
995 -0.632963 foo 2013-01-01 00:16:35

1084 Chapter 24. IO Tools (Text, CSV, HDF5, ...)

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

996 -0.585314 foo 2013-01-01 00:16:36

997 -0.275038 foo 2013-01-01 00:16:37
998 -0.937512 foo 2013-01-01 00:16:38
999 0.632369 foo 2013-01-01 00:16:39

[1000 rows x 3 columns]

Using an explicit compression type

In [311]: df.to_pickle("data.pkl.compress", compression="gzip")

In [312]: rt = pd.read_pickle("data.pkl.compress", compression="gzip")

In [313]: rt
Out[313]:
A B C
0 0.478412 foo 2013-01-01 00:00:00
1 -0.783748 foo 2013-01-01 00:00:01
2 1.403558 foo 2013-01-01 00:00:02
3 -0.539282 foo 2013-01-01 00:00:03
4 -1.651012 foo 2013-01-01 00:00:04
5 0.692072 foo 2013-01-01 00:00:05
6 1.022171 foo 2013-01-01 00:00:06
.. ... ... ...
993 -1.613932 foo 2013-01-01 00:16:33
994 1.088104 foo 2013-01-01 00:16:34
995 -0.632963 foo 2013-01-01 00:16:35
996 -0.585314 foo 2013-01-01 00:16:36
997 -0.275038 foo 2013-01-01 00:16:37
998 -0.937512 foo 2013-01-01 00:16:38
999 0.632369 foo 2013-01-01 00:16:39

[1000 rows x 3 columns]

Inferring compression type from the extension

In [314]: df.to_pickle("data.pkl.xz", compression="infer")

In [315]: rt = pd.read_pickle("data.pkl.xz", compression="infer")

In [316]: rt
Out[316]:
A B C
0 0.478412 foo 2013-01-01 00:00:00
1 -0.783748 foo 2013-01-01 00:00:01
2 1.403558 foo 2013-01-01 00:00:02
3 -0.539282 foo 2013-01-01 00:00:03
4 -1.651012 foo 2013-01-01 00:00:04
5 0.692072 foo 2013-01-01 00:00:05
6 1.022171 foo 2013-01-01 00:00:06
.. ... ... ...
993 -1.613932 foo 2013-01-01 00:16:33
994 1.088104 foo 2013-01-01 00:16:34
995 -0.632963 foo 2013-01-01 00:16:35
996 -0.585314 foo 2013-01-01 00:16:36
997 -0.275038 foo 2013-01-01 00:16:37
998 -0.937512 foo 2013-01-01 00:16:38
999 0.632369 foo 2013-01-01 00:16:39

24.6. Pickling 1085

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

[1000 rows x 3 columns]

The default is to ‘infer

In [317]: df.to_pickle("data.pkl.gz")

In [318]: rt = pd.read_pickle("data.pkl.gz")

In [319]: rt
Out[319]:
A B C
0 0.478412 foo 2013-01-01 00:00:00
1 -0.783748 foo 2013-01-01 00:00:01
2 1.403558 foo 2013-01-01 00:00:02
3 -0.539282 foo 2013-01-01 00:00:03
4 -1.651012 foo 2013-01-01 00:00:04
5 0.692072 foo 2013-01-01 00:00:05
6 1.022171 foo 2013-01-01 00:00:06
.. ... ... ...
993 -1.613932 foo 2013-01-01 00:16:33
994 1.088104 foo 2013-01-01 00:16:34
995 -0.632963 foo 2013-01-01 00:16:35
996 -0.585314 foo 2013-01-01 00:16:36
997 -0.275038 foo 2013-01-01 00:16:37
998 -0.937512 foo 2013-01-01 00:16:38
999 0.632369 foo 2013-01-01 00:16:39

[1000 rows x 3 columns]

In [320]: df["A"].to_pickle("s1.pkl.bz2")

In [321]: rt = pd.read_pickle("s1.pkl.bz2")

In [322]: rt
Out[322]:
0 0.478412
1 -0.783748
2 1.403558
3 -0.539282
4 -1.651012
5 0.692072
6 1.022171
...
993 -1.613932
994 1.088104
995 -0.632963
996 -0.585314
997 -0.275038
998 -0.937512
999 0.632369
Name: A, Length: 1000, dtype: float64

1086 Chapter 24. IO Tools (Text, CSV, HDF5, ...)

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

24.7 msgpack

pandas supports the msgpack format for object serialization. This is a lightweight portable binary format, similar
to binary JSON, that is highly space efficient, and provides good performance both on the writing (serialization), and
reading (deserialization).

Warning: This is a very new feature of pandas. We intend to provide certain optimizations in the io of the
msgpack data. Since this is marked as an EXPERIMENTAL LIBRARY, the storage format may not be stable
until a future release.
As a result of writing format changes and other issues:
Packed with Can be unpacked with
pre-0.17 / Python 2 any
pre-0.17 / Python 3 any
0.17 / Python 2
• 0.17 / Python 2
• >=0.18 / any Python

0.17 / Python 3 >=0.18 / any Python

0.18 >= 0.18
Reading (files packed by older versions) is backward-compatibile, except for files packed with 0.17 in Python 2,
in which case only they can only be unpacked in Python 2.

In [323]: df = pd.DataFrame(np.random.rand(5,2),columns=list('AB'))

In [324]: df.to_msgpack('foo.msg')

In [325]: pd.read_msgpack('foo.msg')
Out[325]:
A B
0 0.170801 0.895366
1 0.838238 0.052592
2 0.664140 0.289750
3 0.449593 0.872087
4 0.983618 0.744359

In [326]: s = pd.Series(np.random.rand(5),index=pd.date_range('20130101',periods=5))

You can pass a list of objects and you will receive them back on deserialization.
In [327]: pd.to_msgpack('foo.msg', df, 'foo', np.array([1,2,3]), s)

In [328]: pd.read_msgpack('foo.msg')
Out[328]:
[ A B
0 0.170801 0.895366
1 0.838238 0.052592
2 0.664140 0.289750
3 0.449593 0.872087
4 0.983618 0.744359, 'foo', array([1, 2, 3]), 2013-01-01 0.548134
2013-01-02 0.503447
2013-01-03 0.348438
2013-01-04 0.707267
2013-01-05 0.261656

24.7. msgpack 1087

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Freq: D, dtype: float64]

You can pass iterator=True to iterate over the unpacked results

In [329]: for o in pd.read_msgpack('foo.msg',iterator=True):
.....: print(o)
.....:
A B
0 0.170801 0.895366
1 0.838238 0.052592
2 0.664140 0.289750
3 0.449593 0.872087
4 0.983618 0.744359
foo
[1 2 3]
2013-01-01 0.548134
2013-01-02 0.503447
2013-01-03 0.348438
2013-01-04 0.707267
2013-01-05 0.261656
Freq: D, dtype: float64

You can pass append=True to the writer to append to an existing pack

In [330]: df.to_msgpack('foo.msg',append=True)

In [331]: pd.read_msgpack('foo.msg')
Out[331]:
[ A B
0 0.170801 0.895366
1 0.838238 0.052592
2 0.664140 0.289750
3 0.449593 0.872087
4 0.983618 0.744359, 'foo', array([1, 2, 3]), 2013-01-01 0.548134
2013-01-02 0.503447
2013-01-03 0.348438
2013-01-04 0.707267
2013-01-05 0.261656
Freq: D, dtype: float64, A B
0 0.170801 0.895366
1 0.838238 0.052592
2 0.664140 0.289750
3 0.449593 0.872087
4 0.983618 0.744359]

Unlike other io methods, to_msgpack is available on both a per-object basis, df.to_msgpack() and using the
top-level pd.to_msgpack(...) where you can pack arbitrary collections of python lists, dicts, scalars, while
intermixing pandas objects.
In [332]: pd.to_msgpack('foo2.msg', { 'dict' : [ { 'df' : df }, { 'string' : 'foo' },
˓→{ 'scalar' : 1. }, { 's' : s } ] })

In [333]: pd.read_msgpack('foo2.msg')
Out[333]:
{'dict': ({'df': A B
0 0.170801 0.895366
1 0.838238 0.052592
2 0.664140 0.289750

1088 Chapter 24. IO Tools (Text, CSV, HDF5, ...)

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

3 0.449593 0.872087
4 0.983618 0.744359},
{'string': 'foo'},
{'scalar': 1.0},
{'s': 2013-01-01 0.548134
2013-01-02 0.503447
2013-01-03 0.348438
2013-01-04 0.707267
2013-01-05 0.261656
Freq: D, dtype: float64})}

24.7.1 Read/Write API

Msgpacks can also be read from and written to strings.

In [334]: df.to_msgpack()
Out[334]: b'\x84\xa3typ\xadblock_
˓→manager\xa5klass\xa9DataFrame\xa4axes\x92\x86\xa3typ\xa5index\xa5klass\xa5Index\xa4name\xc0\xa5dtyp

˓→index\xa5klass\xaaRangeIndex\xa4name\xc0\xa5start\x00\xa4stop\x05\xa4step\x01\xa6blocks\x91\x86\xa4

˓→<\xfd\xd2f\xcf\xdc\xc5?0\x15\xebN\xd9\xd2\xea?,\x9c\x16A\xa2@\xe5?\xd8/\xdd\xf4

˓→"\xc6\xdc?\x11\x1e\x97\x1b\xcdy\xef?&\x1e<\xee\xd6\xa6\xec?p\xd3;\xb2N\xed\xaa?

˓→h\xcb\xb1\xbdB\x8b\xd2?\xaf4\x01r"\xe8\xeb?)G6\xd9\xc9\xd1\xe7?

˓→\xa5shape\x92\x02\x05\xa5dtype\xa7float64\xa5klass\xaaFloatBlock\xa8compress\xc0'

Furthermore you can concatenate the strings to produce a list of the original objects.

In [335]: pd.read_msgpack(df.to_msgpack() + s.to_msgpack())

Out[335]:
[ A B
0 0.170801 0.895366
1 0.838238 0.052592
2 0.664140 0.289750
3 0.449593 0.872087
4 0.983618 0.744359, 2013-01-01 0.548134
2013-01-02 0.503447
2013-01-03 0.348438
2013-01-04 0.707267
2013-01-05 0.261656
Freq: D, dtype: float64]

24.8 HDF5 (PyTables)

HDFStore is a dict-like object which reads and writes pandas using the high performance HDF5 format using the
excellent PyTables library. See the cookbook for some advanced strategies

Warning: pandas requires PyTables >= 3.0.0. There is a indexing bug in PyTables < 3.2 which may appear
when querying stores using an index. If you see a subset of results being returned, upgrade to PyTables >= 3.2.
Stores created previously will need to be rewritten using the updated version.

24.8. HDF5 (PyTables) 1089

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Warning: As of version 0.17.0, HDFStore will not drop rows that have all missing values by default. Previously,
if all values (except the index) were missing, HDFStore would not write those rows to disk.

In [336]: store = pd.HDFStore('store.h5')

In [337]: print(store)
<class 'pandas.io.pytables.HDFStore'>
File path: store.h5

Objects can be written to the file just like adding key-value pairs to a dict:
In [338]: np.random.seed(1234)

In [339]: index = pd.date_range('1/1/2000', periods=8)

In [340]: s = pd.Series(randn(5), index=['a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'e'])

In [341]: df = pd.DataFrame(randn(8, 3), index=index,

.....: columns=['A', 'B', 'C'])
.....:

In [342]: wp = pd.Panel(randn(2, 5, 4), items=['Item1', 'Item2'],

.....: major_axis=pd.date_range('1/1/2000', periods=5),
.....: minor_axis=['A', 'B', 'C', 'D'])
.....:

# store.put('s', s) is an equivalent method

In [343]: store['s'] = s

In [344]: store['df'] = df

In [345]: store['wp'] = wp

# the type of stored data

In [346]: store.root.wp._v_attrs.pandas_type
Out[346]: 'wide'

In [347]: store
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[347]:
<class 'pandas.io.pytables.HDFStore'>
File path: store.h5

In a current or later Python session, you can retrieve stored objects:

# store.get('df') is an equivalent method
In [348]: store['df']
Out[348]:
A B C
2000-01-01 0.887163 0.859588 -0.636524
2000-01-02 0.015696 -2.242685 1.150036
2000-01-03 0.991946 0.953324 -2.021255
2000-01-04 -0.334077 0.002118 0.405453
2000-01-05 0.289092 1.321158 -1.546906
2000-01-06 -0.202646 -0.655969 0.193421
2000-01-07 0.553439 1.318152 -0.469305
2000-01-08 0.675554 -1.817027 -0.183109

1090 Chapter 24. IO Tools (Text, CSV, HDF5, ...)

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

# dotted (attribute) access provides get as well

In [349]: store.df
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

A B C
2000-01-01 0.887163 0.859588 -0.636524
2000-01-02 0.015696 -2.242685 1.150036
2000-01-03 0.991946 0.953324 -2.021255
2000-01-04 -0.334077 0.002118 0.405453
2000-01-05 0.289092 1.321158 -1.546906
2000-01-06 -0.202646 -0.655969 0.193421
2000-01-07 0.553439 1.318152 -0.469305
2000-01-08 0.675554 -1.817027 -0.183109

Deletion of the object specified by the key

# store.remove('wp') is an equivalent method

In [350]: del store['wp']

In [351]: store
Out[351]:
<class 'pandas.io.pytables.HDFStore'>
File path: store.h5

Closing a Store, Context Manager

In [352]: store.close()

In [353]: store
Out[353]:
<class 'pandas.io.pytables.HDFStore'>
File path: store.h5

In [354]: store.is_open
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[354]: False

# Working with, and automatically closing the store with the context
# manager
In [355]: with pd.HDFStore('store.h5') as store:
.....: store.keys()
.....:

24.8.1 Read/Write API

HDFStore supports an top-level API using read_hdf for reading and to_hdf for writing, similar to how
read_csv and to_csv work.

In [356]: df_tl = pd.DataFrame(dict(A=list(range(5)), B=list(range(5))))

In [357]: df_tl.to_hdf('store_tl.h5','table',append=True)

In [358]: pd.read_hdf('store_tl.h5', 'table', where = ['index>2'])

Out[358]:
A B
3 3 3
4 4 4

24.8. HDF5 (PyTables) 1091

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

As of version 0.17.0, HDFStore will no longer drop rows that are all missing by default. This behavior can be enabled
by setting dropna=True.
In [359]: df_with_missing = pd.DataFrame({'col1':[0, np.nan, 2],
.....: 'col2':[1, np.nan, np.nan]})
.....:

In [360]: df_with_missing
Out[360]:
col1 col2
0 0.0 1.0
1 NaN NaN
2 2.0 NaN

In [361]: df_with_missing.to_hdf('file.h5', 'df_with_missing',

.....: format = 'table', mode='w')
.....:

In [362]: pd.read_hdf('file.h5', 'df_with_missing')

Out[362]:
col1 col2
0 0.0 1.0
1 NaN NaN
2 2.0 NaN

In [363]: df_with_missing.to_hdf('file.h5', 'df_with_missing',

.....: format = 'table', mode='w', dropna=True)
.....:

In [364]: pd.read_hdf('file.h5', 'df_with_missing')

Out[364]:
col1 col2
0 0.0 1.0
2 2.0 NaN

This is also true for the major axis of a Panel:

In [365]: matrix = [[[np.nan, np.nan, np.nan],[1,np.nan,np.nan]],
.....: [[np.nan, np.nan, np.nan], [np.nan,5,6]],
.....: [[np.nan, np.nan, np.nan],[np.nan,3,np.nan]]]
.....:

In [366]: panel_with_major_axis_all_missing = pd.Panel(matrix,

.....: items=['Item1', 'Item2','Item3'],
.....: major_axis=[1,2],
.....: minor_axis=['A', 'B', 'C'])
.....:

In [367]: panel_with_major_axis_all_missing
Out[367]:
<class 'pandas.core.panel.Panel'>
Dimensions: 3 (items) x 2 (major_axis) x 3 (minor_axis)
Items axis: Item1 to Item3
Major_axis axis: 1 to 2
Minor_axis axis: A to C

In [368]: panel_with_major_axis_all_missing.to_hdf('file.h5', 'panel',

.....: dropna = True,
.....: format='table',

1092 Chapter 24. IO Tools (Text, CSV, HDF5, ...)

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

.....: mode='w')
.....:

In [369]: reloaded = pd.read_hdf('file.h5', 'panel')

In [370]: reloaded
Out[370]:
<class 'pandas.core.panel.Panel'>
Dimensions: 3 (items) x 1 (major_axis) x 3 (minor_axis)
Items axis: Item1 to Item3
Major_axis axis: 2 to 2
Minor_axis axis: A to C

24.8.2 Fixed Format

The examples above show storing using put, which write the HDF5 to PyTables in a fixed array format, called
the fixed format. These types of stores are not appendable once written (though you can simply remove them and
rewrite). Nor are they queryable; they must be retrieved in their entirety. They also do not support dataframes with
non-unique column names. The fixed format stores offer very fast writing and slightly faster reading than table
stores. This format is specified by default when using put or to_hdf or by format='fixed' or format='f'

Warning: A fixed format will raise a TypeError if you try to retrieve using a where .
pd.DataFrame(randn(10,2)).to_hdf('test_fixed.h5','df')

pd.read_hdf('test_fixed.h5','df',where='index>5')
TypeError: cannot pass a where specification when reading a fixed format.
this store must be selected in its entirety

24.8.3 Table Format

HDFStore supports another PyTables format on disk, the table format. Conceptually a table is shaped very
much like a DataFrame, with rows and columns. A table may be appended to in the same or other sessions. In addi-
tion, delete & query type operations are supported. This format is specified by format='table' or format='t'
to append or put or to_hdf
This format can be set as an option as well pd.set_option('io.hdf.default_format','table') to
enable put/append/to_hdf to by default store in the table format.
In [371]: store = pd.HDFStore('store.h5')

In [372]: df1 = df[0:4]

In [373]: df2 = df[4:]

# append data (creates a table automatically)

In [374]: store.append('df', df1)

In [375]: store.append('df', df2)

In [376]: store
Out[376]:
<class 'pandas.io.pytables.HDFStore'>

24.8. HDF5 (PyTables) 1093

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

File path: store.h5

# select the entire object

In [377]: store.select('df')
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[377]:
A B C
2000-01-01 0.887163 0.859588 -0.636524
2000-01-02 0.015696 -2.242685 1.150036
2000-01-03 0.991946 0.953324 -2.021255
2000-01-04 -0.334077 0.002118 0.405453
2000-01-05 0.289092 1.321158 -1.546906
2000-01-06 -0.202646 -0.655969 0.193421
2000-01-07 0.553439 1.318152 -0.469305
2000-01-08 0.675554 -1.817027 -0.183109

# the type of stored data

In [378]: store.root.df._v_attrs.pandas_type
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→'frame_table'

Note: You can also create a table by passing format='table' or format='t' to a put operation.

24.8.4 Hierarchical Keys

Keys to a store can be specified as a string. These can be in a hierarchical path-name like format (e.g. foo/bar/
bah), which will generate a hierarchy of sub-stores (or Groups in PyTables parlance). Keys can be specified with
out the leading ‘/’ and are ALWAYS absolute (e.g. ‘foo’ refers to ‘/foo’). Removal operations can remove everything
in the sub-store and BELOW, so be careful.

In [379]: store.put('foo/bar/bah', df)

In [380]: store.append('food/orange', df)

In [381]: store.append('food/apple', df)

In [382]: store
Out[382]:
<class 'pandas.io.pytables.HDFStore'>
File path: store.h5

# a list of keys are returned

In [383]: store.keys()
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[383]: ['/df',
˓→ '/food/apple', '/food/orange', '/foo/bar/bah']

# remove all nodes under this level

In [384]: store.remove('food')

In [385]: store
Out[385]:
<class 'pandas.io.pytables.HDFStore'>
File path: store.h5

1094 Chapter 24. IO Tools (Text, CSV, HDF5, ...)

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Warning: Hierarchical keys cannot be retrieved as dotted (attribute) access as described above for items stored
under the root node.
In [8]: store.foo.bar.bah
AttributeError: 'HDFStore' object has no attribute 'foo'

# you can directly access the actual PyTables node but using the root node
In [9]: store.root.foo.bar.bah
Out[9]:
/foo/bar/bah (Group) ''
children := ['block0_items' (Array), 'block0_values' (Array), 'axis0' (Array),
˓→'axis1' (Array)]

Instead, use explicit string based keys

In [386]: store['foo/bar/bah']
Out[386]:
A B C
2000-01-01 0.887163 0.859588 -0.636524
2000-01-02 0.015696 -2.242685 1.150036
2000-01-03 0.991946 0.953324 -2.021255
2000-01-04 -0.334077 0.002118 0.405453
2000-01-05 0.289092 1.321158 -1.546906
2000-01-06 -0.202646 -0.655969 0.193421
2000-01-07 0.553439 1.318152 -0.469305
2000-01-08 0.675554 -1.817027 -0.183109

24.8.5 Storing Types

24.8.5.1 Storing Mixed Types in a Table

Storing mixed-dtype data is supported. Strings are stored as a fixed-width using the maximum size of the appended
column. Subsequent attempts at appending longer strings will raise a ValueError.
Passing min_itemsize={`values`: size} as a parameter to append will set a larger minimum for the string
columns. Storing floats, strings, ints, bools, datetime64 are currently supported. For string
columns, passing nan_rep = 'nan' to append will change the default nan representation on disk (which con-
verts to/from np.nan), this defaults to nan.

In [387]: df_mixed = pd.DataFrame({ 'A' : randn(8),

.....: 'B' : randn(8),
.....: 'C' : np.array(randn(8),dtype='float32'),
.....: 'string' :'string',
.....: 'int' : 1,
.....: 'bool' : True,
.....: 'datetime64' : pd.Timestamp('20010102')},
.....: index=list(range(8)))
.....:

In [388]: df_mixed.loc[df_mixed.index[3:5], ['A', 'B', 'string', 'datetime64']] = np.

˓→nan

In [389]: store.append('df_mixed', df_mixed, min_itemsize = {'values': 50})

In [390]: df_mixed1 = store.select('df_mixed')

24.8. HDF5 (PyTables) 1095

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [391]: df_mixed1
Out[391]:
A B C bool datetime64 int string
0 0.704721 -1.152659 -0.430096 True 2001-01-02 1 string
1 -0.785435 0.631979 0.767369 True 2001-01-02 1 string
2 0.462060 0.039513 0.984920 True 2001-01-02 1 string
3 NaN NaN 0.270836 True NaT 1 NaN
4 NaN NaN 1.391986 True NaT 1 NaN
5 -0.926254 1.321106 0.079842 True 2001-01-02 1 string
6 2.007843 0.152631 -0.399965 True 2001-01-02 1 string
7 0.226963 0.164530 -1.027851 True 2001-01-02 1 string

In [392]: df_mixed1.get_dtype_counts()
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

bool 1
datetime64[ns] 1
float32 1
float64 2
int64 1
object 1
dtype: int64

# we have provided a minimum string column size

In [393]: store.root.df_mixed.table
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

/df_mixed/table (Table(8,)) ''

description := {
"index": Int64Col(shape=(), dflt=0, pos=0),
"values_block_0": Float64Col(shape=(2,), dflt=0.0, pos=1),
"values_block_1": Float32Col(shape=(1,), dflt=0.0, pos=2),
"values_block_2": Int64Col(shape=(1,), dflt=0, pos=3),
"values_block_3": Int64Col(shape=(1,), dflt=0, pos=4),
"values_block_4": BoolCol(shape=(1,), dflt=False, pos=5),
"values_block_5": StringCol(itemsize=50, shape=(1,), dflt=b'', pos=6)}
byteorder := 'little'
chunkshape := (689,)
autoindex := True
colindexes := {
"index": Index(6, medium, shuffle, zlib(1)).is_csi=False}

24.8.5.2 Storing Multi-Index DataFrames

Storing multi-index dataframes as tables is very similar to storing/selecting from homogeneous index DataFrames.
In [394]: index = pd.MultiIndex(levels=[['foo', 'bar', 'baz', 'qux'],
.....: ['one', 'two', 'three']],
.....: labels=[[0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 2, 2, 3, 3, 3],
.....: [0, 1, 2, 0, 1, 1, 2, 0, 1, 2]],
.....: names=['foo', 'bar'])
.....:

In [395]: df_mi = pd.DataFrame(np.random.randn(10, 3), index=index,

.....: columns=['A', 'B', 'C'])
.....:

1096 Chapter 24. IO Tools (Text, CSV, HDF5, ...)

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [396]: df_mi
Out[396]:
A B C
foo bar
foo one -0.584718 0.816594 -0.081947
two -0.344766 0.528288 -1.068989
three -0.511881 0.291205 0.566534
bar one 0.503592 0.285296 0.484288
two 1.363482 -0.781105 -0.468018
baz two 1.224574 -1.281108 0.875476
three -1.710715 -0.450765 0.749164
qux one -0.203933 -0.182175 0.680656
two -1.818499 0.047072 0.394844
three -0.248432 -0.617707 -0.682884

In [397]: store.append('df_mi',df_mi)

In [398]: store.select('df_mi')
Out[398]:
A B C
foo bar
foo one -0.584718 0.816594 -0.081947
two -0.344766 0.528288 -1.068989
three -0.511881 0.291205 0.566534
bar one 0.503592 0.285296 0.484288
two 1.363482 -0.781105 -0.468018
baz two 1.224574 -1.281108 0.875476
three -1.710715 -0.450765 0.749164
qux one -0.203933 -0.182175 0.680656
two -1.818499 0.047072 0.394844
three -0.248432 -0.617707 -0.682884

# the levels are automatically included as data columns

In [399]: store.select('df_mi', 'foo=bar')
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

A B C
foo bar
bar one 0.503592 0.285296 0.484288
two 1.363482 -0.781105 -0.468018

24.8.6 Querying

24.8.6.1 Querying a Table

Warning: This query capabilities have changed substantially starting in 0.13.0. Queries from prior version are
accepted (with a DeprecationWarning) printed if its not string-like.

select and delete operations have an optional criterion that can be specified to select/delete only a subset of the
data. This allows one to have a very large on-disk table and retrieve only a portion of the data.
A query is specified using the Term class under the hood, as a boolean expression.
• index and columns are supported indexers of a DataFrame

24.8. HDF5 (PyTables) 1097

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• major_axis, minor_axis, and items are supported indexers of the Panel

• if data_columns are specified, these can be used as additional indexers
Valid comparison operators are:
=, ==, !=, >, >=, <, <=
Valid boolean expressions are combined with:
• | : or
• & : and
• ( and ) : for grouping
These rules are similar to how boolean expressions are used in pandas for indexing.

Note:
• = will be automatically expanded to the comparison operator ==
• ~ is the not operator, but can only be used in very limited circumstances
• If a list/tuple of expressions is passed they will be combined via &

The following are valid expressions:

• 'index>=date'
• "columns=['A', 'D']"
• "columns in ['A', 'D']"
• 'columns=A'
• 'columns==A'
• "~(columns=['A','B'])"
• 'index>df.index[3] & string="bar"'
• '(index>df.index[3] & index<=df.index[6]) | string="bar"'
• "ts>=Timestamp('2012-02-01')"
• "major_axis>=20130101"
The indexers are on the left-hand side of the sub-expression:
columns, major_axis, ts
The right-hand side of the sub-expression (after a comparison operator) can be:
• functions that will be evaluated, e.g. Timestamp('2012-02-01')
• strings, e.g. "bar"
• date-like, e.g. 20130101, or "20130101"
• lists, e.g. "['A','B']"
• variables that are defined in the local names space, e.g. date

Note: Passing a string to a query by interpolating it into the query expression is not recommended. Simply assign the
string of interest to a variable and use that variable in an expression. For example, do this

1098 Chapter 24. IO Tools (Text, CSV, HDF5, ...)

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

string = "HolyMoly'"
store.select('df', 'index == string')

instead of this

string = "HolyMoly'"
store.select('df', 'index == %s' % string)

The latter will not work and will raise a SyntaxError.Note that there’s a single quote followed by a double quote
in the string variable.
If you must interpolate, use the '%r' format specifier

store.select('df', 'index == %r' % string)

which will quote string.

Here are some examples:

In [400]: dfq = pd.DataFrame(randn(10,4),columns=list('ABCD'),index=pd.date_range(

˓→'20130101',periods=10))

In [401]: store.append('dfq',dfq,format='table',data_columns=True)

Use boolean expressions, with in-line function evaluation.

In [402]: store.select('dfq',"index>pd.Timestamp('20130104') & columns=['A', 'B']")

Out[402]:
A B
2013-01-05 1.210384 0.797435
2013-01-06 -0.850346 1.176812
2013-01-07 0.984188 -0.121728
2013-01-08 0.796595 -0.474021
2013-01-09 -0.804834 -2.123620
2013-01-10 0.334198 0.536784

Use and inline column reference

In [403]: store.select('dfq',where="A>0 or C>0")

Out[403]:
A B C D
2013-01-01 0.436258 -1.703013 0.393711 -0.479324
2013-01-02 -0.299016 0.694103 0.678630 0.239556
2013-01-03 0.151227 0.816127 1.893534 0.639633
2013-01-04 -0.962029 -2.085266 1.930247 -1.735349
2013-01-05 1.210384 0.797435 -0.379811 0.702562
2013-01-07 0.984188 -0.121728 2.365769 0.496143
2013-01-08 0.796595 -0.474021 -0.056696 1.357797
2013-01-10 0.334198 0.536784 -0.743830 -0.320204

Works with a Panel as well.

In [404]: store.append('wp',wp)

In [405]: store
Out[405]:
<class 'pandas.io.pytables.HDFStore'>

24.8. HDF5 (PyTables) 1099

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

File path: store.h5

In [406]: store.select('wp', "major_axis>pd.Timestamp('20000102') & minor_axis=['A',

˓→'B']")

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[406]:
<class 'pandas.core.panel.Panel'>
Dimensions: 2 (items) x 3 (major_axis) x 2 (minor_axis)
Items axis: Item1 to Item2
Major_axis axis: 2000-01-03 00:00:00 to 2000-01-05 00:00:00
Minor_axis axis: A to B

The columns keyword can be supplied to select a list of columns to be returned, this is equivalent to passing a
'columns=list_of_columns_to_filter':
In [407]: store.select('df', "columns=['A', 'B']")
Out[407]:
A B
2000-01-01 0.887163 0.859588
2000-01-02 0.015696 -2.242685
2000-01-03 0.991946 0.953324
2000-01-04 -0.334077 0.002118
2000-01-05 0.289092 1.321158
2000-01-06 -0.202646 -0.655969
2000-01-07 0.553439 1.318152
2000-01-08 0.675554 -1.817027

start and stop parameters can be specified to limit the total search space. These are in terms of the total number
of rows in a table.
# this is effectively what the storage of a Panel looks like
In [408]: wp.to_frame()
Out[408]:
Item1 Item2
major minor
2000-01-01 A 1.058969 0.215269
B -0.397840 0.841009
C 0.337438 -1.445810
D 1.047579 -1.401973
2000-01-02 A 1.045938 -0.100918
B 0.863717 -0.548242
C -0.122092 -0.144620
... ... ...
2000-01-04 B 0.036142 0.307969
C -2.074978 -0.208499
D 0.247792 1.033801
2000-01-05 A -0.897157 -2.400454
B -0.136795 2.030604
C 0.018289 -1.142631
D 0.755414 0.211883

[20 rows x 2 columns]

# limiting the search

In [409]: store.select('wp',"major_axis>20000102 & minor_axis=['A','B']",
.....: start=0, stop=10)
.....:
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

1100 Chapter 24. IO Tools (Text, CSV, HDF5, ...)

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

<class 'pandas.core.panel.Panel'>
Dimensions: 2 (items) x 1 (major_axis) x 2 (minor_axis)
Items axis: Item1 to Item2
Major_axis axis: 2000-01-03 00:00:00 to 2000-01-03 00:00:00
Minor_axis axis: A to B

Note: select will raise a ValueError if the query expression has an unknown variable reference. Usually this
means that you are trying to select on a column that is not a data_column.
select will raise a SyntaxError if the query expression is not valid.

24.8.6.2 Using timedelta64[ns]

You can store and query using the timedelta64[ns] type. Terms can be specified in the format:
<float>(<unit>), where float may be signed (and fractional), and unit can be D,s,ms,us,ns for the timedelta.
Here’s an example:

In [410]: from datetime import timedelta

In [411]: dftd = pd.DataFrame(dict(A = pd.Timestamp('20130101'), B = [ pd.Timestamp(

˓→'20130101') + timedelta(days=i,seconds=10) for i in range(10) ]))

In [412]: dftd['C'] = dftd['A']-dftd['B']

In [413]: dftd
Out[413]:
A B C
0 2013-01-01 2013-01-01 00:00:10 -1 days +23:59:50
1 2013-01-01 2013-01-02 00:00:10 -2 days +23:59:50
2 2013-01-01 2013-01-03 00:00:10 -3 days +23:59:50
3 2013-01-01 2013-01-04 00:00:10 -4 days +23:59:50
4 2013-01-01 2013-01-05 00:00:10 -5 days +23:59:50
5 2013-01-01 2013-01-06 00:00:10 -6 days +23:59:50
6 2013-01-01 2013-01-07 00:00:10 -7 days +23:59:50
7 2013-01-01 2013-01-08 00:00:10 -8 days +23:59:50
8 2013-01-01 2013-01-09 00:00:10 -9 days +23:59:50
9 2013-01-01 2013-01-10 00:00:10 -10 days +23:59:50

In [414]: store.append('dftd',dftd,data_columns=True)

In [415]: store.select('dftd',"C<'-3.5D'")
Out[415]:
A B C
4 2013-01-01 2013-01-05 00:00:10 -5 days +23:59:50
5 2013-01-01 2013-01-06 00:00:10 -6 days +23:59:50
6 2013-01-01 2013-01-07 00:00:10 -7 days +23:59:50
7 2013-01-01 2013-01-08 00:00:10 -8 days +23:59:50
8 2013-01-01 2013-01-09 00:00:10 -9 days +23:59:50
9 2013-01-01 2013-01-10 00:00:10 -10 days +23:59:50

24.8. HDF5 (PyTables) 1101

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

24.8.6.3 Indexing

You can create/modify an index for a table with create_table_index after data is already in the table (after and
append/put operation). Creating a table index is highly encouraged. This will speed your queries a great deal
when you use a select with the indexed dimension as the where.

Note: Indexes are automagically created on the indexables and any data columns you specify. This behavior can be
turned off by passing index=False to append.

# we have automagically already created an index (in the first section)

In [416]: i = store.root.df.table.cols.index.index

In [417]: i.optlevel, i.kind

Out[417]: (6, 'medium')

# change an index by passing new parameters

In [418]: store.create_table_index('df', optlevel=9, kind='full')

In [419]: i = store.root.df.table.cols.index.index

In [420]: i.optlevel, i.kind

Out[420]: (9, 'full')

Oftentimes when appending large amounts of data to a store, it is useful to turn off index creation for each append,
then recreate at the end.

In [421]: df_1 = pd.DataFrame(randn(10,2),columns=list('AB'))

In [422]: df_2 = pd.DataFrame(randn(10,2),columns=list('AB'))

In [423]: st = pd.HDFStore('appends.h5',mode='w')

In [424]: st.append('df', df_1, data_columns=['B'], index=False)

In [425]: st.append('df', df_2, data_columns=['B'], index=False)

In [426]: st.get_storer('df').table
Out[426]:
/df/table (Table(20,)) ''
description := {
"index": Int64Col(shape=(), dflt=0, pos=0),
"values_block_0": Float64Col(shape=(1,), dflt=0.0, pos=1),
"B": Float64Col(shape=(), dflt=0.0, pos=2)}
byteorder := 'little'
chunkshape := (2730,)

Then create the index when finished appending.

In [427]: st.create_table_index('df', columns=['B'], optlevel=9, kind='full')

In [428]: st.get_storer('df').table
Out[428]:
/df/table (Table(20,)) ''
description := {
"index": Int64Col(shape=(), dflt=0, pos=0),
"values_block_0": Float64Col(shape=(1,), dflt=0.0, pos=1),

1102 Chapter 24. IO Tools (Text, CSV, HDF5, ...)

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

"B": Float64Col(shape=(), dflt=0.0, pos=2)}

byteorder := 'little'
chunkshape := (2730,)
autoindex := True
colindexes := {
"B": Index(9, full, shuffle, zlib(1)).is_csi=True}

In [429]: st.close()

See here for how to create a completely-sorted-index (CSI) on an existing store.

24.8.6.4 Query via Data Columns

You can designate (and index) certain columns that you want to be able to perform queries (other than the indexable
columns, which you can always query). For instance say you want to perform this common operation, on-disk, and
return just the frame that matches this query. You can specify data_columns = True to force all columns to be
data_columns
In [430]: df_dc = df.copy()

In [431]: df_dc['string'] = 'foo'

In [432]: df_dc.loc[df_dc.index[4:6], 'string'] = np.nan

In [433]: df_dc.loc[df_dc.index[7:9], 'string'] = 'bar'

In [434]: df_dc['string2'] = 'cool'

In [435]: df_dc.loc[df_dc.index[1:3], ['B','C']] = 1.0

In [436]: df_dc
Out[436]:
A B C string string2
2000-01-01 0.887163 0.859588 -0.636524 foo cool
2000-01-02 0.015696 1.000000 1.000000 foo cool
2000-01-03 0.991946 1.000000 1.000000 foo cool
2000-01-04 -0.334077 0.002118 0.405453 foo cool
2000-01-05 0.289092 1.321158 -1.546906 NaN cool
2000-01-06 -0.202646 -0.655969 0.193421 NaN cool
2000-01-07 0.553439 1.318152 -0.469305 foo cool
2000-01-08 0.675554 -1.817027 -0.183109 bar cool

# on-disk operations
In [437]: store.append('df_dc', df_dc, data_columns = ['B', 'C', 'string', 'string2'])

In [438]: store.select('df_dc', where='B>0')

Out[438]:
A B C string string2
2000-01-01 0.887163 0.859588 -0.636524 foo cool
2000-01-02 0.015696 1.000000 1.000000 foo cool
2000-01-03 0.991946 1.000000 1.000000 foo cool
2000-01-04 -0.334077 0.002118 0.405453 foo cool
2000-01-05 0.289092 1.321158 -1.546906 NaN cool
2000-01-07 0.553439 1.318152 -0.469305 foo cool

# getting creative
In [439]: store.select('df_dc', 'B > 0 & C > 0 & string == foo')

24.8. HDF5 (PyTables) 1103

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

A B C string string2
2000-01-02 0.015696 1.000000 1.000000 foo cool
2000-01-03 0.991946 1.000000 1.000000 foo cool
2000-01-04 -0.334077 0.002118 0.405453 foo cool

# this is in-memory version of this type of selection

In [440]: df_dc[(df_dc.B > 0) & (df_dc.C > 0) & (df_dc.string == 'foo')]
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

A B C string string2
2000-01-02 0.015696 1.000000 1.000000 foo cool
2000-01-03 0.991946 1.000000 1.000000 foo cool
2000-01-04 -0.334077 0.002118 0.405453 foo cool

# we have automagically created this index and the B/C/string/string2

# columns are stored separately as ``PyTables`` columns
In [441]: store.root.df_dc.table
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

/df_dc/table (Table(8,)) ''

description := {
"index": Int64Col(shape=(), dflt=0, pos=0),
"values_block_0": Float64Col(shape=(1,), dflt=0.0, pos=1),
"B": Float64Col(shape=(), dflt=0.0, pos=2),
"C": Float64Col(shape=(), dflt=0.0, pos=3),
"string": StringCol(itemsize=3, shape=(), dflt=b'', pos=4),
"string2": StringCol(itemsize=4, shape=(), dflt=b'', pos=5)}
byteorder := 'little'
chunkshape := (1680,)
autoindex := True
colindexes := {
"index": Index(6, medium, shuffle, zlib(1)).is_csi=False,
"B": Index(6, medium, shuffle, zlib(1)).is_csi=False,
"C": Index(6, medium, shuffle, zlib(1)).is_csi=False,
"string": Index(6, medium, shuffle, zlib(1)).is_csi=False,
"string2": Index(6, medium, shuffle, zlib(1)).is_csi=False}

There is some performance degradation by making lots of columns into data columns, so it is up to the user to designate
these. In addition, you cannot change data columns (nor indexables) after the first append/put operation (Of course
you can simply read in the data and create a new table!)

24.8.6.5 Iterator

You can pass iterator=True or chunksize=number_in_a_chunk to select and

select_as_multiple to return an iterator on the results. The default is 50,000 rows returned in a chunk.
In [442]: for df in store.select('df', chunksize=3):
.....: print(df)
.....:
A B C
2000-01-01 0.887163 0.859588 -0.636524
2000-01-02 0.015696 -2.242685 1.150036
2000-01-03 0.991946 0.953324 -2.021255
A B C
2000-01-04 -0.334077 0.002118 0.405453

1104 Chapter 24. IO Tools (Text, CSV, HDF5, ...)

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

2000-01-05 0.289092 1.321158 -1.546906

2000-01-06 -0.202646 -0.655969 0.193421
A B C
2000-01-07 0.553439 1.318152 -0.469305
2000-01-08 0.675554 -1.817027 -0.183109

Note: You can also use the iterator with read_hdf which will open, then automatically close the store when finished
iterating.

for df in pd.read_hdf('store.h5','df', chunksize=3):

print(df)

Note, that the chunksize keyword applies to the source rows. So if you are doing a query, then the chunksize will
subdivide the total rows in the table and the query applied, returning an iterator on potentially unequal sized chunks.
Here is a recipe for generating a query and using it to create equal sized return chunks.

In [443]: dfeq = pd.DataFrame({'number': np.arange(1,11)})

In [444]: dfeq
Out[444]:
number
0 1
1 2
2 3
3 4
4 5
5 6
6 7
7 8
8 9
9 10

In [445]: store.append('dfeq', dfeq, data_columns=['number'])

In [446]: def chunks(l, n):

.....: return [l[i:i+n] for i in range(0, len(l), n)]
.....:

In [447]: evens = [2,4,6,8,10]

In [448]: coordinates = store.select_as_coordinates('dfeq','number=evens')

In [449]: for c in chunks(coordinates, 2):

.....: print(store.select('dfeq',where=c))
.....:
number
1 2
3 4
number
5 6
7 8
number
9 10

24.8. HDF5 (PyTables) 1105

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

24.8.6.6 Advanced Queries

Select a Single Column

To retrieve a single indexable or data column, use the method select_column. This will, for example, enable you
to get the index very quickly. These return a Series of the result, indexed by the row number. These do not currently
accept the where selector.
In [450]: store.select_column('df_dc', 'index')
Out[450]:
0 2000-01-01
1 2000-01-02
2 2000-01-03
3 2000-01-04
4 2000-01-05
5 2000-01-06
6 2000-01-07
7 2000-01-08
Name: index, dtype: datetime64[ns]

In [451]: store.select_column('df_dc', 'string')

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

0 foo
1 foo
2 foo
3 foo
4 NaN
5 NaN
6 foo
7 bar
Name: string, dtype: object

Selecting coordinates

Sometimes you want to get the coordinates (a.k.a the index locations) of your query. This returns an Int64Index
of the resulting locations. These coordinates can also be passed to subsequent where operations.
In [452]: df_coord = pd.DataFrame(np.random.randn(1000,2),index=pd.date_range(
˓→'20000101',periods=1000))

In [453]: store.append('df_coord',df_coord)

In [454]: c = store.select_as_coordinates('df_coord','index>20020101')

In [455]: c.summary()
Out[455]: 'Int64Index: 268 entries, 732 to 999'

In [456]: store.select('df_coord',where=c)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[456]:
0 1
2002-01-02 -0.178266 -0.064638
2002-01-03 -1.204956 -3.880898
2002-01-04 0.974470 0.415160
2002-01-05 1.751967 0.485011
2002-01-06 -0.170894 0.748870

1106 Chapter 24. IO Tools (Text, CSV, HDF5, ...)

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

2002-01-07 0.629793 0.811053

2002-01-08 2.133776 0.238459
... ... ...
2002-09-20 -0.181434 0.612399
2002-09-21 -0.763324 -0.354962
2002-09-22 -0.261776 0.812126
2002-09-23 0.482615 -0.886512
2002-09-24 -0.037757 -0.562953
2002-09-25 0.897706 0.383232
2002-09-26 -1.324806 1.139269

[268 rows x 2 columns]

Selecting using a where mask

Sometime your query can involve creating a list of rows to select. Usually this mask would be a resulting index
from an indexing operation. This example selects the months of a datetimeindex which are 5.

In [457]: df_mask = pd.DataFrame(np.random.randn(1000,2),index=pd.date_range('20000101

˓→',periods=1000))

In [458]: store.append('df_mask',df_mask)

In [459]: c = store.select_column('df_mask','index')

In [460]: where = c[pd.DatetimeIndex(c).month==5].index

In [461]: store.select('df_mask',where=where)
Out[461]:
0 1
2000-05-01 -1.006245 -0.616759
2000-05-02 0.218940 0.717838
2000-05-03 0.013333 1.348060
2000-05-04 0.662176 -1.050645
2000-05-05 -1.034870 -0.243242
2000-05-06 -0.753366 -1.454329
2000-05-07 -1.022920 -0.476989
... ... ...
2002-05-25 -0.509090 -0.389376
2002-05-26 0.150674 1.164337
2002-05-27 -0.332944 0.115181
2002-05-28 -1.048127 -0.605733
2002-05-29 1.418754 -0.442835
2002-05-30 -0.433200 0.835001
2002-05-31 -1.041278 1.401811

[93 rows x 2 columns]

Storer Object

If you want to inspect the stored object, retrieve via get_storer. You could use this programmatically to say get
the number of rows in an object.

24.8. HDF5 (PyTables) 1107

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [462]: store.get_storer('df_dc').nrows
Out[462]: 8

24.8.6.7 Multiple Table Queries

The methods append_to_multiple and select_as_multiple can perform appending/selecting from mul-
tiple tables at once. The idea is to have one table (call it the selector table) that you index most/all of the columns, and
perform your queries. The other table(s) are data tables with an index matching the selector table’s index. You can
then perform a very fast query on the selector table, yet get lots of data back. This method is similar to having a very
wide table, but enables more efficient queries.
The append_to_multiple method splits a given single DataFrame into multiple tables according to d, a dictio-
nary that maps the table names to a list of ‘columns’ you want in that table. If None is used in place of a list, that
table will have the remaining unspecified columns of the given DataFrame. The argument selector defines which
table is the selector table (which you can make queries from). The argument dropna will drop rows from the input
DataFrame to ensure tables are synchronized. This means that if a row for one of the tables being written to is entirely
np.NaN, that row will be dropped from all tables.
If dropna is False, THE USER IS RESPONSIBLE FOR SYNCHRONIZING THE TABLES. Remember that
entirely np.Nan rows are not written to the HDFStore, so if you choose to call dropna=False, some tables may
have more rows than others, and therefore select_as_multiple may not work or it may return unexpected
results.

In [463]: df_mt = pd.DataFrame(randn(8, 6), index=pd.date_range('1/1/2000',

˓→periods=8),

.....: columns=['A', 'B', 'C', 'D', 'E', 'F'])

.....:

In [464]: df_mt['foo'] = 'bar'

In [465]: df_mt.loc[df_mt.index[1], ('A', 'B')] = np.nan

# you can also create the tables individually

In [466]: store.append_to_multiple({'df1_mt': ['A', 'B'], 'df2_mt': None },
.....: df_mt, selector='df1_mt')
.....:

In [467]: store
Out[467]:
<class 'pandas.io.pytables.HDFStore'>
File path: store.h5

# individual tables were created

In [468]: store.select('df1_mt')
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[468]:
A B
2000-01-01 0.714697 0.318215
2000-01-02 NaN NaN
2000-01-03 -0.086919 0.416905
2000-01-04 0.489131 -0.253340
2000-01-05 -0.382952 -0.397373
2000-01-06 0.538116 0.226388
2000-01-07 -2.073479 -0.115926
2000-01-08 -0.695400 0.402493

In [469]: store.select('df2_mt')

1108 Chapter 24. IO Tools (Text, CSV, HDF5, ...)

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

C D E F foo
2000-01-01 0.607460 0.790907 0.852225 0.096696 bar
2000-01-02 0.811031 -0.356817 1.047085 0.664705 bar
2000-01-03 -0.764381 -0.287229 -0.089351 -1.035115 bar
2000-01-04 -1.948100 -0.116556 0.800597 -0.796154 bar
2000-01-05 -0.717627 0.156995 -0.344718 -0.171208 bar
2000-01-06 1.541729 0.205256 1.998065 0.953591 bar
2000-01-07 1.391070 0.303013 1.093347 -0.101000 bar
2000-01-08 -1.507639 0.089575 0.658822 -1.037627 bar

# as a multiple
In [470]: store.select_as_multiple(['df1_mt', 'df2_mt'], where=['A>0', 'B>0'],
.....: selector = 'df1_mt')
.....:
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

A B C D E F foo
2000-01-01 0.714697 0.318215 0.607460 0.790907 0.852225 0.096696 bar
2000-01-06 0.538116 0.226388 1.541729 0.205256 1.998065 0.953591 bar

24.8.7 Delete from a Table

You can delete from a table selectively by specifying a where. In deleting rows, it is important to understand the
PyTables deletes rows by erasing the rows, then moving the following data. Thus deleting can potentially be a very
expensive operation depending on the orientation of your data. This is especially true in higher dimensional objects
(Panel and Panel4D). To get optimal performance, it’s worthwhile to have the dimension you are deleting be the
first of the indexables.
Data is ordered (on the disk) in terms of the indexables. Here’s a simple use case. You store panel-type data, with
dates in the major_axis and ids in the minor_axis. The data is then interleaved like this:
• date_1 - id_1 - id_2 - . - id_n
• date_2 - id_1 - . - id_n
It should be clear that a delete operation on the major_axis will be fairly quick, as one chunk is removed, then the
following data moved. On the other hand a delete operation on the minor_axis will be very expensive. In this case
it would almost certainly be faster to rewrite the table using a where that selects all but the missing data.

# returns the number of rows deleted

In [471]: store.remove('wp', 'major_axis>20000102' )
Out[471]: 12

In [472]: store.select('wp')
\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[472]:
<class 'pandas.core.panel.Panel'>
Dimensions: 2 (items) x 2 (major_axis) x 4 (minor_axis)
Items axis: Item1 to Item2
Major_axis axis: 2000-01-01 00:00:00 to 2000-01-02 00:00:00
Minor_axis axis: A to D

Warning: Please note that HDF5 DOES NOT RECLAIM SPACE in the h5 files automatically. Thus, repeatedly
deleting (or removing nodes) and adding again, WILL TEND TO INCREASE THE FILE SIZE.

24.8. HDF5 (PyTables) 1109

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

To repack and clean the file, use ptrepack

24.8.8 Notes & Caveats

24.8.8.1 Compression

PyTables allows the stored data to be compressed. This applies to all kinds of stores, not just tables. Two parameters
are used to control compression: complevel and complib.
complevel specifies if and how hard data is to be compressed. complevel=0 and complevel=None dis-
ables compression and 0<complevel<10 enables compression.
complib specifies which compression library to use. If nothing is specified the default library zlib is used. A
compression library usually optimizes for either good compression rates or speed and the results will depend
on the type of data. Which type of compression to choose depends on your specific needs and data. The list of
supported compression libraries:
• zlib: The default compression library. A classic in terms of compression, achieves good com-
pression rates but is somewhat slow.
• lzo: Fast compression and decompression.
• bzip2: Good compression rates.
• blosc: Fast compression and decompression.
New in version 0.20.2: Support for alternative blosc compressors:
• blosc:blosclz This is the default compressor for blosc
• blosc:lz4: A compact, very popular and fast compressor.
• blosc:lz4hc: A tweaked version of LZ4, produces better compression ratios at the expense of
speed.
• blosc:snappy: A popular compressor used in many places.
• blosc:zlib: A classic; somewhat slower than the previous ones, but achieving better compression
ratios.
• blosc:zstd: An extremely well balanced codec; it provides the best compression ratios among
the others above, and at reasonably fast speed.
If complib is defined as something other than the listed libraries a ValueError exception is
issued.

Note: If the library specified with the complib option is missing on your platform, compression defaults to zlib
without further ado.

Enable compression for all objects within the file:

store_compressed = pd.HDFStore('store_compressed.h5', complevel=9, complib=

˓→'blosc:blosclz')

Or on-the-fly compression (this only applies to tables) in stores where compression is not enabled:

store.append('df', df, complib='zlib', complevel=5)

1110 Chapter 24. IO Tools (Text, CSV, HDF5, ...)

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

24.8.8.2 ptrepack

PyTables offers better write performance when tables are compressed after they are written, as opposed to turning on
compression at the very beginning. You can use the supplied PyTables utility ptrepack. In addition, ptrepack
can change compression levels after the fact.

ptrepack --chunkshape=auto --propindexes --complevel=9 --complib=blosc in.h5 out.h5

Furthermore ptrepack in.h5 out.h5 will repack the file to allow you to reuse previously deleted space. Alter-
natively, one can simply remove the file and write again, or use the copy method.

24.8.8.3 Caveats

Warning: HDFStore is not-threadsafe for writing. The underlying PyTables only supports concurrent
reads (via threading or processes). If you need reading and writing at the same time, you need to serialize these
operations in a single thread in a single process. You will corrupt your data otherwise. See the (GH2397) for more
information.

• If you use locks to manage write access between multiple processes, you may want to use fsync() before
releasing write locks. For convenience you can use store.flush(fsync=True) to do this for you.
• Once a table is created its items (Panel) / columns (DataFrame) are fixed; only exactly the same columns can
be appended
• Be aware that timezones (e.g., pytz.timezone('US/Eastern')) are not necessarily equal across time-
zone versions. So if data is localized to a specific timezone in the HDFStore using one version of a timezone
library and that data is updated with another version, the data will be converted to UTC since these timezones
are not considered equal. Either use the same version of timezone library or use tz_convert with the updated
timezone definition.

Warning: PyTables will show a NaturalNameWarning if a column name cannot be used as an attribute
selector. Natural identifiers contain only letters, numbers, and underscores, and may not begin with a number.
Other identifiers cannot be used in a where clause and are generally a bad idea.

24.8.9 DataTypes

HDFStore will map an object dtype to the PyTables underlying dtype. This means the following types are known
to work:
Type Represents missing values
floating : float64, float32, float16 np.nan
integer : int64, int32, int8, uint64,uint32, uint8
boolean
datetime64[ns] NaT
timedelta64[ns] NaT
categorical : see the section below
object : strings np.nan
unicode columns are not supported, and WILL FAIL.

24.8. HDF5 (PyTables) 1111

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

24.8.9.1 Categorical Data

You can write data that contains category dtypes to a HDFStore. Queries work the same as if it was an object
array. However, the category dtyped data is stored in a more efficient manner.

In [473]: dfcat = pd.DataFrame({ 'A' : pd.Series(list('aabbcdba')).astype('category'),

.....: 'B' : np.random.randn(8) })
.....:

In [474]: dfcat
Out[474]:
A B
0 a 0.603273
1 a 0.262554
2 b -0.979586
3 b 2.132387
4 c 0.892485
5 d 1.996474
6 b 0.231425
7 a 0.980070

In [475]: dfcat.dtypes
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

A category
B float64
dtype: object

In [476]: cstore = pd.HDFStore('cats.h5', mode='w')

In [477]: cstore.append('dfcat', dfcat, format='table', data_columns=['A'])

In [478]: result = cstore.select('dfcat', where="A in ['b','c']")

In [479]: result
Out[479]:
A B
2 b -0.979586
3 b 2.132387
4 c 0.892485
6 b 0.231425

In [480]: result.dtypes
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[480]:
˓→

A category
B float64
dtype: object

24.8.9.2 String Columns

min_itemsize
The underlying implementation of HDFStore uses a fixed column width (itemsize) for string columns. A string
column itemsize is calculated as the maximum of the length of data (for that column) that is passed to the HDFStore,
in the first append. Subsequent appends, may introduce a string for a column larger than the column can hold, an

1112 Chapter 24. IO Tools (Text, CSV, HDF5, ...)

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Exception will be raised (otherwise you could have a silent truncation of these columns, leading to loss of information).
In the future we may relax this and allow a user-specified truncation to occur.
Pass min_itemsize on the first table creation to a-priori specify the minimum length of a particular string column.
min_itemsize can be an integer, or a dict mapping a column name to an integer. You can pass values as a key
to allow all indexables or data_columns to have this min_itemsize.
Passing a min_itemsize dict will cause all passed columns to be created as data_columns automatically.

Note: If you are not passing any data_columns, then the min_itemsize will be the maximum of the length of
any string passed

In [481]: dfs = pd.DataFrame(dict(A = 'foo', B = 'bar'),index=list(range(5)))

In [482]: dfs
Out[482]:
A B
0 foo bar
1 foo bar
2 foo bar
3 foo bar
4 foo bar

# A and B have a size of 30

In [483]: store.append('dfs', dfs, min_itemsize = 30)

In [484]: store.get_storer('dfs').table
Out[484]:
/dfs/table (Table(5,)) ''
description := {
"index": Int64Col(shape=(), dflt=0, pos=0),
"values_block_0": StringCol(itemsize=30, shape=(2,), dflt=b'', pos=1)}
byteorder := 'little'
chunkshape := (963,)
autoindex := True
colindexes := {
"index": Index(6, medium, shuffle, zlib(1)).is_csi=False}

# A is created as a data_column with a size of 30

# B is size is calculated
In [485]: store.append('dfs2', dfs, min_itemsize = { 'A' : 30 })

In [486]: store.get_storer('dfs2').table
Out[486]:
/dfs2/table (Table(5,)) ''
description := {
"index": Int64Col(shape=(), dflt=0, pos=0),
"values_block_0": StringCol(itemsize=3, shape=(1,), dflt=b'', pos=1),
"A": StringCol(itemsize=30, shape=(), dflt=b'', pos=2)}
byteorder := 'little'
chunkshape := (1598,)
autoindex := True
colindexes := {
"index": Index(6, medium, shuffle, zlib(1)).is_csi=False,
"A": Index(6, medium, shuffle, zlib(1)).is_csi=False}

nan_rep

24.8. HDF5 (PyTables) 1113

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

String columns will serialize a np.nan (a missing value) with the nan_rep string representation. This defaults to
the string value nan. You could inadvertently turn an actual nan value into a missing value.

In [487]: dfss = pd.DataFrame(dict(A = ['foo','bar','nan']))

In [488]: dfss
Out[488]:
A
0 foo
1 bar
2 nan

In [489]: store.append('dfss', dfss)

In [490]: store.select('dfss')
Out[490]:
A
0 foo
1 bar
2 NaN

# here you need to specify a different nan rep

In [491]: store.append('dfss2', dfss, nan_rep='_nan_')

In [492]: store.select('dfss2')
Out[492]:
A
0 foo
1 bar
2 nan

24.8.10 External Compatibility

HDFStore writes table format objects in specific formats suitable for producing loss-less round trips to pandas
objects. For external compatibility, HDFStore can read native PyTables format tables.
It is possible to write an HDFStore object that can easily be imported into R using the rhdf5 library (Package
website). Create a table format store like this:

In [493]: np.random.seed(1)

In [494]: df_for_r = pd.DataFrame({"first": np.random.rand(100),

.....: "second": np.random.rand(100),
.....: "class": np.random.randint(0, 2, (100,))},
.....: index=range(100))
.....:

In [495]: df_for_r.head()
Out[495]:
class first second
0 0 0.417022 0.326645
1 0 0.720324 0.527058
2 1 0.000114 0.885942
3 1 0.302333 0.357270
4 1 0.146756 0.908535

In [496]: store_export = pd.HDFStore('export.h5')

1114 Chapter 24. IO Tools (Text, CSV, HDF5, ...)

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [497]: store_export.append('df_for_r', df_for_r, data_columns=df_dc.columns)

In [498]: store_export
Out[498]:
<class 'pandas.io.pytables.HDFStore'>
File path: export.h5

In R this file can be read into a data.frame object using the rhdf5 library. The following example function reads
the corresponding column names and data values from the values and assembles them into a data.frame:

# Load values and column names for all datasets from corresponding nodes and
# insert them into one data.frame object.

library(rhdf5)

loadhdf5data <- function(h5File) {

listing <- h5ls(h5File)

# Find all data nodes, values are stored in *_values and corresponding column
# titles in *_items
data_nodes <- grep("_values", listing$name)
name_nodes <- grep("_items", listing$name)
data_paths = paste(listing$group[data_nodes], listing$name[data_nodes], sep = "/")
name_paths = paste(listing$group[name_nodes], listing$name[name_nodes], sep = "/")
columns = list()
for (idx in seq(data_paths)) {
# NOTE: matrices returned by h5read have to be transposed to obtain
# required Fortran order!
data <- data.frame(t(h5read(h5File, data_paths[idx])))
names <- t(h5read(h5File, name_paths[idx]))
entry <- data.frame(data)
colnames(entry) <- names
columns <- append(columns, entry)
}

data <- data.frame(columns)

return(data)
}

Now you can import the DataFrame into R:

> data = loadhdf5data("transfer.hdf5")

> head(data)
first second class
1 0.4170220047 0.3266449 0
2 0.7203244934 0.5270581 0
3 0.0001143748 0.8859421 1
4 0.3023325726 0.3572698 1
5 0.1467558908 0.9085352 1
6 0.0923385948 0.6233601 1

Note: The R function lists the entire HDF5 file’s contents and assembles the data.frame object from all matching
nodes, so use this only as a starting point if you have stored multiple DataFrame objects to a single HDF5 file.

24.8. HDF5 (PyTables) 1115

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

24.8.11 Performance

• tables format come with a writing performance penalty as compared to fixed stores. The benefit is the
ability to append/delete and query (potentially very large amounts of data). Write times are generally longer as
compared with regular stores. Query times can be quite fast, especially on an indexed axis.
• You can pass chunksize=<int> to append, specifying the write chunksize (default is 50000). This will
significantly lower your memory usage on writing.
• You can pass expectedrows=<int> to the first append, to set the TOTAL number of expected rows that
PyTables will expected. This will optimize read/write performance.
• Duplicate rows can be written to tables, but are filtered out in selection (with the last items being selected; thus
a table is unique on major, minor pairs)
• A PerformanceWarning will be raised if you are attempting to store types that will be pickled by PyTables
(rather than stored as endemic types). See Here for more information and some solutions.

24.9 Feather

New in version 0.20.0.

Feather provides binary columnar serialization for data frames. It is designed to make reading and writing data frames
efficient, and to make sharing data across data analysis languages easy.
Feather is designed to faithfully serialize and de-serialize DataFrames, supporting all of the pandas dtypes, including
extension dtypes such as categorical and datetime with tz.
Several caveats.
• This is a newer library, and the format, though stable, is not guaranteed to be backward compatible to the earlier
versions.
• The format will NOT write an Index, or MultiIndex for the DataFrame and will raise an error if a
non-default one is provided. You can simply .reset_index() in order to store the index.
• Duplicate column names and non-string columns names are not supported
• Non supported types include Period and actual python object types. These will raise a helpful error message
on an attempt at serialization.
See the Full Documentation
In [499]: df = pd.DataFrame({'a': list('abc'),
.....: 'b': list(range(1, 4)),
.....: 'c': np.arange(3, 6).astype('u1'),
.....: 'd': np.arange(4.0, 7.0, dtype='float64'),
.....: 'e': [True, False, True],
.....: 'f': pd.Categorical(list('abc')),
.....: 'g': pd.date_range('20130101', periods=3),
.....: 'h': pd.date_range('20130101', periods=3, tz='US/Eastern
˓→'),

.....: 'i': pd.date_range('20130101', periods=3, freq='ns')})

.....:

In [500]: df
Out[500]:
a b c d e f g h i
0 a 1 3 4.0 True a 2013-01-01 2013-01-01 00:00:00-05:00 2013-01-01
1 b 2 4 5.0 False b 2013-01-02 2013-01-02 00:00:00-05:00 2013-01-01

1116 Chapter 24. IO Tools (Text, CSV, HDF5, ...)

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

2 c 3 5 6.0 True c 2013-01-03 2013-01-03 00:00:00-05:00 2013-01-01

In [501]: df.dtypes
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

a object
b int64
c uint8
d float64
e bool
f category
g datetime64[ns]
h datetime64[ns, US/Eastern]
i datetime64[ns]
dtype: object

Write to a feather file.

In [502]: df.to_feather('example.feather')

Read from a feather file.

In [503]: result = pd.read_feather('example.feather')

In [504]: result
Out[504]:
a b c d e f g h i
0 a 1 3 4.0 True a 2013-01-01 2013-01-01 00:00:00-05:00 2013-01-01
1 b 2 4 5.0 False b 2013-01-02 2013-01-02 00:00:00-05:00 2013-01-01
2 c 3 5 6.0 True c 2013-01-03 2013-01-03 00:00:00-05:00 2013-01-01

# we preserve dtypes
In [505]: result.dtypes
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

a object
b int64
c uint8
d float64
e bool
f category
g datetime64[ns]
h datetime64[ns, US/Eastern]
i datetime64[ns]
dtype: object

24.10 Parquet

New in version 0.21.0.

Apache Parquet provides a partitioned binary columnar serialization for data frames. It is designed to make reading and
writing data frames efficient, and to make sharing data across data analysis languages easy. Parquet can use a variety
of compression techniques to shrink the file size as much as possible while still maintaining good read performance.
Parquet is designed to faithfully serialize and de-serialize DataFrame s, supporting all of the pandas dtypes, includ-
ing extension dtypes such as datetime with tz.

24.10. Parquet 1117

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Several caveats.
• The format will NOT write an Index, or MultiIndex for the DataFrame and will raise an error if a
non-default one is provided. You can simply .reset_index(drop=True) in order to store the index.
• Duplicate column names and non-string columns names are not supported
• Categorical dtypes can be serialized to parquet, but will de-serialize as object dtype.
• Non supported types include Period and actual python object types. These will raise a helpful error message
on an attempt at serialization.
You can specifiy an engine to direct the serialization. This can be one of pyarrow, or fastparquet, or auto.
If the engine is NOT specified, then the pd.options.io.parquet.engine option is checked; if this is also
auto, then then pyarrow is tried, and falling back to fastparquet.
See the documentation for pyarrow and fastparquet

Note: These engines are very similar and should read/write nearly identical parquet format files. These libraries differ
by having different underlying dependencies (fastparquet by using numba, while pyarrow uses a c-library).

In [506]: df = pd.DataFrame({'a': list('abc'),

.....: 'b': list(range(1, 4)),
.....: 'c': np.arange(3, 6).astype('u1'),
.....: 'd': np.arange(4.0, 7.0, dtype='float64'),
.....: 'e': [True, False, True],
.....: 'f': pd.date_range('20130101', periods=3),
.....: 'g': pd.date_range('20130101', periods=3, tz='US/Eastern
˓→')})

.....:

In [507]: df
Out[507]:
a b c d e f g
0 a 1 3 4.0 True 2013-01-01 2013-01-01 00:00:00-05:00
1 b 2 4 5.0 False 2013-01-02 2013-01-02 00:00:00-05:00
2 c 3 5 6.0 True 2013-01-03 2013-01-03 00:00:00-05:00

In [508]: df.dtypes
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

a object
b int64
c uint8
d float64
e bool
f datetime64[ns]
g datetime64[ns, US/Eastern]
dtype: object

Write to a parquet file.

In [509]: df.to_parquet('example_pa.parquet', engine='pyarrow')

In [510]: df.to_parquet('example_fp.parquet', engine='fastparquet')

Read from a parquet file.

1118 Chapter 24. IO Tools (Text, CSV, HDF5, ...)

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [511]: result = pd.read_parquet('example_pa.parquet', engine='pyarrow')

In [512]: result = pd.read_parquet('example_fp.parquet', engine='fastparquet')

In [513]: result.dtypes
Out[513]:
a object
b int64
c uint8
d float64
e bool
f datetime64[ns]
g datetime64[ns]
dtype: object

24.11 SQL Queries

The pandas.io.sql module provides a collection of query wrappers to both facilitate data retrieval and to reduce
dependency on DB-specific API. Database abstraction is provided by SQLAlchemy if installed. In addition you will
need a driver library for your database. Examples of such drivers are psycopg2 for PostgreSQL or pymysql for
MySQL. For SQLite this is included in Python’s standard library by default. You can find an overview of supported
drivers for each SQL dialect in the SQLAlchemy docs.
If SQLAlchemy is not installed, a fallback is only provided for sqlite (and for mysql for backwards compatibility,
but this is deprecated and will be removed in a future version). This mode requires a Python database adapter which
respect the Python DB-API.
See also some cookbook examples for some advanced strategies.
The key functions are:

read_sql_table(table_name, con[, schema, ...]) Read SQL database table into a DataFrame.
read_sql_query(sql, con[, index_col, ...]) Read SQL query into a DataFrame.
read_sql(sql, con[, index_col, ...]) Read SQL query or database table into a DataFrame.
DataFrame.to_sql(name, con[, flavor, ...]) Write records stored in a DataFrame to a SQL database.

24.11.1 pandas.read_sql_table

pandas.read_sql_table(table_name, con, schema=None, index_col=None, coerce_float=True,

parse_dates=None, columns=None, chunksize=None)
Read SQL database table into a DataFrame.
Given a table name and a SQLAlchemy connectable, returns a DataFrame. This function does not support
DBAPI connections.
Parameters table_name : string
Name of SQL table in database.
con : SQLAlchemy connectable (or database string URI)
SQLite DBAPI connection mode not supported.
schema : string, default None

24.11. SQL Queries 1119

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Name of SQL schema in database to query (if database flavor supports this). Uses
default schema if None (default).
index_col : string or list of strings, optional, default: None
Column(s) to set as index(MultiIndex).
coerce_float : boolean, default True
Attempts to convert values of non-string, non-numeric objects (like decimal.Decimal)
to floating point. Can result in loss of Precision.
parse_dates : list or dict, default: None
• List of column names to parse as dates.
• Dict of {column_name: format string} where format string is strftime compat-
ible in case of parsing string times or is one of (D, s, ns, ms, us) in case of parsing integer
timestamps.
• Dict of {column_name: arg dict}, where the arg dict corresponds to the keyword
arguments of pandas.to_datetime() Especially useful with databases without native
Datetime support, such as SQLite.
columns : list, default: None
List of column names to select from SQL table
chunksize : int, default None
If specified, returns an iterator where chunksize is the number of rows to include in each
chunk.
Returns DataFrame
See also:

read_sql_query Read SQL query into a DataFrame.

read_sql

Notes

Any datetime values with time zone information will be converted to UTC.

24.11.2 pandas.read_sql_query

pandas.read_sql_query(sql, con, index_col=None, coerce_float=True, params=None,

parse_dates=None, chunksize=None)
Read SQL query into a DataFrame.
Returns a DataFrame corresponding to the result set of the query string. Optionally provide an index_col pa-
rameter to use one of the columns as the index, otherwise default integer index will be used.
Parameters sql : string SQL query or SQLAlchemy Selectable (select or text object)
SQL query to be executed.
con : SQLAlchemy connectable(engine/connection), database string URI,
or sqlite3 DBAPI2 connection Using SQLAlchemy makes it possible to use any DB
supported by that library. If a DBAPI2 object, only sqlite3 is supported.

1120 Chapter 24. IO Tools (Text, CSV, HDF5, ...)

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

index_col : string or list of strings, optional, default: None

Column(s) to set as index(MultiIndex).
coerce_float : boolean, default True
Attempts to convert values of non-string, non-numeric objects (like decimal.Decimal)
to floating point. Useful for SQL result sets.
params : list, tuple or dict, optional, default: None
List of parameters to pass to execute method. The syntax used to pass parameters is
database driver dependent. Check your database driver documentation for which of the
five syntax styles, described in PEP 249’s paramstyle, is supported. Eg. for psycopg2,
uses %(name)s so use params={‘name’ : ‘value’}
parse_dates : list or dict, default: None
• List of column names to parse as dates.
• Dict of {column_name: format string} where format string is strftime compat-
ible in case of parsing string times, or is one of (D, s, ns, ms, us) in case of parsing integer
timestamps.
• Dict of {column_name: arg dict}, where the arg dict corresponds to the keyword
arguments of pandas.to_datetime() Especially useful with databases without native
Datetime support, such as SQLite.
chunksize : int, default None
If specified, return an iterator where chunksize is the number of rows to include in each
chunk.
Returns DataFrame
See also:

read_sql_table Read SQL database table into a DataFrame.

read_sql

Notes

Any datetime values with time zone information parsed via the parse_dates parameter will be converted to UTC.

24.11.3 pandas.read_sql

pandas.read_sql(sql, con, index_col=None, coerce_float=True, params=None, parse_dates=None,

columns=None, chunksize=None)
Read SQL query or database table into a DataFrame.
Parameters sql : string or SQLAlchemy Selectable (select or text object)
SQL query to be executed.
con : SQLAlchemy connectable(engine/connection) or database string URI
or DBAPI2 connection (fallback mode) Using SQLAlchemy makes it possible to use
any DB supported by that library. If a DBAPI2 object, only sqlite3 is supported.
index_col : string or list of strings, optional, default: None

24.11. SQL Queries 1121

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Column(s) to set as index(MultiIndex).

coerce_float : boolean, default True
Attempts to convert values of non-string, non-numeric objects (like decimal.Decimal)
to floating point, useful for SQL result sets.
params : list, tuple or dict, optional, default: None
List of parameters to pass to execute method. The syntax used to pass parameters is
database driver dependent. Check your database driver documentation for which of the
five syntax styles, described in PEP 249’s paramstyle, is supported. Eg. for psycopg2,
uses %(name)s so use params={‘name’ : ‘value’}
parse_dates : list or dict, default: None
• List of column names to parse as dates.
• Dict of {column_name: format string} where format string is strftime compat-
ible in case of parsing string times, or is one of (D, s, ns, ms, us) in case of parsing integer
timestamps.
• Dict of {column_name: arg dict}, where the arg dict corresponds to the keyword
arguments of pandas.to_datetime() Especially useful with databases without native
Datetime support, such as SQLite.
columns : list, default: None
List of column names to select from SQL table (only used when reading a table).
chunksize : int, default None
If specified, return an iterator where chunksize is the number of rows to include in each
chunk.
Returns DataFrame
See also:

read_sql_table Read SQL database table into a DataFrame.

read_sql_query Read SQL query into a DataFrame.

Notes

This function is a convenience wrapper around read_sql_table and read_sql_query (and for back-
ward compatibility) and will delegate to the specific function depending on the provided input (database table
name or SQL query). The delegated function might have more specific notes about their functionality not listed
here.

24.11.4 pandas.DataFrame.to_sql

DataFrame.to_sql(name, con, flavor=None, schema=None, if_exists=’fail’, index=True, in-

dex_label=None, chunksize=None, dtype=None)
Write records stored in a DataFrame to a SQL database.
Parameters name : string
Name of SQL table
con : SQLAlchemy engine or DBAPI2 connection (legacy mode)

1122 Chapter 24. IO Tools (Text, CSV, HDF5, ...)

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Using SQLAlchemy makes it possible to use any DB supported by that library. If a

DBAPI2 object, only sqlite3 is supported.
flavor : ‘sqlite’, default None
Deprecated since version 0.19.0: ‘sqlite’ is the only supported option if SQLAlchemy
is not used.
schema : string, default None
Specify the schema (if database flavor supports this). If None, use default schema.
if_exists : {‘fail’, ‘replace’, ‘append’}, default ‘fail’
• fail: If table exists, do nothing.
• replace: If table exists, drop it, recreate it, and insert data.
• append: If table exists, insert data. Create if does not exist.
index : boolean, default True
Write DataFrame index as a column.
index_label : string or sequence, default None
Column label for index column(s). If None is given (default) and index is True, then the
index names are used. A sequence should be given if the DataFrame uses MultiIndex.
chunksize : int, default None
If not None, then rows will be written in batches of this size at a time. If None, all rows
will be written at once.
dtype : dict of column name to SQL type, default None
Optional specifying the datatype for columns. The SQL type should be a SQLAlchemy
type, or a string for sqlite3 fallback connection.

Note: The function read_sql() is a convenience wrapper around read_sql_table() and

read_sql_query() (and for backward compatibility) and will delegate to specific function depending on the
provided input (database table name or sql query). Table names do not need to be quoted if they have special charac-
ters.

In the following example, we use the SQlite SQL database engine. You can use a temporary SQLite database where
data are stored in “memory”.
To connect with SQLAlchemy you use the create_engine() function to create an engine object from database
URI. You only need to create the engine once per database you are connecting to. For more information on
create_engine() and the URI formatting, see the examples below and the SQLAlchemy documentation

In [514]: from sqlalchemy import create_engine

# Create your engine.

In [515]: engine = create_engine('sqlite:///:memory:')

If you want to manage your own connections you can pass one of those instead:

with engine.connect() as conn, conn.begin():

data = pd.read_sql_table('data', conn)

24.11. SQL Queries 1123

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

24.11.5 Writing DataFrames

Assuming the following data is in a DataFrame data, we can insert it into the database using to_sql().
id Date Col_1 Col_2 Col_3
26 2012-10-18 X 25.7 True
42 2012-10-19 Y -12.4 False
63 2012-10-20 Z 5.73 True
In [516]: data.to_sql('data', engine)

With some databases, writing large DataFrames can result in errors due to packet size limitations being exceeded. This
can be avoided by setting the chunksize parameter when calling to_sql. For example, the following writes data
to the database in batches of 1000 rows at a time:

In [517]: data.to_sql('data_chunked', engine, chunksize=1000)

24.11.5.1 SQL data types

to_sql() will try to map your data to an appropriate SQL data type based on the dtype of the data. When you have
columns of dtype object, pandas will try to infer the data type.
You can always override the default type by specifying the desired SQL type of any of the columns by using the
dtype argument. This argument needs a dictionary mapping column names to SQLAlchemy types (or strings for the
sqlite3 fallback mode). For example, specifying to use the sqlalchemy String type instead of the default Text type
for string columns:

In [518]: from sqlalchemy.types import String

In [519]: data.to_sql('data_dtype', engine, dtype={'Col_1': String})

Note: Due to the limited support for timedelta’s in the different database flavors, columns with type timedelta64
will be written as integer values as nanoseconds to the database and a warning will be raised.

Note: Columns of category dtype will be converted to the dense representation as you would get with np.
asarray(categorical) (e.g. for string categories this gives an array of strings). Because of this, reading the
database table back in does not generate a categorical.

24.11.6 Reading Tables

read_sql_table() will read a database table given the table name and optionally a subset of columns to read.

Note: In order to use read_sql_table(), you must have the SQLAlchemy optional dependency installed.

In [520]: pd.read_sql_table('data', engine)

Out[520]:
index id Date Col_1 Col_2 Col_3
0 0 26 2010-10-18 X 27.50 True

1124 Chapter 24. IO Tools (Text, CSV, HDF5, ...)

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

1 1 42 2010-10-19 Y -12.50 False

2 2 63 2010-10-20 Z 5.73 True

You can also specify the name of the column as the DataFrame index, and specify a subset of columns to be read.

In [521]: pd.read_sql_table('data', engine, index_col='id')

Out[521]:
index Date Col_1 Col_2 Col_3
id
26 0 2010-10-18 X 27.50 True
42 1 2010-10-19 Y -12.50 False
63 2 2010-10-20 Z 5.73 True

In [522]: pd.read_sql_table('data', engine, columns=['Col_1', 'Col_2'])

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

Col_1 Col_2
0 X 27.50
1 Y -12.50
2 Z 5.73

And you can explicitly force columns to be parsed as dates:

In [523]: pd.read_sql_table('data', engine, parse_dates=['Date'])

Out[523]:
index id Date Col_1 Col_2 Col_3
0 0 26 2010-10-18 X 27.50 True
1 1 42 2010-10-19 Y -12.50 False
2 2 63 2010-10-20 Z 5.73 True

If needed you can explicitly specify a format string, or a dict of arguments to pass to pandas.to_datetime():

pd.read_sql_table('data', engine, parse_dates={'Date': '%Y-%m-%d'})

pd.read_sql_table('data', engine, parse_dates={'Date': {'format': '%Y-%m-%d %H:%M:%S'}
˓→})

You can check if a table exists using has_table()

24.11.7 Schema support

Reading from and writing to different schema’s is supported through the schema keyword in the
read_sql_table() and to_sql() functions. Note however that this depends on the database flavor (sqlite
does not have schema’s). For example:

df.to_sql('table', engine, schema='other_schema')

pd.read_sql_table('table', engine, schema='other_schema')

24.11.8 Querying

You can query using raw SQL in the read_sql_query() function. In this case you must use the SQL variant
appropriate for your database. When using SQLAlchemy, you can also pass SQLAlchemy Expression language
constructs, which are database-agnostic.

24.11. SQL Queries 1125

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [524]: pd.read_sql_query('SELECT * FROM data', engine)

Out[524]:
index id Date Col_1 Col_2 Col_3
0 0 26 2010-10-18 00:00:00.000000 X 27.50 1
1 1 42 2010-10-19 00:00:00.000000 Y -12.50 0
2 2 63 2010-10-20 00:00:00.000000 Z 5.73 1

Of course, you can specify a more “complex” query.

In [525]: pd.read_sql_query("SELECT id, Col_1, Col_2 FROM data WHERE id = 42;",

˓→engine)

Out[525]:
id Col_1 Col_2
0 42 Y -12.5

The read_sql_query() function supports a chunksize argument. Specifying this will return an iterator through
chunks of the query result:

In [526]: df = pd.DataFrame(np.random.randn(20, 3), columns=list('abc'))

In [527]: df.to_sql('data_chunks', engine, index=False)

In [528]: for chunk in pd.read_sql_query("SELECT * FROM data_chunks", engine,

˓→chunksize=5):

.....: print(chunk)
.....:
a b c
0 0.280665 -0.073113 1.160339
1 0.369493 1.904659 1.111057
2 0.659050 -1.627438 0.602319
3 0.420282 0.810952 1.044442
4 -0.400878 0.824006 -0.562305
a b c
0 1.954878 -1.331952 -1.760689
1 -1.650721 -0.890556 -1.119115
2 1.956079 -0.326499 -1.342676
3 1.114383 -0.586524 -1.236853
4 0.875839 0.623362 -0.434957
a b c
0 1.407540 0.129102 1.616950
1 0.502741 1.558806 0.109403
2 -1.219744 2.449369 -0.545774
3 -0.198838 -0.700399 -0.203394
4 0.242669 0.201830 0.661020
a b c
0 1.792158 -0.120465 -1.233121
1 -1.182318 -0.665755 -1.674196
2 0.825030 -0.498214 -0.310985
3 -0.001891 -1.396620 -0.861316
4 0.674712 0.618539 -0.443172

You can also run a plain query without creating a dataframe with execute(). This is useful for queries that don’t
return values, such as INSERT. This is functionally equivalent to calling execute on the SQLAlchemy engine or db
connection object. Again, you must use the SQL syntax variant appropriate for your database.

from pandas.io import sql

sql.execute('SELECT * FROM table_name', engine)

1126 Chapter 24. IO Tools (Text, CSV, HDF5, ...)

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

sql.execute('INSERT INTO table_name VALUES(?, ?, ?)', engine, params=[('id', 1, 12.2,

˓→True)])

24.11.9 Engine connection examples

To connect with SQLAlchemy you use the create_engine() function to create an engine object from database
URI. You only need to create the engine once per database you are connecting to.

from sqlalchemy import create_engine

engine = create_engine('postgresql://scott:tiger@localhost:5432/mydatabase')

engine = create_engine('mysql+mysqldb://scott:tiger@localhost/foo')

engine = create_engine('oracle://scott:[email protected]:1521/sidname')

engine = create_engine('mssql+pyodbc://mydsn')

# sqlite://<nohostname>/<path>
# where <path> is relative:
engine = create_engine('sqlite:///foo.db')

# or absolute, starting with a slash:

engine = create_engine('sqlite:////absolute/path/to/foo.db')

For more information see the examples the SQLAlchemy documentation

24.11.10 Advanced SQLAlchemy queries

You can use SQLAlchemy constructs to describe your query.

Use sqlalchemy.text() to specify query parameters in a backend-neutral way

In [529]: import sqlalchemy as sa

In [530]: pd.read_sql(sa.text('SELECT * FROM data where Col_1=:col1'), engine, params=

˓→{'col1': 'X'})

Out[530]:
index id Date Col_1 Col_2 Col_3
0 0 26 2010-10-18 00:00:00.000000 X 27.5 1

If you have an SQLAlchemy description of your database you can express where conditions using SQLAlchemy
expressions

In [531]: metadata = sa.MetaData()

In [532]: data_table = sa.Table('data', metadata,

.....: sa.Column('index', sa.Integer),
.....: sa.Column('Date', sa.DateTime),
.....: sa.Column('Col_1', sa.String),
.....: sa.Column('Col_2', sa.Float),
.....: sa.Column('Col_3', sa.Boolean),
.....: )
.....:

24.11. SQL Queries 1127

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [533]: pd.read_sql(sa.select([data_table]).where(data_table.c.Col_3 == True),

˓→engine)

Out[533]:
index Date Col_1 Col_2 Col_3
0 0 2010-10-18 X 27.50 True
1 2 2010-10-20 Z 5.73 True

You can combine SQLAlchemy expressions with parameters passed to read_sql() using sqlalchemy.
bindparam()

In [534]: import datetime as dt

In [535]: expr = sa.select([data_table]).where(data_table.c.Date > sa.bindparam('date

˓→'))

In [536]: pd.read_sql(expr, engine, params={'date': dt.datetime(2010, 10, 18)})

Out[536]:
index Date Col_1 Col_2 Col_3
0 1 2010-10-19 Y -12.50 False
1 2 2010-10-20 Z 5.73 True

24.11.11 Sqlite fallback

The use of sqlite is supported without using SQLAlchemy. This mode requires a Python database adapter which
respect the Python DB-API.
You can create connections like so:

import sqlite3
con = sqlite3.connect(':memory:')

And then issue the following queries:

data.to_sql('data', cnx)
pd.read_sql_query("SELECT * FROM data", con)

24.12 Google BigQuery

Warning: Starting in 0.20.0, pandas has split off Google BigQuery support into the separate package
pandas-gbq. You can pip install pandas-gbq to get it.

The pandas-gbq package provides functionality to read/write from Google BigQuery.

pandas integrates with this external package. if pandas-gbq is installed, you can use the pandas methods pd.
read_gbq and DataFrame.to_gbq, which will call the respective functions from pandas-gbq.
Full documentation can be found here

1128 Chapter 24. IO Tools (Text, CSV, HDF5, ...)

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

24.13 Stata Format

24.13.1 Writing to Stata format

The method to_stata() will write a DataFrame into a .dta file. The format version of this file is always 115 (Stata
12).
In [537]: df = pd.DataFrame(randn(10, 2), columns=list('AB'))

In [538]: df.to_stata('stata.dta')

Stata data files have limited data type support; only strings with 244 or fewer characters, int8, int16, int32,
float32 and float64 can be stored in .dta files. Additionally, Stata reserves certain values to represent missing
data. Exporting a non-missing value that is outside of the permitted range in Stata for a particular data type will retype
the variable to the next larger size. For example, int8 values are restricted to lie between -127 and 100 in Stata, and
so variables with values above 100 will trigger a conversion to int16. nan values in floating points data types are
stored as the basic missing data type (. in Stata).

Note: It is not possible to export missing data values for integer data types.

The Stata writer gracefully handles other data types including int64, bool, uint8, uint16, uint32 by casting
to the smallest supported type that can represent the data. For example, data with a type of uint8 will be cast to
int8 if all values are less than 100 (the upper bound for non-missing int8 data in Stata), or, if values are outside of
this range, the variable is cast to int16.

Warning: Conversion from int64 to float64 may result in a loss of precision if int64 values are larger than
2**53.

Warning: StataWriter and to_stata() only support fixed width strings containing up to 244 characters,
a limitation imposed by the version 115 dta file format. Attempting to write Stata dta files with strings longer than
244 characters raises a ValueError.

24.13.2 Reading from Stata format

The top-level function read_stata will read a dta file and return either a DataFrame or a StataReader that can
be used to read the file incrementally.
In [539]: pd.read_stata('stata.dta')
Out[539]:
index A B
0 0 1.810535 -1.305727
1 1 -0.344987 -0.230840
2 2 -2.793085 1.937529
3 3 0.366332 -1.044589
4 4 2.051173 0.585662
5 5 0.429526 -0.606998
6 6 0.106223 -1.525680
7 7 0.795026 -0.374438
8 8 0.134048 1.202055
9 9 0.284748 0.262467

24.13. Stata Format 1129

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Specifying a chunksize yields a StataReader instance that can be used to read chunksize lines from the file
at a time. The StataReader object can be used as an iterator.

In [540]: reader = pd.read_stata('stata.dta', chunksize=3)

In [541]: for df in reader:

.....: print(df.shape)
.....:
(3, 3)
(3, 3)
(3, 3)
(1, 3)

For more fine-grained control, use iterator=True and specify chunksize with each call to read().

In [542]: reader = pd.read_stata('stata.dta', iterator=True)

In [543]: chunk1 = reader.read(5)

In [544]: chunk2 = reader.read(5)

Currently the index is retrieved as a column.

The parameter convert_categoricals indicates whether value labels should be read and used to create a
Categorical variable from them. Value labels can also be retrieved by the function value_labels, which
requires read() to be called before use.
The parameter convert_missing indicates whether missing value representations in Stata should be preserved.
If False (the default), missing values are represented as np.nan. If True, missing values are represented using
StataMissingValue objects, and columns containing missing values will have object data type.

Note: read_stata() and StataReader support .dta formats 113-115 (Stata 10-12), 117 (Stata 13), and 118
(Stata 14).

Note: Setting preserve_dtypes=False will upcast to the standard pandas data types: int64 for all integer
types and float64 for floating point data. By default, the Stata data types are preserved when importing.

24.13.2.1 Categorical Data

Categorical data can be exported to Stata data files as value labeled data. The exported data consists of the
underlying category codes as integer data values and the categories as value labels. Stata does not have an explicit
equivalent to a Categorical and information about whether the variable is ordered is lost when exporting.

Warning: Stata only supports string value labels, and so str is called on the categories when exporting data.
Exporting Categorical variables with non-string categories produces a warning, and can result a loss of infor-
mation if the str representations of the categories are not unique.

Labeled data can similarly be imported from Stata data files as Categorical variables using the keyword argu-
ment convert_categoricals (True by default). The keyword argument order_categoricals (True by
default) determines whether imported Categorical variables are ordered.

1130 Chapter 24. IO Tools (Text, CSV, HDF5, ...)

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Note: When importing categorical data, the values of the variables in the Stata data file are not preserved
since Categorical variables always use integer data types between -1 and n-1 where n is the number
of categories. If the original values in the Stata data file are required, these can be imported by setting
convert_categoricals=False, which will import original data (but not the variable labels). The original
values can be matched to the imported categorical data since there is a simple mapping between the original Stata
data values and the category codes of imported Categorical variables: missing values are assigned code -1, and the
smallest original value is assigned 0, the second smallest is assigned 1 and so on until the largest original value is
assigned the code n-1.

Note: Stata supports partially labeled series. These series have value labels for some but not all data values. Importing
a partially labeled series will produce a Categorical with string categories for the values that are labeled and
numeric categories for values with no label.

24.14 SAS Formats

New in version 0.17.0.

The top-level function read_sas() can read (but not write) SAS xport (.XPT) and SAS7BDAT (.sas7bdat) format
files were added in v0.18.0.
SAS files only contain two value types: ASCII text and floating point values (usually 8 bytes but sometimes truncated).
For xport files, there is no automatic type conversion to integers, dates, or categoricals. For SAS7BDAT files, the
format codes may allow date variables to be automatically converted to dates. By default the whole file is read and
returned as a DataFrame.
Specify a chunksize or use iterator=True to obtain reader objects (XportReader or SAS7BDATReader)
for incrementally reading the file. The reader objects also have attributes that contain additional information about the
file and its variables.
Read a SAS7BDAT file:

df = pd.read_sas('sas_data.sas7bdat')

Obtain an iterator and read an XPORT file 100,000 lines at a time:

rdr = pd.read_sas('sas_xport.xpt', chunk=100000)

for chunk in rdr:
do_something(chunk)

The specification for the xport file format is available from the SAS web site.
No official documentation is available for the SAS7BDAT format.

24.15 Other file formats

pandas itself only supports IO with a limited set of file formats that map cleanly to its tabular data model. For reading
and writing other file formats into and from pandas, we recommend these packages from the broader community.

24.14. SAS Formats 1131

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

24.15.1 netCDF

xarray provides data structures inspired by the pandas DataFrame for working with multi-dimensional datasets, with a
focus on the netCDF file format and easy conversion to and from pandas.

24.16 Performance Considerations

This is an informal comparison of various IO methods, using pandas 0.20.3. Timings are machine dependent and small
differences should be ignored.

In [1]: sz = 1000000
In [2]: df = pd.DataFrame({'A': randn(sz), 'B': [1] * sz})

In [3]: df.info()
<class 'pandas.core.frame.DataFrame'>
RangeIndex: 1000000 entries, 0 to 999999
Data columns (total 2 columns):
A 1000000 non-null float64
B 1000000 non-null int64
dtypes: float64(1), int64(1)
memory usage: 15.3 MB

Writing

In [14]: %timeit test_sql_write(df)

2.37 s ± 36.6 ms per loop (mean ± std. dev. of 7 runs, 1 loop each)

In [15]: %timeit test_hdf_fixed_write(df)

194 ms ± 65.9 ms per loop (mean ± std. dev. of 7 runs, 10 loops each)

In [26]: %timeit test_hdf_fixed_write_compress(df)

119 ms ± 2.15 ms per loop (mean ± std. dev. of 7 runs, 10 loops each)

In [16]: %timeit test_hdf_table_write(df)

623 ms ± 125 ms per loop (mean ± std. dev. of 7 runs, 1 loop each)

In [27]: %timeit test_hdf_table_write_compress(df)

563 ms ± 23.7 ms per loop (mean ± std. dev. of 7 runs, 1 loop each)

In [17]: %timeit test_csv_write(df)

3.13 s ± 49.9 ms per loop (mean ± std. dev. of 7 runs, 1 loop each)

In [30]: %timeit test_feather_write(df)

103 ms ± 5.88 ms per loop (mean ± std. dev. of 7 runs, 10 loops each)

In [31]: %timeit test_pickle_write(df)

109 ms ± 3.72 ms per loop (mean ± std. dev. of 7 runs, 10 loops each)

In [32]: %timeit test_pickle_write_compress(df)

3.33 s ± 55.2 ms per loop (mean ± std. dev. of 7 runs, 1 loop each)

Reading

In [18]: %timeit test_sql_read()

1.35 s ± 14.7 ms per loop (mean ± std. dev. of 7 runs, 1 loop each)

1132 Chapter 24. IO Tools (Text, CSV, HDF5, ...)

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [19]: %timeit test_hdf_fixed_read()

14.3 ms ± 438 µs per loop (mean ± std. dev. of 7 runs, 100 loops each)

In [28]: %timeit test_hdf_fixed_read_compress()

23.5 ms ± 672 µs per loop (mean ± std. dev. of 7 runs, 10 loops each)

In [20]: %timeit test_hdf_table_read()

35.4 ms ± 314 µs per loop (mean ± std. dev. of 7 runs, 10 loops each)

In [29]: %timeit test_hdf_table_read_compress()

42.6 ms ± 2.1 ms per loop (mean ± std. dev. of 7 runs, 10 loops each)

In [22]: %timeit test_csv_read()

516 ms ± 27.1 ms per loop (mean ± std. dev. of 7 runs, 1 loop each)

In [33]: %timeit test_feather_read()

4.06 ms ± 115 µs per loop (mean ± std. dev. of 7 runs, 100 loops each)

In [34]: %timeit test_pickle_read()

6.5 ms ± 172 µs per loop (mean ± std. dev. of 7 runs, 100 loops each)

In [35]: %timeit test_pickle_read_compress()

588 ms ± 3.57 ms per loop (mean ± std. dev. of 7 runs, 1 loop each)

Space on disk (in bytes)

34816000 Aug 21 18:00 test.sql

24009240 Aug 21 18:00 test_fixed.hdf
7919610 Aug 21 18:00 test_fixed_compress.hdf
24458892 Aug 21 18:00 test_table.hdf
8657116 Aug 21 18:00 test_table_compress.hdf
28520770 Aug 21 18:00 test.csv
16000248 Aug 21 18:00 test.feather
16000848 Aug 21 18:00 test.pkl
7554108 Aug 21 18:00 test.pkl.compress

And here’s the code

import os
import pandas as pd
import sqlite3
from numpy.random import randn
from pandas.io import sql

sz = 1000000
df = pd.DataFrame({'A': randn(sz), 'B': [1] * sz})

def test_sql_write(df):
if os.path.exists('test.sql'):
os.remove('test.sql')
sql_db = sqlite3.connect('test.sql')
df.to_sql(name='test_table', con=sql_db)
sql_db.close()

def test_sql_read():
sql_db = sqlite3.connect('test.sql')
pd.read_sql_query("select * from test_table", sql_db)
sql_db.close()

24.16. Performance Considerations 1133

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

def test_hdf_fixed_write(df):
df.to_hdf('test_fixed.hdf','test',mode='w')

def test_hdf_fixed_read():
pd.read_hdf('test_fixed.hdf','test')

def test_hdf_fixed_write_compress(df):
df.to_hdf('test_fixed_compress.hdf','test',mode='w',complib='blosc')

def test_hdf_fixed_read_compress():
pd.read_hdf('test_fixed_compress.hdf','test')

def test_hdf_table_write(df):
df.to_hdf('test_table.hdf','test',mode='w',format='table')

def test_hdf_table_read():
pd.read_hdf('test_table.hdf','test')

def test_hdf_table_write_compress(df):
df.to_hdf('test_table_compress.hdf','test',mode='w',complib='blosc',format='table
˓→')

def test_hdf_table_read_compress():
pd.read_hdf('test_table_compress.hdf','test')

def test_csv_write(df):
df.to_csv('test.csv',mode='w')

def test_csv_read():
pd.read_csv('test.csv',index_col=0)

def test_feather_write(df):
df.to_feather('test.feather')

def test_feather_read():
pd.read_feather('test.feather')

def test_pickle_write(df):
df.to_pickle('test.pkl')

def test_pickle_read():
pd.read_pickle('test.pkl')

def test_pickle_write_compress(df):
df.to_pickle('test.pkl.compress', compression='xz')

def test_pickle_read_compress():
pd.read_pickle('test.pkl.compress', compression='xz')

1134 Chapter 24. IO Tools (Text, CSV, HDF5, ...)

 CHAPTER

TWENTYFIVE

REMOTE DATA ACCESS

25.1 DataReader

The sub-package pandas.io.data was deprecated in v.0.17 and removed in v.0.19. Instead there has been created
a separately installable pandas-datareader package. This will allow the data modules to be independently updated on
your pandas installation.
For code older than < 0.19 you should replace the imports of the following:

from pandas.io import data, wb

With:

from pandas_datareader import data, wb

1135
pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

1136 Chapter 25. Remote Data Access

 CHAPTER

TWENTYSIX

ENHANCING PERFORMANCE

26.1 Cython (Writing C extensions for pandas)

For many use cases writing pandas in pure python and numpy is sufficient. In some computationally heavy applications
however, it can be possible to achieve sizeable speed-ups by offloading work to cython.
This tutorial assumes you have refactored as much as possible in python, for example trying to remove for loops and
making use of numpy vectorization, it’s always worth optimising in python first.
This tutorial walks through a “typical” process of cythonizing a slow computation. We use an example from the cython
documentation but in the context of pandas. Our final cythonized solution is around 100 times faster than the pure
python.

26.1.1 Pure python

We have a DataFrame to which we want to apply a function row-wise.

In [1]: df = pd.DataFrame({'a': np.random.randn(1000),

...: 'b': np.random.randn(1000),
...: 'N': np.random.randint(100, 1000, (1000)),
...: 'x': 'x'})
...:

In [2]: df
Out[2]:
N a b x
0 585 0.469112 -0.218470 x
1 841 -0.282863 -0.061645 x
2 251 -1.509059 -0.723780 x
3 972 -1.135632 0.551225 x
4 181 1.212112 -0.497767 x
5 458 -0.173215 0.837519 x
6 159 0.119209 1.103245 x
.. ... ... ... ..
993 190 0.131892 0.290162 x
994 931 0.342097 0.215341 x
995 374 -1.512743 0.874737 x
996 246 0.933753 1.120790 x
997 157 -0.308013 0.198768 x
998 977 -0.079915 1.757555 x
999 770 -1.010589 -1.115680 x

[1000 rows x 4 columns]

1137
pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Here’s the function in pure python:

In [3]: def f(x):

...: return x * (x - 1)
...:

In [4]: def integrate_f(a, b, N):

...: s = 0
...: dx = (b - a) / N
...: for i in range(N):
...: s += f(a + i * dx)
...: return s * dx
...:

We achieve our result by using apply (row-wise):

In [7]: %timeit df.apply(lambda x: integrate_f(x['a'], x['b'], x['N']), axis=1)

10 loops, best of 3: 174 ms per loop

But clearly this isn’t fast enough for us. Let’s take a look and see where the time is spent during this operation (limited
to the most time consuming four calls) using the prun ipython magic function:

In [5]: %prun -l 4 df.apply(lambda x: integrate_f(x['a'], x['b'], x['N']), axis=1)

671001 function calls (665992 primitive calls) in 0.256 seconds

Ordered by: internal time

List reduced from 145 to 4 due to restriction <4>

ncalls tottime percall cumtime percall filename:lineno(function)

1000 0.136 0.000 0.200 0.000 <ipython-input-4-91e33489f136>
˓→:1(integrate_f)

552423 0.064 0.000 0.064 0.000 <ipython-input-3-bc41a25943f6>:1(f)

3000 0.006 0.000 0.038 0.000 base.py:2534(get_value)
3000 0.004 0.000 0.044 0.000 series.py:620(__getitem__)

By far the majority of time is spend inside either integrate_f or f, hence we’ll concentrate our efforts cythonizing
these two functions.

Note: In python 2 replacing the range with its generator counterpart (xrange) would mean the range line would
vanish. In python 3 range is already a generator.

26.1.2 Plain cython

First we’re going to need to import the cython magic function to ipython (for cython versions < 0.21 you can use
%load_ext cythonmagic):

In [6]: %load_ext Cython

Now, let’s simply copy our functions over to cython as is (the suffix is here to distinguish between function versions):

In [7]: %%cython
...: def f_plain(x):
...: return x * (x - 1)
...: def integrate_f_plain(a, b, N):
...: s = 0

1138 Chapter 26. Enhancing Performance

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

...: dx = (b - a) / N
...: for i in range(N):
...: s += f_plain(a + i * dx)
...: return s * dx
...:

Note: If you’re having trouble pasting the above into your ipython, you may need to be using bleeding edge ipython
for paste to play well with cell magics.

In [4]: %timeit df.apply(lambda x: integrate_f_plain(x['a'], x['b'], x['N']), axis=1)

10 loops, best of 3: 85.5 ms per loop

Already this has shaved a third off, not too bad for a simple copy and paste.

26.1.3 Adding type

We get another huge improvement simply by providing type information:

In [8]: %%cython
...: cdef double f_typed(double x) except? -2:
...: return x * (x - 1)
...: cpdef double integrate_f_typed(double a, double b, int N):
...: cdef int i
...: cdef double s, dx
...: s = 0
...: dx = (b - a) / N
...: for i in range(N):
...: s += f_typed(a + i * dx)
...: return s * dx
...:

In [4]: %timeit df.apply(lambda x: integrate_f_typed(x['a'], x['b'], x['N']), axis=1)

10 loops, best of 3: 20.3 ms per loop

Now, we’re talking! It’s now over ten times faster than the original python implementation, and we haven’t really
modified the code. Let’s have another look at what’s eating up time:

In [9]: %prun -l 4 df.apply(lambda x: integrate_f_typed(x['a'], x['b'], x['N']),

˓→axis=1)

118576 function calls (113567 primitive calls) in 0.053 seconds

Ordered by: internal time

List reduced from 142 to 4 due to restriction <4>

ncalls tottime percall cumtime percall filename:lineno(function)

3000 0.006 0.000 0.035 0.000 base.py:2534(get_value)
3000 0.004 0.000 0.040 0.000 series.py:620(__getitem__)
9027 0.003 0.000 0.007 0.000 {built-in method builtins.getattr}
1 0.003 0.003 0.052 0.052 {pandas._libs.lib.reduce}

26.1. Cython (Writing C extensions for pandas) 1139

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

26.1.4 Using ndarray

It’s calling series... a lot! It’s creating a Series from each row, and get-ting from both the index and the series (three
times for each row). Function calls are expensive in python, so maybe we could minimise these by cythonizing the
apply part.

Note: We are now passing ndarrays into the cython function, fortunately cython plays very nicely with numpy.

In [10]: %%cython
....: cimport numpy as np
....: import numpy as np
....: cdef double f_typed(double x) except? -2:
....: return x * (x - 1)
....: cpdef double integrate_f_typed(double a, double b, int N):
....: cdef int i
....: cdef double s, dx
....: s = 0
....: dx = (b - a) / N
....: for i in range(N):
....: s += f_typed(a + i * dx)
....: return s * dx
....: cpdef np.ndarray[double] apply_integrate_f(np.ndarray col_a, np.ndarray col_
˓→b, np.ndarray col_N):

....: assert (col_a.dtype == np.float and col_b.dtype == np.float and col_N.

˓→dtype == np.int)

....: cdef Py_ssize_t i, n = len(col_N)

....: assert (len(col_a) == len(col_b) == n)
....: cdef np.ndarray[double] res = np.empty(n)
....: for i in range(len(col_a)):
....: res[i] = integrate_f_typed(col_a[i], col_b[i], col_N[i])
....: return res
....:

The implementation is simple, it creates an array of zeros and loops over the rows, applying our
integrate_f_typed, and putting this in the zeros array.

Warning: You can not pass a Series directly as a ndarray typed parameter to a cython function. Instead
pass the actual ndarray using the .values attribute of the Series. The reason is that the cython definition is
specific to an ndarray and not the passed Series.
So, do not do this:
apply_integrate_f(df['a'], df['b'], df['N'])

But rather, use .values to get the underlying ndarray

apply_integrate_f(df['a'].values, df['b'].values, df['N'].values)

Note: Loops like this would be extremely slow in python, but in Cython looping over numpy arrays is fast.

In [4]: %timeit apply_integrate_f(df['a'].values, df['b'].values, df['N'].values)

1000 loops, best of 3: 1.25 ms per loop

1140 Chapter 26. Enhancing Performance

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

We’ve gotten another big improvement. Let’s check again where the time is spent:

In [11]: %prun -l 4 apply_integrate_f(df['a'].values, df['b'].values, df['N'].values)

203 function calls in 0.001 seconds

Ordered by: internal time

List reduced from 53 to 4 due to restriction <4>

ncalls tottime percall cumtime percall filename:lineno(function)

1 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 {built-in method _cython_magic_
˓→9df59845e7ff190f442cda6f3d60e56c.apply_integrate_f}

3 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 internals.py:3860(iget)

1 0.000 0.000 0.001 0.001 {built-in method builtins.exec}
3 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 generic.py:1837(_get_item_cache)

As one might expect, the majority of the time is now spent in apply_integrate_f, so if we wanted to make
anymore efficiencies we must continue to concentrate our efforts here.

26.1.5 More advanced techniques

There is still hope for improvement. Here’s an example of using some more advanced cython techniques:

In [12]: %%cython
....: cimport cython
....: cimport numpy as np
....: import numpy as np
....: cdef double f_typed(double x) except? -2:
....: return x * (x - 1)
....: cpdef double integrate_f_typed(double a, double b, int N):
....: cdef int i
....: cdef double s, dx
....: s = 0
....: dx = (b - a) / N
....: for i in range(N):
....: s += f_typed(a + i * dx)
....: return s * dx
....: @cython.boundscheck(False)
....: @cython.wraparound(False)
....: cpdef np.ndarray[double] apply_integrate_f_wrap(np.ndarray[double] col_a, np.
˓→ndarray[double] col_b, np.ndarray[int] col_N):

....: cdef int i, n = len(col_N)

....: assert len(col_a) == len(col_b) == n
....: cdef np.ndarray[double] res = np.empty(n)
....: for i in range(n):
....: res[i] = integrate_f_typed(col_a[i], col_b[i], col_N[i])
....: return res
....:

In [4]: %timeit apply_integrate_f_wrap(df['a'].values, df['b'].values, df['N'].values)

1000 loops, best of 3: 987 us per loop

Even faster, with the caveat that a bug in our cython code (an off-by-one error, for example) might cause a segfault
because memory access isn’t checked.

26.1. Cython (Writing C extensions for pandas) 1141

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

26.2 Using numba

A recent alternative to statically compiling cython code, is to use a dynamic jit-compiler, numba.
Numba gives you the power to speed up your applications with high performance functions written directly in Python.
With a few annotations, array-oriented and math-heavy Python code can be just-in-time compiled to native machine
instructions, similar in performance to C, C++ and Fortran, without having to switch languages or Python interpreters.
Numba works by generating optimized machine code using the LLVM compiler infrastructure at import time, runtime,
or statically (using the included pycc tool). Numba supports compilation of Python to run on either CPU or GPU
hardware, and is designed to integrate with the Python scientific software stack.

Note: You will need to install numba. This is easy with conda, by using: conda install numba, see installing
using miniconda.

Note: As of numba version 0.20, pandas objects cannot be passed directly to numba-compiled functions. Instead, one
must pass the numpy array underlying the pandas object to the numba-compiled function as demonstrated below.

26.2.1 Jit

Using numba to just-in-time compile your code. We simply take the plain python code from above and annotate with
the @jit decorator.

import numba

@numba.jit
def f_plain(x):
return x * (x - 1)

@numba.jit
def integrate_f_numba(a, b, N):
s = 0
dx = (b - a) / N
for i in range(N):
s += f_plain(a + i * dx)
return s * dx

@numba.jit
def apply_integrate_f_numba(col_a, col_b, col_N):
n = len(col_N)
result = np.empty(n, dtype='float64')
assert len(col_a) == len(col_b) == n
for i in range(n):
result[i] = integrate_f_numba(col_a[i], col_b[i], col_N[i])
return result

def compute_numba(df):
result = apply_integrate_f_numba(df['a'].values, df['b'].values, df['N'].values)
return pd.Series(result, index=df.index, name='result')

Note that we directly pass numpy arrays to the numba function. compute_numba is just a wrapper that provides a
nicer interface by passing/returning pandas objects.

1142 Chapter 26. Enhancing Performance

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [4]: %timeit compute_numba(df)

1000 loops, best of 3: 798 us per loop

26.2.2 Vectorize

numba can also be used to write vectorized functions that do not require the user to explicitly loop over the observa-
tions of a vector; a vectorized function will be applied to each row automatically. Consider the following toy example
of doubling each observation:

import numba

def double_every_value_nonumba(x):
return x*2

@numba.vectorize
def double_every_value_withnumba(x):
return x*2

# Custom function without numba

In [5]: %timeit df['col1_doubled'] = df.a.apply(double_every_value_nonumba)
1000 loops, best of 3: 797 us per loop

# Standard implementation (faster than a custom function)

In [6]: %timeit df['col1_doubled'] = df.a*2
1000 loops, best of 3: 233 us per loop

# Custom function with numba

In [7]: %timeit df['col1_doubled'] = double_every_value_withnumba(df.a.values)
1000 loops, best of 3: 145 us per loop

26.2.3 Caveats

Note: numba will execute on any function, but can only accelerate certain classes of functions.

numba is best at accelerating functions that apply numerical functions to numpy arrays. When passed a function that
only uses operations it knows how to accelerate, it will execute in nopython mode.
If numba is passed a function that includes something it doesn’t know how to work with – a category that currently
includes sets, lists, dictionaries, or string functions – it will revert to object mode. In object mode, numba
will execute but your code will not speed up significantly. If you would prefer that numba throw an error if it cannot
compile a function in a way that speeds up your code, pass numba the argument nopython=True (e.g. @numba.
jit(nopython=True)). For more on troubleshooting numba modes, see the numba troubleshooting page.
Read more in the numba docs.

26.3 Expression Evaluation via eval()

The top-level function pandas.eval() implements expression evaluation of Series and DataFrame objects.

26.3. Expression Evaluation via eval() 1143

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Note: To benefit from using eval() you need to install numexpr. See the recommended dependencies section for
more details.

The point of using eval() for expression evaluation rather than plain Python is two-fold: 1) large DataFrame
objects are evaluated more efficiently and 2) large arithmetic and boolean expressions are evaluated all at once by the
underlying engine (by default numexpr is used for evaluation).

Note: You should not use eval() for simple expressions or for expressions involving small DataFrames. In fact,
eval() is many orders of magnitude slower for smaller expressions/objects than plain ol’ Python. A good rule of
thumb is to only use eval() when you have a DataFrame with more than 10,000 rows.

eval() supports all arithmetic expressions supported by the engine in addition to some extensions available only in
pandas.

Note: The larger the frame and the larger the expression the more speedup you will see from using eval().

26.3.1 Supported Syntax

These operations are supported by pandas.eval():

• Arithmetic operations except for the left shift (<<) and right shift (>>) operators, e.g., df + 2 * pi / s
** 4 % 42 - the_golden_ratio
• Comparison operations, including chained comparisons, e.g., 2 < df < df2
• Boolean operations, e.g., df < df2 and df3 < df4 or not df_bool
• list and tuple literals, e.g., [1, 2] or (1, 2)
• Attribute access, e.g., df.a
• Subscript expressions, e.g., df[0]
• Simple variable evaluation, e.g., pd.eval('df') (this is not very useful)
• Math functions, sin, cos, exp, log, expm1, log1p, sqrt, sinh, cosh, tanh, arcsin, arccos, arctan, arccosh, arcsinh,
arctanh, abs and arctan2.
This Python syntax is not allowed:
• Expressions
– Function calls other than math functions.
– is/is not operations
– if expressions
– lambda expressions
– list/set/dict comprehensions
– Literal dict and set expressions
– yield expressions
– Generator expressions
– Boolean expressions consisting of only scalar values

1144 Chapter 26. Enhancing Performance

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Statements
– Neither simple nor compound statements are allowed. This includes things like for, while, and if.

26.3.2 eval() Examples

pandas.eval() works well with expressions containing large arrays.

First let’s create a few decent-sized arrays to play with:

In [13]: nrows, ncols = 20000, 100

In [14]: df1, df2, df3, df4 = [pd.DataFrame(np.random.randn(nrows, ncols)) for _ in

˓→range(4)]

Now let’s compare adding them together using plain ol’ Python versus eval():

In [15]: %timeit df1 + df2 + df3 + df4

11.9 ms +- 379 us per loop (mean +- std. dev. of 7 runs, 100 loops each)

In [16]: %timeit pd.eval('df1 + df2 + df3 + df4')

8.29 ms +- 156 us per loop (mean +- std. dev. of 7 runs, 100 loops each)

Now let’s do the same thing but with comparisons:

In [17]: %timeit (df1 > 0) & (df2 > 0) & (df3 > 0) & (df4 > 0)
25.9 ms +- 654 us per loop (mean +- std. dev. of 7 runs, 10 loops each)

In [18]: %timeit pd.eval('(df1 > 0) & (df2 > 0) & (df3 > 0) & (df4 > 0)')
10.6 ms +- 336 us per loop (mean +- std. dev. of 7 runs, 100 loops each)

eval() also works with unaligned pandas objects:

In [19]: s = pd.Series(np.random.randn(50))

In [20]: %timeit df1 + df2 + df3 + df4 + s

22.1 ms +- 583 us per loop (mean +- std. dev. of 7 runs, 10 loops each)

In [21]: %timeit pd.eval('df1 + df2 + df3 + df4 + s')

9.49 ms +- 411 us per loop (mean +- std. dev. of 7 runs, 100 loops each)

Note: Operations such as

1 and 2 # would parse to 1 & 2, but should evaluate to 2

3 or 4 # would parse to 3 | 4, but should evaluate to 3
~1 # this is okay, but slower when using eval

should be performed in Python. An exception will be raised if you try to perform any boolean/bitwise operations with
scalar operands that are not of type bool or np.bool_. Again, you should perform these kinds of operations in
plain Python.

26.3. Expression Evaluation via eval() 1145

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

26.3.3 The DataFrame.eval method

In addition to the top level pandas.eval() function you can also evaluate an expression in the “context” of a
DataFrame.
In [22]: df = pd.DataFrame(np.random.randn(5, 2), columns=['a', 'b'])

In [23]: df.eval('a + b')

Out[23]:
0 -0.246747
1 0.867786
2 -1.626063
3 -1.134978
4 -1.027798
dtype: float64

Any expression that is a valid pandas.eval() expression is also a valid DataFrame.eval() expression, with
the added benefit that you don’t have to prefix the name of the DataFrame to the column(s) you’re interested in
evaluating.
In addition, you can perform assignment of columns within an expression. This allows for formulaic evaluation. The
assignment target can be a new column name or an existing column name, and it must be a valid Python identifier.
New in version 0.18.0.
The inplace keyword determines whether this assignment will performed on the original DataFrame or return a
copy with the new column.

Warning: For backwards compatability, inplace defaults to True if not specified. This will change in a
future version of pandas - if your code depends on an inplace assignment you should update to explicitly set
inplace=True

In [24]: df = pd.DataFrame(dict(a=range(5), b=range(5, 10)))

In [25]: df.eval('c = a + b', inplace=True)

In [26]: df.eval('d = a + b + c', inplace=True)

In [27]: df.eval('a = 1', inplace=True)

In [28]: df
Out[28]:
a b c d
0 1 5 5 10
1 1 6 7 14
2 1 7 9 18
3 1 8 11 22
4 1 9 13 26

When inplace is set to False, a copy of the DataFrame with the new or modified columns is returned and the
original frame is unchanged.
In [29]: df
Out[29]:
a b c d
0 1 5 5 10
1 1 6 7 14

1146 Chapter 26. Enhancing Performance

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

2 1 7 9 18
3 1 8 11 22
4 1 9 13 26

In [30]: df.eval('e = a - c', inplace=False)

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

a b c d e
0 1 5 5 10 -4
1 1 6 7 14 -6
2 1 7 9 18 -8
3 1 8 11 22 -10
4 1 9 13 26 -12

In [31]: df
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

a b c d
0 1 5 5 10
1 1 6 7 14
2 1 7 9 18
3 1 8 11 22
4 1 9 13 26

New in version 0.18.0.

As a convenience, multiple assignments can be performed by using a multi-line string.

In [32]: df.eval("""
....: c = a + b
....: d = a + b + c
....: a = 1""", inplace=False)
....:
Out[32]:
a b c d
0 1 5 6 12
1 1 6 7 14
2 1 7 8 16
3 1 8 9 18
4 1 9 10 20

The equivalent in standard Python would be

In [33]: df = pd.DataFrame(dict(a=range(5), b=range(5, 10)))

In [34]: df['c'] = df.a + df.b

In [35]: df['d'] = df.a + df.b + df.c

In [36]: df['a'] = 1

In [37]: df
Out[37]:
a b c d
0 1 5 5 10
1 1 6 7 14
2 1 7 9 18
3 1 8 11 22

26.3. Expression Evaluation via eval() 1147

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

4 1 9 13 26

New in version 0.18.0.

The query method gained the inplace keyword which determines whether the query modifies the original frame.

In [38]: df = pd.DataFrame(dict(a=range(5), b=range(5, 10)))

In [39]: df.query('a > 2')

Out[39]:
a b
3 3 8
4 4 9

In [40]: df.query('a > 2', inplace=True)

In [41]: df
Out[41]:
a b
3 3 8
4 4 9

Warning: Unlike with eval, the default value for inplace for query is False. This is consistent with prior
versions of pandas.

26.3.4 Local Variables

You must explicitly reference any local variable that you want to use in an expression by placing the @ character in
front of the name. For example,

In [42]: df = pd.DataFrame(np.random.randn(5, 2), columns=list('ab'))

In [43]: newcol = np.random.randn(len(df))

In [44]: df.eval('b + @newcol')

Out[44]:
0 -0.173926
1 2.493083
2 -0.881831
3 -0.691045
4 1.334703
dtype: float64

In [45]: df.query('b < @newcol')

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[45
˓→

a b
0 0.863987 -0.115998
2 -2.621419 -1.297879

If you don’t prefix the local variable with @, pandas will raise an exception telling you the variable is undefined.
When using DataFrame.eval() and DataFrame.query(), this allows you to have a local variable and a
DataFrame column with the same name in an expression.

1148 Chapter 26. Enhancing Performance

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [46]: a = np.random.randn()

In [47]: df.query('@a < a')

Out[47]:
a b
0 0.863987 -0.115998

In [48]: df.loc[a < df.a] # same as the previous expression

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[48]:
a b
0 0.863987 -0.115998

With pandas.eval() you cannot use the @ prefix at all, because it isn’t defined in that context. pandas will let
you know this if you try to use @ in a top-level call to pandas.eval(). For example,
In [49]: a, b = 1, 2

In [50]: pd.eval('@a + b')

Traceback (most recent call last):

File "/Users/taugspurger/Envs/pandas-dev/lib/python3.6/site-packages/IPython/core/
˓→ interactiveshell.py", line 2862, in run_code
exec(code_obj, self.user_global_ns, self.user_ns)

File "<ipython-input-50-d778d4ee0271>", line 1, in <module>

pd.eval('@a + b')

File "/Users/taugspurger/Envs/pandas-dev/lib/python3.6/site-packages/pandas/pandas/
˓→ core/computation/eval.py", line 282, in eval
_check_for_locals(expr, level, parser)

File "/Users/taugspurger/Envs/pandas-dev/lib/python3.6/site-packages/pandas/pandas/
˓→ core/computation/eval.py", line 149, in _check_for_locals
raise SyntaxError(msg)

File "<string>", line unknown

SyntaxError: The '@' prefix is not allowed in top-level eval calls,
please refer to your variables by name without the '@' prefix

In this case, you should simply refer to the variables like you would in standard Python.
In [51]: pd.eval('a + b')
Out[51]: 3

26.3.5 pandas.eval() Parsers

There are two different parsers and two different engines you can use as the backend.
The default 'pandas' parser allows a more intuitive syntax for expressing query-like operations (comparisons,
conjunctions and disjunctions). In particular, the precedence of the & and | operators is made equal to the precedence
of the corresponding boolean operations and and or.
For example, the above conjunction can be written without parentheses. Alternatively, you can use the 'python'
parser to enforce strict Python semantics.
In [52]: expr = '(df1 > 0) & (df2 > 0) & (df3 > 0) & (df4 > 0)'

26.3. Expression Evaluation via eval() 1149

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [53]: x = pd.eval(expr, parser='python')

In [54]: expr_no_parens = 'df1 > 0 & df2 > 0 & df3 > 0 & df4 > 0'

In [55]: y = pd.eval(expr_no_parens, parser='pandas')

In [56]: np.all(x == y)
Out[56]: True

The same expression can be “anded” together with the word and as well:

In [57]: expr = '(df1 > 0) & (df2 > 0) & (df3 > 0) & (df4 > 0)'

In [58]: x = pd.eval(expr, parser='python')

In [59]: expr_with_ands = 'df1 > 0 and df2 > 0 and df3 > 0 and df4 > 0'

In [60]: y = pd.eval(expr_with_ands, parser='pandas')

In [61]: np.all(x == y)
Out[61]: True

The and and or operators here have the same precedence that they would in vanilla Python.

26.3.6 pandas.eval() Backends

There’s also the option to make eval() operate identical to plain ol’ Python.

Note: Using the 'python' engine is generally not useful, except for testing other evaluation engines against it. You
will achieve no performance benefits using eval() with engine='python' and in fact may incur a performance
hit.

You can see this by using pandas.eval() with the 'python' engine. It is a bit slower (not by much) than
evaluating the same expression in Python

In [62]: %timeit df1 + df2 + df3 + df4

12.4 ms +- 827 us per loop (mean +- std. dev. of 7 runs, 10 loops each)

In [63]: %timeit pd.eval('df1 + df2 + df3 + df4', engine='python')

13.5 ms +- 1.17 ms per loop (mean +- std. dev. of 7 runs, 100 loops each)

26.3.7 pandas.eval() Performance

eval() is intended to speed up certain kinds of operations. In particular, those operations involving complex expres-
sions with large DataFrame/Series objects should see a significant performance benefit. Here is a plot showing
the running time of pandas.eval() as function of the size of the frame involved in the computation. The two lines
are two different engines.

1150 Chapter 26. Enhancing Performance

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Note: Operations with smallish objects (around 15k-20k rows) are faster using plain Python:

This plot was created using a DataFrame with 3 columns each containing floating point values generated using
numpy.random.randn().

26.3.8 Technical Minutia Regarding Expression Evaluation

Expressions that would result in an object dtype or involve datetime operations (because of NaT) must be evaluated
in Python space. The main reason for this behavior is to maintain backwards compatibility with versions of numpy <
1.7. In those versions of numpy a call to ndarray.astype(str) will truncate any strings that are more than 60
characters in length. Second, we can’t pass object arrays to numexpr thus string comparisons must be evaluated
in Python space.
The upshot is that this only applies to object-dtype’d expressions. So, if you have an expression–for example

26.3. Expression Evaluation via eval() 1151

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [64]: df = pd.DataFrame({'strings': np.repeat(list('cba'), 3),

....: 'nums': np.repeat(range(3), 3)})
....:

In [65]: df
Out[65]:
nums strings
0 0 c
1 0 c
2 0 c
3 1 b
4 1 b
5 1 b
6 2 a
7 2 a
8 2 a

In [66]: df.query('strings == "a" and nums == 1')

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

Empty DataFrame
Columns: [nums, strings]
Index: []

the numeric part of the comparison (nums == 1) will be evaluated by numexpr.

In general, DataFrame.query()/pandas.eval() will evaluate the subexpressions that can be evaluated by
numexpr and those that must be evaluated in Python space transparently to the user. This is done by inferring the
result type of an expression from its arguments and operators.

1152 Chapter 26. Enhancing Performance

 CHAPTER

TWENTYSEVEN

SPARSE DATA STRUCTURES

Note: The SparsePanel class has been removed in 0.19.0

We have implemented “sparse” versions of Series and DataFrame. These are not sparse in the typical “mostly 0”.
Rather, you can view these objects as being “compressed” where any data matching a specific value (NaN / missing
value, though any value can be chosen) is omitted. A special SparseIndex object tracks where data has been
“sparsified”. This will make much more sense in an example. All of the standard pandas data structures have a
to_sparse method:

In [1]: ts = pd.Series(randn(10))

In [2]: ts[2:-2] = np.nan

In [3]: sts = ts.to_sparse()

In [4]: sts
Out[4]:
0 0.469112
1 -0.282863
2 NaN
3 NaN
4 NaN
5 NaN
6 NaN
7 NaN
8 -0.861849
9 -2.104569
dtype: float64
BlockIndex
Block locations: array([0, 8], dtype=int32)
Block lengths: array([2, 2], dtype=int32)

The to_sparse method takes a kind argument (for the sparse index, see below) and a fill_value. So if we
had a mostly zero Series, we could convert it to sparse with fill_value=0:

In [5]: ts.fillna(0).to_sparse(fill_value=0)
Out[5]:
0 0.469112
1 -0.282863
2 0.000000
3 0.000000
4 0.000000
5 0.000000

1153
pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

6 0.000000
7 0.000000
8 -0.861849
9 -2.104569
dtype: float64
BlockIndex
Block locations: array([0, 8], dtype=int32)
Block lengths: array([2, 2], dtype=int32)

The sparse objects exist for memory efficiency reasons. Suppose you had a large, mostly NA DataFrame:

In [6]: df = pd.DataFrame(randn(10000, 4))

In [7]: df.iloc[:9998] = np.nan

In [8]: sdf = df.to_sparse()

In [9]: sdf
Out[9]:
0 1 2 3
0 NaN NaN NaN NaN
1 NaN NaN NaN NaN
2 NaN NaN NaN NaN
3 NaN NaN NaN NaN
4 NaN NaN NaN NaN
5 NaN NaN NaN NaN
6 NaN NaN NaN NaN
... ... ... ... ...
9993 NaN NaN NaN NaN
9994 NaN NaN NaN NaN
9995 NaN NaN NaN NaN
9996 NaN NaN NaN NaN
9997 NaN NaN NaN NaN
9998 0.509184 -0.774928 -1.369894 -0.382141
9999 0.280249 -1.648493 1.490865 -0.890819

[10000 rows x 4 columns]

In [10]: sdf.density
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→0.0002

As you can see, the density (% of values that have not been “compressed”) is extremely low. This sparse object takes
up much less memory on disk (pickled) and in the Python interpreter. Functionally, their behavior should be nearly
identical to their dense counterparts.
Any sparse object can be converted back to the standard dense form by calling to_dense:

In [11]: sts.to_dense()
Out[11]:
0 0.469112
1 -0.282863
2 NaN
3 NaN
4 NaN
5 NaN
6 NaN
7 NaN

1154 Chapter 27. Sparse data structures

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

8 -0.861849
9 -2.104569
dtype: float64

27.1 SparseArray

SparseArray is the base layer for all of the sparse indexed data structures. It is a 1-dimensional ndarray-like object
storing only values distinct from the fill_value:

In [12]: arr = np.random.randn(10)

In [13]: arr[2:5] = np.nan; arr[7:8] = np.nan

In [14]: sparr = pd.SparseArray(arr)

In [15]: sparr
Out[15]:
[-1.9556635297215477, -1.6588664275960427, nan, nan, nan, 1.1589328886422277, 0.
˓→14529711373305043, nan, 0.6060271905134522, 1.3342113401317768]

Fill: nan
IntIndex
Indices: array([0, 1, 5, 6, 8, 9], dtype=int32)

Like the indexed objects (SparseSeries, SparseDataFrame), a SparseArray can be converted back to a regular
ndarray by calling to_dense:

In [16]: sparr.to_dense()
Out[16]:
array([-1.9557, -1.6589, nan, nan, nan, 1.1589, 0.1453,
nan, 0.606 , 1.3342])

27.2 SparseList

The SparseList class has been deprecated and will be removed in a future version. See the docs of a previous
version for documentation on SparseList.

27.3 SparseIndex objects

Two kinds of SparseIndex are implemented, block and integer. We recommend using block as it’s more
memory efficient. The integer format keeps an arrays of all of the locations where the data are not equal to the fill
value. The block format tracks only the locations and sizes of blocks of data.

27.4 Sparse Dtypes

Sparse data should have the same dtype as its dense representation. Currently, float64, int64 and bool dtypes
are supported. Depending on the original dtype, fill_value default changes:
• float64: np.nan

27.1. SparseArray 1155

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• int64: 0
• bool: False

In [17]: s = pd.Series([1, np.nan, np.nan])

In [18]: s
Out[18]:
0 1.0
1 NaN
2 NaN
dtype: float64

In [19]: s.to_sparse()
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[19]:
0 1.0
1 NaN
2 NaN
dtype: float64
BlockIndex
Block locations: array([0], dtype=int32)
Block lengths: array([1], dtype=int32)

In [20]: s = pd.Series([1, 0, 0])

In [21]: s
Out[21]:
0 1
1 0
2 0
dtype: int64

In [22]: s.to_sparse()
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[22]:
0 1
1 0
2 0
dtype: int64
BlockIndex
Block locations: array([0], dtype=int32)
Block lengths: array([1], dtype=int32)

In [23]: s = pd.Series([True, False, True])

In [24]: s
Out[24]:
0 True
1 False
2 True
dtype: bool

In [25]: s.to_sparse()
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[25]:
0 True
1 False
2 True
dtype: bool
BlockIndex
Block locations: array([0, 2], dtype=int32)

1156 Chapter 27. Sparse data structures

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Block lengths: array([1, 1], dtype=int32)

You can change the dtype using .astype(), the result is also sparse. Note that .astype() also affects to the
fill_value to keep its dense representation.

In [26]: s = pd.Series([1, 0, 0, 0, 0])

In [27]: s
Out[27]:
0 1
1 0
2 0
3 0
4 0
dtype: int64

In [28]: ss = s.to_sparse()

In [29]: ss
Out[29]:
0 1
1 0
2 0
3 0
4 0
dtype: int64
BlockIndex
Block locations: array([0], dtype=int32)
Block lengths: array([1], dtype=int32)

In [30]: ss.astype(np.float64)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

0 1.0
1 0.0
2 0.0
3 0.0
4 0.0
dtype: float64
BlockIndex
Block locations: array([0], dtype=int32)
Block lengths: array([1], dtype=int32)

It raises if any value cannot be coerced to specified dtype.

In [1]: ss = pd.Series([1, np.nan, np.nan]).to_sparse()

0 1.0
1 NaN
2 NaN
dtype: float64
BlockIndex
Block locations: array([0], dtype=int32)
Block lengths: array([1], dtype=int32)

In [2]: ss.astype(np.int64)
ValueError: unable to coerce current fill_value nan to int64 dtype

27.4. Sparse Dtypes 1157

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

27.5 Sparse Calculation

You can apply NumPy ufuncs to SparseArray and get a SparseArray as a result.

In [31]: arr = pd.SparseArray([1., np.nan, np.nan, -2., np.nan])

In [32]: np.abs(arr)
Out[32]:
[1.0, nan, nan, 2.0, nan]
Fill: nan
IntIndex
Indices: array([0, 3], dtype=int32)

The ufunc is also applied to fill_value. This is needed to get the correct dense result.

In [33]: arr = pd.SparseArray([1., -1, -1, -2., -1], fill_value=-1)

In [34]: np.abs(arr)
Out[34]:
[1.0, 1.0, 1.0, 2.0, 1.0]
Fill: 1
IntIndex
Indices: array([0, 3], dtype=int32)

In [35]: np.abs(arr).to_dense()
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[35]:
˓→array([1., 1., 1., 2., 1.])

27.6 Interaction with scipy.sparse

27.6.1 SparseDataFrame

New in version 0.20.0.

Pandas supports creating sparse dataframes directly from scipy.sparse matrices.

In [36]: from scipy.sparse import csr_matrix

In [37]: arr = np.random.random(size=(1000, 5))

In [38]: arr[arr < .9] = 0

In [39]: sp_arr = csr_matrix(arr)

In [40]: sp_arr
Out[40]:
<1000x5 sparse matrix of type '<class 'numpy.float64'>'
with 517 stored elements in Compressed Sparse Row format>

In [41]: sdf = pd.SparseDataFrame(sp_arr)

In [42]: sdf
Out[42]:
0 1 2 3 4
0 0.956380 NaN NaN NaN NaN

1158 Chapter 27. Sparse data structures

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

1 NaN NaN NaN NaN NaN

2 NaN NaN NaN NaN NaN
3 NaN NaN NaN NaN NaN
4 0.999552 NaN NaN 0.956153 NaN
5 NaN NaN NaN NaN NaN
6 0.913638 NaN NaN NaN NaN
.. ... .. ... ... ..
993 NaN NaN NaN NaN NaN
994 NaN NaN NaN NaN NaN
995 NaN NaN NaN 0.998834 NaN
996 NaN NaN NaN NaN NaN
997 NaN NaN NaN NaN NaN
998 NaN NaN 0.95659 NaN NaN
999 NaN NaN NaN NaN NaN

[1000 rows x 5 columns]

All sparse formats are supported, but matrices that are not in COOrdinate format will be converted, copying
data as needed. To convert a SparseDataFrame back to sparse SciPy matrix in COO format, you can use the
SparseDataFrame.to_coo() method:

In [43]: sdf.to_coo()
Out[43]:
<1000x5 sparse matrix of type '<class 'numpy.float64'>'
with 517 stored elements in COOrdinate format>

27.6.2 SparseSeries

A SparseSeries.to_coo() method is implemented for transforming a SparseSeries indexed by a

MultiIndex to a scipy.sparse.coo_matrix.
The method requires a MultiIndex with two or more levels.

In [44]: s = pd.Series([3.0, np.nan, 1.0, 3.0, np.nan, np.nan])

In [45]: s.index = pd.MultiIndex.from_tuples([(1, 2, 'a', 0),

....: (1, 2, 'a', 1),
....: (1, 1, 'b', 0),
....: (1, 1, 'b', 1),
....: (2, 1, 'b', 0),
....: (2, 1, 'b', 1)],
....: names=['A', 'B', 'C', 'D'])
....:

In [46]: s
Out[46]:
A B C D
1 2 a 0 3.0
1 NaN
1 b 0 1.0
1 3.0
2 1 b 0 NaN
1 NaN
dtype: float64

# SparseSeries

27.6. Interaction with scipy.sparse 1159

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [47]: ss = s.to_sparse()

In [48]: ss
Out[48]:
A B C D
1 2 a 0 3.0
1 NaN
1 b 0 1.0
1 3.0
2 1 b 0 NaN
1 NaN
dtype: float64
BlockIndex
Block locations: array([0, 2], dtype=int32)
Block lengths: array([1, 2], dtype=int32)

In the example below, we transform the SparseSeries to a sparse representation of a 2-d array by specifying that
the first and second MultiIndex levels define labels for the rows and the third and fourth levels define labels for the
columns. We also specify that the column and row labels should be sorted in the final sparse representation.
In [49]: A, rows, columns = ss.to_coo(row_levels=['A', 'B'],
....: column_levels=['C', 'D'],
....: sort_labels=True)
....:

In [50]: A
Out[50]:
<3x4 sparse matrix of type '<class 'numpy.float64'>'
with 3 stored elements in COOrdinate format>

In [51]: A.todense()
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

matrix([[0., 0., 1., 3.],

[3., 0., 0., 0.],
[0., 0., 0., 0.]])

In [52]: rows
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→[(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 1)]

In [53]: columns
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→[('a', 0), ('a', 1), ('b', 0), ('b', 1)]

Specifying different row and column labels (and not sorting them) yields a different sparse matrix:
In [54]: A, rows, columns = ss.to_coo(row_levels=['A', 'B', 'C'],
....: column_levels=['D'],
....: sort_labels=False)
....:

In [55]: A
Out[55]:
<3x2 sparse matrix of type '<class 'numpy.float64'>'
with 3 stored elements in COOrdinate format>

In [56]: A.todense()

1160 Chapter 27. Sparse data structures

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

matrix([[3., 0.],
[1., 3.],
[0., 0.]])

In [57]: rows
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→[(1, 2, 'a'), (1, 1, 'b'), (2, 1, 'b')]

In [58]: columns
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→[0, 1]

A convenience method SparseSeries.from_coo() is implemented for creating a SparseSeries from a

scipy.sparse.coo_matrix.
In [59]: from scipy import sparse

In [60]: A = sparse.coo_matrix(([3.0, 1.0, 2.0], ([1, 0, 0], [0, 2, 3])),

....: shape=(3, 4))
....:

In [61]: A
Out[61]:
<3x4 sparse matrix of type '<class 'numpy.float64'>'
with 3 stored elements in COOrdinate format>

In [62]: A.todense()
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

matrix([[0., 0., 1., 2.],

[3., 0., 0., 0.],
[0., 0., 0., 0.]])

The default behaviour (with dense_index=False) simply returns a SparseSeries containing only the non-
null entries.
In [63]: ss = pd.SparseSeries.from_coo(A)

In [64]: ss
Out[64]:
0 2 1.0
3 2.0
1 0 3.0
dtype: float64
BlockIndex
Block locations: array([0], dtype=int32)
Block lengths: array([3], dtype=int32)

Specifying dense_index=True will result in an index that is the Cartesian product of the row and columns coordi-
nates of the matrix. Note that this will consume a significant amount of memory (relative to dense_index=False)
if the sparse matrix is large (and sparse) enough.
In [65]: ss_dense = pd.SparseSeries.from_coo(A, dense_index=True)

In [66]: ss_dense
Out[66]:

27.6. Interaction with scipy.sparse 1161

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

0 0 NaN
1 NaN
2 1.0
3 2.0
1 0 3.0
1 NaN
2 NaN
3 NaN
2 0 NaN
1 NaN
2 NaN
3 NaN
dtype: float64
BlockIndex
Block locations: array([2], dtype=int32)
Block lengths: array([3], dtype=int32)

1162 Chapter 27. Sparse data structures

 CHAPTER

TWENTYEIGHT

FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS (FAQ)

28.1 DataFrame memory usage

The memory usage of a dataframe (including the index) is shown when accessing the info method of a dataframe.
A configuration option, display.memory_usage (see Options and Settings), specifies if the dataframe’s memory
usage will be displayed when invoking the df.info() method.
For example, the memory usage of the dataframe below is shown when calling df.info():

In [1]: dtypes = ['int64', 'float64', 'datetime64[ns]', 'timedelta64[ns]',

...: 'complex128', 'object', 'bool']
...:

In [2]: n = 5000

In [3]: data = dict([ (t, np.random.randint(100, size=n).astype(t))

...: for t in dtypes])
...:

In [4]: df = pd.DataFrame(data)

In [5]: df['categorical'] = df['object'].astype('category')

In [6]: df.info()
<class 'pandas.core.frame.DataFrame'>
RangeIndex: 5000 entries, 0 to 4999
Data columns (total 8 columns):
bool 5000 non-null bool
complex128 5000 non-null complex128
datetime64[ns] 5000 non-null datetime64[ns]
float64 5000 non-null float64
int64 5000 non-null int64
object 5000 non-null object
timedelta64[ns] 5000 non-null timedelta64[ns]
categorical 5000 non-null category
dtypes: bool(1), category(1), complex128(1), datetime64[ns](1), float64(1), int64(1),
˓→object(1), timedelta64[ns](1)

memory usage: 289.1+ KB

The + symbol indicates that the true memory usage could be higher, because pandas does not count the memory used
by values in columns with dtype=object.
New in version 0.17.1.

1163
pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Passing memory_usage='deep' will enable a more accurate memory usage report, that accounts for the full usage
of the contained objects. This is optional as it can be expensive to do this deeper introspection.

In [7]: df.info(memory_usage='deep')
<class 'pandas.core.frame.DataFrame'>
RangeIndex: 5000 entries, 0 to 4999
Data columns (total 8 columns):
bool 5000 non-null bool
complex128 5000 non-null complex128
datetime64[ns] 5000 non-null datetime64[ns]
float64 5000 non-null float64
int64 5000 non-null int64
object 5000 non-null object
timedelta64[ns] 5000 non-null timedelta64[ns]
categorical 5000 non-null category
dtypes: bool(1), category(1), complex128(1), datetime64[ns](1), float64(1), int64(1),
˓→object(1), timedelta64[ns](1)

memory usage: 425.6 KB

By default the display option is set to True but can be explicitly overridden by passing the memory_usage argument
when invoking df.info().
The memory usage of each column can be found by calling the memory_usage method. This returns a Series with
an index represented by column names and memory usage of each column shown in bytes. For the dataframe above,
the memory usage of each column and the total memory usage of the dataframe can be found with the memory_usage
method:

In [8]: df.memory_usage()
Out[8]:
Index 80
bool 5000
complex128 80000
datetime64[ns] 40000
float64 40000
int64 40000
object 40000
timedelta64[ns] 40000
categorical 10920
dtype: int64

# total memory usage of dataframe

In [9]: df.memory_usage().sum()
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→296000

By default the memory usage of the dataframe’s index is shown in the returned Series, the memory usage of the index
can be suppressed by passing the index=False argument:

In [10]: df.memory_usage(index=False)
Out[10]:
bool 5000
complex128 80000
datetime64[ns] 40000
float64 40000
int64 40000
object 40000
timedelta64[ns] 40000
categorical 10920

1164 Chapter 28. Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ)

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

dtype: int64

The memory usage displayed by the info method utilizes the memory_usage method to determine the memory
usage of a dataframe while also formatting the output in human-readable units (base-2 representation; i.e., 1KB = 1024
bytes).
See also Categorical Memory Usage.

28.2 Using If/Truth Statements with pandas

pandas follows the numpy convention of raising an error when you try to convert something to a bool. This happens
in a if or when using the boolean operations, and, or, or not. It is not clear what the result of

>>> if pd.Series([False, True, False]):

...

should be. Should it be True because it’s not zero-length? False because there are False values? It is unclear, so
instead, pandas raises a ValueError:

>>> if pd.Series([False, True, False]):

print("I was true")
Traceback
...
ValueError: The truth value of an array is ambiguous. Use a.empty, a.any() or a.all().

If you see that, you need to explicitly choose what you want to do with it (e.g., use any(), all() or empty). or, you might
want to compare if the pandas object is None

>>> if pd.Series([False, True, False]) is not None:

print("I was not None")
>>> I was not None

or return if any value is True.

>>> if pd.Series([False, True, False]).any():

print("I am any")
>>> I am any

To evaluate single-element pandas objects in a boolean context, use the method .bool():

In [11]: pd.Series([True]).bool()
Out[11]: True

In [12]: pd.Series([False]).bool()
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[12]: False

In [13]: pd.DataFrame([[True]]).bool()
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[13]: True

In [14]: pd.DataFrame([[False]]).bool()
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[14]: False

28.2. Using If/Truth Statements with pandas 1165

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

28.2.1 Bitwise boolean

Bitwise boolean operators like == and != return a boolean Series, which is almost always what you want anyways.
>>> s = pd.Series(range(5))
>>> s == 4
0 False
1 False
2 False
3 False
4 True
dtype: bool

See boolean comparisons for more examples.

28.2.2 Using the in operator

Using the Python in operator on a Series tests for membership in the index, not membership among the values.
If this behavior is surprising, keep in mind that using in on a Python dictionary tests keys, not values, and Series are
dict-like. To test for membership in the values, use the method isin():
For DataFrames, likewise, in applies to the column axis, testing for membership in the list of column names.

28.3 NaN, Integer NA values and NA type promotions

28.3.1 Choice of NA representation

For lack of NA (missing) support from the ground up in NumPy and Python in general, we were given the difficult
choice between either
• A masked array solution: an array of data and an array of boolean values indicating whether a value is there or
is missing
• Using a special sentinel value, bit pattern, or set of sentinel values to denote NA across the dtypes
For many reasons we chose the latter. After years of production use it has proven, at least in my opinion, to be the best
decision given the state of affairs in NumPy and Python in general. The special value NaN (Not-A-Number) is used
everywhere as the NA value, and there are API functions isna and notna which can be used across the dtypes to
detect NA values.
However, it comes with it a couple of trade-offs which I most certainly have not ignored.

28.3.2 Support for integer NA

In the absence of high performance NA support being built into NumPy from the ground up, the primary casualty is
the ability to represent NAs in integer arrays. For example:
In [15]: s = pd.Series([1, 2, 3, 4, 5], index=list('abcde'))

In [16]: s
Out[16]:
a 1
b 2
c 3

1166 Chapter 28. Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ)

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

d 4
e 5
dtype: int64

In [17]: s.dtype
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[17]: dtype('int64')

In [18]: s2 = s.reindex(['a', 'b', 'c', 'f', 'u'])

In [19]: s2
Out[19]:
a 1.0
b 2.0
c 3.0
f NaN
u NaN
dtype: float64

In [20]: s2.dtype
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[20]: dtype(
˓→'float64')

This trade-off is made largely for memory and performance reasons, and also so that the resulting Series continues to
be “numeric”. One possibility is to use dtype=object arrays instead.

28.3.3 NA type promotions

When introducing NAs into an existing Series or DataFrame via reindex or some other means, boolean and integer
types will be promoted to a different dtype in order to store the NAs. These are summarized by this table:
Typeclass Promotion dtype for storing NAs
floating no change
object no change
integer cast to float64
boolean cast to object
While this may seem like a heavy trade-off, I have found very few cases where this is an issue in practice i.e. storing
values greater than 2**53. Some explanation for the motivation is in the next section.

28.3.4 Why not make NumPy like R?

Many people have suggested that NumPy should simply emulate the NA support present in the more domain-specific
statistical programming language R. Part of the reason is the NumPy type hierarchy:
Typeclass Dtypes
numpy.floating float16, float32, float64, float128
numpy.integer int8, int16, int32, int64
numpy.unsignedinteger uint8, uint16, uint32, uint64
numpy.object_ object_
numpy.bool_ bool_
numpy.character string_, unicode_
The R language, by contrast, only has a handful of built-in data types: integer, numeric (floating-point),
character, and boolean. NA types are implemented by reserving special bit patterns for each type to be used

28.3. NaN, Integer NA values and NA type promotions 1167

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

as the missing value. While doing this with the full NumPy type hierarchy would be possible, it would be a more
substantial trade-off (especially for the 8- and 16-bit data types) and implementation undertaking.
An alternate approach is that of using masked arrays. A masked array is an array of data with an associated boolean
mask denoting whether each value should be considered NA or not. I am personally not in love with this approach as I
feel that overall it places a fairly heavy burden on the user and the library implementer. Additionally, it exacts a fairly
high performance cost when working with numerical data compared with the simple approach of using NaN. Thus,
I have chosen the Pythonic “practicality beats purity” approach and traded integer NA capability for a much simpler
approach of using a special value in float and object arrays to denote NA, and promoting integer arrays to floating when
NAs must be introduced.

28.4 Differences with NumPy

For Series and DataFrame objects, var normalizes by N-1 to produce unbiased estimates of the sample variance,
while NumPy’s var normalizes by N, which measures the variance of the sample. Note that cov normalizes by N-1
in both pandas and NumPy.

28.5 Thread-safety

As of pandas 0.11, pandas is not 100% thread safe. The known issues relate to the DataFrame.copy method. If
you are doing a lot of copying of DataFrame objects shared among threads, we recommend holding locks inside the
threads where the data copying occurs.
See this link for more information.

28.6 Byte-Ordering Issues

Occasionally you may have to deal with data that were created on a machine with a different byte order than the one
on which you are running Python. A common symptom of this issue is an error like

Traceback
...
ValueError: Big-endian buffer not supported on little-endian compiler

To deal with this issue you should convert the underlying NumPy array to the native system byte order before passing
it to Series/DataFrame/Panel constructors using something similar to the following:

In [21]: x = np.array(list(range(10)), '>i4') # big endian

In [22]: newx = x.byteswap().newbyteorder() # force native byteorder

In [23]: s = pd.Series(newx)

See the NumPy documentation on byte order for more details.

1168 Chapter 28. Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ)

 CHAPTER

TWENTYNINE

RPY2 / R INTERFACE

Warning: Up to pandas 0.19, a pandas.rpy module existed with functionality to convert between pandas and
rpy2 objects. This functionality now lives in the rpy2 project itself. See the updating section of the previous
documentation for a guide to port your code from the removed pandas.rpy to rpy2 functions.

rpy2 is an interface to R running embedded in a Python process, and also includes functionality to deal with pan-
das DataFrames. Converting data frames back and forth between rpy2 and pandas should be largely automated (no
need to convert explicitly, it will be done on the fly in most rpy2 functions). To convert explicitly, the functions are
pandas2ri.py2ri() and pandas2ri.ri2py().
See also the documentation of the rpy2 project: https://rpy2.readthedocs.io.
In the remainder of this page, a few examples of explicit conversion is given. The pandas conversion of rpy2 needs
first to be activated:

In [1]: from rpy2.robjects import r, pandas2ri

In [2]: pandas2ri.activate()

29.1 Transferring R data sets into Python

Once the pandas conversion is activated (pandas2ri.activate()), many conversions of R to pandas objects will
be done automatically. For example, to obtain the ‘iris’ dataset as a pandas DataFrame:

In [3]: r.data('iris')
Out[3]:
R object with classes: ('character',) mapped to:
<StrVector - Python:0x132e375c8 / R:0x7ff8b921f338>
['iris']

In [4]: r['iris'].head()
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

Sepal.Length Sepal.Width Petal.Length Petal.Width Species

1 5.1 3.5 1.4 0.2 setosa
2 4.9 3.0 1.4 0.2 setosa
3 4.7 3.2 1.3 0.2 setosa
4 4.6 3.1 1.5 0.2 setosa
5 5.0 3.6 1.4 0.2 setosa

1169
pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

If the pandas conversion was not activated, the above could also be accomplished by explicitly converting it with the
pandas2ri.ri2py function (pandas2ri.ri2py(r['iris'])).

29.2 Converting DataFrames into R objects

The pandas2ri.py2ri function support the reverse operation to convert DataFrames into the equivalent R object
(that is, data.frame):

In [5]: df = pd.DataFrame({'A': [1, 2, 3], 'B': [4, 5, 6], 'C':[7,8,9]},

...: index=["one", "two", "three"])
...:

In [6]: r_dataframe = pandas2ri.py2ri(df)

In [7]: print(type(r_dataframe))
<class 'rpy2.robjects.vectors.DataFrame'>

In [8]: print(r_dataframe)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\ A B C
one 1 4 7
two 2 5 8
three 3 6 9

The DataFrame’s index is stored as the rownames attribute of the data.frame instance.

1170 Chapter 29. rpy2 / R interface

 CHAPTER

THIRTY

PANDAS ECOSYSTEM

Increasingly, packages are being built on top of pandas to address specific needs in data preparation, analysis and
visualization. This is encouraging because it means pandas is not only helping users to handle their data tasks but also
that it provides a better starting point for developers to build powerful and more focused data tools. The creation of
libraries that complement pandas’ functionality also allows pandas development to remain focused around it’s original
requirements.
This is an in-exhaustive list of projects that build on pandas in order to provide tools in the PyData space.
We’d like to make it easier for users to find these project, if you know of other substantial projects that you feel should
be on this list, please let us know.

30.1 Statistics and Machine Learning

30.1.1 Statsmodels

Statsmodels is the prominent python “statistics and econometrics library” and it has a long-standing special relation-
ship with pandas. Statsmodels provides powerful statistics, econometrics, analysis and modeling functionality that is
out of pandas’ scope. Statsmodels leverages pandas objects as the underlying data container for computation.

30.1.2 sklearn-pandas

Use pandas DataFrames in your scikit-learn ML pipeline.

30.2 Visualization

30.2.1 Bokeh

Bokeh is a Python interactive visualization library for large datasets that natively uses the latest web technologies.
Its goal is to provide elegant, concise construction of novel graphics in the style of Protovis/D3, while delivering
high-performance interactivity over large data to thin clients.

30.2.2 yhat/ggplot

Hadley Wickham’s ggplot2 is a foundational exploratory visualization package for the R language. Based on “The
Grammar of Graphics” it provides a powerful, declarative and extremely general way to generate bespoke plots of
any kind of data. It’s really quite incredible. Various implementations to other languages are available, but a faithful

1171
pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

implementation for python users has long been missing. Although still young (as of Jan-2014), the yhat/ggplot project
has been progressing quickly in that direction.

30.2.3 Seaborn

Although pandas has quite a bit of “just plot it” functionality built-in, visualization and in particular statistical graphics
is a vast field with a long tradition and lots of ground to cover. The Seaborn project builds on top of pandas and
matplotlib to provide easy plotting of data which extends to more advanced types of plots then those offered by
pandas.

30.2.4 Vincent

The Vincent project leverages Vega (that in turn, leverages d3) to create plots. Although functional, as of Summer
2016 the Vincent project has not been updated in over two years and is unlikely to receive further updates.

30.2.5 IPython Vega

Like Vincent, the IPython Vega project leverages Vega to create plots, but primarily targets the IPython Notebook
environment.

30.2.6 Plotly

Plotly’s Python API enables interactive figures and web shareability. Maps, 2D, 3D, and live-streaming graphs are
rendered with WebGL and D3.js. The library supports plotting directly from a pandas DataFrame and cloud-based
collaboration. Users of matplotlib, ggplot for Python, and Seaborn can convert figures into interactive web-based
plots. Plots can be drawn in IPython Notebooks , edited with R or MATLAB, modified in a GUI, or embedded in apps
and dashboards. Plotly is free for unlimited sharing, and has cloud, offline, or on-premise accounts for private use.

30.2.7 QtPandas

Spun off from the main pandas library, the qtpandas library enables DataFrame visualization and manipulation in
PyQt4 and PySide applications.

30.3 IDE

30.3.1 IPython

IPython is an interactive command shell and distributed computing environment. IPython Notebook is a web appli-
cation for creating IPython notebooks. An IPython notebook is a JSON document containing an ordered list of in-
put/output cells which can contain code, text, mathematics, plots and rich media. IPython notebooks can be converted
to a number of open standard output formats (HTML, HTML presentation slides, LaTeX, PDF, ReStructuredText,
Markdown, Python) through ‘Download As’ in the web interface and ipython nbconvert in a shell.
Pandas DataFrames implement _repr_html_ methods which are utilized by IPython Notebook for displaying (ab-
breviated) HTML tables. (Note: HTML tables may or may not be compatible with non-HTML IPython output for-
mats.)

1172 Chapter 30. pandas Ecosystem

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

30.3.2 quantopian/qgrid

qgrid is “an interactive grid for sorting and filtering DataFrames in IPython Notebook” built with SlickGrid.

30.3.3 Spyder

Spyder is a cross-platform Qt-based open-source Python IDE with editing, testing, debugging, and introspection fea-
tures. Spyder can now introspect and display Pandas DataFrames and show both “column wise min/max and global
min/max coloring.”

30.4 API

30.4.1 pandas-datareader

pandas-datareader is a remote data access library for pandas. pandas.io from pandas < 0.17.0 is now
refactored/split-off to and importable from pandas_datareader (PyPI:pandas-datareader). Many/most of
the supported APIs have at least a documentation paragraph in the pandas-datareader docs:
The following data feeds are available:
• Yahoo! Finance
• Google Finance
• FRED
• Fama/French
• World Bank
• OECD
• Eurostat
• EDGAR Index

30.4.2 quandl/Python

Quandl API for Python wraps the Quandl REST API to return Pandas DataFrames with timeseries indexes.

30.4.3 pydatastream

PyDatastream is a Python interface to the Thomson Dataworks Enterprise (DWE/Datastream) SOAP API to return
indexed Pandas DataFrames or Panels with financial data. This package requires valid credentials for this API (non
free).

30.4.4 pandaSDMX

pandaSDMX is a library to retrieve and acquire statistical data and metadata disseminated in SDMX 2.1, an ISO-
standard widely used by institutions such as statistics offices, central banks, and international organisations. pandaS-
DMX can expose datasets and related structural metadata including dataflows, code-lists, and datastructure definitions
as pandas Series or multi-indexed DataFrames.

30.4. API 1173

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

30.4.5 fredapi

fredapi is a Python interface to the Federal Reserve Economic Data (FRED) provided by the Federal Reserve Bank of
St. Louis. It works with both the FRED database and ALFRED database that contains point-in-time data (i.e. historic
data revisions). fredapi provides a wrapper in python to the FRED HTTP API, and also provides several convenient
methods for parsing and analyzing point-in-time data from ALFRED. fredapi makes use of pandas and returns data in
a Series or DataFrame. This module requires a FRED API key that you can obtain for free on the FRED website.

30.5 Domain Specific

30.5.1 Geopandas

Geopandas extends pandas data objects to include geographic information which support geometric operations. If your
work entails maps and geographical coordinates, and you love pandas, you should take a close look at Geopandas.

30.5.2 xarray

xarray brings the labeled data power of pandas to the physical sciences by providing N-dimensional variants of the
core pandas data structures. It aims to provide a pandas-like and pandas-compatible toolkit for analytics on multi-
dimensional arrays, rather than the tabular data for which pandas excels.

30.6 Out-of-core

30.6.1 Dask

Dask is a flexible parallel computing library for analytics. Dask allow a familiar DataFrame interface to out-of-core,
parallel and distributed computing.

30.6.2 Blaze

Blaze provides a standard API for doing computations with various in-memory and on-disk backends: NumPy, Pandas,
SQLAlchemy, MongoDB, PyTables, PySpark.

30.6.3 Odo

Odo provides a uniform API for moving data between different formats. It uses pandas own read_csv for CSV
IO and leverages many existing packages such as PyTables, h5py, and pymongo to move data between non pandas
formats. Its graph based approach is also extensible by end users for custom formats that may be too specific for the
core of odo.

30.7 Data validation

30.7.1 Engarde

Engarde is a lightweight library used to explicitly state your assumptions abour your datasets and check that they’re
actually true.

1174 Chapter 30. pandas Ecosystem

 CHAPTER

THIRTYONE

COMPARISON WITH R / R LIBRARIES

Since pandas aims to provide a lot of the data manipulation and analysis functionality that people use R for, this
page was started to provide a more detailed look at the R language and its many third party libraries as they relate to
pandas. In comparisons with R and CRAN libraries, we care about the following things:
• Functionality / flexibility: what can/cannot be done with each tool
• Performance: how fast are operations. Hard numbers/benchmarks are preferable
• Ease-of-use: Is one tool easier/harder to use (you may have to be the judge of this, given side-by-side code
comparisons)
This page is also here to offer a bit of a translation guide for users of these R packages.
For transfer of DataFrame objects from pandas to R, one option is to use HDF5 files, see External Compatibility
for an example.

31.1 Quick Reference

We’ll start off with a quick reference guide pairing some common R operations using dplyr with pandas equivalents.

31.1.1 Querying, Filtering, Sampling

R pandas
dim(df) df.shape
head(df) df.head()
slice(df, 1:10) df.iloc[:9]
filter(df, col1 == 1, col2 == 1) df.query('col1 == 1 & col2 == 1')
df[df$col1 == 1 & df$col2 == 1,] df[(df.col1 == 1) & (df.col2 == 1)]
select(df, col1, col2) df[['col1', 'col2']]
select(df, col1:col3) df.loc[:, 'col1':'col3']
select(df, -(col1:col3)) df.drop(cols_to_drop, axis=1) but see1
distinct(select(df, col1)) df[['col1']].drop_duplicates()
distinct(select(df, col1, col2)) df[['col1', 'col2']].drop_duplicates()
sample_n(df, 10) df.sample(n=10)
sample_frac(df, 0.01) df.sample(frac=0.01)
1 R’s shorthand for a subrange of columns (select(df, col1:col3)) can be approached cleanly in pandas, if you have the list of columns,

for example df[cols[1:3]] or df.drop(cols[1:3]), but doing this by column name is a bit messy.

1175
pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

31.1.2 Sorting

R pandas
arrange(df, col1, col2) df.sort_values(['col1', 'col2'])
arrange(df, desc(col1)) df.sort_values('col1', ascending=False)

31.1.3 Transforming

R pandas
select(df, col_one = df.rename(columns={'col1':
col1) 'col_one'})['col_one']
rename(df, col_one = df.rename(columns={'col1': 'col_one'})
col1)
mutate(df, c=a-b) df.assign(c=df.a-df.b)

31.1.4 Grouping and Summarizing

R pandas
summary(df) df.describe()
gdf <- group_by(df, col1) gdf = df.groupby('col1')
summarise(gdf, avg=mean(col1, df.groupby('col1').agg({'col1':
na.rm=TRUE)) 'mean'})
summarise(gdf, total=sum(col1)) df.groupby('col1').sum()

31.2 Base R

31.2.1 Slicing with R’s c

R makes it easy to access data.frame columns by name

df <- data.frame(a=rnorm(5), b=rnorm(5), c=rnorm(5), d=rnorm(5), e=rnorm(5))

df[, c("a", "c", "e")]

or by integer location

df <- data.frame(matrix(rnorm(1000), ncol=100))

df[, c(1:10, 25:30, 40, 50:100)]

Selecting multiple columns by name in pandas is straightforward

In [1]: df = pd.DataFrame(np.random.randn(10, 3), columns=list('abc'))

In [2]: df[['a', 'c']]

Out[2]:
a c
0 -1.039575 -0.424972
1 0.567020 -1.087401
2 -0.673690 -1.478427
3 0.524988 0.577046
4 -1.715002 -0.370647
5 -1.157892 0.844885

1176 Chapter 31. Comparison with R / R libraries

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

6 1.075770 1.643563
7 -1.469388 -0.674600
8 -1.776904 -1.294524
9 0.413738 -0.472035

In [3]: df.loc[:, ['a', 'c']]

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

a c
0 -1.039575 -0.424972
1 0.567020 -1.087401
2 -0.673690 -1.478427
3 0.524988 0.577046
4 -1.715002 -0.370647
5 -1.157892 0.844885
6 1.075770 1.643563
7 -1.469388 -0.674600
8 -1.776904 -1.294524
9 0.413738 -0.472035

Selecting multiple noncontiguous columns by integer location can be achieved with a combination of the iloc indexer
attribute and numpy.r_.
In [4]: named = list('abcdefg')

In [5]: n = 30

In [6]: columns = named + np.arange(len(named), n).tolist()

In [7]: df = pd.DataFrame(np.random.randn(n, n), columns=columns)

In [8]: df.iloc[:, np.r_[:10, 24:30]]

Out[8]:
a b c d e f g \
0 -0.013960 -0.362543 -0.006154 -0.923061 0.895717 0.805244 -1.206412
1 0.545952 -1.219217 -1.226825 0.769804 -1.281247 -0.727707 -0.121306
2 2.396780 0.014871 3.357427 -0.317441 -1.236269 0.896171 -0.487602
3 -0.988387 0.094055 1.262731 1.289997 0.082423 -0.055758 0.536580
4 -1.340896 1.846883 -1.328865 1.682706 -1.717693 0.888782 0.228440
5 0.464000 0.227371 -0.496922 0.306389 -2.290613 -1.134623 -1.561819
6 -0.507516 -0.230096 0.394500 -1.934370 -1.652499 1.488753 -0.896484
.. ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
23 -0.083272 -0.273955 -0.772369 -1.242807 -0.386336 -0.182486 0.164816
24 2.071413 -1.364763 1.122066 0.066847 1.751987 0.419071 -1.118283
25 0.036609 0.359986 1.211905 0.850427 1.554957 -0.888463 -1.508808
26 -1.179240 0.238923 1.756671 -0.747571 0.543625 -0.159609 -0.051458
27 0.025645 0.932436 -1.694531 -0.182236 -1.072710 0.466764 -0.072673
28 0.439086 0.812684 -0.128932 -0.142506 -1.137207 0.462001 -0.159466
29 -0.909806 -0.312006 0.383630 -0.631606 1.321415 -0.004799 -2.008210

7 8 9 24 25 26 27 \
0 2.565646 1.431256 1.340309 0.875906 -2.211372 0.974466 -2.006747
1 -0.097883 0.695775 0.341734 -1.743161 -0.826591 -0.345352 1.314232
2 -0.082240 -2.182937 0.380396 1.266143 0.299368 -0.863838 0.408204
3 -0.489682 0.369374 -0.034571 0.221471 -0.744471 0.758527 1.729689
4 0.901805 1.171216 0.520260 0.650776 -1.461665 -1.137707 -0.891060
5 -0.260838 0.281957 1.523962 -0.008434 1.952541 -1.056652 0.533946
6 0.576897 1.146000 1.487349 2.015523 -1.833722 1.771740 -0.670027

31.2. Base R 1177

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

.. ... ... ... ... ... ... ...

23 0.065624 0.307665 -1.898358 1.389045 -0.873585 -0.699862 0.812477
24 1.010694 0.877138 -0.611561 -1.040389 -0.796211 0.241596 0.385922
25 -0.617855 0.536164 2.175585 1.872601 -2.513465 -0.139184 0.810491
26 0.937882 0.617547 0.287918 -1.584814 0.307941 1.809049 0.296237
27 -0.026233 -0.051744 0.001402 0.150664 -3.060395 0.040268 0.066091
28 -1.788308 0.753604 0.918071 0.922729 0.869610 0.364726 -0.226101
29 -0.481634 -2.056211 -2.106095 0.039227 0.211283 1.440190 -0.989193

28 29
0 -0.410001 -0.078638
1 0.690579 0.995761
2 -1.048089 -0.025747
3 -0.964980 -0.845696
4 -0.693921 1.613616
5 -1.226970 0.040403
6 0.049307 -0.521493
.. ... ...
23 -0.469503 1.142702
24 -0.486078 0.433042
25 0.571599 -0.000676
26 -0.143550 0.289401
27 -0.192862 1.979055
28 -0.657647 -0.952699
29 0.313335 -0.399709

[30 rows x 16 columns]

31.2.2 aggregate

In R you may want to split data into subsets and compute the mean for each. Using a data.frame called df and splitting
it into groups by1 and by2:

df <- data.frame(
v1 = c(1,3,5,7,8,3,5,NA,4,5,7,9),
v2 = c(11,33,55,77,88,33,55,NA,44,55,77,99),
by1 = c("red", "blue", 1, 2, NA, "big", 1, 2, "red", 1, NA, 12),
by2 = c("wet", "dry", 99, 95, NA, "damp", 95, 99, "red", 99, NA, NA))
aggregate(x=df[, c("v1", "v2")], by=list(mydf2$by1, mydf2$by2), FUN = mean)

The groupby() method is similar to base R aggregate function.

In [9]: df = pd.DataFrame({
...: 'v1': [1,3,5,7,8,3,5,np.nan,4,5,7,9],
...: 'v2': [11,33,55,77,88,33,55,np.nan,44,55,77,99],
...: 'by1': ["red", "blue", 1, 2, np.nan, "big", 1, 2, "red", 1, np.nan, 12],
...: 'by2': ["wet", "dry", 99, 95, np.nan, "damp", 95, 99, "red", 99, np.nan,
...: np.nan]
...: })
...:

In [10]: g = df.groupby(['by1','by2'])

In [11]: g[['v1','v2']].mean()
Out[11]:
v1 v2

1178 Chapter 31. Comparison with R / R libraries

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

by1 by2
1 95 5.0 55.0
99 5.0 55.0
2 95 7.0 77.0
99 NaN NaN
big damp 3.0 33.0
blue dry 3.0 33.0
red red 4.0 44.0
wet 1.0 11.0

For more details and examples see the groupby documentation.

31.2.3 match / %in%

A common way to select data in R is using %in% which is defined using the function match. The operator %in% is
used to return a logical vector indicating if there is a match or not:

s <- 0:4
s %in% c(2,4)

The isin() method is similar to R %in% operator:

In [12]: s = pd.Series(np.arange(5),dtype=np.float32)

In [13]: s.isin([2, 4])

Out[13]:
0 False
1 False
2 True
3 False
4 True
dtype: bool

The match function returns a vector of the positions of matches of its first argument in its second:

s <- 0:4
match(s, c(2,4))

For more details and examples see the reshaping documentation.

31.2.4 tapply

tapply is similar to aggregate, but data can be in a ragged array, since the subclass sizes are possibly irregular.
Using a data.frame called baseball, and retrieving information based on the array team:

baseball <-
data.frame(team = gl(5, 5,
labels = paste("Team", LETTERS[1:5])),
player = sample(letters, 25),
batting.average = runif(25, .200, .400))

tapply(baseball$batting.average, baseball.example$team,
max)

In pandas we may use pivot_table() method to handle this:

31.2. Base R 1179

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [14]: import random

In [15]: import string

In [16]: baseball = pd.DataFrame({

....: 'team': ["team %d" % (x+1) for x in range(5)]*5,
....: 'player': random.sample(list(string.ascii_lowercase),25),
....: 'batting avg': np.random.uniform(.200, .400, 25)
....: })
....:

In [17]: baseball.pivot_table(values='batting avg', columns='team', aggfunc=np.max)

Out[17]:
team team 1 team 2 team 3 team 4 team 5
batting avg 0.394457 0.39573 0.343015 0.388863 0.377379

For more details and examples see the reshaping documentation.

31.2.5 subset

The query() method is similar to the base R subset function. In R you might want to get the rows of a data.
frame where one column’s values are less than another column’s values:

df <- data.frame(a=rnorm(10), b=rnorm(10))

subset(df, a <= b)
df[df$a <= df$b,] # note the comma

In pandas, there are a few ways to perform subsetting. You can use query() or pass an expression as if it were an
index/slice as well as standard boolean indexing:

In [18]: df = pd.DataFrame({'a': np.random.randn(10), 'b': np.random.randn(10)})

In [19]: df.query('a <= b')

Out[19]:
a b
0 -1.003455 -0.990738
1 0.083515 0.548796
3 -0.524392 0.904400
4 -0.837804 0.746374
8 -0.507219 0.245479

In [20]: df[df.a <= df.b]

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

a b
0 -1.003455 -0.990738
1 0.083515 0.548796
3 -0.524392 0.904400
4 -0.837804 0.746374
8 -0.507219 0.245479

In [21]: df.loc[df.a <= df.b]

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

a b
0 -1.003455 -0.990738

1180 Chapter 31. Comparison with R / R libraries

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

1 0.083515 0.548796
3 -0.524392 0.904400
4 -0.837804 0.746374
8 -0.507219 0.245479

For more details and examples see the query documentation.

31.2.6 with

An expression using a data.frame called df in R with the columns a and b would be evaluated using with like so:

df <- data.frame(a=rnorm(10), b=rnorm(10))

with(df, a + b)
df$a + df$b # same as the previous expression

In pandas the equivalent expression, using the eval() method, would be:

In [22]: df = pd.DataFrame({'a': np.random.randn(10), 'b': np.random.randn(10)})

In [23]: df.eval('a + b')

Out[23]:
0 -0.920205
1 -0.860236
2 1.154370
3 0.188140
4 -1.163718
5 0.001397
6 -0.825694
7 -1.138198
8 -1.708034
9 1.148616
dtype: float64

In [24]: df.a + df.b # same as the previous expression

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

0 -0.920205
1 -0.860236
2 1.154370
3 0.188140
4 -1.163718
5 0.001397
6 -0.825694
7 -1.138198
8 -1.708034
9 1.148616
dtype: float64

In certain cases eval() will be much faster than evaluation in pure Python. For more details and examples see the
eval documentation.

31.3 plyr

plyr is an R library for the split-apply-combine strategy for data analysis. The functions revolve around three data

31.3. plyr 1181

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

structures in R, a for arrays, l for lists, and d for data.frame. The table below shows how these data
structures could be mapped in Python.
R Python
array list
lists dictionary or list of objects
data.frame dataframe

31.3.1 ddply

An expression using a data.frame called df in R where you want to summarize x by month:

require(plyr)
df <- data.frame(
x = runif(120, 1, 168),
y = runif(120, 7, 334),
z = runif(120, 1.7, 20.7),
month = rep(c(5,6,7,8),30),
week = sample(1:4, 120, TRUE)
)

ddply(df, .(month, week), summarize,

mean = round(mean(x), 2),
sd = round(sd(x), 2))

In pandas the equivalent expression, using the groupby() method, would be:

In [25]: df = pd.DataFrame({
....: 'x': np.random.uniform(1., 168., 120),
....: 'y': np.random.uniform(7., 334., 120),
....: 'z': np.random.uniform(1.7, 20.7, 120),
....: 'month': [5,6,7,8]*30,
....: 'week': np.random.randint(1,4, 120)
....: })
....:

In [26]: grouped = df.groupby(['month','week'])

In [27]: grouped['x'].agg([np.mean, np.std])

Out[27]:
mean std
month week
5 1 71.840596 52.886392
2 71.904794 55.786805
3 89.845632 49.892367
6 1 97.730877 52.442172
2 93.369836 47.178389
3 96.592088 58.773744
7 1 59.255715 43.442336
2 69.634012 28.607369
3 84.510992 59.761096
8 1 104.787666 31.745437
2 69.717872 53.747188
3 79.892221 52.950459

For more details and examples see the groupby documentation.

1182 Chapter 31. Comparison with R / R libraries

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

31.4 reshape / reshape2

31.4.1 melt.array

An expression using a 3 dimensional array called a in R where you want to melt it into a data.frame:

a <- array(c(1:23, NA), c(2,3,4))

data.frame(melt(a))

In Python, since a is a list, you can simply use list comprehension.

In [28]: a = np.array(list(range(1,24))+[np.NAN]).reshape(2,3,4)

In [29]: pd.DataFrame([tuple(list(x)+[val]) for x, val in np.ndenumerate(a)])

Out[29]:
0 1 2 3
0 0 0 0 1.0
1 0 0 1 2.0
2 0 0 2 3.0
3 0 0 3 4.0
4 0 1 0 5.0
5 0 1 1 6.0
6 0 1 2 7.0
.. .. .. .. ...
17 1 1 1 18.0
18 1 1 2 19.0
19 1 1 3 20.0
20 1 2 0 21.0
21 1 2 1 22.0
22 1 2 2 23.0
23 1 2 3 NaN

[24 rows x 4 columns]

31.4.2 melt.list

An expression using a list called a in R where you want to melt it into a data.frame:

a <- as.list(c(1:4, NA))

data.frame(melt(a))

In Python, this list would be a list of tuples, so DataFrame() method would convert it to a dataframe as required.

In [30]: a = list(enumerate(list(range(1,5))+[np.NAN]))

In [31]: pd.DataFrame(a)
Out[31]:
0 1
0 0 1.0
1 1 2.0
2 2 3.0
3 3 4.0
4 4 NaN

For more details and examples see the Into to Data Structures documentation.

31.4. reshape / reshape2 1183

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

31.4.3 melt.data.frame

An expression using a data.frame called cheese in R where you want to reshape the data.frame:

cheese <- data.frame(

first = c('John', 'Mary'),
last = c('Doe', 'Bo'),
height = c(5.5, 6.0),
weight = c(130, 150)
)
melt(cheese, id=c("first", "last"))

In Python, the melt() method is the R equivalent:

In [32]: cheese = pd.DataFrame({'first' : ['John', 'Mary'],

....: 'last' : ['Doe', 'Bo'],
....: 'height' : [5.5, 6.0],
....: 'weight' : [130, 150]})
....:

In [33]: pd.melt(cheese, id_vars=['first', 'last'])

Out[33]:
first last variable value
0 John Doe height 5.5
1 Mary Bo height 6.0
2 John Doe weight 130.0
3 Mary Bo weight 150.0

In [34]: cheese.set_index(['first', 'last']).stack() # alternative way

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

first last
John Doe height 5.5
weight 130.0
Mary Bo height 6.0
weight 150.0
dtype: float64

For more details and examples see the reshaping documentation.

31.4.4 cast

In R acast is an expression using a data.frame called df in R to cast into a higher dimensional array:

df <- data.frame(
x = runif(12, 1, 168),
y = runif(12, 7, 334),
z = runif(12, 1.7, 20.7),
month = rep(c(5,6,7),4),
week = rep(c(1,2), 6)
)

mdf <- melt(df, id=c("month", "week"))

acast(mdf, week ~ month ~ variable, mean)

In Python the best way is to make use of pivot_table():

1184 Chapter 31. Comparison with R / R libraries

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [35]: df = pd.DataFrame({
....: 'x': np.random.uniform(1., 168., 12),
....: 'y': np.random.uniform(7., 334., 12),
....: 'z': np.random.uniform(1.7, 20.7, 12),
....: 'month': [5,6,7]*4,
....: 'week': [1,2]*6
....: })
....:

In [36]: mdf = pd.melt(df, id_vars=['month', 'week'])

In [37]: pd.pivot_table(mdf, values='value', index=['variable','week'],

....: columns=['month'], aggfunc=np.mean)
....:
Out[37]:
month 5 6 7
variable week
x 1 114.001700 132.227290 65.808204
2 124.669553 147.495706 82.882820
y 1 225.636630 301.864228 91.706834
2 57.692665 215.851669 218.004383
z 1 17.793871 7.124644 17.679823
2 15.068355 13.873974 9.394966

Similarly for dcast which uses a data.frame called df in R to aggregate information based on Animal and
FeedType:
df <- data.frame(
Animal = c('Animal1', 'Animal2', 'Animal3', 'Animal2', 'Animal1',
'Animal2', 'Animal3'),
FeedType = c('A', 'B', 'A', 'A', 'B', 'B', 'A'),
Amount = c(10, 7, 4, 2, 5, 6, 2)
)

dcast(df, Animal ~ FeedType, sum, fill=NaN)

# Alternative method using base R
with(df, tapply(Amount, list(Animal, FeedType), sum))

Python can approach this in two different ways. Firstly, similar to above using pivot_table():
In [38]: df = pd.DataFrame({
....: 'Animal': ['Animal1', 'Animal2', 'Animal3', 'Animal2', 'Animal1',
....: 'Animal2', 'Animal3'],
....: 'FeedType': ['A', 'B', 'A', 'A', 'B', 'B', 'A'],
....: 'Amount': [10, 7, 4, 2, 5, 6, 2],
....: })
....:

In [39]: df.pivot_table(values='Amount', index='Animal', columns='FeedType', aggfunc=

˓→'sum')

Out[39]:
FeedType A B
Animal
Animal1 10.0 5.0
Animal2 2.0 13.0
Animal3 6.0 NaN

The second approach is to use the groupby() method:

31.4. reshape / reshape2 1185

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [40]: df.groupby(['Animal','FeedType'])['Amount'].sum()
Out[40]:
Animal FeedType
Animal1 A 10
B 5
Animal2 A 2
B 13
Animal3 A 6
Name: Amount, dtype: int64

For more details and examples see the reshaping documentation or the groupby documentation.

31.4.5 factor

pandas has a data type for categorical data.

cut(c(1,2,3,4,5,6), 3)
factor(c(1,2,3,2,2,3))

In pandas this is accomplished with pd.cut and astype("category"):

In [41]: pd.cut(pd.Series([1,2,3,4,5,6]), 3)
Out[41]:
0 (0.995, 2.667]
1 (0.995, 2.667]
2 (2.667, 4.333]
3 (2.667, 4.333]
4 (4.333, 6.0]
5 (4.333, 6.0]
dtype: category
Categories (3, interval[float64]): [(0.995, 2.667] < (2.667, 4.333] < (4.333, 6.0]]

In [42]: pd.Series([1,2,3,2,2,3]).astype("category")
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

0 1
1 2
2 3
3 2
4 2
5 3
dtype: category
Categories (3, int64): [1, 2, 3]

For more details and examples see categorical introduction and the API documentation. There is also a documentation
regarding the differences to R’s factor.

1186 Chapter 31. Comparison with R / R libraries

 CHAPTER

THIRTYTWO

COMPARISON WITH SQL

Since many potential pandas users have some familiarity with SQL, this page is meant to provide some examples of
how various SQL operations would be performed using pandas.
If you’re new to pandas, you might want to first read through 10 Minutes to pandas to familiarize yourself with the
library.
As is customary, we import pandas and numpy as follows:

In [1]: import pandas as pd

In [2]: import numpy as np

Most of the examples will utilize the tips dataset found within pandas tests. We’ll read the data into a DataFrame
called tips and assume we have a database table of the same name and structure.

In [3]: url = 'https://raw.github.com/pandas-dev/pandas/master/pandas/tests/data/tips.

˓→csv'

In [4]: tips = pd.read_csv(url)

In [5]: tips.head()
Out[5]:
total_bill tip sex smoker day time size
0 16.99 1.01 Female No Sun Dinner 2
1 10.34 1.66 Male No Sun Dinner 3
2 21.01 3.50 Male No Sun Dinner 3
3 23.68 3.31 Male No Sun Dinner 2
4 24.59 3.61 Female No Sun Dinner 4

32.1 SELECT

In SQL, selection is done using a comma-separated list of columns you’d like to select (or a * to select all columns):

SELECT total_bill, tip, smoker, time

FROM tips
LIMIT 5;

With pandas, column selection is done by passing a list of column names to your DataFrame:

In [6]: tips[['total_bill', 'tip', 'smoker', 'time']].head(5)

Out[6]:
total_bill tip smoker time

1187
pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

0 16.99 1.01 No Dinner

1 10.34 1.66 No Dinner
2 21.01 3.50 No Dinner
3 23.68 3.31 No Dinner
4 24.59 3.61 No Dinner

Calling the DataFrame without the list of column names would display all columns (akin to SQL’s *).

32.2 WHERE

Filtering in SQL is done via a WHERE clause.

SELECT *
FROM tips
WHERE time = 'Dinner'
LIMIT 5;

DataFrames can be filtered in multiple ways; the most intuitive of which is using boolean indexing.

In [7]: tips[tips['time'] == 'Dinner'].head(5)

Out[7]:
total_bill tip sex smoker day time size
0 16.99 1.01 Female No Sun Dinner 2
1 10.34 1.66 Male No Sun Dinner 3
2 21.01 3.50 Male No Sun Dinner 3
3 23.68 3.31 Male No Sun Dinner 2
4 24.59 3.61 Female No Sun Dinner 4

The above statement is simply passing a Series of True/False objects to the DataFrame, returning all rows with
True.

In [8]: is_dinner = tips['time'] == 'Dinner'

In [9]: is_dinner.value_counts()
Out[9]:
True 176
False 68
Name: time, dtype: int64

In [10]: tips[is_dinner].head(5)
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[10]:
total_bill tip sex smoker day time size
0 16.99 1.01 Female No Sun Dinner 2
1 10.34 1.66 Male No Sun Dinner 3
2 21.01 3.50 Male No Sun Dinner 3
3 23.68 3.31 Male No Sun Dinner 2
4 24.59 3.61 Female No Sun Dinner 4

Just like SQL’s OR and AND, multiple conditions can be passed to a DataFrame using | (OR) and & (AND).

-- tips of more than $5.00 at Dinner meals

SELECT *
FROM tips
WHERE time = 'Dinner' AND tip > 5.00;

1188 Chapter 32. Comparison with SQL

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

# tips of more than $5.00 at Dinner meals

In [11]: tips[(tips['time'] == 'Dinner') & (tips['tip'] > 5.00)]
Out[11]:
total_bill tip sex smoker day time size
23 39.42 7.58 Male No Sat Dinner 4
44 30.40 5.60 Male No Sun Dinner 4
47 32.40 6.00 Male No Sun Dinner 4
52 34.81 5.20 Female No Sun Dinner 4
59 48.27 6.73 Male No Sat Dinner 4
116 29.93 5.07 Male No Sun Dinner 4
155 29.85 5.14 Female No Sun Dinner 5
170 50.81 10.00 Male Yes Sat Dinner 3
172 7.25 5.15 Male Yes Sun Dinner 2
181 23.33 5.65 Male Yes Sun Dinner 2
183 23.17 6.50 Male Yes Sun Dinner 4
211 25.89 5.16 Male Yes Sat Dinner 4
212 48.33 9.00 Male No Sat Dinner 4
214 28.17 6.50 Female Yes Sat Dinner 3
239 29.03 5.92 Male No Sat Dinner 3

-- tips by parties of at least 5 diners OR bill total was more than $45
SELECT *
FROM tips
WHERE size >= 5 OR total_bill > 45;

# tips by parties of at least 5 diners OR bill total was more than $45
In [12]: tips[(tips['size'] >= 5) | (tips['total_bill'] > 45)]
Out[12]:
total_bill tip sex smoker day time size
59 48.27 6.73 Male No Sat Dinner 4
125 29.80 4.20 Female No Thur Lunch 6
141 34.30 6.70 Male No Thur Lunch 6
142 41.19 5.00 Male No Thur Lunch 5
143 27.05 5.00 Female No Thur Lunch 6
155 29.85 5.14 Female No Sun Dinner 5
156 48.17 5.00 Male No Sun Dinner 6
170 50.81 10.00 Male Yes Sat Dinner 3
182 45.35 3.50 Male Yes Sun Dinner 3
185 20.69 5.00 Male No Sun Dinner 5
187 30.46 2.00 Male Yes Sun Dinner 5
212 48.33 9.00 Male No Sat Dinner 4
216 28.15 3.00 Male Yes Sat Dinner 5

NULL checking is done using the notna() and isna() methods.

In [13]: frame = pd.DataFrame({'col1': ['A', 'B', np.NaN, 'C', 'D'],

....: 'col2': ['F', np.NaN, 'G', 'H', 'I']})
....:

In [14]: frame
Out[14]:
col1 col2
0 A F
1 B NaN
2 NaN G
3 C H
4 D I

32.2. WHERE 1189

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Assume we have a table of the same structure as our DataFrame above. We can see only the records where col2 IS
NULL with the following query:

SELECT *
FROM frame
WHERE col2 IS NULL;

In [15]: frame[frame['col2'].isna()]
Out[15]:
col1 col2
1 B NaN

Getting items where col1 IS NOT NULL can be done with notna().

SELECT *
FROM frame
WHERE col1 IS NOT NULL;

In [16]: frame[frame['col1'].notna()]
Out[16]:
col1 col2
0 A F
1 B NaN
3 C H
4 D I

32.3 GROUP BY

In pandas, SQL’s GROUP BY operations are performed using the similarly named groupby() method.
groupby() typically refers to a process where we’d like to split a dataset into groups, apply some function (typically
aggregation) , and then combine the groups together.
A common SQL operation would be getting the count of records in each group throughout a dataset. For instance, a
query getting us the number of tips left by sex:

SELECT sex, count(*)

FROM tips
GROUP BY sex;
/*
Female 87
Male 157
*/

The pandas equivalent would be:

In [17]: tips.groupby('sex').size()
Out[17]:
sex
Female 87
Male 157
dtype: int64

Notice that in the pandas code we used size() and not count(). This is because count() applies the function
to each column, returning the number of not null records within each.

1190 Chapter 32. Comparison with SQL

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [18]: tips.groupby('sex').count()
Out[18]:
total_bill tip smoker day time size
sex
Female 87 87 87 87 87 87
Male 157 157 157 157 157 157

Alternatively, we could have applied the count() method to an individual column:

In [19]: tips.groupby('sex')['total_bill'].count()
Out[19]:
sex
Female 87
Male 157
Name: total_bill, dtype: int64

Multiple functions can also be applied at once. For instance, say we’d like to see how tip amount differs by day of
the week - agg() allows you to pass a dictionary to your grouped DataFrame, indicating which functions to apply to
specific columns.

SELECT day, AVG(tip), COUNT(*)

FROM tips
GROUP BY day;
/*
Fri 2.734737 19
Sat 2.993103 87
Sun 3.255132 76
Thur 2.771452 62
*/

In [20]: tips.groupby('day').agg({'tip': np.mean, 'day': np.size})

Out[20]:
tip day
day
Fri 2.734737 19
Sat 2.993103 87
Sun 3.255132 76
Thur 2.771452 62

Grouping by more than one column is done by passing a list of columns to the groupby() method.

SELECT smoker, day, COUNT(*), AVG(tip)

FROM tips
GROUP BY smoker, day;
/*
smoker day
No Fri 4 2.812500
Sat 45 3.102889
Sun 57 3.167895
Thur 45 2.673778
Yes Fri 15 2.714000
Sat 42 2.875476
Sun 19 3.516842
Thur 17 3.030000
*/

32.3. GROUP BY 1191

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [21]: tips.groupby(['smoker', 'day']).agg({'tip': [np.size, np.mean]})

Out[21]:
tip
size mean
smoker day
No Fri 4.0 2.812500
Sat 45.0 3.102889
Sun 57.0 3.167895
Thur 45.0 2.673778
Yes Fri 15.0 2.714000
Sat 42.0 2.875476
Sun 19.0 3.516842
Thur 17.0 3.030000

32.4 JOIN

JOINs can be performed with join() or merge(). By default, join() will join the DataFrames on their indices.
Each method has parameters allowing you to specify the type of join to perform (LEFT, RIGHT, INNER, FULL) or
the columns to join on (column names or indices).

In [22]: df1 = pd.DataFrame({'key': ['A', 'B', 'C', 'D'],

....: 'value': np.random.randn(4)})
....:

In [23]: df2 = pd.DataFrame({'key': ['B', 'D', 'D', 'E'],

....: 'value': np.random.randn(4)})
....:

Assume we have two database tables of the same name and structure as our DataFrames.
Now let’s go over the various types of JOINs.

32.4.1 INNER JOIN

SELECT *
FROM df1
INNER JOIN df2
ON df1.key = df2.key;

# merge performs an INNER JOIN by default

In [24]: pd.merge(df1, df2, on='key')
Out[24]:
key value_x value_y
0 B -0.318214 0.543581
1 D 2.169960 -0.426067
2 D 2.169960 1.138079

merge() also offers parameters for cases when you’d like to join one DataFrame’s column with another DataFrame’s
index.

In [25]: indexed_df2 = df2.set_index('key')

In [26]: pd.merge(df1, indexed_df2, left_on='key', right_index=True)

1192 Chapter 32. Comparison with SQL

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Out[26]:
key value_x value_y
1 B -0.318214 0.543581
3 D 2.169960 -0.426067
3 D 2.169960 1.138079

32.4.2 LEFT OUTER JOIN

-- show all records from df1

SELECT *
FROM df1
LEFT OUTER JOIN df2
ON df1.key = df2.key;

# show all records from df1

In [27]: pd.merge(df1, df2, on='key', how='left')
Out[27]:
key value_x value_y
0 A 0.116174 NaN
1 B -0.318214 0.543581
2 C 0.285261 NaN
3 D 2.169960 -0.426067
4 D 2.169960 1.138079

32.4.3 RIGHT JOIN

-- show all records from df2

SELECT *
FROM df1
RIGHT OUTER JOIN df2
ON df1.key = df2.key;

# show all records from df2

In [28]: pd.merge(df1, df2, on='key', how='right')
Out[28]:
key value_x value_y
0 B -0.318214 0.543581
1 D 2.169960 -0.426067
2 D 2.169960 1.138079
3 E NaN 0.086073

32.4.4 FULL JOIN

pandas also allows for FULL JOINs, which display both sides of the dataset, whether or not the joined columns find a
match. As of writing, FULL JOINs are not supported in all RDBMS (MySQL).

-- show all records from both tables

SELECT *
FROM df1
FULL OUTER JOIN df2
ON df1.key = df2.key;

32.4. JOIN 1193

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

# show all records from both frames

In [29]: pd.merge(df1, df2, on='key', how='outer')
Out[29]:
key value_x value_y
0 A 0.116174 NaN
1 B -0.318214 0.543581
2 C 0.285261 NaN
3 D 2.169960 -0.426067
4 D 2.169960 1.138079
5 E NaN 0.086073

32.5 UNION

UNION ALL can be performed using concat().

In [30]: df1 = pd.DataFrame({'city': ['Chicago', 'San Francisco', 'New York City'],
....: 'rank': range(1, 4)})
....:

In [31]: df2 = pd.DataFrame({'city': ['Chicago', 'Boston', 'Los Angeles'],

....: 'rank': [1, 4, 5]})
....:

SELECT city, rank

FROM df1
UNION ALL
SELECT city, rank
FROM df2;
/*
city rank
Chicago 1
San Francisco 2
New York City 3
Chicago 1
Boston 4
Los Angeles 5
*/

In [32]: pd.concat([df1, df2])

Out[32]:
city rank
0 Chicago 1
1 San Francisco 2
2 New York City 3
0 Chicago 1
1 Boston 4
2 Los Angeles 5

SQL’s UNION is similar to UNION ALL, however UNION will remove duplicate rows.
SELECT city, rank
FROM df1
UNION
SELECT city, rank
FROM df2;

1194 Chapter 32. Comparison with SQL

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

-- notice that there is only one Chicago record this time

/*
city rank
Chicago 1
San Francisco 2
New York City 3
Boston 4
Los Angeles 5
* /

In pandas, you can use concat() in conjunction with drop_duplicates().

In [33]: pd.concat([df1, df2]).drop_duplicates()

Out[33]:
city rank
0 Chicago 1
1 San Francisco 2
2 New York City 3
1 Boston 4
2 Los Angeles 5

32.6 Pandas equivalents for some SQL analytic and aggregate func-
tions

32.6.1 Top N rows with offset

-- MySQL
SELECT * FROM tips
ORDER BY tip DESC
LIMIT 10 OFFSET 5;

In [34]: tips.nlargest(10+5, columns='tip').tail(10)

Out[34]:
total_bill tip sex smoker day time size
183 23.17 6.50 Male Yes Sun Dinner 4
214 28.17 6.50 Female Yes Sat Dinner 3
47 32.40 6.00 Male No Sun Dinner 4
239 29.03 5.92 Male No Sat Dinner 3
88 24.71 5.85 Male No Thur Lunch 2
181 23.33 5.65 Male Yes Sun Dinner 2
44 30.40 5.60 Male No Sun Dinner 4
52 34.81 5.20 Female No Sun Dinner 4
85 34.83 5.17 Female No Thur Lunch 4
211 25.89 5.16 Male Yes Sat Dinner 4

32.6.2 Top N rows per group

-- Oracle's ROW_NUMBER() analytic function

SELECT * FROM (
SELECT
t.*,

32.6. Pandas equivalents for some SQL analytic and aggregate functions 1195
pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

ROW_NUMBER() OVER(PARTITION BY day ORDER BY total_bill DESC) AS rn

FROM tips t
)
WHERE rn < 3
ORDER BY day, rn;

In [35]: (tips.assign(rn=tips.sort_values(['total_bill'], ascending=False)

....: .groupby(['day'])
....: .cumcount() + 1)
....: .query('rn < 3')
....: .sort_values(['day','rn'])
....: )
....:
Out[35]:
total_bill tip sex smoker day time size rn
95 40.17 4.73 Male Yes Fri Dinner 4 1
90 28.97 3.00 Male Yes Fri Dinner 2 2
170 50.81 10.00 Male Yes Sat Dinner 3 1
212 48.33 9.00 Male No Sat Dinner 4 2
156 48.17 5.00 Male No Sun Dinner 6 1
182 45.35 3.50 Male Yes Sun Dinner 3 2
197 43.11 5.00 Female Yes Thur Lunch 4 1
142 41.19 5.00 Male No Thur Lunch 5 2

the same using rank(method=’first’) function

In [36]: (tips.assign(rnk=tips.groupby(['day'])['total_bill']
....: .rank(method='first', ascending=False))
....: .query('rnk < 3')
....: .sort_values(['day','rnk'])
....: )
....:
Out[36]:
total_bill tip sex smoker day time size rnk
95 40.17 4.73 Male Yes Fri Dinner 4 1.0
90 28.97 3.00 Male Yes Fri Dinner 2 2.0
170 50.81 10.00 Male Yes Sat Dinner 3 1.0
212 48.33 9.00 Male No Sat Dinner 4 2.0
156 48.17 5.00 Male No Sun Dinner 6 1.0
182 45.35 3.50 Male Yes Sun Dinner 3 2.0
197 43.11 5.00 Female Yes Thur Lunch 4 1.0
142 41.19 5.00 Male No Thur Lunch 5 2.0

-- Oracle's RANK() analytic function

SELECT * FROM (
SELECT
t.*,
RANK() OVER(PARTITION BY sex ORDER BY tip) AS rnk
FROM tips t
WHERE tip < 2
)
WHERE rnk < 3
ORDER BY sex, rnk;

Let’s find tips with (rank < 3) per gender group for (tips < 2). Notice that when using rank(method='min')
function rnk_min remains the same for the same tip (as Oracle’s RANK() function)

1196 Chapter 32. Comparison with SQL

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [37]: (tips[tips['tip'] < 2]

....: .assign(rnk_min=tips.groupby(['sex'])['tip']
....: .rank(method='min'))
....: .query('rnk_min < 3')
....: .sort_values(['sex','rnk_min'])
....: )
....:
Out[37]:
total_bill tip sex smoker day time size rnk_min
67 3.07 1.00 Female Yes Sat Dinner 1 1.0
92 5.75 1.00 Female Yes Fri Dinner 2 1.0
111 7.25 1.00 Female No Sat Dinner 1 1.0
236 12.60 1.00 Male Yes Sat Dinner 2 1.0
237 32.83 1.17 Male Yes Sat Dinner 2 2.0

32.7 UPDATE

UPDATE tips
SET tip = tip*2
WHERE tip < 2;

In [38]: tips.loc[tips['tip'] < 2, 'tip'] *= 2

32.8 DELETE

DELETE FROM tips

WHERE tip > 9;

In pandas we select the rows that should remain, instead of deleting them

In [39]: tips = tips.loc[tips['tip'] <= 9]

32.7. UPDATE 1197

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

1198 Chapter 32. Comparison with SQL

 CHAPTER

THIRTYTHREE

COMPARISON WITH SAS

For potential users coming from SAS this page is meant to demonstrate how different SAS operations would be
performed in pandas.
If you’re new to pandas, you might want to first read through 10 Minutes to pandas to familiarize yourself with the
library.
As is customary, we import pandas and numpy as follows:

In [1]: import pandas as pd

In [2]: import numpy as np

Note: Throughout this tutorial, the pandas DataFrame will be displayed by calling df.head(), which displays
the first N (default 5) rows of the DataFrame. This is often used in interactive work (e.g. Jupyter notebook or
terminal) - the equivalent in SAS would be:

proc print data=df(obs=5);

run;

33.1 Data Structures

33.1.1 General Terminology Translation

pandas SAS
DataFrame data set
column variable
row observation
groupby BY-group
NaN .

33.1.2 DataFrame / Series

A DataFrame in pandas is analogous to a SAS data set - a two-dimensional data source with labeled columns that
can be of different types. As will be shown in this document, almost any operation that can be applied to a data set
using SAS’s DATA step, can also be accomplished in pandas.

1199
pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

A Series is the data structure that represents one column of a DataFrame. SAS doesn’t have a separate data
structure for a single column, but in general, working with a Series is analogous to referencing a column in the
DATA step.

33.1.3 Index

Every DataFrame and Series has an Index - which are labels on the rows of the data. SAS does not have an
exactly analogous concept. A data set’s row are essentially unlabeled, other than an implicit integer index that can be
accessed during the DATA step (_N_).
In pandas, if no index is specified, an integer index is also used by default (first row = 0, second row = 1, and so on).
While using a labeled Index or MultiIndex can enable sophisticated analyses and is ultimately an important part
of pandas to understand, for this comparison we will essentially ignore the Index and just treat the DataFrame as
a collection of columns. Please see the indexing documentation for much more on how to use an Index effectively.

33.2 Data Input / Output

33.2.1 Constructing a DataFrame from Values

A SAS data set can be built from specified values by placing the data after a datalines statement and specifying
the column names.

data df;
input x y;
datalines;
1 2
3 4
5 6
;
run;

A pandas DataFrame can be constructed in many different ways, but for a small number of values, it is often
convenient to specify it as a python dictionary, where the keys are the column names and the values are the data.

In [3]: df = pd.DataFrame({
...: 'x': [1, 3, 5],
...: 'y': [2, 4, 6]})
...:

In [4]: df
Out[4]:
x y
0 1 2
1 3 4
2 5 6

33.2.2 Reading External Data

Like SAS, pandas provides utilities for reading in data from many formats. The tips dataset, found within the pandas
tests (csv) will be used in many of the following examples.
SAS provides PROC IMPORT to read csv data into a data set.

1200 Chapter 33. Comparison with SAS

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

proc import datafile='tips.csv' dbms=csv out=tips replace;

getnames=yes;
run;

The pandas method is read_csv(), which works similarly.

In [5]: url = 'https://raw.github.com/pandas-dev/pandas/master/pandas/tests/data/tips.

˓→csv'

In [6]: tips = pd.read_csv(url)

In [7]: tips.head()
Out[7]:
total_bill tip sex smoker day time size
0 16.99 1.01 Female No Sun Dinner 2
1 10.34 1.66 Male No Sun Dinner 3
2 21.01 3.50 Male No Sun Dinner 3
3 23.68 3.31 Male No Sun Dinner 2
4 24.59 3.61 Female No Sun Dinner 4

Like PROC IMPORT, read_csv can take a number of parameters to specify how the data should be parsed. For
example, if the data was instead tab delimited, and did not have column names, the pandas command would be:

tips = pd.read_csv('tips.csv', sep='\t', header=None)

# alternatively, read_table is an alias to read_csv with tab delimiter

tips = pd.read_table('tips.csv', header=None)

In addition to text/csv, pandas supports a variety of other data formats such as Excel, HDF5, and SQL databases. These
are all read via a pd.read_* function. See the IO documentation for more details.

33.2.3 Exporting Data

The inverse of PROC IMPORT in SAS is PROC EXPORT

proc export data=tips outfile='tips2.csv' dbms=csv;

run;

Similarly in pandas, the opposite of read_csv is to_csv(), and other data formats follow a similar api.

tips.to_csv('tips2.csv')

33.3 Data Operations

33.3.1 Operations on Columns

In the DATA step, arbitrary math expressions can be used on new or existing columns.

data tips;
set tips;
total_bill = total_bill - 2;
new_bill = total_bill / 2;
run;

33.3. Data Operations 1201

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

pandas provides similar vectorized operations by specifying the individual Series in the DataFrame. New
columns can be assigned in the same way.

In [8]: tips['total_bill'] = tips['total_bill'] - 2

In [9]: tips['new_bill'] = tips['total_bill'] / 2.0

In [10]: tips.head()
Out[10]:
total_bill tip sex smoker day time size new_bill
0 14.99 1.01 Female No Sun Dinner 2 7.495
1 8.34 1.66 Male No Sun Dinner 3 4.170
2 19.01 3.50 Male No Sun Dinner 3 9.505
3 21.68 3.31 Male No Sun Dinner 2 10.840
4 22.59 3.61 Female No Sun Dinner 4 11.295

33.3.2 Filtering

Filtering in SAS is done with an if or where statement, on one or more columns.

data tips;
set tips;
if total_bill > 10;
run;

data tips;
set tips;
where total_bill > 10;
/* equivalent in this case - where happens before the
DATA step begins and can also be used in PROC statements */
run;

DataFrames can be filtered in multiple ways; the most intuitive of which is using boolean indexing

In [11]: tips[tips['total_bill'] > 10].head()

Out[11]:
total_bill tip sex smoker day time size
0 14.99 1.01 Female No Sun Dinner 2
2 19.01 3.50 Male No Sun Dinner 3
3 21.68 3.31 Male No Sun Dinner 2
4 22.59 3.61 Female No Sun Dinner 4
5 23.29 4.71 Male No Sun Dinner 4

33.3.3 If/Then Logic

In SAS, if/then logic can be used to create new columns.

data tips;
set tips;
format bucket $4.;

if total_bill < 10 then bucket = 'low';

else bucket = 'high';
run;

1202 Chapter 33. Comparison with SAS

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

The same operation in pandas can be accomplished using the where method from numpy.

In [12]: tips['bucket'] = np.where(tips['total_bill'] < 10, 'low', 'high')

In [13]: tips.head()
Out[13]:
total_bill tip sex smoker day time size bucket
0 14.99 1.01 Female No Sun Dinner 2 high
1 8.34 1.66 Male No Sun Dinner 3 low
2 19.01 3.50 Male No Sun Dinner 3 high
3 21.68 3.31 Male No Sun Dinner 2 high
4 22.59 3.61 Female No Sun Dinner 4 high

33.3.4 Date Functionality

SAS provides a variety of functions to do operations on date/datetime columns.

data tips;
set tips;
format date1 date2 date1_plusmonth mmddyy10.;
date1 = mdy(1, 15, 2013);
date2 = mdy(2, 15, 2015);
date1_year = year(date1);
date2_month = month(date2);
* shift date to beginning of next interval;
date1_next = intnx('MONTH', date1, 1);
* count intervals between dates;
months_between = intck('MONTH', date1, date2);
run;

The equivalent pandas operations are shown below. In addition to these functions pandas supports other Time Series
features not available in Base SAS (such as resampling and and custom offsets) - see the timeseries documentation for
more details.

In [14]: tips['date1'] = pd.Timestamp('2013-01-15')

In [15]: tips['date2'] = pd.Timestamp('2015-02-15')

In [16]: tips['date1_year'] = tips['date1'].dt.year

In [17]: tips['date2_month'] = tips['date2'].dt.month

In [18]: tips['date1_next'] = tips['date1'] + pd.offsets.MonthBegin()

In [19]: tips['months_between'] = (tips['date2'].dt.to_period('M') -

....: tips['date1'].dt.to_period('M'))
....:

In [20]: tips[['date1','date2','date1_year','date2_month',
....: 'date1_next','months_between']].head()
....:
Out[20]:
date1 date2 date1_year date2_month date1_next months_between
0 2013-01-15 2015-02-15 2013 2 2013-02-01 25
1 2013-01-15 2015-02-15 2013 2 2013-02-01 25
2 2013-01-15 2015-02-15 2013 2 2013-02-01 25

33.3. Data Operations 1203

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

3 2013-01-15 2015-02-15 2013 2 2013-02-01 25

4 2013-01-15 2015-02-15 2013 2 2013-02-01 25

33.3.5 Selection of Columns

SAS provides keywords in the DATA step to select, drop, and rename columns.

data tips;
set tips;
keep sex total_bill tip;
run;

data tips;
set tips;
drop sex;
run;

data tips;
set tips;
rename total_bill=total_bill_2;
run;

The same operations are expressed in pandas below.

# keep
In [21]: tips[['sex', 'total_bill', 'tip']].head()
Out[21]:
sex total_bill tip
0 Female 14.99 1.01
1 Male 8.34 1.66
2 Male 19.01 3.50
3 Male 21.68 3.31
4 Female 22.59 3.61

# drop
In [22]: tips.drop('sex', axis=1).head()
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

total_bill tip smoker day time size

0 14.99 1.01 No Sun Dinner 2
1 8.34 1.66 No Sun Dinner 3
2 19.01 3.50 No Sun Dinner 3
3 21.68 3.31 No Sun Dinner 2
4 22.59 3.61 No Sun Dinner 4

# rename
In [23]: tips.rename(columns={'total_bill':'total_bill_2'}).head()
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

total_bill_2 tip sex smoker day time size

0 14.99 1.01 Female No Sun Dinner 2
1 8.34 1.66 Male No Sun Dinner 3
2 19.01 3.50 Male No Sun Dinner 3
3 21.68 3.31 Male No Sun Dinner 2
4 22.59 3.61 Female No Sun Dinner 4

1204 Chapter 33. Comparison with SAS

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

33.3.6 Sorting by Values

Sorting in SAS is accomplished via PROC SORT

proc sort data=tips;

by sex total_bill;
run;

pandas objects have a sort_values() method, which takes a list of columns to sort by.

In [24]: tips = tips.sort_values(['sex', 'total_bill'])

In [25]: tips.head()
Out[25]:
total_bill tip sex smoker day time size
67 1.07 1.00 Female Yes Sat Dinner 1
92 3.75 1.00 Female Yes Fri Dinner 2
111 5.25 1.00 Female No Sat Dinner 1
145 6.35 1.50 Female No Thur Lunch 2
135 6.51 1.25 Female No Thur Lunch 2

33.4 String Processing

33.4.1 Length

SAS determines the length of a character string with the LENGTHN and LENGTHC functions. LENGTHN excludes
trailing blanks and LENGTHC includes trailing blanks.

data _null_;
set tips;
put(LENGTHN(time));
put(LENGTHC(time));
run;

Python determines the length of a character string with the len function. len includes trailing blanks. Use len and
rstrip to exclude trailing blanks.

In [26]: tips['time'].str.len().head()
Out[26]:
67 6
92 6
111 6
145 5
135 5
Name: time, dtype: int64

In [27]: tips['time'].str.rstrip().str.len().head()
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[27]:
˓→

67 6
92 6
111 6
145 5
135 5
Name: time, dtype: int64

33.4. String Processing 1205

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

33.4.2 Find

SAS determines the position of a character in a string with the FINDW function. FINDW takes the string defined by
the first argument and searches for the first position of the substring you supply as the second argument.

data _null_;
set tips;
put(FINDW(sex,'ale'));
run;

Python determines the position of a character in a string with the find function. find searches for the first position
of the substring. If the substring is found, the function returns its position. Keep in mind that Python indexes are
zero-based and the function will return -1 if it fails to find the substring.

In [28]: tips['sex'].str.find("ale").head()
Out[28]:
67 3
92 3
111 3
145 3
135 3
Name: sex, dtype: int64

33.4.3 Substring

SAS extracts a substring from a string based on its position with the SUBSTR function.

data _null_;
set tips;
put(substr(sex,1,1));
run;

With pandas you can use [] notation to extract a substring from a string by position locations. Keep in mind that
Python indexes are zero-based.

In [29]: tips['sex'].str[0:1].head()
Out[29]:
67 F
92 F
111 F
145 F
135 F
Name: sex, dtype: object

33.4.4 Scan

The SAS SCAN function returns the nth word from a string. The first argument is the string you want to parse and the
second argument specifies which word you want to extract.

data firstlast;
input String $60.;
First_Name = scan(string, 1);
Last_Name = scan(string, -1);
datalines2;

1206 Chapter 33. Comparison with SAS

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

John Smith;
Jane Cook;
;;;
run;

Python extracts a substring from a string based on its text by using regular expressions. There are much more powerful
approaches, but this just shows a simple approach.

In [30]: firstlast = pd.DataFrame({'String': ['John Smith', 'Jane Cook']})

In [31]: firstlast['First_Name'] = firstlast['String'].str.split(" ", expand=True)[0]

In [32]: firstlast['Last_Name'] = firstlast['String'].str.rsplit(" ", expand=True)[0]

In [33]: firstlast
Out[33]:
String First_Name Last_Name
0 John Smith John John
1 Jane Cook Jane Jane

33.4.5 Upcase, Lowcase, and Propcase

The SAS UPCASE LOWCASE and PROPCASE functions change the case of the argument.

data firstlast;
input String $60.;
string_up = UPCASE(string);
string_low = LOWCASE(string);
string_prop = PROPCASE(string);
datalines2;
John Smith;
Jane Cook;
;;;
run;

The equivalent Python functions are upper, lower, and title.

In [34]: firstlast = pd.DataFrame({'String': ['John Smith', 'Jane Cook']})

In [35]: firstlast['string_up'] = firstlast['String'].str.upper()

In [36]: firstlast['string_low'] = firstlast['String'].str.lower()

In [37]: firstlast['string_prop'] = firstlast['String'].str.title()

In [38]: firstlast
Out[38]:
String string_up string_low string_prop
0 John Smith JOHN SMITH john smith John Smith
1 Jane Cook JANE COOK jane cook Jane Cook

33.5 Merging

The following tables will be used in the merge examples

33.5. Merging 1207

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [39]: df1 = pd.DataFrame({'key': ['A', 'B', 'C', 'D'],

....: 'value': np.random.randn(4)})
....:

In [40]: df1
Out[40]:
key value
0 A -0.857326
1 B 1.075416
2 C 0.371727
3 D 1.065735

In [41]: df2 = pd.DataFrame({'key': ['B', 'D', 'D', 'E'],

....: 'value': np.random.randn(4)})
....:

In [42]: df2
Out[42]:
key value
0 B -0.227314
1 D 2.102726
2 D -0.092796
3 E 0.094694

In SAS, data must be explicitly sorted before merging. Different types of joins are accomplished using the in= dummy
variables to track whether a match was found in one or both input frames.
proc sort data=df1;
by key;
run;

proc sort data=df2;

by key;
run;

data left_join inner_join right_join outer_join;

merge df1(in=a) df2(in=b);

if a and b then output inner_join;

if a then output left_join;
if b then output right_join;
if a or b then output outer_join;
run;

pandas DataFrames have a merge() method, which provides similar functionality. Note that the data does not have
to be sorted ahead of time, and different join types are accomplished via the how keyword.
In [43]: inner_join = df1.merge(df2, on=['key'], how='inner')

In [44]: inner_join
Out[44]:
key value_x value_y
0 B 1.075416 -0.227314
1 D 1.065735 2.102726
2 D 1.065735 -0.092796

In [45]: left_join = df1.merge(df2, on=['key'], how='left')

1208 Chapter 33. Comparison with SAS

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [46]: left_join
Out[46]:
key value_x value_y
0 A -0.857326 NaN
1 B 1.075416 -0.227314
2 C 0.371727 NaN
3 D 1.065735 2.102726
4 D 1.065735 -0.092796

In [47]: right_join = df1.merge(df2, on=['key'], how='right')

In [48]: right_join
Out[48]:
key value_x value_y
0 B 1.075416 -0.227314
1 D 1.065735 2.102726
2 D 1.065735 -0.092796
3 E NaN 0.094694

In [49]: outer_join = df1.merge(df2, on=['key'], how='outer')

In [50]: outer_join
Out[50]:
key value_x value_y
0 A -0.857326 NaN
1 B 1.075416 -0.227314
2 C 0.371727 NaN
3 D 1.065735 2.102726
4 D 1.065735 -0.092796
5 E NaN 0.094694

33.6 Missing Data

Like SAS, pandas has a representation for missing data - which is the special float value NaN (not a number). Many
of the semantics are the same, for example missing data propagates through numeric operations, and is ignored by
default for aggregations.

In [51]: outer_join
Out[51]:
key value_x value_y
0 A -0.857326 NaN
1 B 1.075416 -0.227314
2 C 0.371727 NaN
3 D 1.065735 2.102726
4 D 1.065735 -0.092796
5 E NaN 0.094694

In [52]: outer_join['value_x'] + outer_join['value_y']

\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

0 NaN
1 0.848102
2 NaN
3 3.168461
4 0.972939

33.6. Missing Data 1209

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

5 NaN
dtype: float64

In [53]: outer_join['value_x'].sum()
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→2.7212865354426201

One difference is that missing data cannot be compared to its sentinel value. For example, in SAS you could do this
to filter missing values.
data outer_join_nulls;
set outer_join;
if value_x = .;
run;

data outer_join_no_nulls;
set outer_join;
if value_x ^= .;
run;

Which doesn’t work in in pandas. Instead, the pd.isna or pd.notna functions should be used for comparisons.
In [54]: outer_join[pd.isna(outer_join['value_x'])]
Out[54]:
key value_x value_y
5 E NaN 0.094694

In [55]: outer_join[pd.notna(outer_join['value_x'])]
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\Out[55]:
key value_x value_y
0 A -0.857326 NaN
1 B 1.075416 -0.227314
2 C 0.371727 NaN
3 D 1.065735 2.102726
4 D 1.065735 -0.092796

pandas also provides a variety of methods to work with missing data - some of which would be challenging to express
in SAS. For example, there are methods to drop all rows with any missing values, replacing missing values with a
specified value, like the mean, or forward filling from previous rows. See the missing data documentation for more.
In [56]: outer_join.dropna()
Out[56]:
key value_x value_y
1 B 1.075416 -0.227314
3 D 1.065735 2.102726
4 D 1.065735 -0.092796

In [57]: outer_join.fillna(method='ffill')
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

key value_x value_y

0 A -0.857326 NaN
1 B 1.075416 -0.227314
2 C 0.371727 -0.227314
3 D 1.065735 2.102726
4 D 1.065735 -0.092796
5 E 1.065735 0.094694

1210 Chapter 33. Comparison with SAS

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [58]: outer_join['value_x'].fillna(outer_join['value_x'].mean())
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

0 -0.857326
1 1.075416
2 0.371727
3 1.065735
4 1.065735
5 0.544257
Name: value_x, dtype: float64

33.7 GroupBy

33.7.1 Aggregation

SAS’s PROC SUMMARY can be used to group by one or more key variables and compute aggregations on numeric
columns.
proc summary data=tips nway;
class sex smoker;
var total_bill tip;
output out=tips_summed sum=;
run;

pandas provides a flexible groupby mechanism that allows similar aggregations. See the groupby documentation for
more details and examples.
In [59]: tips_summed = tips.groupby(['sex', 'smoker'])['total_bill', 'tip'].sum()

In [60]: tips_summed.head()
Out[60]:
total_bill tip
sex smoker
Female No 869.68 149.77
Yes 527.27 96.74
Male No 1725.75 302.00
Yes 1217.07 183.07

33.7.2 Transformation

In SAS, if the group aggregations need to be used with the original frame, it must be merged back together. For
example, to subtract the mean for each observation by smoker group.
proc summary data=tips missing nway;
class smoker;
var total_bill;
output out=smoker_means mean(total_bill)=group_bill;
run;

proc sort data=tips;

by smoker;
run;

33.7. GroupBy 1211

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

data tips;
merge tips(in=a) smoker_means(in=b);
by smoker;
adj_total_bill = total_bill - group_bill;
if a and b;
run;

pandas groubpy provides a transform mechanism that allows these type of operations to be succinctly expressed
in one operation.

In [61]: gb = tips.groupby('smoker')['total_bill']

In [62]: tips['adj_total_bill'] = tips['total_bill'] - gb.transform('mean')

In [63]: tips.head()
Out[63]:
total_bill tip sex smoker day time size adj_total_bill
67 1.07 1.00 Female Yes Sat Dinner 1 -17.686344
92 3.75 1.00 Female Yes Fri Dinner 2 -15.006344
111 5.25 1.00 Female No Sat Dinner 1 -11.938278
145 6.35 1.50 Female No Thur Lunch 2 -10.838278
135 6.51 1.25 Female No Thur Lunch 2 -10.678278

33.7.3 By Group Processing

In addition to aggregation, pandas groupby can be used to replicate most other by group processing from SAS. For
example, this DATA step reads the data by sex/smoker group and filters to the first entry for each.

proc sort data=tips;

by sex smoker;
run;

data tips_first;
set tips;
by sex smoker;
if FIRST.sex or FIRST.smoker then output;
run;

In pandas this would be written as:

In [64]: tips.groupby(['sex','smoker']).first()
Out[64]:
total_bill tip day time size adj_total_bill
sex smoker
Female No 5.25 1.00 Sat Dinner 1 -11.938278
Yes 1.07 1.00 Sat Dinner 1 -17.686344
Male No 5.51 2.00 Thur Lunch 2 -11.678278
Yes 5.25 5.15 Sun Dinner 2 -13.506344

1212 Chapter 33. Comparison with SAS

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

33.8 Other Considerations

33.8.1 Disk vs Memory

pandas operates exclusively in memory, where a SAS data set exists on disk. This means that the size of data able to
be loaded in pandas is limited by your machine’s memory, but also that the operations on that data may be faster.
If out of core processing is needed, one possibility is the dask.dataframe library (currently in development) which
provides a subset of pandas functionality for an on-disk DataFrame

33.8.2 Data Interop

pandas provides a read_sas() method that can read SAS data saved in the XPORT or SAS7BDAT binary format.

libname xportout xport 'transport-file.xpt';

data xportout.tips;
set tips(rename=(total_bill=tbill));
* xport variable names limited to 6 characters;
run;

df = pd.read_sas('transport-file.xpt')
df = pd.read_sas('binary-file.sas7bdat')

You can also specify the file format directly. By default, pandas will try to infer the file format based on its extension.

df = pd.read_sas('transport-file.xpt', format='xport')
df = pd.read_sas('binary-file.sas7bdat', format='sas7bdat')

XPORT is a relatively limited format and the parsing of it is not as optimized as some of the other pandas readers. An
alternative way to interop data between SAS and pandas is to serialize to csv.

# version 0.17, 10M rows

In [8]: %time df = pd.read_sas('big.xpt')

Wall time: 14.6 s

In [9]: %time df = pd.read_csv('big.csv')

Wall time: 4.86 s

33.8. Other Considerations 1213

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

1214 Chapter 33. Comparison with SAS

 CHAPTER

THIRTYFOUR

API REFERENCE

This page gives an overview of all public pandas objects, functions and methods. In general, all classes and functions
exposed in the top-level pandas.* namespace are regarded as public.
Further some of the subpackages are public, including pandas.errors, pandas.plotting, and pandas.
testing. Certain functions in the the pandas.io and pandas.tseries submodules are public as well (those
mentioned in the documentation). Further, the pandas.api.types subpackage holds some public functions re-
lated to data types in pandas.

Warning: The pandas.core, pandas.compat, and pandas.util top-level modules are considered to
be PRIVATE. Stability of functionality in those modules in not guaranteed.

34.1 Input/Output

34.1.1 Pickling

read_pickle(path[, compression]) Load pickled pandas object (or any other pickled object)
from the specified

34.1.1.1 pandas.read_pickle

pandas.read_pickle(path, compression=’infer’)
Load pickled pandas object (or any other pickled object) from the specified file path
Warning: Loading pickled data received from untrusted sources can be unsafe. See: http://docs.python.org/2.7/
library/pickle.html
Parameters path : string
File path
compression : {‘infer’, ‘gzip’, ‘bz2’, ‘xz’, ‘zip’, None}, default ‘infer’
For on-the-fly decompression of on-disk data. If ‘infer’, then use gzip, bz2, xz or zip if
path ends in ‘.gz’, ‘.bz2’, ‘.xz’, or ‘.zip’ respectively, and no decompression otherwise.
Set to None for no decompression.
New in version 0.20.0.
Returns unpickled : type of object stored in file

1215
pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

34.1.2 Flat File

read_table(filepath_or_buffer[, sep, ...]) Read general delimited file into DataFrame

read_csv(filepath_or_buffer[, sep, ...]) Read CSV (comma-separated) file into DataFrame
read_fwf(filepath_or_buffer[, colspecs, widths]) Read a table of fixed-width formatted lines into DataFrame
read_msgpack(path_or_buf[, encoding, iterator]) Load msgpack pandas object from the specified

34.1.2.1 pandas.read_table

pandas.read_table(filepath_or_buffer, sep=’\t’, delimiter=None, header=’infer’, names=None,

index_col=None, usecols=None, squeeze=False, prefix=None, man-
gle_dupe_cols=True, dtype=None, engine=None, converters=None,
true_values=None, false_values=None, skipinitialspace=False, skiprows=None,
nrows=None, na_values=None, keep_default_na=True, na_filter=True,
verbose=False, skip_blank_lines=True, parse_dates=False, in-
fer_datetime_format=False, keep_date_col=False, date_parser=None, day-
first=False, iterator=False, chunksize=None, compression=’infer’, thou-
sands=None, decimal=b’.’, lineterminator=None, quotechar=”’’, quoting=0,
escapechar=None, comment=None, encoding=None, dialect=None, tu-
pleize_cols=None, error_bad_lines=True, warn_bad_lines=True, skipfooter=0,
skip_footer=0, doublequote=True, delim_whitespace=False, as_recarray=None,
compact_ints=None, use_unsigned=None, low_memory=True, buffer_lines=None,
memory_map=False, float_precision=None)
Read general delimited file into DataFrame
Also supports optionally iterating or breaking of the file into chunks.
Additional help can be found in the online docs for IO Tools.
Parameters filepath_or_buffer : str, pathlib.Path, py._path.local.LocalPath or any object with a
read() method (such as a file handle or StringIO)
The string could be a URL. Valid URL schemes include http, ftp, s3, and file.
For file URLs, a host is expected. For instance, a local file could be file ://local-
host/path/to/table.csv
sep : str, default t (tab-stop)
Delimiter to use. If sep is None, the C engine cannot automatically detect the separator,
but the Python parsing engine can, meaning the latter will be used and automatically
detect the separator by Python’s builtin sniffer tool, csv.Sniffer. In addition, sep-
arators longer than 1 character and different from '\s+' will be interpreted as regular
expressions and will also force the use of the Python parsing engine. Note that regex
delimiters are prone to ignoring quoted data. Regex example: '\r\t'
delimiter : str, default None
Alternative argument name for sep.
delim_whitespace : boolean, default False
Specifies whether or not whitespace (e.g. ' ' or ' ') will be used as the sep.
Equivalent to setting sep='\s+'. If this option is set to True, nothing should be
passed in for the delimiter parameter.
New in version 0.18.1: support for the Python parser.
header : int or list of ints, default ‘infer’

1216 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Row number(s) to use as the column names, and the start of the data. Default behavior
is as if set to 0 if no names passed, otherwise None. Explicitly pass header=0 to
be able to replace existing names. The header can be a list of integers that specify
row locations for a multi-index on the columns e.g. [0,1,3]. Intervening rows that
are not specified will be skipped (e.g. 2 in this example is skipped). Note that this
parameter ignores commented lines and empty lines if skip_blank_lines=True,
so header=0 denotes the first line of data rather than the first line of the file.
names : array-like, default None
List of column names to use. If file contains no header row, then you should explicitly
pass header=None. Duplicates in this list will cause a UserWarning to be issued.
index_col : int or sequence or False, default None
Column to use as the row labels of the DataFrame. If a sequence is given, a MultiIndex
is used. If you have a malformed file with delimiters at the end of each line, you might
consider index_col=False to force pandas to _not_ use the first column as the index (row
names)
usecols : array-like or callable, default None
Return a subset of the columns. If array-like, all elements must either be positional (i.e.
integer indices into the document columns) or strings that correspond to column names
provided either by the user in names or inferred from the document header row(s). For
example, a valid array-like usecols parameter would be [0, 1, 2] or [’foo’, ‘bar’, ‘baz’].
If callable, the callable function will be evaluated against the column names, returning
names where the callable function evaluates to True. An example of a valid callable ar-
gument would be lambda x: x.upper() in ['AAA', 'BBB', 'DDD'].
Using this parameter results in much faster parsing time and lower memory usage.
as_recarray : boolean, default False
Deprecated since version 0.19.0: Please call pd.read_csv(...).to_records() instead.
Return a NumPy recarray instead of a DataFrame after parsing the data. If set to True,
this option takes precedence over the squeeze parameter. In addition, as row indices are
not available in such a format, the index_col parameter will be ignored.
squeeze : boolean, default False
If the parsed data only contains one column then return a Series
prefix : str, default None
Prefix to add to column numbers when no header, e.g. ‘X’ for X0, X1, ...
mangle_dupe_cols : boolean, default True
Duplicate columns will be specified as ‘X.0’...’X.N’, rather than ‘X’...’X’. Passing in
False will cause data to be overwritten if there are duplicate names in the columns.
dtype : Type name or dict of column -> type, default None
Data type for data or columns. E.g. {‘a’: np.float64, ‘b’: np.int32} Use str or object
to preserve and not interpret dtype. If converters are specified, they will be applied
INSTEAD of dtype conversion.
engine : {‘c’, ‘python’}, optional
Parser engine to use. The C engine is faster while the python engine is currently more
feature-complete.

34.1. Input/Output 1217

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

converters : dict, default None

Dict of functions for converting values in certain columns. Keys can either be integers
or column labels
true_values : list, default None
Values to consider as True
false_values : list, default None
Values to consider as False
skipinitialspace : boolean, default False
Skip spaces after delimiter.
skiprows : list-like or integer or callable, default None
Line numbers to skip (0-indexed) or number of lines to skip (int) at the start of the file.
If callable, the callable function will be evaluated against the row indices, returning
True if the row should be skipped and False otherwise. An example of a valid callable
argument would be lambda x: x in [0, 2].
skipfooter : int, default 0
Number of lines at bottom of file to skip (Unsupported with engine=’c’)
skip_footer : int, default 0
Deprecated since version 0.19.0: Use the skipfooter parameter instead, as they are iden-
tical
nrows : int, default None
Number of rows of file to read. Useful for reading pieces of large files
na_values : scalar, str, list-like, or dict, default None
Additional strings to recognize as NA/NaN. If dict passed, specific per-column NA
values. By default the following values are interpreted as NaN: ‘’, ‘#N/A’, ‘#N/A N/A’,
‘#NA’, ‘-1.#IND’, ‘-1.#QNAN’, ‘-NaN’, ‘-nan’, ‘1.#IND’, ‘1.#QNAN’, ‘N/A’, ‘NA’,
‘NULL’, ‘NaN’, ‘n/a’, ‘nan’, ‘null’.
keep_default_na : bool, default True
If na_values are specified and keep_default_na is False the default NaN values are over-
ridden, otherwise they’re appended to.
na_filter : boolean, default True
Detect missing value markers (empty strings and the value of na_values). In data with-
out any NAs, passing na_filter=False can improve the performance of reading a large
file
verbose : boolean, default False
Indicate number of NA values placed in non-numeric columns
skip_blank_lines : boolean, default True
If True, skip over blank lines rather than interpreting as NaN values
parse_dates : boolean or list of ints or names or list of lists or dict, default False
• boolean. If True -> try parsing the index.

1218 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• list of ints or names. e.g. If [1, 2, 3] -> try parsing columns 1, 2, 3 each as a separate
date column.
• list of lists. e.g. If [[1, 3]] -> combine columns 1 and 3 and parse as a single date
column.
• dict, e.g. {‘foo’ : [1, 3]} -> parse columns 1, 3 as date and call result ‘foo’
If a column or index contains an unparseable date, the entire column or index will be
returned unaltered as an object data type. For non-standard datetime parsing, use pd.
to_datetime after pd.read_csv
Note: A fast-path exists for iso8601-formatted dates.
infer_datetime_format : boolean, default False
If True and parse_dates is enabled, pandas will attempt to infer the format of the date-
time strings in the columns, and if it can be inferred, switch to a faster method of parsing
them. In some cases this can increase the parsing speed by 5-10x.
keep_date_col : boolean, default False
If True and parse_dates specifies combining multiple columns then keep the original
columns.
date_parser : function, default None
Function to use for converting a sequence of string columns to an array of datetime in-
stances. The default uses dateutil.parser.parser to do the conversion. Pandas
will try to call date_parser in three different ways, advancing to the next if an exception
occurs: 1) Pass one or more arrays (as defined by parse_dates) as arguments; 2) con-
catenate (row-wise) the string values from the columns defined by parse_dates into a
single array and pass that; and 3) call date_parser once for each row using one or more
strings (corresponding to the columns defined by parse_dates) as arguments.
dayfirst : boolean, default False
DD/MM format dates, international and European format
iterator : boolean, default False
Return TextFileReader object for iteration or getting chunks with get_chunk().
chunksize : int, default None
Return TextFileReader object for iteration. See the IO Tools docs for more information
on iterator and chunksize.
compression : {‘infer’, ‘gzip’, ‘bz2’, ‘zip’, ‘xz’, None}, default ‘infer’
For on-the-fly decompression of on-disk data. If ‘infer’ and filepath_or_buffer is path-
like, then detect compression from the following extensions: ‘.gz’, ‘.bz2’, ‘.zip’, or ‘.xz’
(otherwise no decompression). If using ‘zip’, the ZIP file must contain only one data
file to be read in. Set to None for no decompression.
New in version 0.18.1: support for ‘zip’ and ‘xz’ compression.
thousands : str, default None
Thousands separator
decimal : str, default ‘.’
Character to recognize as decimal point (e.g. use ‘,’ for European data).
float_precision : string, default None

34.1. Input/Output 1219

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Specifies which converter the C engine should use for floating-point values. The op-
tions are None for the ordinary converter, high for the high-precision converter, and
round_trip for the round-trip converter.
lineterminator : str (length 1), default None
Character to break file into lines. Only valid with C parser.
quotechar : str (length 1), optional
The character used to denote the start and end of a quoted item. Quoted items can
include the delimiter and it will be ignored.
quoting : int or csv.QUOTE_* instance, default 0
Control field quoting behavior per csv.QUOTE_* constants. Use one of
QUOTE_MINIMAL (0), QUOTE_ALL (1), QUOTE_NONNUMERIC (2) or
QUOTE_NONE (3).
doublequote : boolean, default True
When quotechar is specified and quoting is not QUOTE_NONE, indicate whether or not
to interpret two consecutive quotechar elements INSIDE a field as a single quotechar
element.
escapechar : str (length 1), default None
One-character string used to escape delimiter when quoting is QUOTE_NONE.
comment : str, default None
Indicates remainder of line should not be parsed. If found at the beginning of a line, the
line will be ignored altogether. This parameter must be a single character. Like empty
lines (as long as skip_blank_lines=True), fully commented lines are ignored
by the parameter header but not by skiprows. For example, if comment=’#’, parsing
‘#emptyna,b,cn1,2,3’ with header=0 will result in ‘a,b,c’ being treated as the header.
encoding : str, default None
Encoding to use for UTF when reading/writing (ex. ‘utf-8’). List of Python standard
encodings
dialect : str or csv.Dialect instance, default None
If provided, this parameter will override values (default or not) for the following pa-
rameters: delimiter, doublequote, escapechar, skipinitialspace, quotechar, and quoting.
If it is necessary to override values, a ParserWarning will be issued. See csv.Dialect
documentation for more details.
tupleize_cols : boolean, default False
Deprecated since version 0.21.0: This argument will be removed and will always con-
vert to MultiIndex
Leave a list of tuples on columns as is (default is to convert to a MultiIndex on the
columns)
error_bad_lines : boolean, default True
Lines with too many fields (e.g. a csv line with too many commas) will by default cause
an exception to be raised, and no DataFrame will be returned. If False, then these “bad
lines” will dropped from the DataFrame that is returned.
warn_bad_lines : boolean, default True

1220 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

If error_bad_lines is False, and warn_bad_lines is True, a warning for each “bad line”
will be output.
low_memory : boolean, default True
Internally process the file in chunks, resulting in lower memory use while parsing, but
possibly mixed type inference. To ensure no mixed types either set False, or specify the
type with the dtype parameter. Note that the entire file is read into a single DataFrame
regardless, use the chunksize or iterator parameter to return the data in chunks. (Only
valid with C parser)
buffer_lines : int, default None
Deprecated since version 0.19.0: This argument is not respected by the parser
compact_ints : boolean, default False
Deprecated since version 0.19.0: Argument moved to pd.to_numeric
If compact_ints is True, then for any column that is of integer dtype, the parser will
attempt to cast it as the smallest integer dtype possible, either signed or unsigned de-
pending on the specification from the use_unsigned parameter.
use_unsigned : boolean, default False
Deprecated since version 0.19.0: Argument moved to pd.to_numeric
If integer columns are being compacted (i.e. compact_ints=True), specify whether the
column should be compacted to the smallest signed or unsigned integer dtype.
memory_map : boolean, default False
If a filepath is provided for filepath_or_buffer, map the file object directly onto memory
and access the data directly from there. Using this option can improve performance
because there is no longer any I/O overhead.
Returns result : DataFrame or TextParser

34.1.2.2 pandas.read_csv

pandas.read_csv(filepath_or_buffer, sep=’, ‘, delimiter=None, header=’infer’, names=None, in-

dex_col=None, usecols=None, squeeze=False, prefix=None, mangle_dupe_cols=True,
dtype=None, engine=None, converters=None, true_values=None, false_values=None,
skipinitialspace=False, skiprows=None, nrows=None, na_values=None,
keep_default_na=True, na_filter=True, verbose=False, skip_blank_lines=True,
parse_dates=False, infer_datetime_format=False, keep_date_col=False,
date_parser=None, dayfirst=False, iterator=False, chunksize=None, compres-
sion=’infer’, thousands=None, decimal=b’.’, lineterminator=None, quotechar=”’’,
quoting=0, escapechar=None, comment=None, encoding=None, dialect=None,
tupleize_cols=None, error_bad_lines=True, warn_bad_lines=True, skipfooter=0,
skip_footer=0, doublequote=True, delim_whitespace=False, as_recarray=None,
compact_ints=None, use_unsigned=None, low_memory=True, buffer_lines=None,
memory_map=False, float_precision=None)
Read CSV (comma-separated) file into DataFrame
Also supports optionally iterating or breaking of the file into chunks.
Additional help can be found in the online docs for IO Tools.
Parameters filepath_or_buffer : str, pathlib.Path, py._path.local.LocalPath or any object with a
read() method (such as a file handle or StringIO)

34.1. Input/Output 1221

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

The string could be a URL. Valid URL schemes include http, ftp, s3, and file.
For file URLs, a host is expected. For instance, a local file could be file ://local-
host/path/to/table.csv
sep : str, default ‘,’
Delimiter to use. If sep is None, the C engine cannot automatically detect the separator,
but the Python parsing engine can, meaning the latter will be used and automatically
detect the separator by Python’s builtin sniffer tool, csv.Sniffer. In addition, sep-
arators longer than 1 character and different from '\s+' will be interpreted as regular
expressions and will also force the use of the Python parsing engine. Note that regex
delimiters are prone to ignoring quoted data. Regex example: '\r\t'
delimiter : str, default None
Alternative argument name for sep.
delim_whitespace : boolean, default False
Specifies whether or not whitespace (e.g. ' ' or ' ') will be used as the sep.
Equivalent to setting sep='\s+'. If this option is set to True, nothing should be
passed in for the delimiter parameter.
New in version 0.18.1: support for the Python parser.
header : int or list of ints, default ‘infer’
Row number(s) to use as the column names, and the start of the data. Default behavior
is as if set to 0 if no names passed, otherwise None. Explicitly pass header=0 to
be able to replace existing names. The header can be a list of integers that specify
row locations for a multi-index on the columns e.g. [0,1,3]. Intervening rows that
are not specified will be skipped (e.g. 2 in this example is skipped). Note that this
parameter ignores commented lines and empty lines if skip_blank_lines=True,
so header=0 denotes the first line of data rather than the first line of the file.
names : array-like, default None
List of column names to use. If file contains no header row, then you should explicitly
pass header=None. Duplicates in this list will cause a UserWarning to be issued.
index_col : int or sequence or False, default None
Column to use as the row labels of the DataFrame. If a sequence is given, a MultiIndex
is used. If you have a malformed file with delimiters at the end of each line, you might
consider index_col=False to force pandas to _not_ use the first column as the index (row
names)
usecols : array-like or callable, default None
Return a subset of the columns. If array-like, all elements must either be positional (i.e.
integer indices into the document columns) or strings that correspond to column names
provided either by the user in names or inferred from the document header row(s). For
example, a valid array-like usecols parameter would be [0, 1, 2] or [’foo’, ‘bar’, ‘baz’].
If callable, the callable function will be evaluated against the column names, returning
names where the callable function evaluates to True. An example of a valid callable ar-
gument would be lambda x: x.upper() in ['AAA', 'BBB', 'DDD'].
Using this parameter results in much faster parsing time and lower memory usage.
as_recarray : boolean, default False
Deprecated since version 0.19.0: Please call pd.read_csv(...).to_records() instead.

1222 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Return a NumPy recarray instead of a DataFrame after parsing the data. If set to True,
this option takes precedence over the squeeze parameter. In addition, as row indices are
not available in such a format, the index_col parameter will be ignored.
squeeze : boolean, default False
If the parsed data only contains one column then return a Series
prefix : str, default None
Prefix to add to column numbers when no header, e.g. ‘X’ for X0, X1, ...
mangle_dupe_cols : boolean, default True
Duplicate columns will be specified as ‘X.0’...’X.N’, rather than ‘X’...’X’. Passing in
False will cause data to be overwritten if there are duplicate names in the columns.
dtype : Type name or dict of column -> type, default None
Data type for data or columns. E.g. {‘a’: np.float64, ‘b’: np.int32} Use str or object
to preserve and not interpret dtype. If converters are specified, they will be applied
INSTEAD of dtype conversion.
engine : {‘c’, ‘python’}, optional
Parser engine to use. The C engine is faster while the python engine is currently more
feature-complete.
converters : dict, default None
Dict of functions for converting values in certain columns. Keys can either be integers
or column labels
true_values : list, default None
Values to consider as True
false_values : list, default None
Values to consider as False
skipinitialspace : boolean, default False
Skip spaces after delimiter.
skiprows : list-like or integer or callable, default None
Line numbers to skip (0-indexed) or number of lines to skip (int) at the start of the file.
If callable, the callable function will be evaluated against the row indices, returning
True if the row should be skipped and False otherwise. An example of a valid callable
argument would be lambda x: x in [0, 2].
skipfooter : int, default 0
Number of lines at bottom of file to skip (Unsupported with engine=’c’)
skip_footer : int, default 0
Deprecated since version 0.19.0: Use the skipfooter parameter instead, as they are iden-
tical
nrows : int, default None
Number of rows of file to read. Useful for reading pieces of large files
na_values : scalar, str, list-like, or dict, default None

34.1. Input/Output 1223

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Additional strings to recognize as NA/NaN. If dict passed, specific per-column NA

values. By default the following values are interpreted as NaN: ‘’, ‘#N/A’, ‘#N/A N/A’,
‘#NA’, ‘-1.#IND’, ‘-1.#QNAN’, ‘-NaN’, ‘-nan’, ‘1.#IND’, ‘1.#QNAN’, ‘N/A’, ‘NA’,
‘NULL’, ‘NaN’, ‘n/a’, ‘nan’, ‘null’.
keep_default_na : bool, default True
If na_values are specified and keep_default_na is False the default NaN values are over-
ridden, otherwise they’re appended to.
na_filter : boolean, default True
Detect missing value markers (empty strings and the value of na_values). In data with-
out any NAs, passing na_filter=False can improve the performance of reading a large
file
verbose : boolean, default False
Indicate number of NA values placed in non-numeric columns
skip_blank_lines : boolean, default True
If True, skip over blank lines rather than interpreting as NaN values
parse_dates : boolean or list of ints or names or list of lists or dict, default False
• boolean. If True -> try parsing the index.
• list of ints or names. e.g. If [1, 2, 3] -> try parsing columns 1, 2, 3 each as a separate
date column.
• list of lists. e.g. If [[1, 3]] -> combine columns 1 and 3 and parse as a single date
column.
• dict, e.g. {‘foo’ : [1, 3]} -> parse columns 1, 3 as date and call result ‘foo’
If a column or index contains an unparseable date, the entire column or index will be
returned unaltered as an object data type. For non-standard datetime parsing, use pd.
to_datetime after pd.read_csv
Note: A fast-path exists for iso8601-formatted dates.
infer_datetime_format : boolean, default False
If True and parse_dates is enabled, pandas will attempt to infer the format of the date-
time strings in the columns, and if it can be inferred, switch to a faster method of parsing
them. In some cases this can increase the parsing speed by 5-10x.
keep_date_col : boolean, default False
If True and parse_dates specifies combining multiple columns then keep the original
columns.
date_parser : function, default None
Function to use for converting a sequence of string columns to an array of datetime in-
stances. The default uses dateutil.parser.parser to do the conversion. Pandas
will try to call date_parser in three different ways, advancing to the next if an exception
occurs: 1) Pass one or more arrays (as defined by parse_dates) as arguments; 2) con-
catenate (row-wise) the string values from the columns defined by parse_dates into a
single array and pass that; and 3) call date_parser once for each row using one or more
strings (corresponding to the columns defined by parse_dates) as arguments.
dayfirst : boolean, default False

1224 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

DD/MM format dates, international and European format

iterator : boolean, default False
Return TextFileReader object for iteration or getting chunks with get_chunk().
chunksize : int, default None
Return TextFileReader object for iteration. See the IO Tools docs for more information
on iterator and chunksize.
compression : {‘infer’, ‘gzip’, ‘bz2’, ‘zip’, ‘xz’, None}, default ‘infer’
For on-the-fly decompression of on-disk data. If ‘infer’ and filepath_or_buffer is path-
like, then detect compression from the following extensions: ‘.gz’, ‘.bz2’, ‘.zip’, or ‘.xz’
(otherwise no decompression). If using ‘zip’, the ZIP file must contain only one data
file to be read in. Set to None for no decompression.
New in version 0.18.1: support for ‘zip’ and ‘xz’ compression.
thousands : str, default None
Thousands separator
decimal : str, default ‘.’
Character to recognize as decimal point (e.g. use ‘,’ for European data).
float_precision : string, default None
Specifies which converter the C engine should use for floating-point values. The op-
tions are None for the ordinary converter, high for the high-precision converter, and
round_trip for the round-trip converter.
lineterminator : str (length 1), default None
Character to break file into lines. Only valid with C parser.
quotechar : str (length 1), optional
The character used to denote the start and end of a quoted item. Quoted items can
include the delimiter and it will be ignored.
quoting : int or csv.QUOTE_* instance, default 0
Control field quoting behavior per csv.QUOTE_* constants. Use one of
QUOTE_MINIMAL (0), QUOTE_ALL (1), QUOTE_NONNUMERIC (2) or
QUOTE_NONE (3).
doublequote : boolean, default True
When quotechar is specified and quoting is not QUOTE_NONE, indicate whether or not
to interpret two consecutive quotechar elements INSIDE a field as a single quotechar
element.
escapechar : str (length 1), default None
One-character string used to escape delimiter when quoting is QUOTE_NONE.
comment : str, default None
Indicates remainder of line should not be parsed. If found at the beginning of a line, the
line will be ignored altogether. This parameter must be a single character. Like empty
lines (as long as skip_blank_lines=True), fully commented lines are ignored
by the parameter header but not by skiprows. For example, if comment=’#’, parsing
‘#emptyna,b,cn1,2,3’ with header=0 will result in ‘a,b,c’ being treated as the header.

34.1. Input/Output 1225

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

encoding : str, default None

Encoding to use for UTF when reading/writing (ex. ‘utf-8’). List of Python standard
encodings
dialect : str or csv.Dialect instance, default None
If provided, this parameter will override values (default or not) for the following pa-
rameters: delimiter, doublequote, escapechar, skipinitialspace, quotechar, and quoting.
If it is necessary to override values, a ParserWarning will be issued. See csv.Dialect
documentation for more details.
tupleize_cols : boolean, default False
Deprecated since version 0.21.0: This argument will be removed and will always con-
vert to MultiIndex
Leave a list of tuples on columns as is (default is to convert to a MultiIndex on the
columns)
error_bad_lines : boolean, default True
Lines with too many fields (e.g. a csv line with too many commas) will by default cause
an exception to be raised, and no DataFrame will be returned. If False, then these “bad
lines” will dropped from the DataFrame that is returned.
warn_bad_lines : boolean, default True
If error_bad_lines is False, and warn_bad_lines is True, a warning for each “bad line”
will be output.
low_memory : boolean, default True
Internally process the file in chunks, resulting in lower memory use while parsing, but
possibly mixed type inference. To ensure no mixed types either set False, or specify the
type with the dtype parameter. Note that the entire file is read into a single DataFrame
regardless, use the chunksize or iterator parameter to return the data in chunks. (Only
valid with C parser)
buffer_lines : int, default None
Deprecated since version 0.19.0: This argument is not respected by the parser
compact_ints : boolean, default False
Deprecated since version 0.19.0: Argument moved to pd.to_numeric
If compact_ints is True, then for any column that is of integer dtype, the parser will
attempt to cast it as the smallest integer dtype possible, either signed or unsigned de-
pending on the specification from the use_unsigned parameter.
use_unsigned : boolean, default False
Deprecated since version 0.19.0: Argument moved to pd.to_numeric
If integer columns are being compacted (i.e. compact_ints=True), specify whether the
column should be compacted to the smallest signed or unsigned integer dtype.
memory_map : boolean, default False
If a filepath is provided for filepath_or_buffer, map the file object directly onto memory
and access the data directly from there. Using this option can improve performance
because there is no longer any I/O overhead.
Returns result : DataFrame or TextParser

1226 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

34.1.2.3 pandas.read_fwf

pandas.read_fwf(filepath_or_buffer, colspecs=’infer’, widths=None, **kwds)

Read a table of fixed-width formatted lines into DataFrame
Also supports optionally iterating or breaking of the file into chunks.
Additional help can be found in the online docs for IO Tools.
Parameters filepath_or_buffer : str, pathlib.Path, py._path.local.LocalPath or any object with a
read() method (such as a file handle or StringIO)
The string could be a URL. Valid URL schemes include http, ftp, s3, and file.
For file URLs, a host is expected. For instance, a local file could be file ://local-
host/path/to/table.csv
colspecs : list of pairs (int, int) or ‘infer’. optional
A list of pairs (tuples) giving the extents of the fixed-width fields of each line as half-
open intervals (i.e., [from, to[ ). String value ‘infer’ can be used to instruct the parser to
try detecting the column specifications from the first 100 rows of the data which are not
being skipped via skiprows (default=’infer’).
widths : list of ints. optional
A list of field widths which can be used instead of ‘colspecs’ if the intervals are con-
tiguous.
delimiter : str, default ' ' + ' '
Characters to consider as filler characters in the fixed-width file. Can be used to specify
the filler character of the fields if it is not spaces (e.g., ‘~’).
delim_whitespace : boolean, default False
Specifies whether or not whitespace (e.g. ' ' or ' ') will be used as the sep.
Equivalent to setting sep='\s+'. If this option is set to True, nothing should be
passed in for the delimiter parameter.
New in version 0.18.1: support for the Python parser.
header : int or list of ints, default ‘infer’
Row number(s) to use as the column names, and the start of the data. Default behavior
is as if set to 0 if no names passed, otherwise None. Explicitly pass header=0 to
be able to replace existing names. The header can be a list of integers that specify
row locations for a multi-index on the columns e.g. [0,1,3]. Intervening rows that
are not specified will be skipped (e.g. 2 in this example is skipped). Note that this
parameter ignores commented lines and empty lines if skip_blank_lines=True,
so header=0 denotes the first line of data rather than the first line of the file.
names : array-like, default None
List of column names to use. If file contains no header row, then you should explicitly
pass header=None. Duplicates in this list will cause a UserWarning to be issued.
index_col : int or sequence or False, default None
Column to use as the row labels of the DataFrame. If a sequence is given, a MultiIndex
is used. If you have a malformed file with delimiters at the end of each line, you might
consider index_col=False to force pandas to _not_ use the first column as the index (row
names)
usecols : array-like or callable, default None

34.1. Input/Output 1227

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Return a subset of the columns. If array-like, all elements must either be positional (i.e.
integer indices into the document columns) or strings that correspond to column names
provided either by the user in names or inferred from the document header row(s). For
example, a valid array-like usecols parameter would be [0, 1, 2] or [’foo’, ‘bar’, ‘baz’].
If callable, the callable function will be evaluated against the column names, returning
names where the callable function evaluates to True. An example of a valid callable ar-
gument would be lambda x: x.upper() in ['AAA', 'BBB', 'DDD'].
Using this parameter results in much faster parsing time and lower memory usage.
as_recarray : boolean, default False
Deprecated since version 0.19.0: Please call pd.read_csv(...).to_records() instead.
Return a NumPy recarray instead of a DataFrame after parsing the data. If set to True,
this option takes precedence over the squeeze parameter. In addition, as row indices are
not available in such a format, the index_col parameter will be ignored.
squeeze : boolean, default False
If the parsed data only contains one column then return a Series
prefix : str, default None
Prefix to add to column numbers when no header, e.g. ‘X’ for X0, X1, ...
mangle_dupe_cols : boolean, default True
Duplicate columns will be specified as ‘X.0’...’X.N’, rather than ‘X’...’X’. Passing in
False will cause data to be overwritten if there are duplicate names in the columns.
dtype : Type name or dict of column -> type, default None
Data type for data or columns. E.g. {‘a’: np.float64, ‘b’: np.int32} Use str or object
to preserve and not interpret dtype. If converters are specified, they will be applied
INSTEAD of dtype conversion.
converters : dict, default None
Dict of functions for converting values in certain columns. Keys can either be integers
or column labels
true_values : list, default None
Values to consider as True
false_values : list, default None
Values to consider as False
skipinitialspace : boolean, default False
Skip spaces after delimiter.
skiprows : list-like or integer or callable, default None
Line numbers to skip (0-indexed) or number of lines to skip (int) at the start of the file.
If callable, the callable function will be evaluated against the row indices, returning
True if the row should be skipped and False otherwise. An example of a valid callable
argument would be lambda x: x in [0, 2].
skipfooter : int, default 0
Number of lines at bottom of file to skip (Unsupported with engine=’c’)
skip_footer : int, default 0

1228 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Deprecated since version 0.19.0: Use the skipfooter parameter instead, as they are iden-
tical
nrows : int, default None
Number of rows of file to read. Useful for reading pieces of large files
na_values : scalar, str, list-like, or dict, default None
Additional strings to recognize as NA/NaN. If dict passed, specific per-column NA
values. By default the following values are interpreted as NaN: ‘’, ‘#N/A’, ‘#N/A N/A’,
‘#NA’, ‘-1.#IND’, ‘-1.#QNAN’, ‘-NaN’, ‘-nan’, ‘1.#IND’, ‘1.#QNAN’, ‘N/A’, ‘NA’,
‘NULL’, ‘NaN’, ‘n/a’, ‘nan’, ‘null’.
keep_default_na : bool, default True
If na_values are specified and keep_default_na is False the default NaN values are over-
ridden, otherwise they’re appended to.
na_filter : boolean, default True
Detect missing value markers (empty strings and the value of na_values). In data with-
out any NAs, passing na_filter=False can improve the performance of reading a large
file
verbose : boolean, default False
Indicate number of NA values placed in non-numeric columns
skip_blank_lines : boolean, default True
If True, skip over blank lines rather than interpreting as NaN values
parse_dates : boolean or list of ints or names or list of lists or dict, default False
• boolean. If True -> try parsing the index.
• list of ints or names. e.g. If [1, 2, 3] -> try parsing columns 1, 2, 3 each as a separate
date column.
• list of lists. e.g. If [[1, 3]] -> combine columns 1 and 3 and parse as a single date
column.
• dict, e.g. {‘foo’ : [1, 3]} -> parse columns 1, 3 as date and call result ‘foo’
If a column or index contains an unparseable date, the entire column or index will be
returned unaltered as an object data type. For non-standard datetime parsing, use pd.
to_datetime after pd.read_csv
Note: A fast-path exists for iso8601-formatted dates.
infer_datetime_format : boolean, default False
If True and parse_dates is enabled, pandas will attempt to infer the format of the date-
time strings in the columns, and if it can be inferred, switch to a faster method of parsing
them. In some cases this can increase the parsing speed by 5-10x.
keep_date_col : boolean, default False
If True and parse_dates specifies combining multiple columns then keep the original
columns.
date_parser : function, default None
Function to use for converting a sequence of string columns to an array of datetime in-
stances. The default uses dateutil.parser.parser to do the conversion. Pandas

34.1. Input/Output 1229

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

will try to call date_parser in three different ways, advancing to the next if an exception
occurs: 1) Pass one or more arrays (as defined by parse_dates) as arguments; 2) con-
catenate (row-wise) the string values from the columns defined by parse_dates into a
single array and pass that; and 3) call date_parser once for each row using one or more
strings (corresponding to the columns defined by parse_dates) as arguments.
dayfirst : boolean, default False
DD/MM format dates, international and European format
iterator : boolean, default False
Return TextFileReader object for iteration or getting chunks with get_chunk().
chunksize : int, default None
Return TextFileReader object for iteration. See the IO Tools docs for more information
on iterator and chunksize.
compression : {‘infer’, ‘gzip’, ‘bz2’, ‘zip’, ‘xz’, None}, default ‘infer’
For on-the-fly decompression of on-disk data. If ‘infer’ and filepath_or_buffer is path-
like, then detect compression from the following extensions: ‘.gz’, ‘.bz2’, ‘.zip’, or ‘.xz’
(otherwise no decompression). If using ‘zip’, the ZIP file must contain only one data
file to be read in. Set to None for no decompression.
New in version 0.18.1: support for ‘zip’ and ‘xz’ compression.
thousands : str, default None
Thousands separator
decimal : str, default ‘.’
Character to recognize as decimal point (e.g. use ‘,’ for European data).
float_precision : string, default None
Specifies which converter the C engine should use for floating-point values. The op-
tions are None for the ordinary converter, high for the high-precision converter, and
round_trip for the round-trip converter.
lineterminator : str (length 1), default None
Character to break file into lines. Only valid with C parser.
quotechar : str (length 1), optional
The character used to denote the start and end of a quoted item. Quoted items can
include the delimiter and it will be ignored.
quoting : int or csv.QUOTE_* instance, default 0
Control field quoting behavior per csv.QUOTE_* constants. Use one of
QUOTE_MINIMAL (0), QUOTE_ALL (1), QUOTE_NONNUMERIC (2) or
QUOTE_NONE (3).
doublequote : boolean, default True
When quotechar is specified and quoting is not QUOTE_NONE, indicate whether or not
to interpret two consecutive quotechar elements INSIDE a field as a single quotechar
element.
escapechar : str (length 1), default None
One-character string used to escape delimiter when quoting is QUOTE_NONE.

1230 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

comment : str, default None

Indicates remainder of line should not be parsed. If found at the beginning of a line, the
line will be ignored altogether. This parameter must be a single character. Like empty
lines (as long as skip_blank_lines=True), fully commented lines are ignored
by the parameter header but not by skiprows. For example, if comment=’#’, parsing
‘#emptyna,b,cn1,2,3’ with header=0 will result in ‘a,b,c’ being treated as the header.
encoding : str, default None
Encoding to use for UTF when reading/writing (ex. ‘utf-8’). List of Python standard
encodings
dialect : str or csv.Dialect instance, default None
If provided, this parameter will override values (default or not) for the following pa-
rameters: delimiter, doublequote, escapechar, skipinitialspace, quotechar, and quoting.
If it is necessary to override values, a ParserWarning will be issued. See csv.Dialect
documentation for more details.
tupleize_cols : boolean, default False
Deprecated since version 0.21.0: This argument will be removed and will always con-
vert to MultiIndex
Leave a list of tuples on columns as is (default is to convert to a MultiIndex on the
columns)
error_bad_lines : boolean, default True
Lines with too many fields (e.g. a csv line with too many commas) will by default cause
an exception to be raised, and no DataFrame will be returned. If False, then these “bad
lines” will dropped from the DataFrame that is returned.
warn_bad_lines : boolean, default True
If error_bad_lines is False, and warn_bad_lines is True, a warning for each “bad line”
will be output.
low_memory : boolean, default True
Internally process the file in chunks, resulting in lower memory use while parsing, but
possibly mixed type inference. To ensure no mixed types either set False, or specify the
type with the dtype parameter. Note that the entire file is read into a single DataFrame
regardless, use the chunksize or iterator parameter to return the data in chunks. (Only
valid with C parser)
buffer_lines : int, default None
Deprecated since version 0.19.0: This argument is not respected by the parser
compact_ints : boolean, default False
Deprecated since version 0.19.0: Argument moved to pd.to_numeric
If compact_ints is True, then for any column that is of integer dtype, the parser will
attempt to cast it as the smallest integer dtype possible, either signed or unsigned de-
pending on the specification from the use_unsigned parameter.
use_unsigned : boolean, default False
Deprecated since version 0.19.0: Argument moved to pd.to_numeric
If integer columns are being compacted (i.e. compact_ints=True), specify whether the
column should be compacted to the smallest signed or unsigned integer dtype.

34.1. Input/Output 1231

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

memory_map : boolean, default False

If a filepath is provided for filepath_or_buffer, map the file object directly onto memory
and access the data directly from there. Using this option can improve performance
because there is no longer any I/O overhead.
Returns result : DataFrame or TextParser

34.1.2.4 pandas.read_msgpack

pandas.read_msgpack(path_or_buf, encoding=’utf-8’, iterator=False, **kwargs)

Load msgpack pandas object from the specified file path
THIS IS AN EXPERIMENTAL LIBRARY and the storage format may not be stable until a future release.
Parameters path_or_buf : string File path, BytesIO like or string
encoding: Encoding for decoding msgpack str type
iterator : boolean, if True, return an iterator to the unpacker
(default is False)
Returns obj : type of object stored in file

34.1.3 Clipboard

read_clipboard([sep]) Read text from clipboard and pass to read_table.

34.1.3.1 pandas.read_clipboard

pandas.read_clipboard(sep=’\\s+’, **kwargs)
Read text from clipboard and pass to read_table. See read_table for the full argument list
Parameters sep : str, default ‘s+’.
A string or regex delimiter. The default of ‘s+’ denotes one or more whitespace charac-
ters.
Returns parsed : DataFrame

34.1.4 Excel

read_excel(io[, sheet_name, header, ...]) Read an Excel table into a pandas DataFrame
ExcelFile.parse([sheet_name, header, ...]) Parse specified sheet(s) into a DataFrame

34.1.4.1 pandas.read_excel

pandas.read_excel(io, sheet_name=0, header=0, skiprows=None, skip_footer=0, index_col=None,

names=None, usecols=None, parse_dates=False, date_parser=None,
na_values=None, thousands=None, convert_float=True, converters=None,
dtype=None, true_values=None, false_values=None, engine=None, squeeze=False,
**kwds)
Read an Excel table into a pandas DataFrame

1232 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Parameters io : string, path object (pathlib.Path or py._path.local.LocalPath),

file-like object, pandas ExcelFile, or xlrd workbook. The string could be a URL. Valid
URL schemes include http, ftp, s3, and file. For file URLs, a host is expected. For
instance, a local file could be file://localhost/path/to/workbook.xlsx
sheet_name : string, int, mixed list of strings/ints, or None, default 0
Strings are used for sheet names, Integers are used in zero-indexed sheet positions.
Lists of strings/integers are used to request multiple sheets.
Specify None to get all sheets.
str|int -> DataFrame is returned. list|None -> Dict of DataFrames is returned, with keys
representing sheets.
Available Cases
• Defaults to 0 -> 1st sheet as a DataFrame
• 1 -> 2nd sheet as a DataFrame
• “Sheet1” -> 1st sheet as a DataFrame
• [0,1,”Sheet5”] -> 1st, 2nd & 5th sheet as a dictionary of DataFrames
• None -> All sheets as a dictionary of DataFrames
sheetname : string, int, mixed list of strings/ints, or None, default 0
Deprecated since version 0.21.0: Use sheet_name instead
header : int, list of ints, default 0
Row (0-indexed) to use for the column labels of the parsed DataFrame. If a list of
integers is passed those row positions will be combined into a MultiIndex. Use
None if there is no header.
skiprows : list-like
Rows to skip at the beginning (0-indexed)
skip_footer : int, default 0
Rows at the end to skip (0-indexed)
index_col : int, list of ints, default None
Column (0-indexed) to use as the row labels of the DataFrame. Pass None if there is no
such column. If a list is passed, those columns will be combined into a MultiIndex.
If a subset of data is selected with usecols, index_col is based on the subset.
names : array-like, default None
List of column names to use. If file contains no header row, then you should explicitly
pass header=None
converters : dict, default None
Dict of functions for converting values in certain columns. Keys can either be integers or
column labels, values are functions that take one input argument, the Excel cell content,
and return the transformed content.
dtype : Type name or dict of column -> type, default None

34.1. Input/Output 1233

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Data type for data or columns. E.g. {‘a’: np.float64, ‘b’: np.int32} Use object to
preserve data as stored in Excel and not interpret dtype. If converters are specified, they
will be applied INSTEAD of dtype conversion.
New in version 0.20.0.
true_values : list, default None
Values to consider as True
New in version 0.19.0.
false_values : list, default None
Values to consider as False
New in version 0.19.0.
parse_cols : int or list, default None
Deprecated since version 0.21.0: Pass in usecols instead.
usecols : int or list, default None
• If None then parse all columns,
• If int then indicates last column to be parsed
• If list of ints then indicates list of column numbers to be parsed
• If string then indicates comma separated list of Excel column letters and column ranges (e.g.
“A:E” or “A,C,E:F”). Ranges are inclusive of both sides.
squeeze : boolean, default False
If the parsed data only contains one column then return a Series
na_values : scalar, str, list-like, or dict, default None
Additional strings to recognize as NA/NaN. If dict passed, specific per-column NA
values. By default the following values are interpreted as NaN: ‘’, ‘#N/A’, ‘#N/A N/A’,
‘#NA’, ‘-1.#IND’, ‘-1.#QNAN’, ‘-NaN’, ‘-nan’,
‘1.#IND’, ‘1.#QNAN’, ‘N/A’, ‘NA’, ‘NULL’, ‘NaN’, ‘n/a’, ‘nan’, ‘null’.
thousands : str, default None
Thousands separator for parsing string columns to numeric. Note that this parameter
is only necessary for columns stored as TEXT in Excel, any numeric columns will
automatically be parsed, regardless of display format.
keep_default_na : bool, default True
If na_values are specified and keep_default_na is False the default NaN values are over-
ridden, otherwise they’re appended to.
verbose : boolean, default False
Indicate number of NA values placed in non-numeric columns
engine: string, default None
If io is not a buffer or path, this must be set to identify io. Acceptable values are None
or xlrd
convert_float : boolean, default True

1234 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

convert integral floats to int (i.e., 1.0 –> 1). If False, all numeric data will be read in as
floats: Excel stores all numbers as floats internally
Returns parsed : DataFrame or Dict of DataFrames
DataFrame from the passed in Excel file. See notes in sheet_name argument for more
information on when a Dict of Dataframes is returned.

34.1.4.2 pandas.ExcelFile.parse

ExcelFile.parse(sheet_name=0, header=0, skiprows=None, skip_footer=0, names=None,

index_col=None, usecols=None, parse_dates=False, date_parser=None,
na_values=None, thousands=None, convert_float=True, converters=None,
true_values=None, false_values=None, squeeze=False, **kwds)
Parse specified sheet(s) into a DataFrame
Equivalent to read_excel(ExcelFile, ...) See the read_excel docstring for more info on accepted parameters

34.1.5 JSON

read_json([path_or_buf, orient, typ, dtype, ...]) Convert a JSON string to pandas object

34.1.5.1 pandas.read_json

pandas.read_json(path_or_buf=None, orient=None, typ=’frame’, dtype=True, convert_axes=True,

convert_dates=True, keep_default_dates=True, numpy=False, precise_float=False,
date_unit=None, encoding=None, lines=False, chunksize=None, compres-
sion=’infer’)
Convert a JSON string to pandas object
Parameters path_or_buf : a valid JSON string or file-like, default: None
The string could be a URL. Valid URL schemes include http, ftp, s3, and file. For file
URLs, a host is expected. For instance, a local file could be file://localhost/
path/to/table.json
orient : string,
Indication of expected JSON string format. Compatible JSON strings can be produced
by to_json() with a corresponding orient value. The set of possible orients is:
• 'split' : dict like {index -> [index], columns -> [columns],
data -> [values]}
• 'records' : list like [{column -> value}, ... , {column ->
value}]
• 'index' : dict like {index -> {column -> value}}
• 'columns' : dict like {column -> {index -> value}}
• 'values' : just the values array
The allowed and default values depend on the value of the typ parameter.
• when typ == 'series',
– allowed orients are {'split','records','index'}

34.1. Input/Output 1235

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

– default is 'index'
– The Series index must be unique for orient 'index'.
• when typ == 'frame',
– allowed orients are {'split','records','index', 'columns',
'values'}
– default is 'columns'
– The DataFrame index must be unique for orients 'index' and 'columns'.
– The DataFrame columns must be unique for orients 'index', 'columns', and
'records'.
typ : type of object to recover (series or frame), default ‘frame’
dtype : boolean or dict, default True
If True, infer dtypes, if a dict of column to dtype, then use those, if False, then don’t
infer dtypes at all, applies only to the data.
convert_axes : boolean, default True
Try to convert the axes to the proper dtypes.
convert_dates : boolean, default True
List of columns to parse for dates; If True, then try to parse datelike columns default is
True; a column label is datelike if
• it ends with '_at',
• it ends with '_time',
• it begins with 'timestamp',
• it is 'modified', or
• it is 'date'
keep_default_dates : boolean, default True
If parsing dates, then parse the default datelike columns
numpy : boolean, default False
Direct decoding to numpy arrays. Supports numeric data only, but non-numeric column
and index labels are supported. Note also that the JSON ordering MUST be the same
for each term if numpy=True.
precise_float : boolean, default False
Set to enable usage of higher precision (strtod) function when decoding string to double
values. Default (False) is to use fast but less precise builtin functionality
date_unit : string, default None
The timestamp unit to detect if converting dates. The default behaviour is to try and de-
tect the correct precision, but if this is not desired then pass one of ‘s’, ‘ms’, ‘us’ or ‘ns’
to force parsing only seconds, milliseconds, microseconds or nanoseconds respectively.
lines : boolean, default False
Read the file as a json object per line.
New in version 0.19.0.

1236 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

encoding : str, default is ‘utf-8’

The encoding to use to decode py3 bytes.
New in version 0.19.0.
chunksize: integer, default None
Return JsonReader object for iteration. See the line-delimted json docs for more infor-
mation on chunksize. This can only be passed if lines=True. If this is None, the file
will be read into memory all at once.
New in version 0.21.0.
compression : {‘infer’, ‘gzip’, ‘bz2’, ‘zip’, ‘xz’, None}, default ‘infer’
For on-the-fly decompression of on-disk data. If ‘infer’, then use gzip, bz2, zip or xz
if path_or_buf is a string ending in ‘.gz’, ‘.bz2’, ‘.zip’, or ‘xz’, respectively, and no
decompression otherwise. If using ‘zip’, the ZIP file must contain only one data file to
be read in. Set to None for no decompression.
New in version 0.21.0.
Returns result : Series or DataFrame, depending on the value of typ.
See also:
DataFrame.to_json

Examples

>>> df = pd.DataFrame([['a', 'b'], ['c', 'd']],

... index=['row 1', 'row 2'],
... columns=['col 1', 'col 2'])

Encoding/decoding a Dataframe using 'split' formatted JSON:

>>> df.to_json(orient='split')
'{"columns":["col 1","col 2"],
"index":["row 1","row 2"],
"data":[["a","b"],["c","d"]]}'
>>> pd.read_json(_, orient='split')
col 1 col 2
row 1 a b
row 2 c d

Encoding/decoding a Dataframe using 'index' formatted JSON:

>>> df.to_json(orient='index')
'{"row 1":{"col 1":"a","col 2":"b"},"row 2":{"col 1":"c","col 2":"d"}}'
>>> pd.read_json(_, orient='index')
col 1 col 2
row 1 a b
row 2 c d

Encoding/decoding a Dataframe using 'records' formatted JSON. Note that index labels are not preserved
with this encoding.

34.1. Input/Output 1237

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

>>> df.to_json(orient='records')
'[{"col 1":"a","col 2":"b"},{"col 1":"c","col 2":"d"}]'
>>> pd.read_json(_, orient='records')
col 1 col 2
0 a b
1 c d

Encoding with Table Schema

>>> df.to_json(orient='table')
'{"schema": {"fields": [{"name": "index", "type": "string"},
{"name": "col 1", "type": "string"},
{"name": "col 2", "type": "string"}],
"primaryKey": "index",
"pandas_version": "0.20.0"},
"data": [{"index": "row 1", "col 1": "a", "col 2": "b"},
{"index": "row 2", "col 1": "c", "col 2": "d"}]}'

json_normalize(data[, record_path, meta, ...]) “Normalize” semi-structured JSON data into a flat table
build_table_schema(data[, index, ...]) Create a Table schema from data.

34.1.5.2 pandas.io.json.json_normalize

pandas.io.json.json_normalize(data, record_path=None, meta=None, meta_prefix=None,

record_prefix=None, errors=’raise’, sep=’.’)
“Normalize” semi-structured JSON data into a flat table
Parameters data : dict or list of dicts
Unserialized JSON objects
record_path : string or list of strings, default None
Path in each object to list of records. If not passed, data will be assumed to be an array
of records
meta : list of paths (string or list of strings), default None
Fields to use as metadata for each record in resulting table
record_prefix : string, default None
If True, prefix records with dotted (?) path, e.g. foo.bar.field if path to records is [’foo’,
‘bar’]
meta_prefix : string, default None
errors : {‘raise’, ‘ignore’}, default ‘raise’
• ‘ignore’ : will ignore KeyError if keys listed in meta are not always present
• ‘raise’ : will raise KeyError if keys listed in meta are not always present
New in version 0.20.0.
sep : string, default ‘.’
Nested records will generate names separated by sep, e.g., for sep=’.’, { ‘foo’ : { ‘bar’ :
0 } } -> foo.bar
New in version 0.20.0.

1238 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Returns frame : DataFrame

Examples

>>> from pandas.io.json import json_normalize

>>> data = [{'id': 1, 'name': {'first': 'Coleen', 'last': 'Volk'}},
... {'name': {'given': 'Mose', 'family': 'Regner'}},
... {'id': 2, 'name': 'Faye Raker'}]
>>> json_normalize(data)
id name name.family name.first name.given name.last
0 1.0 NaN NaN Coleen NaN Volk
1 NaN NaN Regner NaN Mose NaN
2 2.0 Faye Raker NaN NaN NaN NaN

>>> data = [{'state': 'Florida',

... 'shortname': 'FL',
... 'info': {
... 'governor': 'Rick Scott'
... },
... 'counties': [{'name': 'Dade', 'population': 12345},
... {'name': 'Broward', 'population': 40000},
... {'name': 'Palm Beach', 'population': 60000}]},
... {'state': 'Ohio',
... 'shortname': 'OH',
... 'info': {
... 'governor': 'John Kasich'
... },
... 'counties': [{'name': 'Summit', 'population': 1234},
... {'name': 'Cuyahoga', 'population': 1337}]}]
>>> result = json_normalize(data, 'counties', ['state', 'shortname',
... ['info', 'governor']])
>>> result
name population info.governor state shortname
0 Dade 12345 Rick Scott Florida FL
1 Broward 40000 Rick Scott Florida FL
2 Palm Beach 60000 Rick Scott Florida FL
3 Summit 1234 John Kasich Ohio OH
4 Cuyahoga 1337 John Kasich Ohio OH

34.1.5.3 pandas.io.json.build_table_schema

pandas.io.json.build_table_schema(data, index=True, primary_key=None, version=True)

Create a Table schema from data.
Parameters data : Series, DataFrame
index : bool, default True
Whether to include data.index in the schema.
primary_key : bool or None, default True
column names to designate as the primary key. The default None will set ‘primaryKey’
to the index level or levels if the index is unique.
version : bool, default True

34.1. Input/Output 1239

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Whether to include a field pandas_version with the version of pandas that generated the
schema.
Returns schema : dict

Notes

See _as_json_table_type for conversion types. Timedeltas as converted to ISO8601 duration format with 9
decimal places after the secnods field for nanosecond precision.
Categoricals are converted to the any dtype, and use the enum field constraint to list the allowed values. The
ordered attribute is included in an ordered field.

Examples

>>> df = pd.DataFrame(
... {'A': [1, 2, 3],
... 'B': ['a', 'b', 'c'],
... 'C': pd.date_range('2016-01-01', freq='d', periods=3),
... }, index=pd.Index(range(3), name='idx'))
>>> build_table_schema(df)
{'fields': [{'name': 'idx', 'type': 'integer'},
{'name': 'A', 'type': 'integer'},
{'name': 'B', 'type': 'string'},
{'name': 'C', 'type': 'datetime'}],
'pandas_version': '0.20.0',
'primaryKey': ['idx']}

34.1.6 HTML

read_html(io[, match, flavor, header, ...]) Read HTML tables into a list of DataFrame objects.

34.1.6.1 pandas.read_html

pandas.read_html(io, match=’.+’, flavor=None, header=None, index_col=None, skiprows=None, at-

trs=None, parse_dates=False, tupleize_cols=None, thousands=’, ‘, encoding=None,
decimal=’.’, converters=None, na_values=None, keep_default_na=True)
Read HTML tables into a list of DataFrame objects.
Parameters io : str or file-like
A URL, a file-like object, or a raw string containing HTML. Note that lxml only accepts
the http, ftp and file url protocols. If you have a URL that starts with 'https' you
might try removing the 's'.
match : str or compiled regular expression, optional
The set of tables containing text matching this regex or string will be returned. Unless
the HTML is extremely simple you will probably need to pass a non-empty string here.
Defaults to ‘.+’ (match any non-empty string). The default value will return all tables
contained on a page. This value is converted to a regular expression so that there is
consistent behavior between Beautiful Soup and lxml.
flavor : str or None, container of strings

1240 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

The parsing engine to use. ‘bs4’ and ‘html5lib’ are synonymous with each other, they
are both there for backwards compatibility. The default of None tries to use lxml to
parse and if that fails it falls back on bs4 + html5lib.
header : int or list-like or None, optional
The row (or list of rows for a MultiIndex) to use to make the columns headers.
index_col : int or list-like or None, optional
The column (or list of columns) to use to create the index.
skiprows : int or list-like or slice or None, optional
0-based. Number of rows to skip after parsing the column integer. If a sequence of
integers or a slice is given, will skip the rows indexed by that sequence. Note that a
single element sequence means ‘skip the nth row’ whereas an integer means ‘skip n
rows’.
attrs : dict or None, optional
This is a dictionary of attributes that you can pass to use to identify the table in the
HTML. These are not checked for validity before being passed to lxml or Beautiful
Soup. However, these attributes must be valid HTML table attributes to work correctly.
For example,
attrs = {'id': 'table'}

is a valid attribute dictionary because the ‘id’ HTML tag attribute is a valid HTML
attribute for any HTML tag as per this document.
attrs = {'asdf': 'table'}

is not a valid attribute dictionary because ‘asdf’ is not a valid HTML attribute even if
it is a valid XML attribute. Valid HTML 4.01 table attributes can be found here. A
working draft of the HTML 5 spec can be found here. It contains the latest information
on table attributes for the modern web.
parse_dates : bool, optional
See read_csv() for more details.
tupleize_cols : bool, optional
If False try to parse multiple header rows into a MultiIndex, otherwise return raw
tuples. Defaults to False.
Deprecated since version 0.21.0: This argument will be removed and will always con-
vert to MultiIndex
thousands : str, optional
Separator to use to parse thousands. Defaults to ','.
encoding : str or None, optional
The encoding used to decode the web page. Defaults to None.‘‘None‘‘ preserves the
previous encoding behavior, which depends on the underlying parser library (e.g., the
parser library will try to use the encoding provided by the document).
decimal : str, default ‘.’
Character to recognize as decimal point (e.g. use ‘,’ for European data).
New in version 0.19.0.

34.1. Input/Output 1241

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

converters : dict, default None

Dict of functions for converting values in certain columns. Keys can either be integers or
column labels, values are functions that take one input argument, the cell (not column)
content, and return the transformed content.
New in version 0.19.0.
na_values : iterable, default None
Custom NA values
New in version 0.19.0.
keep_default_na : bool, default True
If na_values are specified and keep_default_na is False the default NaN values are over-
ridden, otherwise they’re appended to
New in version 0.19.0.
Returns dfs : list of DataFrames
See also:
pandas.read_csv

Notes

Before using this function you should read the gotchas about the HTML parsing libraries.
Expect to do some cleanup after you call this function. For example, you might need to manually assign column
names if the column names are converted to NaN when you pass the header=0 argument. We try to assume as
little as possible about the structure of the table and push the idiosyncrasies of the HTML contained in the table
to the user.
This function searches for <table> elements and only for <tr> and <th> rows and <td> elements within
each <tr> or <th> element in the table. <td> stands for “table data”.
Similar to read_csv() the header argument is applied after skiprows is applied.
This function will always return a list of DataFrame or it will fail, e.g., it will not return an empty list.

Examples

See the read_html documentation in the IO section of the docs for some examples of reading in HTML tables.

34.1.7 HDFStore: PyTables (HDF5)

read_hdf(path_or_buf[, key, mode]) read from the store, close it if we opened it

HDFStore.put(key, value[, format, append]) Store object in HDFStore
HDFStore.append(key, value[, format, ...]) Append to Table in file.
HDFStore.get(key) Retrieve pandas object stored in file
HDFStore.select(key[, where, start, stop, ...]) Retrieve pandas object stored in file, optionally based on
where
HDFStore.info() print detailed information on the store

1242 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

34.1.7.1 pandas.read_hdf

pandas.read_hdf(path_or_buf, key=None, mode=’r’, **kwargs)

read from the store, close it if we opened it
Retrieve pandas object stored in file, optionally based on where criteria
Parameters path_or_buf : path (string), buffer or path object (pathlib.Path or
py._path.local.LocalPath) designating the file to open, or an already opened
pd.HDFStore object
New in version 0.19.0: support for pathlib, py.path.
key : group identifier in the store. Can be omitted if the HDF file
contains a single pandas object.
mode : string, {‘r’, ‘r+’, ‘a’}, default ‘r’. Mode to use when opening
the file. Ignored if path_or_buf is a pd.HDFStore.
where : list of Term (or convertable) objects, optional
start : optional, integer (defaults to None), row number to start
selection
stop : optional, integer (defaults to None), row number to stop
selection
columns : optional, a list of columns that if not None, will limit the
return columns
iterator : optional, boolean, return an iterator, default False
chunksize : optional, nrows to include in iteration, return an iterator
Returns The selected object

34.1.7.2 pandas.HDFStore.put

HDFStore.put(key, value, format=None, append=False, **kwargs)

Store object in HDFStore
Parameters key : object
value : {Series, DataFrame, Panel}
format : ‘fixed(f)|table(t)’, default is ‘fixed’
fixed(f) [Fixed format] Fast writing/reading. Not-appendable, nor searchable
table(t) [Table format] Write as a PyTables Table structure which may perform worse
but allow more flexible operations like searching / selecting subsets of the data
append : boolean, default False
This will force Table format, append the input data to the existing.
data_columns : list of columns to create as data columns, or True to
use all columns. See here # noqa

34.1. Input/Output 1243

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

encoding : default None, provide an encoding for strings

dropna : boolean, default False, do not write an ALL nan row to
the store settable by the option ‘io.hdf.dropna_table’

34.1.7.3 pandas.HDFStore.append

HDFStore.append(key, value, format=None, append=True, columns=None, dropna=None, **kwargs)

Append to Table in file. Node must already exist and be Table format.
Parameters key : object
value : {Series, DataFrame, Panel, Panel4D}
format: ‘table’ is the default
table(t) [table format] Write as a PyTables Table structure which may perform worse
but allow more flexible operations like searching / selecting subsets of the data
append : boolean, default True, append the input data to the
existing
data_columns : list of columns, or True, default None
List of columns to create as indexed data columns for on-disk queries, or True to use all
columns. By default only the axes of the object are indexed. See here.
min_itemsize : dict of columns that specify minimum string sizes
nan_rep : string to use as string nan represenation
chunksize : size to chunk the writing
expectedrows : expected TOTAL row size of this table
encoding : default None, provide an encoding for strings
dropna : boolean, default False, do not write an ALL nan row to
the store settable by the option ‘io.hdf.dropna_table’

Notes

Does not check if data being appended overlaps with existing data in the table, so be careful

34.1.7.4 pandas.HDFStore.get

HDFStore.get(key)
Retrieve pandas object stored in file
Parameters key : object
Returns obj : type of object stored in file

1244 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

34.1.7.5 pandas.HDFStore.select

HDFStore.select(key, where=None, start=None, stop=None, columns=None, iterator=False, chunk-

size=None, auto_close=False, **kwargs)
Retrieve pandas object stored in file, optionally based on where criteria
Parameters key : object
where : list of Term (or convertable) objects, optional
start : integer (defaults to None), row number to start selection
stop : integer (defaults to None), row number to stop selection
columns : a list of columns that if not None, will limit the return
columns
iterator : boolean, return an iterator, default False
chunksize : nrows to include in iteration, return an iterator
auto_close : boolean, should automatically close the store when
finished, default is False
Returns The selected object

34.1.7.6 pandas.HDFStore.info

HDFStore.info()
print detailed information on the store
New in version 0.21.0.

34.1.8 Feather

read_feather(path[, nthreads]) Load a feather-format object from the file path

34.1.8.1 pandas.read_feather

pandas.read_feather(path, nthreads=1)
Load a feather-format object from the file path
Parameters path : string file path, or file-like object
nthreads : int, default 1
Number of CPU threads to use when reading to pandas.DataFrame
Returns type of object stored in file

34.1.9 Parquet

read_parquet(path[, engine]) Load a parquet object from the file path, returning a
DataFrame.

34.1. Input/Output 1245

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

34.1.9.1 pandas.read_parquet

pandas.read_parquet(path, engine=’auto’, **kwargs)

Load a parquet object from the file path, returning a DataFrame.
Parameters path : string
File path
engine : {‘auto’, ‘pyarrow’, ‘fastparquet’}, default ‘auto’
Parquet reader library to use. If ‘auto’, then the option ‘io.parquet.engine’ is used. If
‘auto’, then the first library to be installed is used.
kwargs are passed to the engine
Returns DataFrame

34.1.10 SAS

read_sas(filepath_or_buffer[, format, ...]) Read SAS files stored as either XPORT or SAS7BDAT for-
mat files.

34.1.10.1 pandas.read_sas

pandas.read_sas(filepath_or_buffer, format=None, index=None, encoding=None, chunksize=None, iter-

ator=False)
Read SAS files stored as either XPORT or SAS7BDAT format files.
Parameters filepath_or_buffer : string or file-like object
Path to the SAS file.
format : string {‘xport’, ‘sas7bdat’} or None
If None, file format is inferred. If ‘xport’ or ‘sas7bdat’, uses the corresponding format.
index : identifier of index column, defaults to None
Identifier of column that should be used as index of the DataFrame.
encoding : string, default is None
Encoding for text data. If None, text data are stored as raw bytes.
chunksize : int
Read file chunksize lines at a time, returns iterator.
iterator : bool, defaults to False
If True, returns an iterator for reading the file incrementally.
Returns DataFrame if iterator=False and chunksize=None, else SAS7BDATReader
or XportReader

34.1.11 SQL

read_sql_table(table_name, con[, schema, ...]) Read SQL database table into a DataFrame.
Continued on next page

1246 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Table 34.12 – continued from previous page

read_sql_query(sql, con[, index_col, ...]) Read SQL query into a DataFrame.
read_sql(sql, con[, index_col, ...]) Read SQL query or database table into a DataFrame.

34.1.12 Google BigQuery

read_gbq(query[, project_id, index_col, ...]) Load data from Google BigQuery.

34.1.12.1 pandas.read_gbq

pandas.read_gbq(query, project_id=None, index_col=None, col_order=None, reauth=False, ver-

bose=True, private_key=None, dialect=’legacy’, **kwargs)
Load data from Google BigQuery.
The main method a user calls to execute a Query in Google BigQuery and read results into a pandas DataFrame.
Google BigQuery API Client Library v2 for Python is used. Documentation is available here
Authentication to the Google BigQuery service is via OAuth 2.0.
• If “private_key” is not provided:
By default “application default credentials” are used.
If default application credentials are not found or are restrictive, user account credentials are used. In this
case, you will be asked to grant permissions for product name ‘pandas GBQ’.
• If “private_key” is provided:
Service account credentials will be used to authenticate.

Parameters query : str

SQL-Like Query to return data values
project_id : str
Google BigQuery Account project ID.
index_col : str (optional)
Name of result column to use for index in results DataFrame
col_order : list(str) (optional)
List of BigQuery column names in the desired order for results DataFrame
reauth : boolean (default False)
Force Google BigQuery to reauthenticate the user. This is useful if multiple accounts
are used.
verbose : boolean (default True)
Verbose output
private_key : str (optional)
Service account private key in JSON format. Can be file path or string contents. This is
useful for remote server authentication (eg. jupyter iPython notebook on remote host)
dialect : {‘legacy’, ‘standard’}, default ‘legacy’

34.1. Input/Output 1247

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

‘legacy’ : Use BigQuery’s legacy SQL dialect. ‘standard’ : Use BigQuery’s standard
SQL (beta), which is compliant with the SQL 2011 standard. For more information see
BigQuery SQL Reference
**kwargs : Arbitrary keyword arguments
configuration (dict): query config parameters for job processing. For example:
configuration = {‘query’: {‘useQueryCache’: False}}
For more information see BigQuery SQL Reference
Returns df: DataFrame
DataFrame representing results of query

34.1.13 STATA

read_stata(filepath_or_buffer[, ...]) Read Stata file into DataFrame

34.1.13.1 pandas.read_stata

pandas.read_stata(filepath_or_buffer, convert_dates=True, convert_categoricals=True, encod-

ing=None, index_col=None, convert_missing=False, preserve_dtypes=True,
columns=None, order_categoricals=True, chunksize=None, iterator=False)
Read Stata file into DataFrame
Parameters filepath_or_buffer : string or file-like object
Path to .dta file or object implementing a binary read() functions
convert_dates : boolean, defaults to True
Convert date variables to DataFrame time values
convert_categoricals : boolean, defaults to True
Read value labels and convert columns to Categorical/Factor variables
encoding : string, None or encoding
Encoding used to parse the files. None defaults to latin-1.
index_col : string, optional, default: None
Column to set as index
convert_missing : boolean, defaults to False
Flag indicating whether to convert missing values to their Stata representations. If False,
missing values are replaced with nan. If True, columns containing missing values are re-
turned with object data types and missing values are represented by StataMissingValue
objects.
preserve_dtypes : boolean, defaults to True
Preserve Stata datatypes. If False, numeric data are upcast to pandas default types for
foreign data (float64 or int64)
columns : list or None
Columns to retain. Columns will be returned in the given order. None returns all
columns

1248 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

order_categoricals : boolean, defaults to True

Flag indicating whether converted categorical data are ordered.
chunksize : int, default None
Return StataReader object for iterations, returns chunks with given number of lines
iterator : boolean, default False
Return StataReader object
Returns DataFrame or StataReader

Examples

Read a Stata dta file:

>>> df = pandas.read_stata('filename.dta')

Read a Stata dta file in 10,000 line chunks:

>>> itr = pandas.read_stata('filename.dta', chunksize=10000)

>>> for chunk in itr:
>>> do_something(chunk)

StataReader.data(**kwargs) Reads observations from Stata file, converting them into a

dataframe
StataReader.data_label() Returns data label of Stata file
StataReader.value_labels() Returns a dict, associating each variable name a dict, asso-
ciating
StataReader.variable_labels() Returns variable labels as a dict, associating each variable
name
StataWriter.write_file()

34.1.13.2 pandas.io.stata.StataReader.data

StataReader.data(**kwargs)
Reads observations from Stata file, converting them into a dataframe
Deprecated since version This: is a legacy method. Use read in new code.

Parameters convert_dates : boolean, defaults to True

Convert date variables to DataFrame time values
convert_categoricals : boolean, defaults to True
Read value labels and convert columns to Categorical/Factor variables
index_col : string, optional, default: None
Column to set as index
convert_missing : boolean, defaults to False
Flag indicating whether to convert missing values to their Stata representations. If False,
missing values are replaced with nan. If True, columns containing missing values are re-

34.1. Input/Output 1249

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

turned with object data types and missing values are represented by StataMissingValue
objects.
preserve_dtypes : boolean, defaults to True
Preserve Stata datatypes. If False, numeric data are upcast to pandas default types for
foreign data (float64 or int64)
columns : list or None
Columns to retain. Columns will be returned in the given order. None returns all
columns
order_categoricals : boolean, defaults to True
Flag indicating whether converted categorical data are ordered.
Returns DataFrame

34.1.13.3 pandas.io.stata.StataReader.data_label

StataReader.data_label()
Returns data label of Stata file

34.1.13.4 pandas.io.stata.StataReader.value_labels

StataReader.value_labels()
Returns a dict, associating each variable name a dict, associating each value its corresponding label

34.1.13.5 pandas.io.stata.StataReader.variable_labels

StataReader.variable_labels()
Returns variable labels as a dict, associating each variable name with corresponding label

34.1.13.6 pandas.io.stata.StataWriter.write_file

StataWriter.write_file()

34.2 General functions

34.2.1 Data manipulations

melt(frame[, id_vars, value_vars, var_name, ...]) “Unpivots” a DataFrame from wide format to long format,
optionally
pivot(index, columns, values) Produce ‘pivot’ table based on 3 columns of this
DataFrame.
pivot_table(data[, values, index, columns, ...]) Create a spreadsheet-style pivot table as a DataFrame.
crosstab(index, columns[, values, rownames, ...]) Compute a simple cross-tabulation of two (or more) fac-
tors.
cut(x, bins[, right, labels, retbins, ...]) Return indices of half-open bins to which each value of x
belongs.
Continued on next page

1250 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Table 34.16 – continued from previous page

qcut(x, q[, labels, retbins, precision, ...]) Quantile-based discretization function.
merge(left, right[, how, on, left_on, ...]) Merge DataFrame objects by performing a database-style
join operation by columns or indexes.
merge_ordered(left, right[, on, left_on, ...]) Perform merge with optional filling/interpolation designed
for ordered data like time series data.
merge_asof(left, right[, on, left_on, ...]) Perform an asof merge.
concat(objs[, axis, join, join_axes, ...]) Concatenate pandas objects along a particular axis with op-
tional set logic along the other axes.
get_dummies(data[, prefix, prefix_sep, ...]) Convert categorical variable into dummy/indicator vari-
ables
factorize(values[, sort, order, ...]) Encode input values as an enumerated type or categorical
variable
unique(values) Hash table-based unique.
wide_to_long(df, stubnames, i, j[, sep, suffix]) Wide panel to long format.

34.2.1.1 pandas.melt

pandas.melt(frame, id_vars=None, value_vars=None, var_name=None, value_name=’value’,

col_level=None)
“Unpivots” a DataFrame from wide format to long format, optionally leaving identifier variables set.
This function is useful to massage a DataFrame into a format where one or more columns are identifier variables
(id_vars), while all other columns, considered measured variables (value_vars), are “unpivoted” to the row axis,
leaving just two non-identifier columns, ‘variable’ and ‘value’.
Parameters frame : DataFrame
id_vars : tuple, list, or ndarray, optional
Column(s) to use as identifier variables.
value_vars : tuple, list, or ndarray, optional
Column(s) to unpivot. If not specified, uses all columns that are not set as id_vars.
var_name : scalar
Name to use for the ‘variable’ column. If None it uses frame.columns.name or
‘variable’.
value_name : scalar, default ‘value’
Name to use for the ‘value’ column.
col_level : int or string, optional
If columns are a MultiIndex then use this level to melt.
See also:
DataFrame.melt, pivot_table, DataFrame.pivot

Examples

>>> import pandas as pd

>>> df = pd.DataFrame({'A': {0: 'a', 1: 'b', 2: 'c'},
... 'B': {0: 1, 1: 3, 2: 5},
... 'C': {0: 2, 1: 4, 2: 6}})

34.2. General functions 1251

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

>>> df
A B C
0 a 1 2
1 b 3 4
2 c 5 6

>>> pd.melt(df, id_vars=['A'], value_vars=['B'])

A variable value
0 a B 1
1 b B 3
2 c B 5

>>> pd.melt(df, id_vars=['A'], value_vars=['B', 'C'])

A variable value
0 a B 1
1 b B 3
2 c B 5
3 a C 2
4 b C 4
5 c C 6

The names of ‘variable’ and ‘value’ columns can be customized:

>>> pd.melt(df, id_vars=['A'], value_vars=['B'],

... var_name='myVarname', value_name='myValname')
A myVarname myValname
0 a B 1
1 b B 3
2 c B 5

If you have multi-index columns:

>>> df.columns = [list('ABC'), list('DEF')]

>>> df
A B C
D E F
0 a 1 2
1 b 3 4
2 c 5 6

>>> pd.melt(df, col_level=0, id_vars=['A'], value_vars=['B'])

A variable value
0 a B 1
1 b B 3
2 c B 5

>>> pd.melt(df, id_vars=[('A', 'D')], value_vars=[('B', 'E')])

(A, D) variable_0 variable_1 value
0 a B E 1
1 b B E 3
2 c B E 5

1252 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

34.2.1.2 pandas.pivot

pandas.pivot(index, columns, values)

Produce ‘pivot’ table based on 3 columns of this DataFrame. Uses unique values from index / columns and fills
with values.
Parameters index : ndarray
Labels to use to make new frame’s index
columns : ndarray
Labels to use to make new frame’s columns
values : ndarray
Values to use for populating new frame’s values
Returns DataFrame
See also:

DataFrame.pivot_table generalization of pivot that can handle duplicate values for one index/column
pair

Notes

Obviously, all 3 of the input arguments must have the same length

34.2.1.3 pandas.pivot_table

pandas.pivot_table(data, values=None, index=None, columns=None, aggfunc=’mean’,

fill_value=None, margins=False, dropna=True, margins_name=’All’)
Create a spreadsheet-style pivot table as a DataFrame. The levels in the pivot table will be stored in MultiIndex
objects (hierarchical indexes) on the index and columns of the result DataFrame
Parameters data : DataFrame
values : column to aggregate, optional
index : column, Grouper, array, or list of the previous
If an array is passed, it must be the same length as the data. The list can contain any of
the other types (except list). Keys to group by on the pivot table index. If an array is
passed, it is being used as the same manner as column values.
columns : column, Grouper, array, or list of the previous
If an array is passed, it must be the same length as the data. The list can contain any of
the other types (except list). Keys to group by on the pivot table column. If an array is
passed, it is being used as the same manner as column values.
aggfunc : function or list of functions, default numpy.mean
If list of functions passed, the resulting pivot table will have hierarchical columns whose
top level are the function names (inferred from the function objects themselves)
fill_value : scalar, default None
Value to replace missing values with
margins : boolean, default False

34.2. General functions 1253

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Add all row / columns (e.g. for subtotal / grand totals)

dropna : boolean, default True
Do not include columns whose entries are all NaN
margins_name : string, default ‘All’
Name of the row / column that will contain the totals when margins is True.
Returns table : DataFrame
See also:

DataFrame.pivot pivot without aggregation that can handle non-numeric data

Examples

>>> df = pd.DataFrame({"A": ["foo", "foo", "foo", "foo", "foo",

... "bar", "bar", "bar", "bar"],
... "B": ["one", "one", "one", "two", "two",
... "one", "one", "two", "two"],
... "C": ["small", "large", "large", "small",
... "small", "large", "small", "small",
... "large"],
... "D": [1, 2, 2, 3, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7]})
>>> df
A B C D
0 foo one small 1
1 foo one large 2
2 foo one large 2
3 foo two small 3
4 foo two small 3
5 bar one large 4
6 bar one small 5
7 bar two small 6
8 bar two large 7

>>> table = pivot_table(df, values='D', index=['A', 'B'],

... columns=['C'], aggfunc=np.sum)
>>> table
...
C large small
A B
bar one 4.0 5.0
two 7.0 6.0
foo one 4.0 1.0
two NaN 6.0

34.2.1.4 pandas.crosstab

pandas.crosstab(index, columns, values=None, rownames=None, colnames=None, aggfunc=None, mar-

gins=False, margins_name=’All’, dropna=True, normalize=False)
Compute a simple cross-tabulation of two (or more) factors. By default computes a frequency table of the factors
unless an array of values and an aggregation function are passed
Parameters index : array-like, Series, or list of arrays/Series

1254 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Values to group by in the rows

columns : array-like, Series, or list of arrays/Series
Values to group by in the columns
values : array-like, optional
Array of values to aggregate according to the factors. Requires aggfunc be specified.
aggfunc : function, optional
If specified, requires values be specified as well
rownames : sequence, default None
If passed, must match number of row arrays passed
colnames : sequence, default None
If passed, must match number of column arrays passed
margins : boolean, default False
Add row/column margins (subtotals)
margins_name : string, default ‘All’
Name of the row / column that will contain the totals when margins is True.
New in version 0.21.0.
dropna : boolean, default True
Do not include columns whose entries are all NaN
normalize : boolean, {‘all’, ‘index’, ‘columns’}, or {0,1}, default False
Normalize by dividing all values by the sum of values.
• If passed ‘all’ or True, will normalize over all values.
• If passed ‘index’ will normalize over each row.
• If passed ‘columns’ will normalize over each column.
• If margins is True, will also normalize margin values.
New in version 0.18.1.
Returns crosstab : DataFrame

Notes

Any Series passed will have their name attributes used unless row or column names for the cross-tabulation are
specified.
Any input passed containing Categorical data will have all of its categories included in the cross-tabulation,
even if the actual data does not contain any instances of a particular category.
In the event that there aren’t overlapping indexes an empty DataFrame will be returned.

34.2. General functions 1255

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Examples

>>> a = np.array(["foo", "foo", "foo", "foo", "bar", "bar",

... "bar", "bar", "foo", "foo", "foo"], dtype=object)
>>> b = np.array(["one", "one", "one", "two", "one", "one",
... "one", "two", "two", "two", "one"], dtype=object)
>>> c = np.array(["dull", "dull", "shiny", "dull", "dull", "shiny",
... "shiny", "dull", "shiny", "shiny", "shiny"],
... dtype=object)

>>> pd.crosstab(a, [b, c], rownames=['a'], colnames=['b', 'c'])

...
b one two
c dull shiny dull shiny
a
bar 1 2 1 0
foo 2 2 1 2

>>> foo = pd.Categorical(['a', 'b'], categories=['a', 'b', 'c'])

>>> bar = pd.Categorical(['d', 'e'], categories=['d', 'e', 'f'])
>>> crosstab(foo, bar) # 'c' and 'f' are not represented in the data,
... # but they still will be counted in the output
...
col_0 d e f
row_0
a 1 0 0
b 0 1 0
c 0 0 0

34.2.1.5 pandas.cut

pandas.cut(x, bins, right=True, labels=None, retbins=False, precision=3, include_lowest=False)

Return indices of half-open bins to which each value of x belongs.
Parameters x : array-like
Input array to be binned. It has to be 1-dimensional.
bins : int, sequence of scalars, or IntervalIndex
If bins is an int, it defines the number of equal-width bins in the range of x. However,
in this case, the range of x is extended by .1% on each side to include the min or max
values of x. If bins is a sequence it defines the bin edges allowing for non-uniform bin
width. No extension of the range of x is done in this case.
right : bool, optional
Indicates whether the bins include the rightmost edge or not. If right == True (the
default), then the bins [1,2,3,4] indicate (1,2], (2,3], (3,4].
labels : array or boolean, default None
Used as labels for the resulting bins. Must be of the same length as the resulting bins.
If False, return only integer indicators of the bins.
retbins : bool, optional
Whether to return the bins or not. Can be useful if bins is given as a scalar.

1256 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

precision : int, optional

The precision at which to store and display the bins labels
include_lowest : bool, optional
Whether the first interval should be left-inclusive or not.
Returns out : Categorical or Series or array of integers if labels is False
The return type (Categorical or Series) depends on the input: a Series of type category
if input is a Series else Categorical. Bins are represented as categories when categorical
data is returned.
bins : ndarray of floats
Returned only if retbins is True.

Notes

The cut function can be useful for going from a continuous variable to a categorical variable. For example, cut
could convert ages to groups of age ranges.
Any NA values will be NA in the result. Out of bounds values will be NA in the resulting Categorical object

Examples

>>> pd.cut(np.array([.2, 1.4, 2.5, 6.2, 9.7, 2.1]), 3, retbins=True)

...
([(0.19, 3.367], (0.19, 3.367], (0.19, 3.367], (3.367, 6.533], ...
Categories (3, interval[float64]): [(0.19, 3.367] < (3.367, 6.533] ...

>>> pd.cut(np.array([.2, 1.4, 2.5, 6.2, 9.7, 2.1]),

... 3, labels=["good", "medium", "bad"])
...
[good, good, good, medium, bad, good]
Categories (3, object): [good < medium < bad]

>>> pd.cut(np.ones(5), 4, labels=False)

array([1, 1, 1, 1, 1])

34.2.1.6 pandas.qcut

pandas.qcut(x, q, labels=None, retbins=False, precision=3, duplicates=’raise’)

Quantile-based discretization function. Discretize variable into equal-sized buckets based on rank or based on
sample quantiles. For example 1000 values for 10 quantiles would produce a Categorical object indicating
quantile membership for each data point.
Parameters x : ndarray or Series
q : integer or array of quantiles
Number of quantiles. 10 for deciles, 4 for quartiles, etc. Alternately array of quantiles,
e.g. [0, .25, .5, .75, 1.] for quartiles
labels : array or boolean, default None

34.2. General functions 1257

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Used as labels for the resulting bins. Must be of the same length as the resulting bins.
If False, return only integer indicators of the bins.
retbins : bool, optional
Whether to return the (bins, labels) or not. Can be useful if bins is given as a scalar.
precision : int, optional
The precision at which to store and display the bins labels
duplicates : {default ‘raise’, ‘drop’}, optional
If bin edges are not unique, raise ValueError or drop non-uniques.
New in version 0.20.0.
Returns out : Categorical or Series or array of integers if labels is False
The return type (Categorical or Series) depends on the input: a Series of type category
if input is a Series else Categorical. Bins are represented as categories when categorical
data is returned.
bins : ndarray of floats
Returned only if retbins is True.

Notes

Out of bounds values will be NA in the resulting Categorical object

Examples

>>> pd.qcut(range(5), 4)
...
[(-0.001, 1.0], (-0.001, 1.0], (1.0, 2.0], (2.0, 3.0], (3.0, 4.0]]
Categories (4, interval[float64]): [(-0.001, 1.0] < (1.0, 2.0] ...

>>> pd.qcut(range(5), 3, labels=["good", "medium", "bad"])

...
[good, good, medium, bad, bad]
Categories (3, object): [good < medium < bad]

>>> pd.qcut(range(5), 4, labels=False)

array([0, 0, 1, 2, 3])

34.2.1.7 pandas.merge

pandas.merge(left, right, how=’inner’, on=None, left_on=None, right_on=None, left_index=False,

right_index=False, sort=False, suffixes=(‘_x’, ‘_y’), copy=True, indicator=False, vali-
date=None)
Merge DataFrame objects by performing a database-style join operation by columns or indexes.
If joining columns on columns, the DataFrame indexes will be ignored. Otherwise if joining indexes on indexes
or indexes on a column or columns, the index will be passed on.

1258 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Parameters left : DataFrame

right : DataFrame
how : {‘left’, ‘right’, ‘outer’, ‘inner’}, default ‘inner’
• left: use only keys from left frame, similar to a SQL left outer join; preserve key order
• right: use only keys from right frame, similar to a SQL right outer join; preserve key order
• outer: use union of keys from both frames, similar to a SQL full outer join; sort keys lexi-
cographically
• inner: use intersection of keys from both frames, similar to a SQL inner join; preserve the
order of the left keys
on : label or list
Field names to join on. Must be found in both DataFrames. If on is None and not
merging on indexes, then it merges on the intersection of the columns by default.
left_on : label or list, or array-like
Field names to join on in left DataFrame. Can be a vector or list of vectors of the length
of the DataFrame to use a particular vector as the join key instead of columns
right_on : label or list, or array-like
Field names to join on in right DataFrame or vector/list of vectors per left_on docs
left_index : boolean, default False
Use the index from the left DataFrame as the join key(s). If it is a MultiIndex, the
number of keys in the other DataFrame (either the index or a number of columns) must
match the number of levels
right_index : boolean, default False
Use the index from the right DataFrame as the join key. Same caveats as left_index
sort : boolean, default False
Sort the join keys lexicographically in the result DataFrame. If False, the order of the
join keys depends on the join type (how keyword)
suffixes : 2-length sequence (tuple, list, ...)
Suffix to apply to overlapping column names in the left and right side, respectively
copy : boolean, default True
If False, do not copy data unnecessarily
indicator : boolean or string, default False
If True, adds a column to output DataFrame called “_merge” with information on the
source of each row. If string, column with information on source of each row will be
added to output DataFrame, and column will be named value of string. Information
column is Categorical-type and takes on a value of “left_only” for observations whose
merge key only appears in ‘left’ DataFrame, “right_only” for observations whose merge
key only appears in ‘right’ DataFrame, and “both” if the observation’s merge key is
found in both.
New in version 0.17.0.
validate : string, default None

34.2. General functions 1259

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

If specified, checks if merge is of specified type.

• “one_to_one” or “1:1”: check if merge keys are unique in both left and right datasets.
• “one_to_many” or “1:m”: check if merge keys are unique in left dataset.
• “many_to_one” or “m:1”: check if merge keys are unique in right dataset.
• “many_to_many” or “m:m”: allowed, but does not result in checks.
New in version 0.21.0.
Returns merged : DataFrame
The output type will the be same as ‘left’, if it is a subclass of DataFrame.
See also:
merge_ordered, merge_asof

Examples

>>> A >>> B
lkey value rkey value
0 foo 1 0 foo 5
1 bar 2 1 bar 6
2 baz 3 2 qux 7
3 foo 4 3 bar 8

>>> A.merge(B, left_on='lkey', right_on='rkey', how='outer')

lkey value_x rkey value_y
0 foo 1 foo 5
1 foo 4 foo 5
2 bar 2 bar 6
3 bar 2 bar 8
4 baz 3 NaN NaN
5 NaN NaN qux 7

34.2.1.8 pandas.merge_ordered

pandas.merge_ordered(left, right, on=None, left_on=None, right_on=None, left_by=None,

right_by=None, fill_method=None, suffixes=(‘_x’, ‘_y’), how=’outer’)
Perform merge with optional filling/interpolation designed for ordered data like time series data. Optionally
perform group-wise merge (see examples)
Parameters left : DataFrame
right : DataFrame
on : label or list
Field names to join on. Must be found in both DataFrames.
left_on : label or list, or array-like
Field names to join on in left DataFrame. Can be a vector or list of vectors of the length
of the DataFrame to use a particular vector as the join key instead of columns
right_on : label or list, or array-like
Field names to join on in right DataFrame or vector/list of vectors per left_on docs

1260 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

left_by : column name or list of column names

Group left DataFrame by group columns and merge piece by piece with right DataFrame
right_by : column name or list of column names
Group right DataFrame by group columns and merge piece by piece with left DataFrame
fill_method : {‘ffill’, None}, default None
Interpolation method for data
suffixes : 2-length sequence (tuple, list, ...)
Suffix to apply to overlapping column names in the left and right side, respectively
how : {‘left’, ‘right’, ‘outer’, ‘inner’}, default ‘outer’
• left: use only keys from left frame (SQL: left outer join)
• right: use only keys from right frame (SQL: right outer join)
• outer: use union of keys from both frames (SQL: full outer join)
• inner: use intersection of keys from both frames (SQL: inner join)
New in version 0.19.0.
Returns merged : DataFrame
The output type will the be same as ‘left’, if it is a subclass of DataFrame.
See also:
merge, merge_asof

Examples

>>> A >>> B
key lvalue group key rvalue
0 a 1 a 0 b 1
1 c 2 a 1 c 2
2 e 3 a 2 d 3
3 a 1 b
4 c 2 b
5 e 3 b

>>> ordered_merge(A, B, fill_method='ffill', left_by='group')

key lvalue group rvalue
0 a 1 a NaN
1 b 1 a 1
2 c 2 a 2
3 d 2 a 3
4 e 3 a 3
5 f 3 a 4
6 a 1 b NaN
7 b 1 b 1
8 c 2 b 2
9 d 2 b 3
10 e 3 b 3
11 f 3 b 4

34.2. General functions 1261

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

34.2.1.9 pandas.merge_asof

pandas.merge_asof(left, right, on=None, left_on=None, right_on=None, left_index=False,

right_index=False, by=None, left_by=None, right_by=None, suffixes=(‘_x’,
‘_y’), tolerance=None, allow_exact_matches=True, direction=’backward’)
Perform an asof merge. This is similar to a left-join except that we match on nearest key rather than equal keys.
Both DataFrames must be sorted by the key.
For each row in the left DataFrame:
• A “backward” search selects the last row in the right DataFrame whose ‘on’ key is less than or equal to the
left’s key.
• A “forward” search selects the first row in the right DataFrame whose ‘on’ key is greater than or equal to
the left’s key.
• A “nearest” search selects the row in the right DataFrame whose ‘on’ key is closest in absolute distance to
the left’s key.
The default is “backward” and is compatible in versions below 0.20.0. The direction parameter was added in
version 0.20.0 and introduces “forward” and “nearest”.
Optionally match on equivalent keys with ‘by’ before searching with ‘on’.
New in version 0.19.0.
Parameters left : DataFrame
right : DataFrame
on : label
Field name to join on. Must be found in both DataFrames. The data MUST be ordered.
Furthermore this must be a numeric column, such as datetimelike, integer, or float. On
or left_on/right_on must be given.
left_on : label
Field name to join on in left DataFrame.
right_on : label
Field name to join on in right DataFrame.
left_index : boolean
Use the index of the left DataFrame as the join key.
New in version 0.19.2.
right_index : boolean
Use the index of the right DataFrame as the join key.
New in version 0.19.2.
by : column name or list of column names
Match on these columns before performing merge operation.
left_by : column name
Field names to match on in the left DataFrame.
New in version 0.19.2.
right_by : column name

1262 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Field names to match on in the right DataFrame.

New in version 0.19.2.
suffixes : 2-length sequence (tuple, list, ...)
Suffix to apply to overlapping column names in the left and right side, respectively.
tolerance : integer or Timedelta, optional, default None
Select asof tolerance within this range; must be compatible with the merge index.
allow_exact_matches : boolean, default True
• If True, allow matching with the same ‘on’ value (i.e. less-than-or-equal-to / greater-than-
or-equal-to)
• If False, don’t match the same ‘on’ value (i.e., stricly less-than / strictly greater-than)
direction : ‘backward’ (default), ‘forward’, or ‘nearest’
Whether to search for prior, subsequent, or closest matches.
New in version 0.20.0.
Returns merged : DataFrame
See also:
merge, merge_ordered

Examples

>>> left = pd.DataFrame({'a': [1, 5, 10], 'left_val': ['a', 'b', 'c']})

>>> left
a left_val
0 1 a
1 5 b
2 10 c

>>> right = pd.DataFrame({'a': [1, 2, 3, 6, 7],

... 'right_val': [1, 2, 3, 6, 7]})
>>> right
a right_val
0 1 1
1 2 2
2 3 3
3 6 6
4 7 7

>>> pd.merge_asof(left, right, on='a')

a left_val right_val
0 1 a 1
1 5 b 3
2 10 c 7

>>> pd.merge_asof(left, right, on='a', allow_exact_matches=False)

a left_val right_val
0 1 a NaN
1 5 b 3.0
2 10 c 7.0

34.2. General functions 1263

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

>>> pd.merge_asof(left, right, on='a', direction='forward')

a left_val right_val
0 1 a 1.0
1 5 b 6.0
2 10 c NaN

>>> pd.merge_asof(left, right, on='a', direction='nearest')

a left_val right_val
0 1 a 1
1 5 b 6
2 10 c 7

We can use indexed DataFrames as well.

>>> left = pd.DataFrame({'left_val': ['a', 'b', 'c']}, index=[1, 5, 10])

>>> left
left_val
1 a
5 b
10 c

>>> right = pd.DataFrame({'right_val': [1, 2, 3, 6, 7]},

... index=[1, 2, 3, 6, 7])
>>> right
right_val
1 1
2 2
3 3
6 6
7 7

>>> pd.merge_asof(left, right, left_index=True, right_index=True)

left_val right_val
1 a 1
5 b 3
10 c 7

Here is a real-world times-series example

>>> quotes
time ticker bid ask
0 2016-05-25 13:30:00.023 GOOG 720.50 720.93
1 2016-05-25 13:30:00.023 MSFT 51.95 51.96
2 2016-05-25 13:30:00.030 MSFT 51.97 51.98
3 2016-05-25 13:30:00.041 MSFT 51.99 52.00
4 2016-05-25 13:30:00.048 GOOG 720.50 720.93
5 2016-05-25 13:30:00.049 AAPL 97.99 98.01
6 2016-05-25 13:30:00.072 GOOG 720.50 720.88
7 2016-05-25 13:30:00.075 MSFT 52.01 52.03

>>> trades
time ticker price quantity
0 2016-05-25 13:30:00.023 MSFT 51.95 75
1 2016-05-25 13:30:00.038 MSFT 51.95 155
2 2016-05-25 13:30:00.048 GOOG 720.77 100
3 2016-05-25 13:30:00.048 GOOG 720.92 100

1264 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

4 2016-05-25 13:30:00.048 AAPL 98.00 100

By default we are taking the asof of the quotes

>>> pd.merge_asof(trades, quotes,
... on='time',
... by='ticker')
time ticker price quantity bid ask
0 2016-05-25 13:30:00.023 MSFT 51.95 75 51.95 51.96
1 2016-05-25 13:30:00.038 MSFT 51.95 155 51.97 51.98
2 2016-05-25 13:30:00.048 GOOG 720.77 100 720.50 720.93
3 2016-05-25 13:30:00.048 GOOG 720.92 100 720.50 720.93
4 2016-05-25 13:30:00.048 AAPL 98.00 100 NaN NaN

We only asof within 2ms between the quote time and the trade time
>>> pd.merge_asof(trades, quotes,
... on='time',
... by='ticker',
... tolerance=pd.Timedelta('2ms'))
time ticker price quantity bid ask
0 2016-05-25 13:30:00.023 MSFT 51.95 75 51.95 51.96
1 2016-05-25 13:30:00.038 MSFT 51.95 155 NaN NaN
2 2016-05-25 13:30:00.048 GOOG 720.77 100 720.50 720.93
3 2016-05-25 13:30:00.048 GOOG 720.92 100 720.50 720.93
4 2016-05-25 13:30:00.048 AAPL 98.00 100 NaN NaN

We only asof within 10ms between the quote time and the trade time and we exclude exact matches on time.
However prior data will propagate forward
>>> pd.merge_asof(trades, quotes,
... on='time',
... by='ticker',
... tolerance=pd.Timedelta('10ms'),
... allow_exact_matches=False)
time ticker price quantity bid ask
0 2016-05-25 13:30:00.023 MSFT 51.95 75 NaN NaN
1 2016-05-25 13:30:00.038 MSFT 51.95 155 51.97 51.98
2 2016-05-25 13:30:00.048 GOOG 720.77 100 720.50 720.93
3 2016-05-25 13:30:00.048 GOOG 720.92 100 720.50 720.93
4 2016-05-25 13:30:00.048 AAPL 98.00 100 NaN NaN

34.2.1.10 pandas.concat

pandas.concat(objs, axis=0, join=’outer’, join_axes=None, ignore_index=False, keys=None, lev-

els=None, names=None, verify_integrity=False, copy=True)
Concatenate pandas objects along a particular axis with optional set logic along the other axes.
Can also add a layer of hierarchical indexing on the concatenation axis, which may be useful if the labels are
the same (or overlapping) on the passed axis number.
Parameters objs : a sequence or mapping of Series, DataFrame, or Panel objects
If a dict is passed, the sorted keys will be used as the keys argument, unless it is passed,
in which case the values will be selected (see below). Any None objects will be dropped
silently unless they are all None in which case a ValueError will be raised
axis : {0/’index’, 1/’columns’}, default 0

34.2. General functions 1265

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

The axis to concatenate along

join : {‘inner’, ‘outer’}, default ‘outer’
How to handle indexes on other axis(es)
join_axes : list of Index objects
Specific indexes to use for the other n - 1 axes instead of performing inner/outer set
logic
ignore_index : boolean, default False
If True, do not use the index values along the concatenation axis. The resulting axis
will be labeled 0, ..., n - 1. This is useful if you are concatenating objects where the
concatenation axis does not have meaningful indexing information. Note the index
values on the other axes are still respected in the join.
keys : sequence, default None
If multiple levels passed, should contain tuples. Construct hierarchical index using the
passed keys as the outermost level
levels : list of sequences, default None
Specific levels (unique values) to use for constructing a MultiIndex. Otherwise they will
be inferred from the keys
names : list, default None
Names for the levels in the resulting hierarchical index
verify_integrity : boolean, default False
Check whether the new concatenated axis contains duplicates. This can be very expen-
sive relative to the actual data concatenation
copy : boolean, default True
If False, do not copy data unnecessarily
Returns concatenated : object, type of objs
When concatenating all Series along the index (axis=0), a Series is returned.
When objs contains at least one DataFrame, a DataFrame is returned. When
concatenating along the columns (axis=1), a DataFrame is returned.
See also:
Series.append, DataFrame.append, DataFrame.join, DataFrame.merge

Notes

The keys, levels, and names arguments are all optional.

A walkthrough of how this method fits in with other tools for combining pandas objects can be found here.

Examples

Combine two Series.

1266 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

>>> s1 = pd.Series(['a', 'b'])

>>> s2 = pd.Series(['c', 'd'])
>>> pd.concat([s1, s2])
0 a
1 b
0 c
1 d
dtype: object

Clear the existing index and reset it in the result by setting the ignore_index option to True.
>>> pd.concat([s1, s2], ignore_index=True)
0 a
1 b
2 c
3 d
dtype: object

Add a hierarchical index at the outermost level of the data with the keys option.
>>> pd.concat([s1, s2], keys=['s1', 's2',])
s1 0 a
1 b
s2 0 c
1 d
dtype: object

Label the index keys you create with the names option.
>>> pd.concat([s1, s2], keys=['s1', 's2'],
... names=['Series name', 'Row ID'])
Series name Row ID
s1 0 a
1 b
s2 0 c
1 d
dtype: object

Combine two DataFrame objects with identical columns.

>>> df1 = pd.DataFrame([['a', 1], ['b', 2]],
... columns=['letter', 'number'])
>>> df1
letter number
0 a 1
1 b 2
>>> df2 = pd.DataFrame([['c', 3], ['d', 4]],
... columns=['letter', 'number'])
>>> df2
letter number
0 c 3
1 d 4
>>> pd.concat([df1, df2])
letter number
0 a 1
1 b 2
0 c 3
1 d 4

34.2. General functions 1267

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Combine DataFrame objects with overlapping columns and return everything. Columns outside the intersec-
tion will be filled with NaN values.

>>> df3 = pd.DataFrame([['c', 3, 'cat'], ['d', 4, 'dog']],

... columns=['letter', 'number', 'animal'])
>>> df3
letter number animal
0 c 3 cat
1 d 4 dog
>>> pd.concat([df1, df3])
animal letter number
0 NaN a 1
1 NaN b 2
0 cat c 3
1 dog d 4

Combine DataFrame objects with overlapping columns and return only those that are shared by passing
inner to the join keyword argument.

>>> pd.concat([df1, df3], join="inner")

letter number
0 a 1
1 b 2
0 c 3
1 d 4

Combine DataFrame objects horizontally along the x axis by passing in axis=1.

>>> df4 = pd.DataFrame([['bird', 'polly'], ['monkey', 'george']],

... columns=['animal', 'name'])
>>> pd.concat([df1, df4], axis=1)
letter number animal name
0 a 1 bird polly
1 b 2 monkey george

Prevent the result from including duplicate index values with the verify_integrity option.

>>> df5 = pd.DataFrame([1], index=['a'])

>>> df5
0
a 1
>>> df6 = pd.DataFrame([2], index=['a'])
>>> df6
0
a 2
>>> pd.concat([df5, df6], verify_integrity=True)
Traceback (most recent call last):
...
ValueError: Indexes have overlapping values: ['a']

34.2.1.11 pandas.get_dummies

pandas.get_dummies(data, prefix=None, prefix_sep=’_’, dummy_na=False, columns=None,

sparse=False, drop_first=False)
Convert categorical variable into dummy/indicator variables
Parameters data : array-like, Series, or DataFrame

1268 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

prefix : string, list of strings, or dict of strings, default None

String to append DataFrame column names Pass a list with length equal to the number
of columns when calling get_dummies on a DataFrame. Alternatively, prefix can be a
dictionary mapping column names to prefixes.
prefix_sep : string, default ‘_’
If appending prefix, separator/delimiter to use. Or pass a list or dictionary as with prefix.
dummy_na : bool, default False
Add a column to indicate NaNs, if False NaNs are ignored.
columns : list-like, default None
Column names in the DataFrame to be encoded. If columns is None then all the columns
with object or category dtype will be converted.
sparse : bool, default False
Whether the dummy columns should be sparse or not. Returns SparseDataFrame if
data is a Series or if all columns are included. Otherwise returns a DataFrame with
some SparseBlocks.
drop_first : bool, default False
Whether to get k-1 dummies out of k categorical levels by removing the first level.
New in version 0.18.0.
Returns
——-
dummies : DataFrame or SparseDataFrame
See also:
Series.str.get_dummies

Examples

>>> import pandas as pd

>>> s = pd.Series(list('abca'))

>>> pd.get_dummies(s)
a b c
0 1 0 0
1 0 1 0
2 0 0 1
3 1 0 0

>>> s1 = ['a', 'b', np.nan]

>>> pd.get_dummies(s1)
a b
0 1 0
1 0 1
2 0 0

34.2. General functions 1269

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

>>> pd.get_dummies(s1, dummy_na=True)

a b NaN
0 1 0 0
1 0 1 0
2 0 0 1

>>> df = pd.DataFrame({'A': ['a', 'b', 'a'], 'B': ['b', 'a', 'c'],

... 'C': [1, 2, 3]})

>>> pd.get_dummies(df, prefix=['col1', 'col2'])

C col1_a col1_b col2_a col2_b col2_c
0 1 1 0 0 1 0
1 2 0 1 1 0 0
2 3 1 0 0 0 1

>>> pd.get_dummies(pd.Series(list('abcaa')))
a b c
0 1 0 0
1 0 1 0
2 0 0 1
3 1 0 0
4 1 0 0

>>> pd.get_dummies(pd.Series(list('abcaa')), drop_first=True)

b c
0 0 0
1 1 0
2 0 1
3 0 0
4 0 0

34.2.1.12 pandas.factorize

pandas.factorize(values, sort=False, order=None, na_sentinel=-1, size_hint=None)

Encode input values as an enumerated type or categorical variable
Parameters values : ndarray (1-d)
Sequence
sort : boolean, default False
Sort by values
na_sentinel : int, default -1
Value to mark “not found”
size_hint : hint to the hashtable sizer
Returns labels : the indexer to the original array
uniques : ndarray (1-d) or Index
the unique values. Index is returned when passed values is Index or Series
note: an array of Periods will ignore sort as it returns an always sorted
PeriodIndex

1270 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

34.2.1.13 pandas.unique

pandas.unique(values)
Hash table-based unique. Uniques are returned in order of appearance. This does NOT sort.
Significantly faster than numpy.unique. Includes NA values.
Parameters values : 1d array-like
Returns unique values.
• If the input is an Index, the return is an Index
• If the input is a Categorical dtype, the return is a Categorical
• If the input is a Series/ndarray, the return will be an ndarray
See also:
pandas.Index.unique, pandas.Series.unique

Examples

>>> pd.unique(pd.Series([2, 1, 3, 3]))

array([2, 1, 3])

>>> pd.unique(pd.Series([2] + [1] * 5))

array([2, 1])

>>> pd.unique(Series([pd.Timestamp('20160101'),
... pd.Timestamp('20160101')]))
array(['2016-01-01T00:00:00.000000000'], dtype='datetime64[ns]')

>>> pd.unique(pd.Series([pd.Timestamp('20160101', tz='US/Eastern'),

... pd.Timestamp('20160101', tz='US/Eastern')]))
array([Timestamp('2016-01-01 00:00:00-0500', tz='US/Eastern')],
dtype=object)

>>> pd.unique(pd.Index([pd.Timestamp('20160101', tz='US/Eastern'),

... pd.Timestamp('20160101', tz='US/Eastern')]))
DatetimeIndex(['2016-01-01 00:00:00-05:00'],
... dtype='datetime64[ns, US/Eastern]', freq=None)

>>> pd.unique(list('baabc'))
array(['b', 'a', 'c'], dtype=object)

An unordered Categorical will return categories in the order of appearance.

>>> pd.unique(Series(pd.Categorical(list('baabc'))))
[b, a, c]
Categories (3, object): [b, a, c]

>>> pd.unique(Series(pd.Categorical(list('baabc'),
... categories=list('abc'))))
[b, a, c]
Categories (3, object): [b, a, c]

34.2. General functions 1271

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

An ordered Categorical preserves the category ordering.

>>> pd.unique(Series(pd.Categorical(list('baabc'),
... categories=list('abc'),
... ordered=True)))
[b, a, c]
Categories (3, object): [a < b < c]

An array of tuples

>>> pd.unique([('a', 'b'), ('b', 'a'), ('a', 'c'), ('b', 'a')])

array([('a', 'b'), ('b', 'a'), ('a', 'c')], dtype=object)

34.2.1.14 pandas.wide_to_long

pandas.wide_to_long(df, stubnames, i, j, sep=’‘, suffix=’\\d+’)

Wide panel to long format. Less flexible but more user-friendly than melt.
With stubnames [’A’, ‘B’], this function expects to find one or more group of columns with format Asuffix1,
Asuffix2,..., Bsuffix1, Bsuffix2,... You specify what you want to call this suffix in the resulting long format with
j (for example j=’year’)
Each row of these wide variables are assumed to be uniquely identified by i (can be a single column name or a
list of column names)
All remaining variables in the data frame are left intact.
Parameters df : DataFrame
The wide-format DataFrame
stubnames : str or list-like
The stub name(s). The wide format variables are assumed to start with the stub names.
i : str or list-like
Column(s) to use as id variable(s)
j : str
The name of the subobservation variable. What you wish to name your suffix in the
long format.
sep : str, default “”
A character indicating the separation of the variable names in the wide format, to be
stripped from the names in the long format. For example, if your column names are
A-suffix1, A-suffix2, you can strip the hypen by specifying sep=’-‘
New in version 0.20.0.
suffix : str, default ‘\d+’
A regular expression capturing the wanted suffixes. ‘\d+’ captures numeric suffixes.
Suffixes with no numbers could be specified with the negated character class ‘\D+’.
You can also further disambiguate suffixes, for example, if your wide variables are of
the form Aone, Btwo,.., and you have an unrelated column Arating, you can ignore the
last one by specifying suffix=’(!?one|two)’
New in version 0.20.0.
Returns DataFrame

1272 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

A DataFrame that contains each stub name as a variable, with new index (i, j)

Notes

All extra variables are left untouched. This simply uses pandas.melt under the hood, but is hard-coded to “do
the right thing” in a typicaly case.

Examples

>>> import pandas as pd

>>> import numpy as np
>>> np.random.seed(123)
>>> df = pd.DataFrame({"A1970" : {0 : "a", 1 : "b", 2 : "c"},
... "A1980" : {0 : "d", 1 : "e", 2 : "f"},
... "B1970" : {0 : 2.5, 1 : 1.2, 2 : .7},
... "B1980" : {0 : 3.2, 1 : 1.3, 2 : .1},
... "X" : dict(zip(range(3), np.random.randn(3)))
... })
>>> df["id"] = df.index
>>> df
A1970 A1980 B1970 B1980 X id
0 a d 2.5 3.2 -1.085631 0
1 b e 1.2 1.3 0.997345 1
2 c f 0.7 0.1 0.282978 2
>>> pd.wide_to_long(df, ["A", "B"], i="id", j="year")
...
X A B
id year
0 1970 -1.085631 a 2.5
1 1970 0.997345 b 1.2
2 1970 0.282978 c 0.7
0 1980 -1.085631 d 3.2
1 1980 0.997345 e 1.3
2 1980 0.282978 f 0.1

With multuple id columns

>>> df = pd.DataFrame({
... 'famid': [1, 1, 1, 2, 2, 2, 3, 3, 3],
... 'birth': [1, 2, 3, 1, 2, 3, 1, 2, 3],
... 'ht1': [2.8, 2.9, 2.2, 2, 1.8, 1.9, 2.2, 2.3, 2.1],
... 'ht2': [3.4, 3.8, 2.9, 3.2, 2.8, 2.4, 3.3, 3.4, 2.9]
... })
>>> df
birth famid ht1 ht2
0 1 1 2.8 3.4
1 2 1 2.9 3.8
2 3 1 2.2 2.9
3 1 2 2.0 3.2
4 2 2 1.8 2.8
5 3 2 1.9 2.4
6 1 3 2.2 3.3
7 2 3 2.3 3.4
8 3 3 2.1 2.9
>>> l = pd.wide_to_long(df, stubnames='ht', i=['famid', 'birth'], j='age')

34.2. General functions 1273

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

>>> l
...
ht
famid birth age
1 1 1 2.8
2 3.4
2 1 2.9
2 3.8
3 1 2.2
2 2.9
2 1 1 2.0
2 3.2
2 1 1.8
2 2.8
3 1 1.9
2 2.4
3 1 1 2.2
2 3.3
2 1 2.3
2 3.4
3 1 2.1
2 2.9

Going from long back to wide just takes some creative use of unstack

>>> w = l.reset_index().set_index(['famid', 'birth', 'age']).unstack()

>>> w.columns = pd.Index(w.columns).str.join('')
>>> w.reset_index()
famid birth ht1 ht2
0 1 1 2.8 3.4
1 1 2 2.9 3.8
2 1 3 2.2 2.9
3 2 1 2.0 3.2
4 2 2 1.8 2.8
5 2 3 1.9 2.4
6 3 1 2.2 3.3
7 3 2 2.3 3.4
8 3 3 2.1 2.9

Less wieldy column names are also handled

>>> np.random.seed(0)
>>> df = pd.DataFrame({'A(quarterly)-2010': np.random.rand(3),
... 'A(quarterly)-2011': np.random.rand(3),
... 'B(quarterly)-2010': np.random.rand(3),
... 'B(quarterly)-2011': np.random.rand(3),
... 'X' : np.random.randint(3, size=3)})
>>> df['id'] = df.index
>>> df
A(quarterly)-2010 A(quarterly)-2011 B(quarterly)-2010 ...
0 0.548814 0.544883 0.437587 ...
1 0.715189 0.423655 0.891773 ...
2 0.602763 0.645894 0.963663 ...
X id
0 0 0
1 1 1
2 1 2

1274 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

>>> pd.wide_to_long(df, ['A(quarterly)', 'B(quarterly)'], i='id',

... j='year', sep='-')
...
X A(quarterly) B(quarterly)
id year
0 2010 0 0.548814 0.437587
1 2010 1 0.715189 0.891773
2 2010 1 0.602763 0.963663
0 2011 0 0.544883 0.383442
1 2011 1 0.423655 0.791725
2 2011 1 0.645894 0.528895

If we have many columns, we could also use a regex to find our stubnames and pass that list on to wide_to_long

>>> stubnames = sorted(

... set([match[0] for match in df.columns.str.findall(
... r'[A-B]\(.*\)').values if match != [] ])
... )
>>> list(stubnames)
['A(quarterly)', 'B(quarterly)']

34.2.2 Top-level missing data

isna(obj) Detect missing values (NaN in numeric arrays, None/NaN

in object arrays)
isnull(obj) Detect missing values (NaN in numeric arrays, None/NaN
in object arrays)
notna(obj) Replacement for numpy.isfinite / -numpy.isnan which is
suitable for use on object arrays.
notnull(obj) Replacement for numpy.isfinite / -numpy.isnan which is
suitable for use on object arrays.

34.2.2.1 pandas.isna

pandas.isna(obj)
Detect missing values (NaN in numeric arrays, None/NaN in object arrays)
Parameters arr : ndarray or object value
Object to check for null-ness
Returns isna : array-like of bool or bool
Array or bool indicating whether an object is null or if an array is given which of the
element is null.
See also:

pandas.notna boolean inverse of pandas.isna

pandas.isnull alias of isna

34.2. General functions 1275

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

34.2.2.2 pandas.isnull

pandas.isnull(obj)
Detect missing values (NaN in numeric arrays, None/NaN in object arrays)
Parameters arr : ndarray or object value
Object to check for null-ness
Returns isna : array-like of bool or bool
Array or bool indicating whether an object is null or if an array is given which of the
element is null.
See also:

pandas.notna boolean inverse of pandas.isna

pandas.isnull alias of isna

34.2.2.3 pandas.notna

pandas.notna(obj)
Replacement for numpy.isfinite / -numpy.isnan which is suitable for use on object arrays.
Parameters arr : ndarray or object value
Object to check for not-null-ness
Returns notisna : array-like of bool or bool
Array or bool indicating whether an object is not null or if an array is given which of
the element is not null.
See also:

pandas.isna boolean inverse of pandas.notna

pandas.notnull alias of notna

34.2.2.4 pandas.notnull

pandas.notnull(obj)
Replacement for numpy.isfinite / -numpy.isnan which is suitable for use on object arrays.
Parameters arr : ndarray or object value
Object to check for not-null-ness
Returns notisna : array-like of bool or bool
Array or bool indicating whether an object is not null or if an array is given which of
the element is not null.
See also:

pandas.isna boolean inverse of pandas.notna

pandas.notnull alias of notna

1276 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

34.2.3 Top-level conversions

to_numeric(arg[, errors, downcast]) Convert argument to a numeric type.

34.2.3.1 pandas.to_numeric

pandas.to_numeric(arg, errors=’raise’, downcast=None)

Convert argument to a numeric type.
Parameters arg : list, tuple, 1-d array, or Series
errors : {‘ignore’, ‘raise’, ‘coerce’}, default ‘raise’
• If ‘raise’, then invalid parsing will raise an exception
• If ‘coerce’, then invalid parsing will be set as NaN
• If ‘ignore’, then invalid parsing will return the input
downcast : {‘integer’, ‘signed’, ‘unsigned’, ‘float’} , default None
If not None, and if the data has been successfully cast to a numerical dtype (or if the
data was numeric to begin with), downcast that resulting data to the smallest numerical
dtype possible according to the following rules:
• ‘integer’ or ‘signed’: smallest signed int dtype (min.: np.int8)
• ‘unsigned’: smallest unsigned int dtype (min.: np.uint8)
• ‘float’: smallest float dtype (min.: np.float32)
As this behaviour is separate from the core conversion to numeric values, any errors
raised during the downcasting will be surfaced regardless of the value of the ‘errors’
input.
In addition, downcasting will only occur if the size of the resulting data’s dtype is strictly
larger than the dtype it is to be cast to, so if none of the dtypes checked satisfy that
specification, no downcasting will be performed on the data.
New in version 0.19.0.
Returns ret : numeric if parsing succeeded.
Return type depends on input. Series if Series, otherwise ndarray
See also:

pandas.DataFrame.astype Cast argument to a specified dtype.

pandas.to_datetime Convert argument to datetime.
pandas.to_timedelta Convert argument to timedelta.
numpy.ndarray.astype Cast a numpy array to a specified type.

Examples

Take separate series and convert to numeric, coercing when told to

34.2. General functions 1277

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

>>> import pandas as pd

>>> s = pd.Series(['1.0', '2', -3])
>>> pd.to_numeric(s)
0 1.0
1 2.0
2 -3.0
dtype: float64
>>> pd.to_numeric(s, downcast='float')
0 1.0
1 2.0
2 -3.0
dtype: float32
>>> pd.to_numeric(s, downcast='signed')
0 1
1 2
2 -3
dtype: int8
>>> s = pd.Series(['apple', '1.0', '2', -3])
>>> pd.to_numeric(s, errors='ignore')
0 apple
1 1.0
2 2
3 -3
dtype: object
>>> pd.to_numeric(s, errors='coerce')
0 NaN
1 1.0
2 2.0
3 -3.0
dtype: float64

34.2.4 Top-level dealing with datetimelike

to_datetime(arg[, errors, dayfirst, ...]) Convert argument to datetime.

to_timedelta(arg[, unit, box, errors]) Convert argument to timedelta
date_range([start, end, periods, freq, tz, ...]) Return a fixed frequency DatetimeIndex, with day (calen-
dar) as the default
bdate_range([start, end, periods, freq, tz, ...]) Return a fixed frequency DatetimeIndex, with business day
as the default
period_range([start, end, periods, freq, name]) Return a fixed frequency PeriodIndex, with day (calendar)
as the default
timedelta_range([start, end, periods, freq, ...]) Return a fixed frequency TimedeltaIndex, with day as the
default
infer_freq(index[, warn]) Infer the most likely frequency given the input index.

34.2.4.1 pandas.to_datetime

pandas.to_datetime(arg, errors=’raise’, dayfirst=False, yearfirst=False, utc=None, box=True, for-

mat=None, exact=True, unit=None, infer_datetime_format=False, origin=’unix’)
Convert argument to datetime.
Parameters arg : integer, float, string, datetime, list, tuple, 1-d array, Series

1278 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

errors : {‘ignore’, ‘raise’, ‘coerce’}, default ‘raise’

• If ‘raise’, then invalid parsing will raise an exception
• If ‘coerce’, then invalid parsing will be set as NaT
• If ‘ignore’, then invalid parsing will return the input
dayfirst : boolean, default False
Specify a date parse order if arg is str or its list-likes. If True, parses dates with the day
first, eg 10/11/12 is parsed as 2012-11-10. Warning: dayfirst=True is not strict, but will
prefer to parse with day first (this is a known bug, based on dateutil behavior).
yearfirst : boolean, default False
Specify a date parse order if arg is str or its list-likes.
• If True parses dates with the year first, eg 10/11/12 is parsed as 2010-11-12.
• If both dayfirst and yearfirst are True, yearfirst is preceded (same as dateutil).
Warning: yearfirst=True is not strict, but will prefer to parse with year first (this is a
known bug, based on dateutil beahavior).
utc : boolean, default None
Return UTC DatetimeIndex if True (converting any tz-aware datetime.datetime objects
as well).
box : boolean, default True
• If True returns a DatetimeIndex
• If False returns ndarray of values.
format : string, default None
strftime to parse time, eg “%d/%m/%Y”, note that “%f” will parse all the way up to
nanoseconds.
exact : boolean, True by default
• If True, require an exact format match.
• If False, allow the format to match anywhere in the target string.
unit : string, default ‘ns’
unit of the arg (D,s,ms,us,ns) denote the unit, which is an integer or float number. This
will be based off the origin. Example, with unit=’ms’ and origin=’unix’ (the default),
this would calculate the number of milliseconds to the unix epoch start.
infer_datetime_format : boolean, default False
If True and no format is given, attempt to infer the format of the datetime strings, and
if it can be inferred, switch to a faster method of parsing them. In some cases this can
increase the parsing speed by ~5-10x.
origin : scalar, default is ‘unix’
Define the reference date. The numeric values would be parsed as number of units
(defined by unit) since this reference date.
• If ‘unix’ (or POSIX) time; origin is set to 1970-01-01.
• If ‘julian’, unit must be ‘D’, and origin is set to beginning of Julian Calendar. Julian
day number 0 is assigned to the day starting at noon on January 1, 4713 BC.

34.2. General functions 1279

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• If Timestamp convertible, origin is set to Timestamp identified by origin.

Returns ret : datetime if parsing succeeded.
Return type depends on input:
• list-like: DatetimeIndex
• Series: Series of datetime64 dtype
• scalar: Timestamp
In case when it is not possible to return designated types (e.g. when any element of input
is before Timestamp.min or after Timestamp.max) return will have datetime.datetime
type (or correspoding array/Series).
See also:

pandas.DataFrame.astype Cast argument to a specified dtype.

pandas.to_timedelta Convert argument to timedelta.

Examples

Assembling a datetime from multiple columns of a DataFrame. The keys can be common abbreviations like
[’year’, ‘month’, ‘day’, ‘minute’, ‘second’, ‘ms’, ‘us’, ‘ns’]) or plurals of the same

>>> df = pd.DataFrame({'year': [2015, 2016],

'month': [2, 3],
'day': [4, 5]})
>>> pd.to_datetime(df)
0 2015-02-04
1 2016-03-05
dtype: datetime64[ns]

If a date does not meet the timestamp limitations, passing errors=’ignore’ will return the original input instead
of raising any exception.
Passing errors=’coerce’ will force an out-of-bounds date to NaT, in addition to forcing non-dates (or non-
parseable dates) to NaT.

>>> pd.to_datetime('13000101', format='%Y%m%d', errors='ignore')

datetime.datetime(1300, 1, 1, 0, 0)
>>> pd.to_datetime('13000101', format='%Y%m%d', errors='coerce')
NaT

Passing infer_datetime_format=True can often-times speedup a parsing if its not an ISO8601 format exactly,
but in a regular format.

>>> s = pd.Series(['3/11/2000', '3/12/2000', '3/13/2000']*1000)

>>> s.head()
0 3/11/2000
1 3/12/2000
2 3/13/2000
3 3/11/2000
4 3/12/2000
dtype: object

1280 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

>>> %timeit pd.to_datetime(s,infer_datetime_format=True)

100 loops, best of 3: 10.4 ms per loop

>>> %timeit pd.to_datetime(s,infer_datetime_format=False)

1 loop, best of 3: 471 ms per loop

Using a unix epoch time

>>> pd.to_datetime(1490195805, unit='s')

Timestamp('2017-03-22 15:16:45')
>>> pd.to_datetime(1490195805433502912, unit='ns')
Timestamp('2017-03-22 15:16:45.433502912')

Warning: For float arg, precision rounding might happen. To prevent unexpected behavior use a fixed-
width exact type.

Using a non-unix epoch origin

>>> pd.to_datetime([1, 2, 3], unit='D',

origin=pd.Timestamp('1960-01-01'))
0 1960-01-02
1 1960-01-03
2 1960-01-04

34.2.4.2 pandas.to_timedelta

pandas.to_timedelta(arg, unit=’ns’, box=True, errors=’raise’)

Convert argument to timedelta
Parameters arg : string, timedelta, list, tuple, 1-d array, or Series
unit : unit of the arg (D,h,m,s,ms,us,ns) denote the unit, which is an
integer/float number
box : boolean, default True
• If True returns a Timedelta/TimedeltaIndex of the results
• if False returns a np.timedelta64 or ndarray of values of dtype timedelta64[ns]
errors : {‘ignore’, ‘raise’, ‘coerce’}, default ‘raise’
• If ‘raise’, then invalid parsing will raise an exception
• If ‘coerce’, then invalid parsing will be set as NaT
• If ‘ignore’, then invalid parsing will return the input
Returns ret : timedelta64/arrays of timedelta64 if parsing succeeded
See also:

pandas.DataFrame.astype Cast argument to a specified dtype.

pandas.to_datetime Convert argument to datetime.

34.2. General functions 1281

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Examples

Parsing a single string to a Timedelta:

>>> pd.to_timedelta('1 days 06:05:01.00003')

Timedelta('1 days 06:05:01.000030')
>>> pd.to_timedelta('15.5us')
Timedelta('0 days 00:00:00.000015')

Parsing a list or array of strings:

>>> pd.to_timedelta(['1 days 06:05:01.00003', '15.5us', 'nan'])

TimedeltaIndex(['1 days 06:05:01.000030', '0 days 00:00:00.000015', NaT],
dtype='timedelta64[ns]', freq=None)

Converting numbers by specifying the unit keyword argument:

>>> pd.to_timedelta(np.arange(5), unit='s')

TimedeltaIndex(['00:00:00', '00:00:01', '00:00:02',
'00:00:03', '00:00:04'],
dtype='timedelta64[ns]', freq=None)
>>> pd.to_timedelta(np.arange(5), unit='d')
TimedeltaIndex(['0 days', '1 days', '2 days', '3 days', '4 days'],
dtype='timedelta64[ns]', freq=None)

34.2.4.3 pandas.date_range

pandas.date_range(start=None, end=None, periods=None, freq=’D’, tz=None, normalize=False,

name=None, closed=None, **kwargs)
Return a fixed frequency DatetimeIndex, with day (calendar) as the default frequency
Parameters start : string or datetime-like, default None
Left bound for generating dates
end : string or datetime-like, default None
Right bound for generating dates
periods : integer, default None
Number of periods to generate
freq : string or DateOffset, default ‘D’ (calendar daily)
Frequency strings can have multiples, e.g. ‘5H’
tz : string, default None
Time zone name for returning localized DatetimeIndex, for example Asia/Hong_Kong
normalize : bool, default False
Normalize start/end dates to midnight before generating date range
name : string, default None
Name of the resulting DatetimeIndex
closed : string, default None

1282 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Make the interval closed with respect to the given frequency to the ‘left’, ‘right’, or both
sides (None)
Returns rng : DatetimeIndex

Notes

Of the three parameters: start, end, and periods, exactly two must be specified.
To learn more about the frequency strings, please see this link.

34.2.4.4 pandas.bdate_range

pandas.bdate_range(start=None, end=None, periods=None, freq=’B’, tz=None, normalize=True,

name=None, weekmask=None, holidays=None, closed=None, **kwargs)
Return a fixed frequency DatetimeIndex, with business day as the default frequency
Parameters start : string or datetime-like, default None
Left bound for generating dates
end : string or datetime-like, default None
Right bound for generating dates
periods : integer, default None
Number of periods to generate
freq : string or DateOffset, default ‘B’ (business daily)
Frequency strings can have multiples, e.g. ‘5H’
tz : string or None
Time zone name for returning localized DatetimeIndex, for example Asia/Beijing
normalize : bool, default False
Normalize start/end dates to midnight before generating date range
name : string, default None
Name of the resulting DatetimeIndex
weekmask : string or None, default None
Weekmask of valid business days, passed to numpy.busdaycalendar, only used
when custom frequency strings are passed. The default value None is equivalent to
‘Mon Tue Wed Thu Fri’
New in version 0.21.0.
holidays : list-like or None, default None
Dates to exclude from the set of valid business days, passed to numpy.
busdaycalendar, only used when custom frequency strings are passed
New in version 0.21.0.
closed : string, default None
Make the interval closed with respect to the given frequency to the ‘left’, ‘right’, or both
sides (None)

34.2. General functions 1283

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Returns rng : DatetimeIndex

Notes

Of the three parameters: start, end, and periods, exactly two must be specified.
To learn more about the frequency strings, please see this link.

34.2.4.5 pandas.period_range

pandas.period_range(start=None, end=None, periods=None, freq=’D’, name=None)

Return a fixed frequency PeriodIndex, with day (calendar) as the default frequency
Parameters start : string or period-like, default None
Left bound for generating periods
end : string or period-like, default None
Right bound for generating periods
periods : integer, default None
Number of periods to generate
freq : string or DateOffset, default ‘D’ (calendar daily)
Frequency alias
name : string, default None
Name of the resulting PeriodIndex
Returns prng : PeriodIndex

Notes

Of the three parameters: start, end, and periods, exactly two must be specified.
To learn more about the frequency strings, please see this link.

Examples

>>> pd.period_range(start='2017-01-01', end='2018-01-01', freq='M')

PeriodIndex(['2017-01', '2017-02', '2017-03', '2017-04', '2017-05',
'2017-06', '2017-06', '2017-07', '2017-08', '2017-09',
'2017-10', '2017-11', '2017-12', '2018-01'],
dtype='period[M]', freq='M')

If start or end are Period objects, they will be used as anchor endpoints for a PeriodIndex with
frequency matching that of the period_range constructor.

>>> pd.period_range(start=pd.Period('2017Q1', freq='Q'),

... end=pd.Period('2017Q2', freq='Q'), freq='M')
PeriodIndex(['2017-03', '2017-04', '2017-05', '2017-06'],
dtype='period[M]', freq='M')

1284 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

34.2.4.6 pandas.timedelta_range

pandas.timedelta_range(start=None, end=None, periods=None, freq=’D’, name=None,

closed=None)
Return a fixed frequency TimedeltaIndex, with day as the default frequency
Parameters start : string or timedelta-like, default None
Left bound for generating timedeltas
end : string or timedelta-like, default None
Right bound for generating timedeltas
periods : integer, default None
Number of periods to generate
freq : string or DateOffset, default ‘D’ (calendar daily)
Frequency strings can have multiples, e.g. ‘5H’
name : string, default None
Name of the resulting TimedeltaIndex
closed : string, default None
Make the interval closed with respect to the given frequency to the ‘left’, ‘right’, or both
sides (None)
Returns rng : TimedeltaIndex

Notes

Of the three parameters: start, end, and periods, exactly two must be specified.
To learn more about the frequency strings, please see this link.

Examples

>>> pd.timedelta_range(start='1 day', periods=4)

TimedeltaIndex(['1 days', '2 days', '3 days', '4 days'],
dtype='timedelta64[ns]', freq='D')

The closed parameter specifies which endpoint is included. The default behavior is to include both endpoints.

>>> pd.timedelta_range(start='1 day', periods=4, closed='right')

TimedeltaIndex(['2 days', '3 days', '4 days'],
dtype='timedelta64[ns]', freq='D')

The freq parameter specifies the frequency of the TimedeltaIndex. Only fixed frequencies can be passed,
non-fixed frequencies such as ‘M’ (month end) will raise.

>>> pd.timedelta_range(start='1 day', end='2 days', freq='6H')

TimedeltaIndex(['1 days 00:00:00', '1 days 06:00:00', '1 days 12:00:00',
'1 days 18:00:00', '2 days 00:00:00'],
dtype='timedelta64[ns]', freq='6H')

34.2. General functions 1285

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

34.2.4.7 pandas.infer_freq

pandas.infer_freq(index, warn=True)
Infer the most likely frequency given the input index. If the frequency is uncertain, a warning will be printed.
Parameters index : DatetimeIndex or TimedeltaIndex
if passed a Series will use the values of the series (NOT THE INDEX)
warn : boolean, default True
Returns freq : string or None
None if no discernible frequency TypeError if the index is not datetime-like ValueError
if there are less than three values.

34.2.5 Top-level dealing with intervals

interval_range([start, end, periods, freq, ...]) Return a fixed frequency IntervalIndex

34.2.5.1 pandas.interval_range

pandas.interval_range(start=None, end=None, periods=None, freq=None, name=None,

closed=’right’)
Return a fixed frequency IntervalIndex
Parameters start : numeric or datetime-like, default None
Left bound for generating intervals
end : numeric or datetime-like, default None
Right bound for generating intervals
periods : integer, default None
Number of periods to generate
freq : numeric, string, or DateOffset, default None
The length of each interval. Must be consistent with the type of start and end, e.g. 2 for
numeric, or ‘5H’ for datetime-like. Default is 1 for numeric and ‘D’ (calendar daily) for
datetime-like.
name : string, default None
Name of the resulting IntervalIndex
closed : string, default ‘right’
options are: ‘left’, ‘right’, ‘both’, ‘neither’
Returns rng : IntervalIndex
See also:

IntervalIndex an Index of intervals that are all closed on the same side.

1286 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Notes

Of the three parameters: start, end, and periods, exactly two must be specified.

Examples

Numeric start and end is supported.

>>> pd.interval_range(start=0, end=5)

IntervalIndex([(0, 1], (1, 2], (2, 3], (3, 4], (4, 5]]
closed='right', dtype='interval[int64]')

Additionally, datetime-like input is also supported.

>>> pd.interval_range(start=pd.Timestamp('2017-01-01'),
end=pd.Timestamp('2017-01-04'))
IntervalIndex([(2017-01-01, 2017-01-02], (2017-01-02, 2017-01-03],
(2017-01-03, 2017-01-04]]
closed='right', dtype='interval[datetime64[ns]]')

The freq parameter specifies the frequency between the left and right. endpoints of the individual intervals
within the IntervalIndex. For numeric start and end, the frequency must also be numeric.

>>> pd.interval_range(start=0, periods=4, freq=1.5)

IntervalIndex([(0.0, 1.5], (1.5, 3.0], (3.0, 4.5], (4.5, 6.0]]
closed='right', dtype='interval[float64]')

Similarly, for datetime-like start and end, the frequency must be convertible to a DateOffset.

>>> pd.interval_range(start=pd.Timestamp('2017-01-01'),
periods=3, freq='MS')
IntervalIndex([(2017-01-01, 2017-02-01], (2017-02-01, 2017-03-01],
(2017-03-01, 2017-04-01]]
closed='right', dtype='interval[datetime64[ns]]')

The closed parameter specifies which endpoints of the individual intervals within the IntervalIndex are
closed.

>>> pd.interval_range(end=5, periods=4, closed='both')

IntervalIndex([[1, 2], [2, 3], [3, 4], [4, 5]]
closed='both', dtype='interval[int64]')

34.2.6 Top-level evaluation

eval(expr[, parser, engine, truediv, ...]) Evaluate a Python expression as a string using various
backends.

34.2.6.1 pandas.eval

pandas.eval(expr, parser=’pandas’, engine=None, truediv=True, local_dict=None, global_dict=None,

resolvers=(), level=0, target=None, inplace=False)
Evaluate a Python expression as a string using various backends.

34.2. General functions 1287

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

The following arithmetic operations are supported: +, -, *, /, **, %, // (python engine only) along with the
following boolean operations: | (or), & (and), and ~ (not). Additionally, the 'pandas' parser allows the use of
and, or, and not with the same semantics as the corresponding bitwise operators. Series and DataFrame
objects are supported and behave as they would with plain ol’ Python evaluation.
Parameters expr : str or unicode
The expression to evaluate. This string cannot contain any Python statements, only
Python expressions.
parser : string, default ‘pandas’, {‘pandas’, ‘python’}
The parser to use to construct the syntax tree from the expression. The default of
'pandas' parses code slightly different than standard Python. Alternatively, you can
parse an expression using the 'python' parser to retain strict Python semantics. See
the enhancing performance documentation for more details.
engine : string or None, default ‘numexpr’, {‘python’, ‘numexpr’}
The engine used to evaluate the expression. Supported engines are
• None : tries to use numexpr, falls back to python
• 'numexpr': This default engine evaluates pandas objects using numexpr for
large speed ups in complex expressions with large frames.
• 'python': Performs operations as if you had eval‘d in top level python. This
engine is generally not that useful.
More backends may be available in the future.
truediv : bool, optional
Whether to use true division, like in Python >= 3
local_dict : dict or None, optional
A dictionary of local variables, taken from locals() by default.
global_dict : dict or None, optional
A dictionary of global variables, taken from globals() by default.
resolvers : list of dict-like or None, optional
A list of objects implementing the __getitem__ special method that you can use to
inject an additional collection of namespaces to use for variable lookup. For example,
this is used in the query() method to inject the index and columns variables that
refer to their respective DataFrame instance attributes.
level : int, optional
The number of prior stack frames to traverse and add to the current scope. Most users
will not need to change this parameter.
target : object, optional, default None
This is the target object for assignment. It is used when there is variable assignment in
the expression. If so, then target must support item assignment with string keys, and if
a copy is being returned, it must also support .copy().
inplace : bool, default False
If target is provided, and the expression mutates target, whether to modify target in-
place. Otherwise, return a copy of target with the mutation.

1288 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Returns ndarray, numeric scalar, DataFrame, Series

Raises ValueError
There are many instances where such an error can be raised:
• target=None, but the expression is multiline.
• The expression is multiline, but not all them have item assignment. An example of
such an arrangement is this:
a=b+1a+2
Here, there are expressions on different lines, making it multiline, but the last line has
no variable assigned to the output of a + 2.
• inplace=True, but the expression is missing item assignment.
• Item assignment is provided, but the target does not support string item assignment.
• Item assignment is provided and inplace=False, but the target does not support the
.copy() method
See also:
pandas.DataFrame.query, pandas.DataFrame.eval

Notes

The dtype of any objects involved in an arithmetic % operation are recursively cast to float64.
See the enhancing performance documentation for more details.

34.2.7 Testing

test([extra_args])

34.2.7.1 pandas.test

pandas.test(extra_args=None)

34.3 Series

34.3.1 Constructor

Series([data, index, dtype, name, copy, ...]) One-dimensional ndarray with axis labels (including time
series).

34.3.1.1 pandas.Series

class pandas.Series(data=None, index=None, dtype=None, name=None, copy=False, fastpath=False)

One-dimensional ndarray with axis labels (including time series).
Labels need not be unique but must be a hashable type. The object supports both integer- and label-based

34.3. Series 1289

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

indexing and provides a host of methods for performing operations involving the index. Statistical methods
from ndarray have been overridden to automatically exclude missing data (currently represented as NaN).
Operations between Series (+, -, /, , *) align values based on their associated index values– they need not be the
same length. The result index will be the sorted union of the two indexes.
Parameters data : array-like, dict, or scalar value
Contains data stored in Series
index : array-like or Index (1d)
Values must be hashable and have the same length as data. Non-unique index values
are allowed. Will default to RangeIndex(len(data)) if not provided. If both a dict and
index sequence are used, the index will override the keys found in the dict.
dtype : numpy.dtype or None
If None, dtype will be inferred
copy : boolean, default False
Copy input data

Attributes

T return the transpose, which is by definition self

asobject return object Series which contains boxed values
at Fast label-based scalar accessor
axes Return a list of the row axis labels
base return the base object if the memory of the underlying
data is
blocks Internal property, property synonym for as_blocks()
data return the data pointer of the underlying data
dtype return the dtype object of the underlying data
dtypes return the dtype object of the underlying data
empty
flags
ftype return if the data is sparse|dense
ftypes return if the data is sparse|dense
hasnans
iat Fast integer location scalar accessor.
iloc Purely integer-location based indexing for selection by
position.
imag
is_copy
is_monotonic Return boolean if values in the object are
is_monotonic_decreasing Return boolean if values in the object are
is_monotonic_increasing Return boolean if values in the object are
is_unique Return boolean if values in the object are unique
itemsize return the size of the dtype of the item of the underlying
data
ix A primarily label-location based indexer, with integer
position fallback.
Continued on next page

1290 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Table 34.24 – continued from previous page

loc Purely label-location based indexer for selection by la-
bel.
name
nbytes return the number of bytes in the underlying data
ndim return the number of dimensions of the underlying data,
real
shape return a tuple of the shape of the underlying data
size return the number of elements in the underlying data
strides return the strides of the underlying data
values Return Series as ndarray or ndarray-like

pandas.Series.T

Series.T
return the transpose, which is by definition self

pandas.Series.asobject

Series.asobject
return object Series which contains boxed values
this is an internal non-public method

pandas.Series.at

Series.at
Fast label-based scalar accessor
Similarly to loc, at provides label based scalar lookups. You can also set using these indexers.

pandas.Series.axes

Series.axes
Return a list of the row axis labels

pandas.Series.base

Series.base
return the base object if the memory of the underlying data is shared

pandas.Series.blocks

Series.blocks
Internal property, property synonym for as_blocks()
Deprecated since version 0.21.0.

34.3. Series 1291

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

pandas.Series.data

Series.data
return the data pointer of the underlying data

pandas.Series.dtype

Series.dtype
return the dtype object of the underlying data

pandas.Series.dtypes

Series.dtypes
return the dtype object of the underlying data

pandas.Series.empty

Series.empty

pandas.Series.flags

Series.flags

pandas.Series.ftype

Series.ftype
return if the data is sparse|dense

pandas.Series.ftypes

Series.ftypes
return if the data is sparse|dense

pandas.Series.hasnans

Series.hasnans = None

pandas.Series.iat

Series.iat
Fast integer location scalar accessor.
Similarly to iloc, iat provides integer based lookups. You can also set using these indexers.

1292 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

pandas.Series.iloc

Series.iloc
Purely integer-location based indexing for selection by position.
.iloc[] is primarily integer position based (from 0 to length-1 of the axis), but may also be used
with a boolean array.
Allowed inputs are:
• An integer, e.g. 5.
• A list or array of integers, e.g. [4, 3, 0].
• A slice object with ints, e.g. 1:7.
• A boolean array.
• A callable function with one argument (the calling Series, DataFrame or Panel) and that returns
valid output for indexing (one of the above)
.iloc will raise IndexError if a requested indexer is out-of-bounds, except slice indexers which allow
out-of-bounds indexing (this conforms with python/numpy slice semantics).
See more at Selection by Position

pandas.Series.imag

Series.imag

pandas.Series.is_copy

Series.is_copy = None

pandas.Series.is_monotonic

Series.is_monotonic
Return boolean if values in the object are monotonic_increasing
New in version 0.19.0.
Returns is_monotonic : boolean

pandas.Series.is_monotonic_decreasing

Series.is_monotonic_decreasing
Return boolean if values in the object are monotonic_decreasing
New in version 0.19.0.
Returns is_monotonic_decreasing : boolean

34.3. Series 1293

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

pandas.Series.is_monotonic_increasing

Series.is_monotonic_increasing
Return boolean if values in the object are monotonic_increasing
New in version 0.19.0.
Returns is_monotonic : boolean

pandas.Series.is_unique

Series.is_unique
Return boolean if values in the object are unique
Returns is_unique : boolean

pandas.Series.itemsize

Series.itemsize
return the size of the dtype of the item of the underlying data

pandas.Series.ix

Series.ix
A primarily label-location based indexer, with integer position fallback.
.ix[] supports mixed integer and label based access. It is primarily label based, but will fall back to
integer positional access unless the corresponding axis is of integer type.
.ix is the most general indexer and will support any of the inputs in .loc and .iloc. .ix also supports
floating point label schemes. .ix is exceptionally useful when dealing with mixed positional and label
based hierachical indexes.
However, when an axis is integer based, ONLY label based access and not positional access is supported.
Thus, in such cases, it’s usually better to be explicit and use .iloc or .loc.
See more at Advanced Indexing.

pandas.Series.loc

Series.loc
Purely label-location based indexer for selection by label.
.loc[] is primarily label based, but may also be used with a boolean array.
Allowed inputs are:
• A single label, e.g. 5 or 'a', (note that 5 is interpreted as a label of the index, and never as an integer
position along the index).
• A list or array of labels, e.g. ['a', 'b', 'c'].
• A slice object with labels, e.g. 'a':'f' (note that contrary to usual python slices, both the start and
the stop are included!).
• A boolean array.

1294 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• A callable function with one argument (the calling Series, DataFrame or Panel) and that returns
valid output for indexing (one of the above)
.loc will raise a KeyError when the items are not found.
See more at Selection by Label

pandas.Series.name

Series.name

pandas.Series.nbytes

Series.nbytes
return the number of bytes in the underlying data

pandas.Series.ndim

Series.ndim
return the number of dimensions of the underlying data, by definition 1

pandas.Series.real

Series.real

pandas.Series.shape

Series.shape
return a tuple of the shape of the underlying data

pandas.Series.size

Series.size
return the number of elements in the underlying data

pandas.Series.strides

Series.strides
return the strides of the underlying data

pandas.Series.values

Series.values
Return Series as ndarray or ndarray-like depending on the dtype
Returns arr : numpy.ndarray or ndarray-like

34.3. Series 1295

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Examples

>>> pd.Series([1, 2, 3]).values

array([1, 2, 3])

>>> pd.Series(list('aabc')).values
array(['a', 'a', 'b', 'c'], dtype=object)

>>> pd.Series(list('aabc')).astype('category').values
[a, a, b, c]
Categories (3, object): [a, b, c]

Timezone aware datetime data is converted to UTC:

>>> pd.Series(pd.date_range('20130101', periods=3,

... tz='US/Eastern')).values
array(['2013-01-01T05:00:00.000000000',
'2013-01-02T05:00:00.000000000',
'2013-01-03T05:00:00.000000000'], dtype='datetime64[ns]')

Methods

abs() Return an object with absolute value taken–only appli-

cable to objects that are all numeric.
add(other[, level, fill_value, axis]) Addition of series and other, element-wise (binary oper-
ator add).
add_prefix(prefix) Concatenate prefix string with panel items names.
add_suffix(suffix) Concatenate suffix string with panel items names.
agg(func[, axis]) Aggregate using callable, string, dict, or list of
string/callables
aggregate(func[, axis]) Aggregate using callable, string, dict, or list of
string/callables
align(other[, join, axis, level, copy, ...]) Align two objects on their axes with the
all([axis, bool_only, skipna, level]) Return whether all elements are True over requested
axis
any([axis, bool_only, skipna, level]) Return whether any element is True over requested axis
append(to_append[, ignore_index, ...]) Concatenate two or more Series.
apply(func[, convert_dtype, args]) Invoke function on values of Series.
argmax(*args, **kwargs)
argmin(*args, **kwargs)
argsort([axis, kind, order]) Overrides ndarray.argsort.
as_blocks([copy]) Convert the frame to a dict of dtype -> Constructor
Types that each has a homogeneous dtype.
as_matrix([columns]) Convert the frame to its Numpy-array representation.
asfreq(freq[, method, how, normalize, ...]) Convert TimeSeries to specified frequency.
asof(where[, subset]) The last row without any NaN is taken (or the last row
without
astype(dtype[, copy, errors]) Cast a pandas object to a specified dtype dtype.
at_time(time[, asof]) Select values at particular time of day (e.g.
autocorr([lag]) Lag-N autocorrelation
Continued on next page

1296 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Table 34.25 – continued from previous page

between(left, right[, inclusive]) Return boolean Series equivalent to left <= series <=
right.
between_time(start_time, end_time[, ...]) Select values between particular times of the day (e.g.,
9:00-9:30 AM).
bfill([axis, inplace, limit, downcast]) Synonym for DataFrame.
fillna(method='bfill')
bool() Return the bool of a single element PandasObject.
cat alias of CategoricalAccessor
clip([lower, upper, axis, inplace]) Trim values at input threshold(s).
clip_lower(threshold[, axis, inplace]) Return copy of the input with values below given
value(s) truncated.
clip_upper(threshold[, axis, inplace]) Return copy of input with values above given value(s)
truncated.
combine(other, func[, fill_value]) Perform elementwise binary operation on two Series us-
ing given function
combine_first(other) Combine Series values, choosing the calling Series’s
values first.
compound([axis, skipna, level]) Return the compound percentage of the values for the
requested axis
compress(condition, *args, **kwargs) Return selected slices of an array along given axis as a
Series
consolidate([inplace]) DEPRECATED: consolidate will be an internal imple-
mentation only.
convert_objects([convert_dates, ...]) Deprecated.
copy([deep]) Make a copy of this objects data.
corr(other[, method, min_periods]) Compute correlation with other Series, excluding miss-
ing values
count([level]) Return number of non-NA/null observations in the Se-
ries
cov(other[, min_periods]) Compute covariance with Series, excluding missing val-
ues
cummax([axis, skipna]) Return cumulative max over requested axis.
cummin([axis, skipna]) Return cumulative minimum over requested axis.
cumprod([axis, skipna]) Return cumulative product over requested axis.
cumsum([axis, skipna]) Return cumulative sum over requested axis.
describe([percentiles, include, exclude]) Generates descriptive statistics that summarize the cen-
tral tendency, dispersion and shape of a dataset’s distri-
bution, excluding NaN values.
diff([periods]) 1st discrete difference of object
div(other[, level, fill_value, axis]) Floating division of series and other, element-wise (bi-
nary operator truediv).
divide(other[, level, fill_value, axis]) Floating division of series and other, element-wise (bi-
nary operator truediv).
dot(other) Matrix multiplication with DataFrame or inner-product
with Series
drop([labels, axis, index, columns, level, ...]) Return new object with labels in requested axis re-
moved.
drop_duplicates([keep, inplace]) Return Series with duplicate values removed
dropna([axis, inplace]) Return Series without null values
dt alias of CombinedDatetimelikeProperties
duplicated([keep]) Return boolean Series denoting duplicate values
Continued on next page

34.3. Series 1297

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Table 34.25 – continued from previous page

eq(other[, level, fill_value, axis]) Equal to of series and other, element-wise (binary oper-
ator eq).
equals(other) Determines if two NDFrame objects contain the same
elements.
ewm([com, span, halflife, alpha, ...]) Provides exponential weighted functions
expanding([min_periods, freq, center, axis]) Provides expanding transformations.
factorize([sort, na_sentinel]) Encode the object as an enumerated type or categorical
variable
ffill([axis, inplace, limit, downcast]) Synonym for DataFrame.
fillna(method='ffill')
fillna([value, method, axis, inplace, ...]) Fill NA/NaN values using the specified method
filter([items, like, regex, axis]) Subset rows or columns of dataframe according to labels
in the specified index.
first(offset) Convenience method for subsetting initial periods of
time series data based on a date offset.
first_valid_index() Return index for first non-NA/null value.
floordiv(other[, level, fill_value, axis]) Integer division of series and other, element-wise (bi-
nary operator floordiv).
from_array(arr[, index, name, dtype, copy, ...])
from_csv(path[, sep, parse_dates, header, ...]) Read CSV file (DEPRECATED, please use pandas.
read_csv() instead).
ge(other[, level, fill_value, axis]) Greater than or equal to of series and other, element-
wise (binary operator ge).
get(key[, default]) Get item from object for given key (DataFrame column,
Panel slice, etc.).
get_dtype_counts() Return the counts of dtypes in this object.
get_ftype_counts() Return the counts of ftypes in this object.
get_value(label[, takeable]) Quickly retrieve single value at passed index label
get_values() same as values (but handles sparseness conversions); is
a view
groupby([by, axis, level, as_index, sort, ...]) Group series using mapper (dict or key function, apply
given function to group, return result as series) or by a
series of columns.
gt(other[, level, fill_value, axis]) Greater than of series and other, element-wise (binary
operator gt).
head([n]) Return the first n rows.
hist([by, ax, grid, xlabelsize, xrot, ...]) Draw histogram of the input series using matplotlib
idxmax([axis, skipna]) Index label of the first occurrence of maximum of val-
ues.
idxmin([axis, skipna]) Index label of the first occurrence of minimum of val-
ues.
infer_objects() Attempt to infer better dtypes for object columns.
interpolate([method, axis, limit, inplace, ...]) Interpolate values according to different methods.
isin(values) Return a boolean Series showing whether each ele-
ment in the Series is exactly contained in the passed
sequence of values.
isna() Return a boolean same-sized object indicating if the val-
ues are NA.
isnull() Return a boolean same-sized object indicating if the val-
ues are NA.
Continued on next page

1298 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Table 34.25 – continued from previous page

item() return the first element of the underlying data as a
python
items() Lazily iterate over (index, value) tuples
iteritems() Lazily iterate over (index, value) tuples
keys() Alias for index
kurt([axis, skipna, level, numeric_only]) Return unbiased kurtosis over requested axis using
Fisher’s definition of kurtosis (kurtosis of normal ==
0.0).
kurtosis([axis, skipna, level, numeric_only]) Return unbiased kurtosis over requested axis using
Fisher’s definition of kurtosis (kurtosis of normal ==
0.0).
last(offset) Convenience method for subsetting final periods of time
series data based on a date offset.
last_valid_index() Return index for last non-NA/null value.
le(other[, level, fill_value, axis]) Less than or equal to of series and other, element-wise
(binary operator le).
lt(other[, level, fill_value, axis]) Less than of series and other, element-wise (binary op-
erator lt).
mad([axis, skipna, level]) Return the mean absolute deviation of the values for the
requested axis
map(arg[, na_action]) Map values of Series using input correspondence
(which can be
mask(cond[, other, inplace, axis, level, ...]) Return an object of same shape as self and whose corre-
sponding entries are from self where cond is False and
otherwise are from other.
max([axis, skipna, level, numeric_only]) This method returns the maximum of the values in the
object.
mean([axis, skipna, level, numeric_only]) Return the mean of the values for the requested axis
median([axis, skipna, level, numeric_only]) Return the median of the values for the requested axis
memory_usage([index, deep]) Memory usage of the Series
min([axis, skipna, level, numeric_only]) This method returns the minimum of the values in the
object.
mod(other[, level, fill_value, axis]) Modulo of series and other, element-wise (binary oper-
ator mod).
mode() Return the mode(s) of the dataset.
mul(other[, level, fill_value, axis]) Multiplication of series and other, element-wise (binary
operator mul).
multiply(other[, level, fill_value, axis]) Multiplication of series and other, element-wise (binary
operator mul).
ne(other[, level, fill_value, axis]) Not equal to of series and other, element-wise (binary
operator ne).
nlargest([n, keep]) Return the largest n elements.
nonzero() Return the indices of the elements that are non-zero
notna() Return a boolean same-sized object indicating if the val-
ues are not NA.
notnull() Return a boolean same-sized object indicating if the val-
ues are not NA.
nsmallest([n, keep]) Return the smallest n elements.
nunique([dropna]) Return number of unique elements in the object.
pct_change([periods, fill_method, limit, freq]) Percent change over given number of periods.
pipe(func, *args, **kwargs) Apply func(self, *args, **kwargs)
Continued on next page

34.3. Series 1299

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Table 34.25 – continued from previous page

plot alias of SeriesPlotMethods
pop(item) Return item and drop from frame.
pow(other[, level, fill_value, axis]) Exponential power of series and other, element-wise
(binary operator pow).
prod([axis, skipna, level, numeric_only]) Return the product of the values for the requested axis
product([axis, skipna, level, numeric_only]) Return the product of the values for the requested axis
ptp([axis, skipna, level, numeric_only]) Returns the difference between the maximum value and
the minimum value in the object.
put(*args, **kwargs) Applies the put method to its values attribute if it has
one.
quantile([q, interpolation]) Return value at the given quantile, a la
numpy.percentile.
radd(other[, level, fill_value, axis]) Addition of series and other, element-wise (binary oper-
ator radd).
rank([axis, method, numeric_only, ...]) Compute numerical data ranks (1 through n) along axis.
ravel([order]) Return the flattened underlying data as an ndarray
rdiv(other[, level, fill_value, axis]) Floating division of series and other, element-wise (bi-
nary operator rtruediv).
reindex([index]) Conform Series to new index with optional filling logic,
placing NA/NaN in locations having no value in the pre-
vious index.
reindex_axis(labels[, axis]) for compatibility with higher dims
reindex_like(other[, method, copy, limit, ...]) Return an object with matching indices to myself.
rename([index]) Alter Series index labels or name
rename_axis(mapper[, axis, copy, inplace]) Alter the name of the index or columns.
reorder_levels(order) Rearrange index levels using input order.
repeat(repeats, *args, **kwargs) Repeat elements of an Series.
replace([to_replace, value, inplace, limit, ...]) Replace values given in ‘to_replace’ with ‘value’.
resample(rule[, how, axis, fill_method, ...]) Convenience method for frequency conversion and re-
sampling of time series.
reset_index([level, drop, name, inplace]) Analogous to the pandas.DataFrame.
reset_index() function, see docstring there.
reshape(*args, **kwargs) Deprecated since version 0.19.0.

rfloordiv(other[, level, fill_value, axis]) Integer division of series and other, element-wise (bi-
nary operator rfloordiv).
rmod(other[, level, fill_value, axis]) Modulo of series and other, element-wise (binary oper-
ator rmod).
rmul(other[, level, fill_value, axis]) Multiplication of series and other, element-wise (binary
operator rmul).
rolling(window[, min_periods, freq, center, ...]) Provides rolling window calculations.
round([decimals]) Round each value in a Series to the given number of
decimals.
rpow(other[, level, fill_value, axis]) Exponential power of series and other, element-wise
(binary operator rpow).
rsub(other[, level, fill_value, axis]) Subtraction of series and other, element-wise (binary
operator rsub).
rtruediv(other[, level, fill_value, axis]) Floating division of series and other, element-wise (bi-
nary operator rtruediv).
sample([n, frac, replace, weights, ...]) Returns a random sample of items from an axis of ob-
ject.
Continued on next page

1300 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Table 34.25 – continued from previous page

searchsorted(value[, side, sorter]) Find indices where elements should be inserted to main-
tain order.
select(crit[, axis]) Return data corresponding to axis labels matching crite-
ria
sem([axis, skipna, level, ddof, numeric_only]) Return unbiased standard error of the mean over re-
quested axis.
set_axis(labels[, axis, inplace]) Assign desired index to given axis
set_value(label, value[, takeable]) Quickly set single value at passed label.
shift([periods, freq, axis]) Shift index by desired number of periods with an op-
tional time freq
skew([axis, skipna, level, numeric_only]) Return unbiased skew over requested axis
slice_shift([periods, axis]) Equivalent to shift without copying data.
sort_index([axis, level, ascending, ...]) Sort object by labels (along an axis)
sort_values([axis, ascending, inplace, ...]) Sort by the values along either axis
sortlevel([level, ascending, sort_remaining]) DEPRECATED: use Series.sort_index()
squeeze([axis]) Squeeze length 1 dimensions.
std([axis, skipna, level, ddof, numeric_only]) Return sample standard deviation over requested axis.
str alias of StringMethods
sub(other[, level, fill_value, axis]) Subtraction of series and other, element-wise (binary
operator sub).
subtract(other[, level, fill_value, axis]) Subtraction of series and other, element-wise (binary
operator sub).
sum([axis, skipna, level, numeric_only]) Return the sum of the values for the requested axis
swapaxes(axis1, axis2[, copy]) Interchange axes and swap values axes appropriately
swaplevel([i, j, copy]) Swap levels i and j in a MultiIndex
tail([n]) Return the last n rows.
take(indices[, axis, convert, is_copy]) Return the elements in the given positional indices
along an axis.
to_clipboard([excel, sep]) Attempt to write text representation of object to the sys-
tem clipboard This can be pasted into Excel, for exam-
ple.
to_csv([path, index, sep, na_rep, ...]) Write Series to a comma-separated values (csv) file
to_dense() Return dense representation of NDFrame (as opposed to
sparse)
to_dict([into]) Convert Series to {label -> value} dict or dict-like ob-
ject.
to_excel(excel_writer[, sheet_name, na_rep, ...]) Write Series to an excel sheet
to_frame([name]) Convert Series to DataFrame
to_hdf(path_or_buf, key, **kwargs) Write the contained data to an HDF5 file using HDFS-
tore.
to_json([path_or_buf, orient, date_format, ...]) Convert the object to a JSON string.
to_latex([buf, columns, col_space, header, ...]) Render an object to a tabular environment table.
to_msgpack([path_or_buf, encoding]) msgpack (serialize) object to input file path
to_period([freq, copy]) Convert Series from DatetimeIndex to PeriodIndex with
desired
to_pickle(path[, compression, protocol]) Pickle (serialize) object to input file path.
to_sparse([kind, fill_value]) Convert Series to SparseSeries
to_sql(name, con[, flavor, schema, ...]) Write records stored in a DataFrame to a SQL database.
to_string([buf, na_rep, float_format, ...]) Render a string representation of the Series
Continued on next page

34.3. Series 1301

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Table 34.25 – continued from previous page

to_timestamp([freq, how, copy]) Cast to datetimeindex of timestamps, at beginning of pe-
riod
to_xarray() Return an xarray object from the pandas object.
tolist() Return a list of the values.
transform(func, *args, **kwargs) Call function producing a like-indexed NDFrame
transpose(*args, **kwargs) return the transpose, which is by definition self
truediv(other[, level, fill_value, axis]) Floating division of series and other, element-wise (bi-
nary operator truediv).
truncate([before, after, axis, copy]) Truncates a sorted DataFrame/Series before and/or after
some particular index value.
tshift([periods, freq, axis]) Shift the time index, using the index’s frequency if avail-
able.
tz_convert(tz[, axis, level, copy]) Convert tz-aware axis to target time zone.
tz_localize(tz[, axis, level, copy, ambiguous]) Localize tz-naive TimeSeries to target time zone.
unique() Return unique values in the object.
unstack([level, fill_value]) Unstack, a.k.a.
update(other) Modify Series in place using non-NA values from
passed Series.
valid([inplace])
value_counts([normalize, sort, ascending, ...]) Returns object containing counts of unique values.
var([axis, skipna, level, ddof, numeric_only]) Return unbiased variance over requested axis.
view([dtype])
where(cond[, other, inplace, axis, level, ...]) Return an object of same shape as self and whose cor-
responding entries are from self where cond is True and
otherwise are from other.
xs(key[, axis, level, drop_level]) Returns a cross-section (row(s) or column(s)) from the
Series/DataFrame.

pandas.Series.abs

Series.abs()
Return an object with absolute value taken–only applicable to objects that are all numeric.
Returns abs: type of caller

pandas.Series.add

Series.add(other, level=None, fill_value=None, axis=0)

Addition of series and other, element-wise (binary operator add).
Equivalent to series + other, but with support to substitute a fill_value for missing data in one of
the inputs.
Parameters other : Series or scalar value
fill_value : None or float value, default None (NaN)
Fill missing (NaN) values with this value. If both Series are missing, the result will be
missing
level : int or name
Broadcast across a level, matching Index values on the passed MultiIndex level

1302 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Returns result : Series

See also:
Series.radd

pandas.Series.add_prefix

Series.add_prefix(prefix)
Concatenate prefix string with panel items names.
Parameters prefix : string
Returns with_prefix : type of caller

pandas.Series.add_suffix

Series.add_suffix(suffix)
Concatenate suffix string with panel items names.
Parameters suffix : string
Returns with_suffix : type of caller

pandas.Series.agg

Series.agg(func, axis=0, *args, **kwargs)

Aggregate using callable, string, dict, or list of string/callables
New in version 0.20.0.
Parameters func : callable, string, dictionary, or list of string/callables
Function to use for aggregating the data. If a function, must either work when passed a
Series or when passed to Series.apply. For a DataFrame, can pass a dict, if the keys are
DataFrame column names.
Accepted Combinations are:
• string function name
• function
• list of functions
• dict of column names -> functions (or list of functions)
Returns aggregated : Series
See also:
pandas.Series.apply, pandas.Series.transform

Notes

Numpy functions mean/median/prod/sum/std/var are special cased so the default behavior is applying
the function along axis=0 (e.g., np.mean(arr_2d, axis=0)) as opposed to mimicking the default Numpy
behavior (e.g., np.mean(arr_2d)).

34.3. Series 1303

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

agg is an alias for aggregate. Use the alias.

Examples

>>> s = Series(np.random.randn(10))

>>> s.agg('min')
-1.3018049988556679

>>> s.agg(['min', 'max'])

min -1.301805
max 1.127688
dtype: float64

pandas.Series.aggregate

Series.aggregate(func, axis=0, *args, **kwargs)

Aggregate using callable, string, dict, or list of string/callables
New in version 0.20.0.
Parameters func : callable, string, dictionary, or list of string/callables
Function to use for aggregating the data. If a function, must either work when passed a
Series or when passed to Series.apply. For a DataFrame, can pass a dict, if the keys are
DataFrame column names.
Accepted Combinations are:
• string function name
• function
• list of functions
• dict of column names -> functions (or list of functions)
Returns aggregated : Series
See also:
pandas.Series.apply, pandas.Series.transform

Notes

Numpy functions mean/median/prod/sum/std/var are special cased so the default behavior is applying
the function along axis=0 (e.g., np.mean(arr_2d, axis=0)) as opposed to mimicking the default Numpy
behavior (e.g., np.mean(arr_2d)).
agg is an alias for aggregate. Use the alias.

Examples

>>> s = Series(np.random.randn(10))

1304 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

>>> s.agg('min')
-1.3018049988556679

>>> s.agg(['min', 'max'])

min -1.301805
max 1.127688
dtype: float64

pandas.Series.align

Series.align(other, join=’outer’, axis=None, level=None, copy=True, fill_value=None,

method=None, limit=None, fill_axis=0, broadcast_axis=None)
Align two objects on their axes with the specified join method for each axis Index
Parameters other : DataFrame or Series
join : {‘outer’, ‘inner’, ‘left’, ‘right’}, default ‘outer’
axis : allowed axis of the other object, default None
Align on index (0), columns (1), or both (None)
level : int or level name, default None
Broadcast across a level, matching Index values on the passed MultiIndex level
copy : boolean, default True
Always returns new objects. If copy=False and no reindexing is required then original
objects are returned.
fill_value : scalar, default np.NaN
Value to use for missing values. Defaults to NaN, but can be any “compatible” value
method : str, default None
limit : int, default None
fill_axis : {0, ‘index’}, default 0
Filling axis, method and limit
broadcast_axis : {0, ‘index’}, default None
Broadcast values along this axis, if aligning two objects of different dimensions
New in version 0.17.0.
Returns (left, right) : (Series, type of other)
Aligned objects

pandas.Series.all

Series.all(axis=None, bool_only=None, skipna=None, level=None, **kwargs)

Return whether all elements are True over requested axis
Parameters axis : {index (0)}
skipna : boolean, default True

34.3. Series 1305

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Exclude NA/null values. If an entire row/column is NA, the result will be NA

level : int or level name, default None
If the axis is a MultiIndex (hierarchical), count along a particular level, collapsing into
a scalar
bool_only : boolean, default None
Include only boolean columns. If None, will attempt to use everything, then use only
boolean data. Not implemented for Series.
Returns all : scalar or Series (if level specified)

pandas.Series.any

Series.any(axis=None, bool_only=None, skipna=None, level=None, **kwargs)

Return whether any element is True over requested axis
Parameters axis : {index (0)}
skipna : boolean, default True
Exclude NA/null values. If an entire row/column is NA, the result will be NA
level : int or level name, default None
If the axis is a MultiIndex (hierarchical), count along a particular level, collapsing into
a scalar
bool_only : boolean, default None
Include only boolean columns. If None, will attempt to use everything, then use only
boolean data. Not implemented for Series.
Returns any : scalar or Series (if level specified)

pandas.Series.append

Series.append(to_append, ignore_index=False, verify_integrity=False)

Concatenate two or more Series.
Parameters to_append : Series or list/tuple of Series
ignore_index : boolean, default False
If True, do not use the index labels.
verify_integrity : boolean, default False
If True, raise Exception on creating index with duplicates
Returns appended : Series
See also:

pandas.concat General function to concatenate DataFrame, Series or Panel objects

1306 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Notes

Iteratively appending to a Series can be more computationally intensive than a single concatenate. A better
solution is to append values to a list and then concatenate the list with the original Series all at once.

Examples

>>> s1 = pd.Series([1, 2, 3])

>>> s2 = pd.Series([4, 5, 6])
>>> s3 = pd.Series([4, 5, 6], index=[3,4,5])
>>> s1.append(s2)
0 1
1 2
2 3
0 4
1 5
2 6
dtype: int64

>>> s1.append(s3)
0 1
1 2
2 3
3 4
4 5
5 6
dtype: int64

With ignore_index set to True:

>>> s1.append(s2, ignore_index=True)
0 1
1 2
2 3
3 4
4 5
5 6
dtype: int64

With verify_integrity set to True:

>>> s1.append(s2, verify_integrity=True)
Traceback (most recent call last):
...
ValueError: Indexes have overlapping values: [0, 1, 2]

pandas.Series.apply

Series.apply(func, convert_dtype=True, args=(), **kwds)

Invoke function on values of Series. Can be ufunc (a NumPy function that applies to the entire Series) or
a Python function that only works on single values
Parameters func : function
convert_dtype : boolean, default True

34.3. Series 1307

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Try to find better dtype for elementwise function results. If False, leave as dtype=object
args : tuple
Positional arguments to pass to function in addition to the value
Additional keyword arguments will be passed as keywords to the function
Returns y : Series or DataFrame if func returns a Series
See also:

Series.map For element-wise operations

Series.agg only perform aggregating type operations
Series.transform only perform transformating type operations

Examples

Create a series with typical summer temperatures for each city.

>>> import pandas as pd

>>> import numpy as np
>>> series = pd.Series([20, 21, 12], index=['London',
... 'New York','Helsinki'])
>>> series
London 20
New York 21
Helsinki 12
dtype: int64

Square the values by defining a function and passing it as an argument to apply().

>>> def square(x):

... return x**2
>>> series.apply(square)
London 400
New York 441
Helsinki 144
dtype: int64

Square the values by passing an anonymous function as an argument to apply().

>>> series.apply(lambda x: x**2)

London 400
New York 441
Helsinki 144
dtype: int64

Define a custom function that needs additional positional arguments and pass these additional arguments
using the args keyword.

>>> def subtract_custom_value(x, custom_value):

... return x-custom_value

>>> series.apply(subtract_custom_value, args=(5,))

London 15
New York 16

1308 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Helsinki 7
dtype: int64

Define a custom function that takes keyword arguments and pass these arguments to apply.

>>> def add_custom_values(x, **kwargs):

... for month in kwargs:
... x+=kwargs[month]
... return x

>>> series.apply(add_custom_values, june=30, july=20, august=25)

London 95
New York 96
Helsinki 87
dtype: int64

Use a function from the Numpy library.

>>> series.apply(np.log)
London 2.995732
New York 3.044522
Helsinki 2.484907
dtype: float64

pandas.Series.argmax

Series.argmax(*args, **kwargs)

pandas.Series.argmin

Series.argmin(*args, **kwargs)

pandas.Series.argsort

Series.argsort(axis=0, kind=’quicksort’, order=None)

Overrides ndarray.argsort. Argsorts the value, omitting NA/null values, and places the result in the same
locations as the non-NA values
Parameters axis : int (can only be zero)
kind : {‘mergesort’, ‘quicksort’, ‘heapsort’}, default ‘quicksort’
Choice of sorting algorithm. See np.sort for more information. ‘mergesort’ is the only
stable algorithm
order : ignored
Returns argsorted : Series, with -1 indicated where nan values are present
See also:
numpy.ndarray.argsort

34.3. Series 1309

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

pandas.Series.as_blocks

Series.as_blocks(copy=True)
Convert the frame to a dict of dtype -> Constructor Types that each has a homogeneous dtype.
Deprecated since version 0.21.0.
NOTE: the dtypes of the blocks WILL BE PRESERVED HERE (unlike in as_matrix)

Parameters copy : boolean, default True

Returns values : a dict of dtype -> Constructor Types

pandas.Series.as_matrix

Series.as_matrix(columns=None)
Convert the frame to its Numpy-array representation.
Parameters columns: list, optional, default:None
If None, return all columns, otherwise, returns specified columns.
Returns values : ndarray
If the caller is heterogeneous and contains booleans or objects, the result will be of
dtype=object. See Notes.
See also:
pandas.DataFrame.values

Notes

Return is NOT a Numpy-matrix, rather, a Numpy-array.

The dtype will be a lower-common-denominator dtype (implicit upcasting); that is to say if the dtypes
(even of numeric types) are mixed, the one that accommodates all will be chosen. Use this with care if you
are not dealing with the blocks.
e.g. If the dtypes are float16 and float32, dtype will be upcast to float32. If dtypes are int32 and uint8,
dtype will be upcase to int32. By numpy.find_common_type convention, mixing int64 and uint64 will
result in a flot64 dtype.
This method is provided for backwards compatibility. Generally, it is recommended to use ‘.values’.

pandas.Series.asfreq

Series.asfreq(freq, method=None, how=None, normalize=False, fill_value=None)

Convert TimeSeries to specified frequency.
Optionally provide filling method to pad/backfill missing values.
Returns the original data conformed to a new index with the specified frequency. resample is more
appropriate if an operation, such as summarization, is necessary to represent the data at the new frequency.
Parameters freq : DateOffset object, or string
method : {‘backfill’/’bfill’, ‘pad’/’ffill’}, default None

1310 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Method to use for filling holes in reindexed Series (note this does not fill NaNs that
already were present):
• ‘pad’ / ‘ffill’: propagate last valid observation forward to next valid
• ‘backfill’ / ‘bfill’: use NEXT valid observation to fill
how : {‘start’, ‘end’}, default end
For PeriodIndex only, see PeriodIndex.asfreq
normalize : bool, default False
Whether to reset output index to midnight
fill_value: scalar, optional
Value to use for missing values, applied during upsampling (note this does not fill NaNs
that already were present).
New in version 0.20.0.
Returns converted : type of caller
See also:
reindex

Notes

To learn more about the frequency strings, please see this link.

Examples

Start by creating a series with 4 one minute timestamps.

>>> index = pd.date_range('1/1/2000', periods=4, freq='T')

>>> series = pd.Series([0.0, None, 2.0, 3.0], index=index)
>>> df = pd.DataFrame({'s':series})
>>> df
s
2000-01-01 00:00:00 0.0
2000-01-01 00:01:00 NaN
2000-01-01 00:02:00 2.0
2000-01-01 00:03:00 3.0

Upsample the series into 30 second bins.

>>> df.asfreq(freq='30S')
s
2000-01-01 00:00:00 0.0
2000-01-01 00:00:30 NaN
2000-01-01 00:01:00 NaN
2000-01-01 00:01:30 NaN
2000-01-01 00:02:00 2.0
2000-01-01 00:02:30 NaN
2000-01-01 00:03:00 3.0

Upsample again, providing a fill value.

34.3. Series 1311

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

>>> df.asfreq(freq='30S', fill_value=9.0)

s
2000-01-01 00:00:00 0.0
2000-01-01 00:00:30 9.0
2000-01-01 00:01:00 NaN
2000-01-01 00:01:30 9.0
2000-01-01 00:02:00 2.0
2000-01-01 00:02:30 9.0
2000-01-01 00:03:00 3.0

Upsample again, providing a method.

>>> df.asfreq(freq='30S', method='bfill')

s
2000-01-01 00:00:00 0.0
2000-01-01 00:00:30 NaN
2000-01-01 00:01:00 NaN
2000-01-01 00:01:30 2.0
2000-01-01 00:02:00 2.0
2000-01-01 00:02:30 3.0
2000-01-01 00:03:00 3.0

pandas.Series.asof

Series.asof(where, subset=None)
The last row without any NaN is taken (or the last row without NaN considering only the subset of columns
in the case of a DataFrame)
New in version 0.19.0: For DataFrame
If there is no good value, NaN is returned for a Series a Series of NaN values for a DataFrame
Parameters where : date or array of dates
subset : string or list of strings, default None
if not None use these columns for NaN propagation
Returns where is scalar
• value or NaN if input is Series
• Series if input is DataFrame
where is Index: same shape object as input
See also:
merge_asof

Notes

Dates are assumed to be sorted Raises if this is not the case

1312 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

pandas.Series.astype

Series.astype(dtype, copy=True, errors=’raise’, **kwargs)

Cast a pandas object to a specified dtype dtype.
Parameters dtype : data type, or dict of column name -> data type
Use a numpy.dtype or Python type to cast entire pandas object to the same type. Alter-
natively, use {col: dtype, ...}, where col is a column label and dtype is a numpy.dtype or
Python type to cast one or more of the DataFrame’s columns to column-specific types.
copy : bool, default True.
Return a copy when copy=True (be very careful setting copy=False as changes to
values then may propagate to other pandas objects).
errors : {‘raise’, ‘ignore’}, default ‘raise’.
Control raising of exceptions on invalid data for provided dtype.
• raise : allow exceptions to be raised
• ignore : suppress exceptions. On error return original object
New in version 0.20.0.
raise_on_error : raise on invalid input
Deprecated since version 0.20.0: Use errors instead
kwargs : keyword arguments to pass on to the constructor
Returns casted : type of caller
See also:

pandas.to_datetime Convert argument to datetime.

pandas.to_timedelta Convert argument to timedelta.
pandas.to_numeric Convert argument to a numeric type.
numpy.ndarray.astype Cast a numpy array to a specified type.

Examples

>>> ser = pd.Series([1, 2], dtype='int32')

>>> ser
0 1
1 2
dtype: int32
>>> ser.astype('int64')
0 1
1 2
dtype: int64

Convert to categorical type:

>>> ser.astype('category')
0 1
1 2

34.3. Series 1313

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

dtype: category
Categories (2, int64): [1, 2]

Convert to ordered categorical type with custom ordering:

>>> ser.astype('category', ordered=True, categories=[2, 1])

0 1
1 2
dtype: category
Categories (2, int64): [2 < 1]

Note that using copy=False and changing data on a new pandas object may propagate changes:

>>> s1 = pd.Series([1,2])
>>> s2 = s1.astype('int', copy=False)
>>> s2[0] = 10
>>> s1 # note that s1[0] has changed too
0 10
1 2
dtype: int64

pandas.Series.at_time

Series.at_time(time, asof=False)
Select values at particular time of day (e.g. 9:30AM).
Parameters time : datetime.time or string
Returns values_at_time : type of caller

pandas.Series.autocorr

Series.autocorr(lag=1)
Lag-N autocorrelation
Parameters lag : int, default 1
Number of lags to apply before performing autocorrelation.
Returns autocorr : float

pandas.Series.between

Series.between(left, right, inclusive=True)

Return boolean Series equivalent to left <= series <= right. NA values will be treated as False
Parameters left : scalar
Left boundary
right : scalar
Right boundary
Returns is_between : Series

1314 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

pandas.Series.between_time

Series.between_time(start_time, end_time, include_start=True, include_end=True)

Select values between particular times of the day (e.g., 9:00-9:30 AM).
Parameters start_time : datetime.time or string
end_time : datetime.time or string
include_start : boolean, default True
include_end : boolean, default True
Returns values_between_time : type of caller

pandas.Series.bfill

Series.bfill(axis=None, inplace=False, limit=None, downcast=None)

Synonym for DataFrame.fillna(method='bfill')

pandas.Series.bool

Series.bool()
Return the bool of a single element PandasObject.
This must be a boolean scalar value, either True or False. Raise a ValueError if the PandasObject does not
have exactly 1 element, or that element is not boolean

pandas.Series.cat

Series.cat()
Accessor object for categorical properties of the Series values.
Be aware that assigning to categories is a inplace operation, while all methods return new categorical data
per default (but can be called with inplace=True).

Examples

>>> s.cat.categories
>>> s.cat.categories = list('abc')
>>> s.cat.rename_categories(list('cab'))
>>> s.cat.reorder_categories(list('cab'))
>>> s.cat.add_categories(['d','e'])
>>> s.cat.remove_categories(['d'])
>>> s.cat.remove_unused_categories()
>>> s.cat.set_categories(list('abcde'))
>>> s.cat.as_ordered()
>>> s.cat.as_unordered()

34.3. Series 1315

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

pandas.Series.clip

Series.clip(lower=None, upper=None, axis=None, inplace=False, *args, **kwargs)

Trim values at input threshold(s).
Parameters lower : float or array_like, default None
upper : float or array_like, default None
axis : int or string axis name, optional
Align object with lower and upper along the given axis.
inplace : boolean, default False
Whether to perform the operation in place on the data New in version 0.21.0.
Returns clipped : Series

Examples

>>> df
0 1
0 0.335232 -1.256177
1 -1.367855 0.746646
2 0.027753 -1.176076
3 0.230930 -0.679613
4 1.261967 0.570967

>>> df.clip(-1.0, 0.5)

0 1
0 0.335232 -1.000000
1 -1.000000 0.500000
2 0.027753 -1.000000
3 0.230930 -0.679613
4 0.500000 0.500000

>>> t
0 -0.3
1 -0.2
2 -0.1
3 0.0
4 0.1
dtype: float64

>>> df.clip(t, t + 1, axis=0)

0 1
0 0.335232 -0.300000
1 -0.200000 0.746646
2 0.027753 -0.100000
3 0.230930 0.000000
4 1.100000 0.570967

1316 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

pandas.Series.clip_lower

Series.clip_lower(threshold, axis=None, inplace=False)

Return copy of the input with values below given value(s) truncated.
Parameters threshold : float or array_like
axis : int or string axis name, optional
Align object with threshold along the given axis.
inplace : boolean, default False
Whether to perform the operation in place on the data New in version 0.21.0.
Returns clipped : same type as input
See also:
clip

pandas.Series.clip_upper

Series.clip_upper(threshold, axis=None, inplace=False)

Return copy of input with values above given value(s) truncated.
Parameters threshold : float or array_like
axis : int or string axis name, optional
Align object with threshold along the given axis.
inplace : boolean, default False
Whether to perform the operation in place on the data New in version 0.21.0.
Returns clipped : same type as input
See also:
clip

pandas.Series.combine

Series.combine(other, func, fill_value=nan)

Perform elementwise binary operation on two Series using given function with optional fill value when an
index is missing from one Series or the other
Parameters other : Series or scalar value
func : function
fill_value : scalar value
Returns result : Series

pandas.Series.combine_first

Series.combine_first(other)
Combine Series values, choosing the calling Series’s values first. Result index will be the union of the two
indexes

34.3. Series 1317

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Parameters other : Series

Returns y : Series

pandas.Series.compound

Series.compound(axis=None, skipna=None, level=None)

Return the compound percentage of the values for the requested axis
Parameters axis : {index (0)}
skipna : boolean, default True
Exclude NA/null values. If an entire row/column is NA or empty, the result will be NA
level : int or level name, default None
If the axis is a MultiIndex (hierarchical), count along a particular level, collapsing into
a scalar
numeric_only : boolean, default None
Include only float, int, boolean columns. If None, will attempt to use everything, then
use only numeric data. Not implemented for Series.
Returns compounded : scalar or Series (if level specified)

pandas.Series.compress

Series.compress(condition, *args, **kwargs)

Return selected slices of an array along given axis as a Series
See also:
numpy.ndarray.compress

pandas.Series.consolidate

Series.consolidate(inplace=False)
DEPRECATED: consolidate will be an internal implementation only.

pandas.Series.convert_objects

Series.convert_objects(convert_dates=True, convert_numeric=False, con-

vert_timedeltas=True, copy=True)
Deprecated. Attempt to infer better dtype for object columns
Parameters convert_dates : boolean, default True
If True, convert to date where possible. If ‘coerce’, force conversion, with unconvertible
values becoming NaT.
convert_numeric : boolean, default False
If True, attempt to coerce to numbers (including strings), with unconvertible values
becoming NaN.
convert_timedeltas : boolean, default True

1318 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

If True, convert to timedelta where possible. If ‘coerce’, force conversion, with uncon-
vertible values becoming NaT.
copy : boolean, default True
If True, return a copy even if no copy is necessary (e.g. no conversion was done). Note:
This is meant for internal use, and should not be confused with inplace.
Returns converted : same as input object
See also:

pandas.to_datetime Convert argument to datetime.

pandas.to_timedelta Convert argument to timedelta.
pandas.to_numeric Return a fixed frequency timedelta index, with day as the default.

pandas.Series.copy

Series.copy(deep=True)
Make a copy of this objects data.
Parameters deep : boolean or string, default True
Make a deep copy, including a copy of the data and the indices. With deep=False
neither the indices or the data are copied.
Note that when deep=True data is copied, actual python objects will not be copied
recursively, only the reference to the object. This is in contrast to copy.deepcopy in
the Standard Library, which recursively copies object data.
Returns copy : type of caller

pandas.Series.corr

Series.corr(other, method=’pearson’, min_periods=None)

Compute correlation with other Series, excluding missing values
Parameters other : Series
method : {‘pearson’, ‘kendall’, ‘spearman’}
• pearson : standard correlation coefficient
• kendall : Kendall Tau correlation coefficient
• spearman : Spearman rank correlation
min_periods : int, optional
Minimum number of observations needed to have a valid result
Returns correlation : float

pandas.Series.count

Series.count(level=None)
Return number of non-NA/null observations in the Series

34.3. Series 1319

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Parameters level : int or level name, default None

If the axis is a MultiIndex (hierarchical), count along a particular level, collapsing into
a smaller Series
Returns nobs : int or Series (if level specified)

pandas.Series.cov

Series.cov(other, min_periods=None)
Compute covariance with Series, excluding missing values
Parameters other : Series
min_periods : int, optional
Minimum number of observations needed to have a valid result
Returns covariance : float
Normalized by N-1 (unbiased estimator).

pandas.Series.cummax

Series.cummax(axis=None, skipna=True, *args, **kwargs)

Return cumulative max over requested axis.
Parameters axis : {index (0)}
skipna : boolean, default True
Exclude NA/null values. If an entire row/column is NA, the result will be NA
Returns cummax : scalar
See also:

pandas.core.window.Expanding.max Similar functionality but ignores NaN values.

pandas.Series.cummin

Series.cummin(axis=None, skipna=True, *args, **kwargs)

Return cumulative minimum over requested axis.
Parameters axis : {index (0)}
skipna : boolean, default True
Exclude NA/null values. If an entire row/column is NA, the result will be NA
Returns cummin : scalar
See also:

pandas.core.window.Expanding.min Similar functionality but ignores NaN values.

1320 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

pandas.Series.cumprod

Series.cumprod(axis=None, skipna=True, *args, **kwargs)

Return cumulative product over requested axis.
Parameters axis : {index (0)}
skipna : boolean, default True
Exclude NA/null values. If an entire row/column is NA, the result will be NA
Returns cumprod : scalar
See also:

pandas.core.window.Expanding.prod Similar functionality but ignores NaN values.

pandas.Series.cumsum

Series.cumsum(axis=None, skipna=True, *args, **kwargs)

Return cumulative sum over requested axis.
Parameters axis : {index (0)}
skipna : boolean, default True
Exclude NA/null values. If an entire row/column is NA, the result will be NA
Returns cumsum : scalar
See also:

pandas.core.window.Expanding.sum Similar functionality but ignores NaN values.

pandas.Series.describe

Series.describe(percentiles=None, include=None, exclude=None)

Generates descriptive statistics that summarize the central tendency, dispersion and shape of a dataset’s
distribution, excluding NaN values.
Analyzes both numeric and object series, as well as DataFrame column sets of mixed data types. The
output will vary depending on what is provided. Refer to the notes below for more detail.
Parameters percentiles : list-like of numbers, optional
The percentiles to include in the output. All should fall between 0 and 1. The default is
[.25, .5, .75], which returns the 25th, 50th, and 75th percentiles.
include : ‘all’, list-like of dtypes or None (default), optional
A white list of data types to include in the result. Ignored for Series. Here are the
options:
• ‘all’ : All columns of the input will be included in the output.
• A list-like of dtypes : Limits the results to the provided data types. To limit the result
to numeric types submit numpy.number. To limit it instead to object columns
submit the numpy.object data type. Strings can also be used in the style of
select_dtypes (e.g. df.describe(include=['O'])). To select pandas
categorical columns, use 'category'

34.3. Series 1321

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• None (default) : The result will include all numeric columns.

exclude : list-like of dtypes or None (default), optional,
A black list of data types to omit from the result. Ignored for Series. Here are the
options:
• A list-like of dtypes : Excludes the provided data types from the result. To ex-
clude numeric types submit numpy.number. To exclude object columns sub-
mit the data type numpy.object. Strings can also be used in the style of
select_dtypes (e.g. df.describe(include=['O'])). To exclude pandas
categorical columns, use 'category'
• None (default) : The result will exclude nothing.
Returns summary: Series/DataFrame of summary statistics
See also:
DataFrame.count, DataFrame.max, DataFrame.min, DataFrame.mean, DataFrame.
std, DataFrame.select_dtypes

Notes

For numeric data, the result’s index will include count, mean, std, min, max as well as lower, 50 and
upper percentiles. By default the lower percentile is 25 and the upper percentile is 75. The 50 percentile
is the same as the median.
For object data (e.g. strings or timestamps), the result’s index will include count, unique, top, and
freq. The top is the most common value. The freq is the most common value’s frequency. Timestamps
also include the first and last items.
If multiple object values have the highest count, then the count and top results will be arbitrarily chosen
from among those with the highest count.
For mixed data types provided via a DataFrame, the default is to return only an analysis of numeric
columns. If the dataframe consists only of object and categorical data without any numeric columns,
the default is to return an analysis of both the object and categorical columns. If include='all' is
provided as an option, the result will include a union of attributes of each type.
The include and exclude parameters can be used to limit which columns in a DataFrame are analyzed
for the output. The parameters are ignored when analyzing a Series.

Examples

Describing a numeric Series.

>>> s = pd.Series([1, 2, 3])

>>> s.describe()
count 3.0
mean 2.0
std 1.0
min 1.0
25% 1.5
50% 2.0
75% 2.5
max 3.0

1322 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Describing a categorical Series.

>>> s = pd.Series(['a', 'a', 'b', 'c'])

>>> s.describe()
count 4
unique 3
top a
freq 2
dtype: object

Describing a timestamp Series.

>>> s = pd.Series([
... np.datetime64("2000-01-01"),
... np.datetime64("2010-01-01"),
... np.datetime64("2010-01-01")
... ])
>>> s.describe()
count 3
unique 2
top 2010-01-01 00:00:00
freq 2
first 2000-01-01 00:00:00
last 2010-01-01 00:00:00
dtype: object

Describing a DataFrame. By default only numeric fields are returned.

>>> df = pd.DataFrame({ 'object': ['a', 'b', 'c'],

... 'numeric': [1, 2, 3],
... 'categorical': pd.Categorical(['d','e','f'])
... })
>>> df.describe()
numeric
count 3.0
mean 2.0
std 1.0
min 1.0
25% 1.5
50% 2.0
75% 2.5
max 3.0

Describing all columns of a DataFrame regardless of data type.

>>> df.describe(include='all')
categorical numeric object
count 3 3.0 3
unique 3 NaN 3
top f NaN c
freq 1 NaN 1
mean NaN 2.0 NaN
std NaN 1.0 NaN
min NaN 1.0 NaN
25% NaN 1.5 NaN
50% NaN 2.0 NaN
75% NaN 2.5 NaN
max NaN 3.0 NaN

34.3. Series 1323

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Describing a column from a DataFrame by accessing it as an attribute.

>>> df.numeric.describe()
count 3.0
mean 2.0
std 1.0
min 1.0
25% 1.5
50% 2.0
75% 2.5
max 3.0
Name: numeric, dtype: float64

Including only numeric columns in a DataFrame description.

>>> df.describe(include=[np.number])
numeric
count 3.0
mean 2.0
std 1.0
min 1.0
25% 1.5
50% 2.0
75% 2.5
max 3.0

Including only string columns in a DataFrame description.

>>> df.describe(include=[np.object])
object
count 3
unique 3
top c
freq 1

Including only categorical columns from a DataFrame description.

>>> df.describe(include=['category'])
categorical
count 3
unique 3
top f
freq 1

Excluding numeric columns from a DataFrame description.

>>> df.describe(exclude=[np.number])
categorical object
count 3 3
unique 3 3
top f c
freq 1 1

Excluding object columns from a DataFrame description.

>>> df.describe(exclude=[np.object])
categorical numeric
count 3 3.0

1324 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

unique 3 NaN
top f NaN
freq 1 NaN
mean NaN 2.0
std NaN 1.0
min NaN 1.0
25% NaN 1.5
50% NaN 2.0
75% NaN 2.5
max NaN 3.0

pandas.Series.diff

Series.diff(periods=1)
1st discrete difference of object
Parameters periods : int, default 1
Periods to shift for forming difference
Returns diffed : Series

pandas.Series.div

Series.div(other, level=None, fill_value=None, axis=0)

Floating division of series and other, element-wise (binary operator truediv).
Equivalent to series / other, but with support to substitute a fill_value for missing data in one of
the inputs.
Parameters other : Series or scalar value
fill_value : None or float value, default None (NaN)
Fill missing (NaN) values with this value. If both Series are missing, the result will be
missing
level : int or name
Broadcast across a level, matching Index values on the passed MultiIndex level
Returns result : Series
See also:
Series.rtruediv

pandas.Series.divide

Series.divide(other, level=None, fill_value=None, axis=0)

Floating division of series and other, element-wise (binary operator truediv).
Equivalent to series / other, but with support to substitute a fill_value for missing data in one of
the inputs.
Parameters other : Series or scalar value
fill_value : None or float value, default None (NaN)

34.3. Series 1325

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Fill missing (NaN) values with this value. If both Series are missing, the result will be
missing
level : int or name
Broadcast across a level, matching Index values on the passed MultiIndex level
Returns result : Series
See also:
Series.rtruediv

pandas.Series.dot

Series.dot(other)
Matrix multiplication with DataFrame or inner-product with Series objects
Parameters other : Series or DataFrame
Returns dot_product : scalar or Series

pandas.Series.drop

Series.drop(labels=None, axis=0, index=None, columns=None, level=None, inplace=False, er-

rors=’raise’)
Return new object with labels in requested axis removed.
Parameters labels : single label or list-like
Index or column labels to drop.
axis : int or axis name
Whether to drop labels from the index (0 / ‘index’) or columns (1 / ‘columns’).
index, columns : single label or list-like
Alternative to specifying axis (labels, axis=1 is equivalent to
columns=labels).
New in version 0.21.0.
level : int or level name, default None
For MultiIndex
inplace : bool, default False
If True, do operation inplace and return None.
errors : {‘ignore’, ‘raise’}, default ‘raise’
If ‘ignore’, suppress error and existing labels are dropped.
Returns dropped : type of caller

Notes

Specifying both labels and index or columns will raise a ValueError.

1326 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Examples

>>> df = pd.DataFrame(np.arange(12).reshape(3,4),
columns=['A', 'B', 'C', 'D'])
>>> df
A B C D
0 0 1 2 3
1 4 5 6 7
2 8 9 10 11

Drop columns

>>> df.drop(['B', 'C'], axis=1)

A D
0 0 3
1 4 7
2 8 11

>>> df.drop(columns=['B', 'C'])

A D
0 0 3
1 4 7
2 8 11

Drop a row by index

>>> df.drop([0, 1])

A B C D
2 8 9 10 11

pandas.Series.drop_duplicates

Series.drop_duplicates(keep=’first’, inplace=False)
Return Series with duplicate values removed
Parameters keep : {‘first’, ‘last’, False}, default ‘first’
• first : Drop duplicates except for the first occurrence.
• last : Drop duplicates except for the last occurrence.
• False : Drop all duplicates.
inplace : boolean, default False
If True, performs operation inplace and returns None.
Returns deduplicated : Series

pandas.Series.dropna

Series.dropna(axis=0, inplace=False, **kwargs)

Return Series without null values
Returns valid : Series
inplace : boolean, default False

34.3. Series 1327

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Do operation in place.

pandas.Series.dt

Series.dt()
Accessor object for datetimelike properties of the Series values.

Examples

>>> s.dt.hour
>>> s.dt.second
>>> s.dt.quarter

Returns a Series indexed like the original Series. Raises TypeError if the Series does not contain datetime-
like values.

pandas.Series.duplicated

Series.duplicated(keep=’first’)
Return boolean Series denoting duplicate values
Parameters keep : {‘first’, ‘last’, False}, default ‘first’
• first : Mark duplicates as True except for the first occurrence.
• last : Mark duplicates as True except for the last occurrence.
• False : Mark all duplicates as True.
Returns duplicated : Series

pandas.Series.eq

Series.eq(other, level=None, fill_value=None, axis=0)

Equal to of series and other, element-wise (binary operator eq).
Equivalent to series == other, but with support to substitute a fill_value for missing data in one of
the inputs.
Parameters other : Series or scalar value
fill_value : None or float value, default None (NaN)
Fill missing (NaN) values with this value. If both Series are missing, the result will be
missing
level : int or name
Broadcast across a level, matching Index values on the passed MultiIndex level
Returns result : Series
See also:
Series.None

1328 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

pandas.Series.equals

Series.equals(other)
Determines if two NDFrame objects contain the same elements. NaNs in the same location are considered
equal.

pandas.Series.ewm

Series.ewm(com=None, span=None, halflife=None, alpha=None, min_periods=0, freq=None, ad-

just=True, ignore_na=False, axis=0)
Provides exponential weighted functions
New in version 0.18.0.
Parameters com : float, optional
Specify decay in terms of center of mass, 𝛼 = 1/(1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑚), for 𝑐𝑜𝑚 ≥ 0
span : float, optional
Specify decay in terms of span, 𝛼 = 2/(𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛 + 1), for 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛 ≥ 1
halflife : float, optional
Specify decay in terms of half-life, 𝛼 = 1−𝑒𝑥𝑝(𝑙𝑜𝑔(0.5)/ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑓 𝑒), for ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑓 𝑒 > 0
alpha : float, optional
Specify smoothing factor 𝛼 directly, 0 < 𝛼 ≤ 1
New in version 0.18.0.
min_periods : int, default 0
Minimum number of observations in window required to have a value (otherwise result
is NA).
freq : None or string alias / date offset object, default=None
Deprecated since version 0.18.0: Frequency to conform to before computing statistic
adjust : boolean, default True
Divide by decaying adjustment factor in beginning periods to account for imbalance in
relative weightings (viewing EWMA as a moving average)
ignore_na : boolean, default False
Ignore missing values when calculating weights; specify True to reproduce pre-0.15.0
behavior
Returns a Window sub-classed for the particular operation

Notes

Exactly one of center of mass, span, half-life, and alpha must be provided. Allowed values and relationship
between the parameters are specified in the parameter descriptions above; see the link at the end of this
section for a detailed explanation.
The freq keyword is used to conform time series data to a specified frequency by resampling the data. This
is done with the default parameters of resample() (i.e. using the mean).

34.3. Series 1329

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

When adjust is True (default), weighted averages are calculated using weights (1-alpha)**(n-1), (1-
alpha)**(n-2), ..., 1-alpha, 1.
When adjust is False, weighted averages are calculated recursively as: weighted_average[0] = arg[0];
weighted_average[i] = (1-alpha)*weighted_average[i-1] + alpha*arg[i].
When ignore_na is False (default), weights are based on absolute positions. For example, the weights of
x and y used in calculating the final weighted average of [x, None, y] are (1-alpha)**2 and 1 (if adjust is
True), and (1-alpha)**2 and alpha (if adjust is False).
When ignore_na is True (reproducing pre-0.15.0 behavior), weights are based on relative positions. For
example, the weights of x and y used in calculating the final weighted average of [x, None, y] are 1-alpha
and 1 (if adjust is True), and 1-alpha and alpha (if adjust is False).
More details can be found at http://pandas.pydata.org/pandas-docs/stable/computation.html#
exponentially-weighted-windows

Examples

>>> df = DataFrame({'B': [0, 1, 2, np.nan, 4]})

B
0 0.0
1 1.0
2 2.0
3 NaN
4 4.0

>>> df.ewm(com=0.5).mean()
B
0 0.000000
1 0.750000
2 1.615385
3 1.615385
4 3.670213

pandas.Series.expanding

Series.expanding(min_periods=1, freq=None, center=False, axis=0)

Provides expanding transformations.
New in version 0.18.0.
Parameters min_periods : int, default None
Minimum number of observations in window required to have a value (otherwise result
is NA).
freq : string or DateOffset object, optional (default None)
Deprecated since version 0.18.0: Frequency to conform the data to before computing
the statistic. Specified as a frequency string or DateOffset object.
center : boolean, default False
Set the labels at the center of the window.
axis : int or string, default 0
Returns a Window sub-classed for the particular operation

1330 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Notes

By default, the result is set to the right edge of the window. This can be changed to the center of the
window by setting center=True.
The freq keyword is used to conform time series data to a specified frequency by resampling the data. This
is done with the default parameters of resample() (i.e. using the mean).

Examples

>>> df = DataFrame({'B': [0, 1, 2, np.nan, 4]})

B
0 0.0
1 1.0
2 2.0
3 NaN
4 4.0

>>> df.expanding(2).sum()
B
0 NaN
1 1.0
2 3.0
3 3.0
4 7.0

pandas.Series.factorize

Series.factorize(sort=False, na_sentinel=-1)
Encode the object as an enumerated type or categorical variable
Parameters sort : boolean, default False
Sort by values
na_sentinel: int, default -1
Value to mark “not found”
Returns labels : the indexer to the original array
uniques : the unique Index

pandas.Series.ffill

Series.ffill(axis=None, inplace=False, limit=None, downcast=None)

Synonym for DataFrame.fillna(method='ffill')

pandas.Series.fillna

Series.fillna(value=None, method=None, axis=None, inplace=False, limit=None, down-

cast=None, **kwargs)
Fill NA/NaN values using the specified method

34.3. Series 1331

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Parameters value : scalar, dict, Series, or DataFrame

Value to use to fill holes (e.g. 0), alternately a dict/Series/DataFrame of values spec-
ifying which value to use for each index (for a Series) or column (for a DataFrame).
(values not in the dict/Series/DataFrame will not be filled). This value cannot be a list.
method : {‘backfill’, ‘bfill’, ‘pad’, ‘ffill’, None}, default None
Method to use for filling holes in reindexed Series pad / ffill: propagate last valid obser-
vation forward to next valid backfill / bfill: use NEXT valid observation to fill gap
axis : {0, ‘index’}
inplace : boolean, default False
If True, fill in place. Note: this will modify any other views on this object, (e.g. a
no-copy slice for a column in a DataFrame).
limit : int, default None
If method is specified, this is the maximum number of consecutive NaN values to for-
ward/backward fill. In other words, if there is a gap with more than this number of
consecutive NaNs, it will only be partially filled. If method is not specified, this is the
maximum number of entries along the entire axis where NaNs will be filled. Must be
greater than 0 if not None.
downcast : dict, default is None
a dict of item->dtype of what to downcast if possible, or the string ‘infer’ which will try
to downcast to an appropriate equal type (e.g. float64 to int64 if possible)
Returns filled : Series
See also:
reindex, asfreq

Examples

>>> df = pd.DataFrame([[np.nan, 2, np.nan, 0],

... [3, 4, np.nan, 1],
... [np.nan, np.nan, np.nan, 5],
... [np.nan, 3, np.nan, 4]],
... columns=list('ABCD'))
>>> df
A B C D
0 NaN 2.0 NaN 0
1 3.0 4.0 NaN 1
2 NaN NaN NaN 5
3 NaN 3.0 NaN 4

Replace all NaN elements with 0s.

>>> df.fillna(0)
A B C D
0 0.0 2.0 0.0 0
1 3.0 4.0 0.0 1
2 0.0 0.0 0.0 5
3 0.0 3.0 0.0 4

1332 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

We can also propagate non-null values forward or backward.

>>> df.fillna(method='ffill')
A B C D
0 NaN 2.0 NaN 0
1 3.0 4.0 NaN 1
2 3.0 4.0 NaN 5
3 3.0 3.0 NaN 4

Replace all NaN elements in column ‘A’, ‘B’, ‘C’, and ‘D’, with 0, 1, 2, and 3 respectively.

>>> values = {'A': 0, 'B': 1, 'C': 2, 'D': 3}

>>> df.fillna(value=values)
A B C D
0 0.0 2.0 2.0 0
1 3.0 4.0 2.0 1
2 0.0 1.0 2.0 5
3 0.0 3.0 2.0 4

Only replace the first NaN element.

>>> df.fillna(value=values, limit=1)

A B C D
0 0.0 2.0 2.0 0
1 3.0 4.0 NaN 1
2 NaN 1.0 NaN 5
3 NaN 3.0 NaN 4

pandas.Series.filter

Series.filter(items=None, like=None, regex=None, axis=None)

Subset rows or columns of dataframe according to labels in the specified index.
Note that this routine does not filter a dataframe on its contents. The filter is applied to the labels of the
index.
Parameters items : list-like
List of info axis to restrict to (must not all be present)
like : string
Keep info axis where “arg in col == True”
regex : string (regular expression)
Keep info axis with re.search(regex, col) == True
axis : int or string axis name
The axis to filter on. By default this is the info axis, ‘index’ for Series, ‘columns’ for
DataFrame
Returns same type as input object
See also:
pandas.DataFrame.loc

34.3. Series 1333

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Notes

The items, like, and regex parameters are enforced to be mutually exclusive.
axis defaults to the info axis that is used when indexing with [].

Examples

>>> df
one two three
mouse 1 2 3
rabbit 4 5 6

>>> # select columns by name

>>> df.filter(items=['one', 'three'])
one three
mouse 1 3
rabbit 4 6

>>> # select columns by regular expression

>>> df.filter(regex='e$', axis=1)
one three
mouse 1 3
rabbit 4 6

>>> # select rows containing 'bbi'

>>> df.filter(like='bbi', axis=0)
one two three
rabbit 4 5 6

pandas.Series.first

Series.first(offset)
Convenience method for subsetting initial periods of time series data based on a date offset.
Parameters offset : string, DateOffset, dateutil.relativedelta
Returns subset : type of caller

Examples

ts.first(‘10D’) -> First 10 days

pandas.Series.first_valid_index

Series.first_valid_index()
Return index for first non-NA/null value.
Returns scalar : type of index

1334 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Notes

If all elements are non-NA/null, returns None. Also returns None for empty Series.

pandas.Series.floordiv

Series.floordiv(other, level=None, fill_value=None, axis=0)

Integer division of series and other, element-wise (binary operator floordiv).
Equivalent to series // other, but with support to substitute a fill_value for missing data in one of
the inputs.
Parameters other : Series or scalar value
fill_value : None or float value, default None (NaN)
Fill missing (NaN) values with this value. If both Series are missing, the result will be
missing
level : int or name
Broadcast across a level, matching Index values on the passed MultiIndex level
Returns result : Series
See also:
Series.rfloordiv

pandas.Series.from_array

classmethod Series.from_array(arr, index=None, name=None, dtype=None, copy=False, fast-

path=False)

pandas.Series.from_csv

classmethod Series.from_csv(path, sep=’, ‘, parse_dates=True, header=None, index_col=0, en-

coding=None, infer_datetime_format=False)
Read CSV file (DEPRECATED, please use pandas.read_csv() instead).
It is preferable to use the more powerful pandas.read_csv() for most general purposes, but
from_csv makes for an easy roundtrip to and from a file (the exact counterpart of to_csv), especially
with a time Series.
This method only differs from pandas.read_csv() in some defaults:
• index_col is 0 instead of None (take first column as index by default)
• header is None instead of 0 (the first row is not used as the column names)
• parse_dates is True instead of False (try parsing the index as datetime by default)
With pandas.read_csv(), the option squeeze=True can be used to return a Series like
from_csv.
Parameters path : string file path or file handle / StringIO
sep : string, default ‘,’
Field delimiter

34.3. Series 1335

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

parse_dates : boolean, default True

Parse dates. Different default from read_table
header : int, default None
Row to use as header (skip prior rows)
index_col : int or sequence, default 0
Column to use for index. If a sequence is given, a MultiIndex is used. Different default
from read_table
encoding : string, optional
a string representing the encoding to use if the contents are non-ascii, for python ver-
sions prior to 3
infer_datetime_format: boolean, default False
If True and parse_dates is True for a column, try to infer the datetime format based on
the first datetime string. If the format can be inferred, there often will be a large parsing
speed-up.
Returns y : Series
See also:
pandas.read_csv

pandas.Series.ge

Series.ge(other, level=None, fill_value=None, axis=0)

Greater than or equal to of series and other, element-wise (binary operator ge).
Equivalent to series >= other, but with support to substitute a fill_value for missing data in one of
the inputs.
Parameters other : Series or scalar value
fill_value : None or float value, default None (NaN)
Fill missing (NaN) values with this value. If both Series are missing, the result will be
missing
level : int or name
Broadcast across a level, matching Index values on the passed MultiIndex level
Returns result : Series
See also:
Series.None

pandas.Series.get

Series.get(key, default=None)
Get item from object for given key (DataFrame column, Panel slice, etc.). Returns default value if not
found.
Parameters key : object

1336 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Returns value : type of items contained in object

pandas.Series.get_dtype_counts

Series.get_dtype_counts()
Return the counts of dtypes in this object.

pandas.Series.get_ftype_counts

Series.get_ftype_counts()
Return the counts of ftypes in this object.

pandas.Series.get_value

Series.get_value(label, takeable=False)
Quickly retrieve single value at passed index label
Deprecated since version 0.21.0.
Please use .at[] or .iat[] accessors.
Parameters index : label
takeable : interpret the index as indexers, default False
Returns value : scalar value

pandas.Series.get_values

Series.get_values()
same as values (but handles sparseness conversions); is a view

pandas.Series.groupby

Series.groupby(by=None, axis=0, level=None, as_index=True, sort=True, group_keys=True,

squeeze=False, **kwargs)
Group series using mapper (dict or key function, apply given function to group, return result as series) or
by a series of columns.
Parameters by : mapping, function, str, or iterable
Used to determine the groups for the groupby. If by is a function, it’s called on each
value of the object’s index. If a dict or Series is passed, the Series or dict VALUES will
be used to determine the groups (the Series’ values are first aligned; see .align()
method). If an ndarray is passed, the values are used as-is determine the groups. A str
or list of strs may be passed to group by the columns in self
axis : int, default 0
level : int, level name, or sequence of such, default None
If the axis is a MultiIndex (hierarchical), group by a particular level or levels
as_index : boolean, default True

34.3. Series 1337

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

For aggregated output, return object with group labels as the index. Only relevant for
DataFrame input. as_index=False is effectively “SQL-style” grouped output
sort : boolean, default True
Sort group keys. Get better performance by turning this off. Note this does not influence
the order of observations within each group. groupby preserves the order of rows within
each group.
group_keys : boolean, default True
When calling apply, add group keys to index to identify pieces
squeeze : boolean, default False
reduce the dimensionality of the return type if possible, otherwise return a consistent
type
Returns GroupBy object

Examples

DataFrame results

>>> data.groupby(func, axis=0).mean()

>>> data.groupby(['col1', 'col2'])['col3'].mean()

DataFrame with hierarchical index

>>> data.groupby(['col1', 'col2']).mean()

pandas.Series.gt

Series.gt(other, level=None, fill_value=None, axis=0)

Greater than of series and other, element-wise (binary operator gt).
Equivalent to series > other, but with support to substitute a fill_value for missing data in one of
the inputs.
Parameters other : Series or scalar value
fill_value : None or float value, default None (NaN)
Fill missing (NaN) values with this value. If both Series are missing, the result will be
missing
level : int or name
Broadcast across a level, matching Index values on the passed MultiIndex level
Returns result : Series
See also:
Series.None

1338 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

pandas.Series.head

Series.head(n=5)
Return the first n rows.
Parameters n : int, default 5
Number of rows to select.
Returns obj_head : type of caller
The first n rows of the caller object.

pandas.Series.hist

Series.hist(by=None, ax=None, grid=True, xlabelsize=None, xrot=None, ylabelsize=None,

yrot=None, figsize=None, bins=10, **kwds)
Draw histogram of the input series using matplotlib
Parameters by : object, optional
If passed, then used to form histograms for separate groups
ax : matplotlib axis object
If not passed, uses gca()
grid : boolean, default True
Whether to show axis grid lines
xlabelsize : int, default None
If specified changes the x-axis label size
xrot : float, default None
rotation of x axis labels
ylabelsize : int, default None
If specified changes the y-axis label size
yrot : float, default None
rotation of y axis labels
figsize : tuple, default None
figure size in inches by default
bins: integer, default 10
Number of histogram bins to be used
kwds : keywords
To be passed to the actual plotting function

Notes

See matplotlib documentation online for more on this

34.3. Series 1339

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

pandas.Series.idxmax

Series.idxmax(axis=None, skipna=True, *args, **kwargs)

Index label of the first occurrence of maximum of values.
Parameters skipna : boolean, default True
Exclude NA/null values
Returns idxmax : Index of maximum of values
See also:
DataFrame.idxmax, numpy.ndarray.argmax

Notes

This method is the Series version of ndarray.argmax. This method returns the label of the maximum,
while ndarray.argmax returns the position. To get the position, use series.values.argmax().

pandas.Series.idxmin

Series.idxmin(axis=None, skipna=True, *args, **kwargs)

Index label of the first occurrence of minimum of values.
Parameters skipna : boolean, default True
Exclude NA/null values
Returns idxmin : Index of minimum of values
See also:
DataFrame.idxmin, numpy.ndarray.argmin

Notes

This method is the Series version of ndarray.argmin. This method returns the label of the minimum,
while ndarray.argmin returns the position. To get the position, use series.values.argmin().

pandas.Series.infer_objects

Series.infer_objects()
Attempt to infer better dtypes for object columns.
Attempts soft conversion of object-dtyped columns, leaving non-object and unconvertible columns un-
changed. The inference rules are the same as during normal Series/DataFrame construction.
New in version 0.21.0.
Returns converted : same type as input object
See also:

pandas.to_datetime Convert argument to datetime.

pandas.to_timedelta Convert argument to timedelta.

1340 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

pandas.to_numeric Convert argument to numeric typeR

Examples

>>> df = pd.DataFrame({"A": ["a", 1, 2, 3]})

>>> df = df.iloc[1:]
>>> df
A
1 1
2 2
3 3

>>> df.dtypes
A object
dtype: object

>>> df.infer_objects().dtypes
A int64
dtype: object

pandas.Series.interpolate

Series.interpolate(method=’linear’, axis=0, limit=None, inplace=False,

limit_direction=’forward’, downcast=None, **kwargs)
Interpolate values according to different methods.
Please note that only method='linear' is supported for DataFrames/Series with a MultiIndex.
Parameters method : {‘linear’, ‘time’, ‘index’, ‘values’, ‘nearest’, ‘zero’,
‘slinear’, ‘quadratic’, ‘cubic’, ‘barycentric’, ‘krogh’, ‘polynomial’, ‘spline’,
‘piecewise_polynomial’, ‘from_derivatives’, ‘pchip’, ‘akima’}

• ‘linear’: ignore the index and treat the values as equally spaced. This is the only
method supported on MultiIndexes. default
• ‘time’: interpolation works on daily and higher resolution data to interpolate given
length of interval
• ‘index’, ‘values’: use the actual numerical values of the index
• ‘nearest’, ‘zero’, ‘slinear’, ‘quadratic’, ‘cubic’, ‘barycentric’, ‘polynomial’ is passed
to scipy.interpolate.interp1d. Both ‘polynomial’ and ‘spline’ require
that you also specify an order (int), e.g. df.interpolate(method=’polynomial’, or-
der=4). These use the actual numerical values of the index.
• ‘krogh’, ‘piecewise_polynomial’, ‘spline’, ‘pchip’ and ‘akima’ are all wrappers
around the scipy interpolation methods of similar names. These use the actual nu-
merical values of the index. For more information on their behavior, see the scipy
documentation and tutorial documentation
• ‘from_derivatives’ refers to BPoly.from_derivatives which replaces ‘piece-
wise_polynomial’ interpolation method in scipy 0.18

34.3. Series 1341

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

New in version 0.18.1: Added support for the ‘akima’ method Added interpolate method
‘from_derivatives’ which replaces ‘piecewise_polynomial’ in scipy 0.18; backwards-
compatible with scipy < 0.18
axis : {0, 1}, default 0
• 0: fill column-by-column
• 1: fill row-by-row
limit : int, default None.
Maximum number of consecutive NaNs to fill. Must be greater than 0.
limit_direction : {‘forward’, ‘backward’, ‘both’}, default ‘forward’
If limit is specified, consecutive NaNs will be filled in this direction.
New in version 0.17.0.
inplace : bool, default False
Update the NDFrame in place if possible.
downcast : optional, ‘infer’ or None, defaults to None
Downcast dtypes if possible.
kwargs : keyword arguments to pass on to the interpolating function.
Returns Series or DataFrame of same shape interpolated at the NaNs
See also:
reindex, replace, fillna

Examples

Filling in NaNs

>>> s = pd.Series([0, 1, np.nan, 3])

>>> s.interpolate()
0 0
1 1
2 2
3 3
dtype: float64

pandas.Series.isin

Series.isin(values)
Return a boolean Series showing whether each element in the Series is exactly contained in the
passed sequence of values.
Parameters values : set or list-like
The sequence of values to test. Passing in a single string will raise a TypeError.
Instead, turn a single string into a list of one element.
New in version 0.18.1.
Support for values as a set

1342 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Returns isin : Series (bool dtype)

Raises TypeError
• If values is a string
See also:
pandas.DataFrame.isin

Examples

>>> s = pd.Series(list('abc'))
>>> s.isin(['a', 'c', 'e'])
0 True
1 False
2 True
dtype: bool

Passing a single string as s.isin('a') will raise an error. Use a list of one element instead:

>>> s.isin(['a'])
0 True
1 False
2 False
dtype: bool

pandas.Series.isna

Series.isna()
Return a boolean same-sized object indicating if the values are NA.
See also:

Series.notna boolean inverse of isna

Series.isnull alias of isna
isna top-level isna

pandas.Series.isnull

Series.isnull()
Return a boolean same-sized object indicating if the values are NA.
See also:

Series.notna boolean inverse of isna

Series.isnull alias of isna
isna top-level isna

34.3. Series 1343

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

pandas.Series.item

Series.item()
return the first element of the underlying data as a python scalar

pandas.Series.items

Series.items()
Lazily iterate over (index, value) tuples

pandas.Series.iteritems

Series.iteritems()
Lazily iterate over (index, value) tuples

pandas.Series.keys

Series.keys()
Alias for index

pandas.Series.kurt

Series.kurt(axis=None, skipna=None, level=None, numeric_only=None, **kwargs)

Return unbiased kurtosis over requested axis using Fisher’s definition of kurtosis (kurtosis of normal ==
0.0). Normalized by N-1
Parameters axis : {index (0)}
skipna : boolean, default True
Exclude NA/null values. If an entire row/column is NA or empty, the result will be NA
level : int or level name, default None
If the axis is a MultiIndex (hierarchical), count along a particular level, collapsing into
a scalar
numeric_only : boolean, default None
Include only float, int, boolean columns. If None, will attempt to use everything, then
use only numeric data. Not implemented for Series.
Returns kurt : scalar or Series (if level specified)

pandas.Series.kurtosis

Series.kurtosis(axis=None, skipna=None, level=None, numeric_only=None, **kwargs)

Return unbiased kurtosis over requested axis using Fisher’s definition of kurtosis (kurtosis of normal ==
0.0). Normalized by N-1
Parameters axis : {index (0)}
skipna : boolean, default True

1344 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Exclude NA/null values. If an entire row/column is NA or empty, the result will be NA

level : int or level name, default None
If the axis is a MultiIndex (hierarchical), count along a particular level, collapsing into
a scalar
numeric_only : boolean, default None
Include only float, int, boolean columns. If None, will attempt to use everything, then
use only numeric data. Not implemented for Series.
Returns kurt : scalar or Series (if level specified)

pandas.Series.last

Series.last(offset)
Convenience method for subsetting final periods of time series data based on a date offset.
Parameters offset : string, DateOffset, dateutil.relativedelta
Returns subset : type of caller

Examples

ts.last(‘5M’) -> Last 5 months

pandas.Series.last_valid_index

Series.last_valid_index()
Return index for last non-NA/null value.
Returns scalar : type of index

Notes

If all elements are non-NA/null, returns None. Also returns None for empty Series.

pandas.Series.le

Series.le(other, level=None, fill_value=None, axis=0)

Less than or equal to of series and other, element-wise (binary operator le).
Equivalent to series <= other, but with support to substitute a fill_value for missing data in one of
the inputs.
Parameters other : Series or scalar value
fill_value : None or float value, default None (NaN)
Fill missing (NaN) values with this value. If both Series are missing, the result will be
missing
level : int or name
Broadcast across a level, matching Index values on the passed MultiIndex level

34.3. Series 1345

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Returns result : Series

See also:
Series.None

pandas.Series.lt

Series.lt(other, level=None, fill_value=None, axis=0)

Less than of series and other, element-wise (binary operator lt).
Equivalent to series < other, but with support to substitute a fill_value for missing data in one of
the inputs.
Parameters other : Series or scalar value
fill_value : None or float value, default None (NaN)
Fill missing (NaN) values with this value. If both Series are missing, the result will be
missing
level : int or name
Broadcast across a level, matching Index values on the passed MultiIndex level
Returns result : Series
See also:
Series.None

pandas.Series.mad

Series.mad(axis=None, skipna=None, level=None)

Return the mean absolute deviation of the values for the requested axis
Parameters axis : {index (0)}
skipna : boolean, default True
Exclude NA/null values. If an entire row/column is NA or empty, the result will be NA
level : int or level name, default None
If the axis is a MultiIndex (hierarchical), count along a particular level, collapsing into
a scalar
numeric_only : boolean, default None
Include only float, int, boolean columns. If None, will attempt to use everything, then
use only numeric data. Not implemented for Series.
Returns mad : scalar or Series (if level specified)

pandas.Series.map

Series.map(arg, na_action=None)
Map values of Series using input correspondence (which can be a dict, Series, or function)

1346 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Parameters arg : function, dict, or Series

na_action : {None, ‘ignore’}
If ‘ignore’, propagate NA values, without passing them to the mapping function
Returns y : Series
same index as caller
See also:

Series.apply For applying more complex functions on a Series

DataFrame.apply Apply a function row-/column-wise
DataFrame.applymap Apply a function elementwise on a whole DataFrame

Notes

When arg is a dictionary, values in Series that are not in the dictionary (as keys) are converted to NaN.
However, if the dictionary is a dict subclass that defines __missing__ (i.e. provides a method for
default values), then this default is used rather than NaN:

>>> from collections import Counter

>>> counter = Counter()
>>> counter['bar'] += 1
>>> y.map(counter)
1 0
2 1
3 0
dtype: int64

Examples

Map inputs to outputs (both of type Series)

>>> x = pd.Series([1,2,3], index=['one', 'two', 'three'])

>>> x
one 1
two 2
three 3
dtype: int64

>>> y = pd.Series(['foo', 'bar', 'baz'], index=[1,2,3])

>>> y
1 foo
2 bar
3 baz

>>> x.map(y)
one foo
two bar
three baz

If arg is a dictionary, return a new Series with values converted according to the dictionary’s mapping:

34.3. Series 1347

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

>>> z = {1: 'A', 2: 'B', 3: 'C'}

>>> x.map(z)
one A
two B
three C

Use na_action to control whether NA values are affected by the mapping function.

>>> s = pd.Series([1, 2, 3, np.nan])

>>> s2 = s.map('this is a string {}'.format, na_action=None)

0 this is a string 1.0
1 this is a string 2.0
2 this is a string 3.0
3 this is a string nan
dtype: object

>>> s3 = s.map('this is a string {}'.format, na_action='ignore')

0 this is a string 1.0
1 this is a string 2.0
2 this is a string 3.0
3 NaN
dtype: object

pandas.Series.mask

Series.mask(cond, other=nan, inplace=False, axis=None, level=None, errors=’raise’,

try_cast=False, raise_on_error=None)
Return an object of same shape as self and whose corresponding entries are from self where cond is False
and otherwise are from other.
Parameters cond : boolean NDFrame, array-like, or callable
Where cond is False, keep the original value. Where True, replace with corresponding
value from other. If cond is callable, it is computed on the NDFrame and should return
boolean NDFrame or array. The callable must not change input NDFrame (though
pandas doesn’t check it).
New in version 0.18.1: A callable can be used as cond.
other : scalar, NDFrame, or callable
Entries where cond is True are replaced with corresponding value from other. If other
is callable, it is computed on the NDFrame and should return scalar or NDFrame. The
callable must not change input NDFrame (though pandas doesn’t check it).
New in version 0.18.1: A callable can be used as other.
inplace : boolean, default False
Whether to perform the operation in place on the data
axis : alignment axis if needed, default None
level : alignment level if needed, default None
errors : str, {‘raise’, ‘ignore’}, default ‘raise’

1348 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• raise : allow exceptions to be raised

• ignore : suppress exceptions. On error return original object
Note that currently this parameter won’t affect the results and will always coerce to a
suitable dtype.
try_cast : boolean, default False
try to cast the result back to the input type (if possible),
raise_on_error : boolean, default True
Whether to raise on invalid data types (e.g. trying to where on strings)
Deprecated since version 0.21.0.
Returns wh : same type as caller
See also:
DataFrame.where()

Notes

The mask method is an application of the if-then idiom. For each element in the calling DataFrame, if
cond is False the element is used; otherwise the corresponding element from the DataFrame other is
used.
The signature for DataFrame.where() differs from numpy.where(). Roughly df1.where(m,
df2) is equivalent to np.where(m, df1, df2).
For further details and examples see the mask documentation in indexing.

Examples

>>> s = pd.Series(range(5))
>>> s.where(s > 0)
0 NaN
1 1.0
2 2.0
3 3.0
4 4.0

>>> s.mask(s > 0)

0 0.0
1 NaN
2 NaN
3 NaN
4 NaN

>>> s.where(s > 1, 10)

0 10.0
1 10.0
2 2.0
3 3.0
4 4.0

34.3. Series 1349

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

>>> df = pd.DataFrame(np.arange(10).reshape(-1, 2), columns=['A', 'B'])

>>> m = df % 3 == 0
>>> df.where(m, -df)
A B
0 0 -1
1 -2 3
2 -4 -5
3 6 -7
4 -8 9
>>> df.where(m, -df) == np.where(m, df, -df)
A B
0 True True
1 True True
2 True True
3 True True
4 True True
>>> df.where(m, -df) == df.mask(~m, -df)
A B
0 True True
1 True True
2 True True
3 True True
4 True True

pandas.Series.max

Series.max(axis=None, skipna=None, level=None, numeric_only=None, **kwargs)

This method returns the maximum of the values in the object. If you want the index of the maximum,
use idxmax. This is the equivalent of the numpy.ndarray method argmax.

Parameters axis : {index (0)}

skipna : boolean, default True
Exclude NA/null values. If an entire row/column is NA or empty, the result will be NA
level : int or level name, default None
If the axis is a MultiIndex (hierarchical), count along a particular level, collapsing into
a scalar
numeric_only : boolean, default None
Include only float, int, boolean columns. If None, will attempt to use everything, then
use only numeric data. Not implemented for Series.
Returns max : scalar or Series (if level specified)

pandas.Series.mean

Series.mean(axis=None, skipna=None, level=None, numeric_only=None, **kwargs)

Return the mean of the values for the requested axis
Parameters axis : {index (0)}
skipna : boolean, default True

1350 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Exclude NA/null values. If an entire row/column is NA or empty, the result will be NA

level : int or level name, default None
If the axis is a MultiIndex (hierarchical), count along a particular level, collapsing into
a scalar
numeric_only : boolean, default None
Include only float, int, boolean columns. If None, will attempt to use everything, then
use only numeric data. Not implemented for Series.
Returns mean : scalar or Series (if level specified)

pandas.Series.median

Series.median(axis=None, skipna=None, level=None, numeric_only=None, **kwargs)

Return the median of the values for the requested axis
Parameters axis : {index (0)}
skipna : boolean, default True
Exclude NA/null values. If an entire row/column is NA or empty, the result will be NA
level : int or level name, default None
If the axis is a MultiIndex (hierarchical), count along a particular level, collapsing into
a scalar
numeric_only : boolean, default None
Include only float, int, boolean columns. If None, will attempt to use everything, then
use only numeric data. Not implemented for Series.
Returns median : scalar or Series (if level specified)

pandas.Series.memory_usage

Series.memory_usage(index=True, deep=False)
Memory usage of the Series
Parameters index : bool
Specifies whether to include memory usage of Series index
deep : bool
Introspect the data deeply, interrogate object dtypes for system-level memory consump-
tion
Returns scalar bytes of memory consumed
See also:
numpy.ndarray.nbytes

Notes

Memory usage does not include memory consumed by elements that are not components of the array if
deep=False

34.3. Series 1351

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

pandas.Series.min

Series.min(axis=None, skipna=None, level=None, numeric_only=None, **kwargs)

This method returns the minimum of the values in the object. If you want the index of the minimum,
use idxmin. This is the equivalent of the numpy.ndarray method argmin.

Parameters axis : {index (0)}

skipna : boolean, default True
Exclude NA/null values. If an entire row/column is NA or empty, the result will be NA
level : int or level name, default None
If the axis is a MultiIndex (hierarchical), count along a particular level, collapsing into
a scalar
numeric_only : boolean, default None
Include only float, int, boolean columns. If None, will attempt to use everything, then
use only numeric data. Not implemented for Series.
Returns min : scalar or Series (if level specified)

pandas.Series.mod

Series.mod(other, level=None, fill_value=None, axis=0)

Modulo of series and other, element-wise (binary operator mod).
Equivalent to series % other, but with support to substitute a fill_value for missing data in one of
the inputs.
Parameters other : Series or scalar value
fill_value : None or float value, default None (NaN)
Fill missing (NaN) values with this value. If both Series are missing, the result will be
missing
level : int or name
Broadcast across a level, matching Index values on the passed MultiIndex level
Returns result : Series
See also:
Series.rmod

pandas.Series.mode

Series.mode()
Return the mode(s) of the dataset.
Always returns Series even if only one value is returned.
Returns modes : Series (sorted)

1352 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

pandas.Series.mul

Series.mul(other, level=None, fill_value=None, axis=0)

Multiplication of series and other, element-wise (binary operator mul).
Equivalent to series * other, but with support to substitute a fill_value for missing data in one of
the inputs.
Parameters other : Series or scalar value
fill_value : None or float value, default None (NaN)
Fill missing (NaN) values with this value. If both Series are missing, the result will be
missing
level : int or name
Broadcast across a level, matching Index values on the passed MultiIndex level
Returns result : Series
See also:
Series.rmul

pandas.Series.multiply

Series.multiply(other, level=None, fill_value=None, axis=0)

Multiplication of series and other, element-wise (binary operator mul).
Equivalent to series * other, but with support to substitute a fill_value for missing data in one of
the inputs.
Parameters other : Series or scalar value
fill_value : None or float value, default None (NaN)
Fill missing (NaN) values with this value. If both Series are missing, the result will be
missing
level : int or name
Broadcast across a level, matching Index values on the passed MultiIndex level
Returns result : Series
See also:
Series.rmul

pandas.Series.ne

Series.ne(other, level=None, fill_value=None, axis=0)

Not equal to of series and other, element-wise (binary operator ne).
Equivalent to series != other, but with support to substitute a fill_value for missing data in one of
the inputs.
Parameters other : Series or scalar value
fill_value : None or float value, default None (NaN)

34.3. Series 1353

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Fill missing (NaN) values with this value. If both Series are missing, the result will be
missing
level : int or name
Broadcast across a level, matching Index values on the passed MultiIndex level
Returns result : Series
See also:
Series.None

pandas.Series.nlargest

Series.nlargest(n=5, keep=’first’)
Return the largest n elements.
Parameters n : int
Return this many descending sorted values
keep : {‘first’, ‘last’, False}, default ‘first’
Where there are duplicate values: - first : take the first occurrence. - last : take
the last occurrence.
Returns top_n : Series
The n largest values in the Series, in sorted order
See also:
Series.nsmallest

Notes

Faster than .sort_values(ascending=False).head(n) for small n relative to the size of the

Series object.

Examples

>>> import pandas as pd

>>> import numpy as np
>>> s = pd.Series(np.random.randn(10**6))
>>> s.nlargest(10) # only sorts up to the N requested
219921 4.644710
82124 4.608745
421689 4.564644
425277 4.447014
718691 4.414137
43154 4.403520
283187 4.313922
595519 4.273635
503969 4.250236
121637 4.240952
dtype: float64

1354 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

pandas.Series.nonzero

Series.nonzero()
Return the indices of the elements that are non-zero
This method is equivalent to calling numpy.nonzero on the series data. For compatability with NumPy,
the return value is the same (a tuple with an array of indices for each dimension), but it will always be a
one-item tuple because series only have one dimension.
See also:
numpy.nonzero

Examples

>>> s = pd.Series([0, 3, 0, 4])

>>> s.nonzero()
(array([1, 3]),)
>>> s.iloc[s.nonzero()[0]]
1 3
3 4
dtype: int64

pandas.Series.notna

Series.notna()
Return a boolean same-sized object indicating if the values are not NA.
See also:

Series.isna boolean inverse of notna

Series.notnull alias of notna
notna top-level notna

pandas.Series.notnull

Series.notnull()
Return a boolean same-sized object indicating if the values are not NA.
See also:

Series.isna boolean inverse of notna

Series.notnull alias of notna
notna top-level notna

pandas.Series.nsmallest

Series.nsmallest(n=5, keep=’first’)
Return the smallest n elements.

34.3. Series 1355

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Parameters n : int
Return this many ascending sorted values
keep : {‘first’, ‘last’, False}, default ‘first’
Where there are duplicate values: - first : take the first occurrence. - last : take
the last occurrence.
Returns bottom_n : Series
The n smallest values in the Series, in sorted order
See also:
Series.nlargest

Notes

Faster than .sort_values().head(n) for small n relative to the size of the Series object.

Examples

>>> import pandas as pd

>>> import numpy as np
>>> s = pd.Series(np.random.randn(10**6))
>>> s.nsmallest(10) # only sorts up to the N requested
288532 -4.954580
732345 -4.835960
64803 -4.812550
446457 -4.609998
501225 -4.483945
669476 -4.472935
973615 -4.401699
621279 -4.355126
773916 -4.347355
359919 -4.331927
dtype: float64

pandas.Series.nunique

Series.nunique(dropna=True)
Return number of unique elements in the object.
Excludes NA values by default.
Parameters dropna : boolean, default True
Don’t include NaN in the count.
Returns nunique : int

pandas.Series.pct_change

Series.pct_change(periods=1, fill_method=’pad’, limit=None, freq=None, **kwargs)

Percent change over given number of periods.

1356 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Parameters periods : int, default 1

Periods to shift for forming percent change
fill_method : str, default ‘pad’
How to handle NAs before computing percent changes
limit : int, default None
The number of consecutive NAs to fill before stopping
freq : DateOffset, timedelta, or offset alias string, optional
Increment to use from time series API (e.g. ‘M’ or BDay())
Returns chg : NDFrame

Notes

By default, the percentage change is calculated along the stat axis: 0, or Index, for DataFrame and 1,
or minor for Panel. You can change this with the axis keyword argument.

pandas.Series.pipe

Series.pipe(func, *args, **kwargs)

Apply func(self, *args, **kwargs)
Parameters func : function
function to apply to the NDFrame. args, and kwargs are passed into func. Alter-
natively a (callable, data_keyword) tuple where data_keyword is a string
indicating the keyword of callable that expects the NDFrame.
args : iterable, optional
positional arguments passed into func.
kwargs : mapping, optional
a dictionary of keyword arguments passed into func.
Returns object : the return type of func.
See also:
pandas.DataFrame.apply, pandas.DataFrame.applymap, pandas.Series.map

Notes

Use .pipe when chaining together functions that expect Series, DataFrames or GroupBy objects. Instead
of writing

>>> f(g(h(df), arg1=a), arg2=b, arg3=c)

You can write

34.3. Series 1357

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

>>> (df.pipe(h)
... .pipe(g, arg1=a)
... .pipe(f, arg2=b, arg3=c)
... )

If you have a function that takes the data as (say) the second argument, pass a tuple indicating which
keyword expects the data. For example, suppose f takes its data as arg2:

>>> (df.pipe(h)
... .pipe(g, arg1=a)
... .pipe((f, 'arg2'), arg1=a, arg3=c)
... )

pandas.Series.plot

Series.plot(kind=’line’, ax=None, figsize=None, use_index=True, title=None, grid=None, leg-

end=False, style=None, logx=False, logy=False, loglog=False, xticks=None, yt-
icks=None, xlim=None, ylim=None, rot=None, fontsize=None, colormap=None, ta-
ble=False, yerr=None, xerr=None, label=None, secondary_y=False, **kwds)
Make plots of Series using matplotlib / pylab.
New in version 0.17.0: Each plot kind has a corresponding method on the Series.plot accessor: s.
plot(kind='line') is equivalent to s.plot.line().
Parameters data : Series
kind : str
• ‘line’ : line plot (default)
• ‘bar’ : vertical bar plot
• ‘barh’ : horizontal bar plot
• ‘hist’ : histogram
• ‘box’ : boxplot
• ‘kde’ : Kernel Density Estimation plot
• ‘density’ : same as ‘kde’
• ‘area’ : area plot
• ‘pie’ : pie plot
ax : matplotlib axes object
If not passed, uses gca()
figsize : a tuple (width, height) in inches
use_index : boolean, default True
Use index as ticks for x axis
title : string or list
Title to use for the plot. If a string is passed, print the string at the top of the figure. If
a list is passed and subplots is True, print each item in the list above the corresponding
subplot.
grid : boolean, default None (matlab style default)

1358 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Axis grid lines

legend : False/True/’reverse’
Place legend on axis subplots
style : list or dict
matplotlib line style per column
logx : boolean, default False
Use log scaling on x axis
logy : boolean, default False
Use log scaling on y axis
loglog : boolean, default False
Use log scaling on both x and y axes
xticks : sequence
Values to use for the xticks
yticks : sequence
Values to use for the yticks
xlim : 2-tuple/list
ylim : 2-tuple/list
rot : int, default None
Rotation for ticks (xticks for vertical, yticks for horizontal plots)
fontsize : int, default None
Font size for xticks and yticks
colormap : str or matplotlib colormap object, default None
Colormap to select colors from. If string, load colormap with that name from matplotlib.
colorbar : boolean, optional
If True, plot colorbar (only relevant for ‘scatter’ and ‘hexbin’ plots)
position : float
Specify relative alignments for bar plot layout. From 0 (left/bottom-end) to 1 (right/top-
end). Default is 0.5 (center)
table : boolean, Series or DataFrame, default False
If True, draw a table using the data in the DataFrame and the data will be transposed to
meet matplotlib’s default layout. If a Series or DataFrame is passed, use passed data to
draw a table.
yerr : DataFrame, Series, array-like, dict and str
See Plotting with Error Bars for detail.
xerr : same types as yerr.
label : label argument to provide to plot
secondary_y : boolean or sequence of ints, default False

34.3. Series 1359

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

If True then y-axis will be on the right

mark_right : boolean, default True
When using a secondary_y axis, automatically mark the column labels with “(right)” in
the legend
kwds : keywords
Options to pass to matplotlib plotting method
Returns axes : matplotlib.AxesSubplot or np.array of them

Notes

• See matplotlib documentation online for more on this subject

• If kind = ‘bar’ or ‘barh’, you can specify relative alignments for bar plot layout by position keyword.
From 0 (left/bottom-end) to 1 (right/top-end). Default is 0.5 (center)

pandas.Series.pop

Series.pop(item)
Return item and drop from frame. Raise KeyError if not found.
Parameters item : str
Column label to be popped
Returns popped : Series

Examples

>>> df = pd.DataFrame([('falcon', 'bird', 389.0),

... ('parrot', 'bird', 24.0),
... ('lion', 'mammal', 80.5),
... ('monkey', 'mammal', np.nan)],
... columns=('name', 'class', 'max_speed'))
>>> df
name class max_speed
0 falcon bird 389.0
1 parrot bird 24.0
2 lion mammal 80.5
3 monkey mammal NaN

>>> df.pop('class')
0 bird
1 bird
2 mammal
3 mammal
Name: class, dtype: object

>>> df
name max_speed
0 falcon 389.0
1 parrot 24.0

1360 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

2 lion 80.5
3 monkey NaN

pandas.Series.pow

Series.pow(other, level=None, fill_value=None, axis=0)

Exponential power of series and other, element-wise (binary operator pow).
Equivalent to series ** other, but with support to substitute a fill_value for missing data in one of
the inputs.
Parameters other : Series or scalar value
fill_value : None or float value, default None (NaN)
Fill missing (NaN) values with this value. If both Series are missing, the result will be
missing
level : int or name
Broadcast across a level, matching Index values on the passed MultiIndex level
Returns result : Series
See also:
Series.rpow

pandas.Series.prod

Series.prod(axis=None, skipna=None, level=None, numeric_only=None, **kwargs)

Return the product of the values for the requested axis
Parameters axis : {index (0)}
skipna : boolean, default True
Exclude NA/null values. If an entire row/column is NA or empty, the result will be NA
level : int or level name, default None
If the axis is a MultiIndex (hierarchical), count along a particular level, collapsing into
a scalar
numeric_only : boolean, default None
Include only float, int, boolean columns. If None, will attempt to use everything, then
use only numeric data. Not implemented for Series.
Returns prod : scalar or Series (if level specified)

pandas.Series.product

Series.product(axis=None, skipna=None, level=None, numeric_only=None, **kwargs)

Return the product of the values for the requested axis
Parameters axis : {index (0)}
skipna : boolean, default True

34.3. Series 1361

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Exclude NA/null values. If an entire row/column is NA or empty, the result will be NA

level : int or level name, default None
If the axis is a MultiIndex (hierarchical), count along a particular level, collapsing into
a scalar
numeric_only : boolean, default None
Include only float, int, boolean columns. If None, will attempt to use everything, then
use only numeric data. Not implemented for Series.
Returns prod : scalar or Series (if level specified)

pandas.Series.ptp

Series.ptp(axis=None, skipna=None, level=None, numeric_only=None, **kwargs)

Returns the difference between the maximum value and the minimum value in the object. This is the
equivalent of the numpy.ndarray method ptp.

Parameters axis : {index (0)}

skipna : boolean, default True
Exclude NA/null values. If an entire row/column is NA or empty, the result will be NA
level : int or level name, default None
If the axis is a MultiIndex (hierarchical), count along a particular level, collapsing into
a scalar
numeric_only : boolean, default None
Include only float, int, boolean columns. If None, will attempt to use everything, then
use only numeric data. Not implemented for Series.
Returns ptp : scalar or Series (if level specified)

pandas.Series.put

Series.put(*args, **kwargs)
Applies the put method to its values attribute if it has one.
See also:
numpy.ndarray.put

pandas.Series.quantile

Series.quantile(q=0.5, interpolation=’linear’)
Return value at the given quantile, a la numpy.percentile.
Parameters q : float or array-like, default 0.5 (50% quantile)
0 <= q <= 1, the quantile(s) to compute
interpolation : {‘linear’, ‘lower’, ‘higher’, ‘midpoint’, ‘nearest’}

1362 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

New in version 0.18.0.

This optional parameter specifies the interpolation method to use, when the desired
quantile lies between two data points i and j:
• linear: i + (j - i) * fraction, where fraction is the fractional part of the index sur-
rounded by i and j.
• lower: i.
• higher: j.
• nearest: i or j whichever is nearest.
• midpoint: (i + j) / 2.
Returns quantile : float or Series
if q is an array, a Series will be returned where the index is q and the values are the
quantiles.

Examples

>>> s = Series([1, 2, 3, 4])

>>> s.quantile(.5)
2.5
>>> s.quantile([.25, .5, .75])
0.25 1.75
0.50 2.50
0.75 3.25
dtype: float64

pandas.Series.radd

Series.radd(other, level=None, fill_value=None, axis=0)

Addition of series and other, element-wise (binary operator radd).
Equivalent to other + series, but with support to substitute a fill_value for missing data in one of
the inputs.
Parameters other : Series or scalar value
fill_value : None or float value, default None (NaN)
Fill missing (NaN) values with this value. If both Series are missing, the result will be
missing
level : int or name
Broadcast across a level, matching Index values on the passed MultiIndex level
Returns result : Series
See also:
Series.add

34.3. Series 1363

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

pandas.Series.rank

Series.rank(axis=0, method=’average’, numeric_only=None, na_option=’keep’, ascending=True,

pct=False)
Compute numerical data ranks (1 through n) along axis. Equal values are assigned a rank that is the average
of the ranks of those values
Parameters axis : {0 or ‘index’, 1 or ‘columns’}, default 0
index to direct ranking
method : {‘average’, ‘min’, ‘max’, ‘first’, ‘dense’}
• average: average rank of group
• min: lowest rank in group
• max: highest rank in group
• first: ranks assigned in order they appear in the array
• dense: like ‘min’, but rank always increases by 1 between groups
numeric_only : boolean, default None
Include only float, int, boolean data. Valid only for DataFrame or Panel objects
na_option : {‘keep’, ‘top’, ‘bottom’}
• keep: leave NA values where they are
• top: smallest rank if ascending
• bottom: smallest rank if descending
ascending : boolean, default True
False for ranks by high (1) to low (N)
pct : boolean, default False
Computes percentage rank of data
Returns ranks : same type as caller

pandas.Series.ravel

Series.ravel(order=’C’)
Return the flattened underlying data as an ndarray
See also:
numpy.ndarray.ravel

pandas.Series.rdiv

Series.rdiv(other, level=None, fill_value=None, axis=0)

Floating division of series and other, element-wise (binary operator rtruediv).
Equivalent to other / series, but with support to substitute a fill_value for missing data in one of
the inputs.

1364 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Parameters other : Series or scalar value

fill_value : None or float value, default None (NaN)
Fill missing (NaN) values with this value. If both Series are missing, the result will be
missing
level : int or name
Broadcast across a level, matching Index values on the passed MultiIndex level
Returns result : Series
See also:
Series.truediv

pandas.Series.reindex

Series.reindex(index=None, **kwargs)
Conform Series to new index with optional filling logic, placing NA/NaN in locations having no value in
the previous index. A new object is produced unless the new index is equivalent to the current one and
copy=False
Parameters index : array-like, optional (should be specified using keywords)
New labels / index to conform to. Preferably an Index object to avoid duplicating data
method : {None, ‘backfill’/’bfill’, ‘pad’/’ffill’, ‘nearest’}, optional
method to use for filling holes in reindexed DataFrame. Please note: this is only appli-
cable to DataFrames/Series with a monotonically increasing/decreasing index.
• default: don’t fill gaps
• pad / ffill: propagate last valid observation forward to next valid
• backfill / bfill: use next valid observation to fill gap
• nearest: use nearest valid observations to fill gap
copy : boolean, default True
Return a new object, even if the passed indexes are the same
level : int or name
Broadcast across a level, matching Index values on the passed MultiIndex level
fill_value : scalar, default np.NaN
Value to use for missing values. Defaults to NaN, but can be any “compatible” value
limit : int, default None
Maximum number of consecutive elements to forward or backward fill
tolerance : optional
Maximum distance between original and new labels for inexact matches. The values of
the index at the matching locations most satisfy the equation abs(index[indexer]
- target) <= tolerance.
Tolerance may be a scalar value, which applies the same tolerance to all values, or list-
like, which applies variable tolerance per element. List-like includes list, tuple, array,

34.3. Series 1365

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Series, and must be the same size as the index and its dtype must exactly match the
index’s type.
New in version 0.17.0.
New in version 0.21.0: (list-like tolerance)
Returns reindexed : Series

Examples

DataFrame.reindex supports two calling conventions

• (index=index_labels, columns=column_labels, ...)
• (labels, axis={'index', 'columns'}, ...)
We highly recommend using keyword arguments to clarify your intent.
Create a dataframe with some fictional data.

>>> index = ['Firefox', 'Chrome', 'Safari', 'IE10', 'Konqueror']

>>> df = pd.DataFrame({
... 'http_status': [200,200,404,404,301],
... 'response_time': [0.04, 0.02, 0.07, 0.08, 1.0]},
... index=index)
>>> df
http_status response_time
Firefox 200 0.04
Chrome 200 0.02
Safari 404 0.07
IE10 404 0.08
Konqueror 301 1.00

Create a new index and reindex the dataframe. By default values in the new index that do not have
corresponding records in the dataframe are assigned NaN.

>>> new_index= ['Safari', 'Iceweasel', 'Comodo Dragon', 'IE10',

... 'Chrome']
>>> df.reindex(new_index)
http_status response_time
Safari 404.0 0.07
Iceweasel NaN NaN
Comodo Dragon NaN NaN
IE10 404.0 0.08
Chrome 200.0 0.02

We can fill in the missing values by passing a value to the keyword fill_value. Because the index is
not monotonically increasing or decreasing, we cannot use arguments to the keyword method to fill the
NaN values.

>>> df.reindex(new_index, fill_value=0)

http_status response_time
Safari 404 0.07
Iceweasel 0 0.00
Comodo Dragon 0 0.00
IE10 404 0.08
Chrome 200 0.02

1366 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

>>> df.reindex(new_index, fill_value='missing')

http_status response_time
Safari 404 0.07
Iceweasel missing missing
Comodo Dragon missing missing
IE10 404 0.08
Chrome 200 0.02

We can also reindex the columns.

>>> df.reindex(columns=['http_status', 'user_agent'])
http_status user_agent
Firefox 200 NaN
Chrome 200 NaN
Safari 404 NaN
IE10 404 NaN
Konqueror 301 NaN

Or we can use “axis-style” keyword arguments

>>> df.reindex(['http_status', 'user_agent'], axis="columns")
http_status user_agent
Firefox 200 NaN
Chrome 200 NaN
Safari 404 NaN
IE10 404 NaN
Konqueror 301 NaN

To further illustrate the filling functionality in reindex, we will create a dataframe with a monotonically
increasing index (for example, a sequence of dates).
>>> date_index = pd.date_range('1/1/2010', periods=6, freq='D')
>>> df2 = pd.DataFrame({"prices": [100, 101, np.nan, 100, 89, 88]},
... index=date_index)
>>> df2
prices
2010-01-01 100
2010-01-02 101
2010-01-03 NaN
2010-01-04 100
2010-01-05 89
2010-01-06 88

Suppose we decide to expand the dataframe to cover a wider date range.

>>> date_index2 = pd.date_range('12/29/2009', periods=10, freq='D')
>>> df2.reindex(date_index2)
prices
2009-12-29 NaN
2009-12-30 NaN
2009-12-31 NaN
2010-01-01 100
2010-01-02 101
2010-01-03 NaN
2010-01-04 100
2010-01-05 89
2010-01-06 88
2010-01-07 NaN

34.3. Series 1367

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

The index entries that did not have a value in the original data frame (for example, ‘2009-12-29’) are by
default filled with NaN. If desired, we can fill in the missing values using one of several options.
For example, to backpropagate the last valid value to fill the NaN values, pass bfill as an argument to
the method keyword.

>>> df2.reindex(date_index2, method='bfill')

prices
2009-12-29 100
2009-12-30 100
2009-12-31 100
2010-01-01 100
2010-01-02 101
2010-01-03 NaN
2010-01-04 100
2010-01-05 89
2010-01-06 88
2010-01-07 NaN

Please note that the NaN value present in the original dataframe (at index value 2010-01-03) will not be
filled by any of the value propagation schemes. This is because filling while reindexing does not look at
dataframe values, but only compares the original and desired indexes. If you do want to fill in the NaN
values present in the original dataframe, use the fillna() method.
See the user guide for more.

pandas.Series.reindex_axis

Series.reindex_axis(labels, axis=0, **kwargs)

for compatibility with higher dims

pandas.Series.reindex_like

Series.reindex_like(other, method=None, copy=True, limit=None, tolerance=None)

Return an object with matching indices to myself.
Parameters other : Object
method : string or None
copy : boolean, default True
limit : int, default None
Maximum number of consecutive labels to fill for inexact matches.
tolerance : optional
Maximum distance between labels of the other object and this object for inexact
matches. Can be list-like.
New in version 0.17.0.
New in version 0.21.0: (list-like tolerance)
Returns reindexed : same as input

1368 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Notes

Like calling s.reindex(index=other.index, columns=other.columns, method=...)

pandas.Series.rename

Series.rename(index=None, **kwargs)
Alter Series index labels or name
Function / dict values must be unique (1-to-1). Labels not contained in a dict / Series will be left as-is.
Extra labels listed don’t throw an error.
Alternatively, change Series.name with a scalar value.
See the user guide for more.
Parameters index : scalar, hashable sequence, dict-like or function, optional
dict-like or functions are transformations to apply to the index. Scalar or hashable
sequence-like will alter the Series.name attribute.
copy : boolean, default True
Also copy underlying data
inplace : boolean, default False
Whether to return a new %(klass)s. If True then value of copy is ignored.
level : int or level name, default None
In case of a MultiIndex, only rename labels in the specified level.
Returns renamed : Series (new object)
See also:
pandas.Series.rename_axis

Examples

>>> s = pd.Series([1, 2, 3])

>>> s
0 1
1 2
2 3
dtype: int64
>>> s.rename("my_name") # scalar, changes Series.name
0 1
1 2
2 3
Name: my_name, dtype: int64
>>> s.rename(lambda x: x ** 2) # function, changes labels
0 1
1 2
4 3
dtype: int64
>>> s.rename({1: 3, 2: 5}) # mapping, changes labels
0 1
3 2

34.3. Series 1369

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

5 3
dtype: int64

pandas.Series.rename_axis

Series.rename_axis(mapper, axis=0, copy=True, inplace=False)

Alter the name of the index or columns.
Parameters mapper : scalar, list-like, optional
Value to set the axis name attribute.
axis : int or string, default 0
copy : boolean, default True
Also copy underlying data
inplace : boolean, default False
Returns renamed : type of caller or None if inplace=True
See also:
pandas.Series.rename, pandas.DataFrame.rename, pandas.Index.rename

Notes

Prior to version 0.21.0, rename_axis could also be used to change the axis labels by passing a mapping
or scalar. This behavior is deprecated and will be removed in a future version. Use rename instead.

Examples

>>> df = pd.DataFrame({"A": [1, 2, 3], "B": [4, 5, 6]})

>>> df.rename_axis("foo")
A B
foo
0 1 4
1 2 5
2 3 6

>>> df.rename_axis("bar", axis="columns")

bar A B
0 1 4
1 2 5
2 3 6

pandas.Series.reorder_levels

Series.reorder_levels(order)
Rearrange index levels using input order. May not drop or duplicate levels
Parameters order : list of int representing new level order.

1370 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

(reference level by number or key)

axis : where to reorder levels
Returns type of caller (new object)

pandas.Series.repeat

Series.repeat(repeats, *args, **kwargs)

Repeat elements of an Series. Refer to numpy.ndarray.repeat for more information about the repeats
argument.
See also:
numpy.ndarray.repeat

pandas.Series.replace

Series.replace(to_replace=None, value=None, inplace=False, limit=None, regex=False,

method=’pad’, axis=None)
Replace values given in ‘to_replace’ with ‘value’.
Parameters to_replace : str, regex, list, dict, Series, numeric, or None
• str or regex:
– str: string exactly matching to_replace will be replaced with value
– regex: regexs matching to_replace will be replaced with value
• list of str, regex, or numeric:
– First, if to_replace and value are both lists, they must be the same length.
– Second, if regex=True then all of the strings in both lists will be interpreted
as regexs otherwise they will match directly. This doesn’t matter much for value
since there are only a few possible substitution regexes you can use.
– str and regex rules apply as above.
• dict:
– Nested dictionaries, e.g., {‘a’: {‘b’: nan}}, are read as follows: look in column
‘a’ for the value ‘b’ and replace it with nan. You can nest regular expressions as
well. Note that column names (the top-level dictionary keys in a nested dictionary)
cannot be regular expressions.
– Keys map to column names and values map to substitution values. You can treat
this as a special case of passing two lists except that you are specifying the column
to search in.
• None:
– This means that the regex argument must be a string, compiled regular expres-
sion, or list, dict, ndarray or Series of such elements. If value is also None then
this must be a nested dictionary or Series.
See the examples section for examples of each of these.
value : scalar, dict, list, str, regex, default None

34.3. Series 1371

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Value to use to fill holes (e.g. 0), alternately a dict of values specifying which value
to use for each column (columns not in the dict will not be filled). Regular expres-
sions, strings and lists or dicts of such objects are also allowed.
inplace : boolean, default False
If True, in place. Note: this will modify any other views on this object (e.g. a column
from a DataFrame). Returns the caller if this is True.
limit : int, default None
Maximum size gap to forward or backward fill
regex : bool or same types as to_replace, default False
Whether to interpret to_replace and/or value as regular expressions. If this is True
then to_replace must be a string. Otherwise, to_replace must be None because this
parameter will be interpreted as a regular expression or a list, dict, or array of regular
expressions.
method : string, optional, {‘pad’, ‘ffill’, ‘bfill’}
The method to use when for replacement, when to_replace is a list.
Returns filled : NDFrame
Raises AssertionError
• If regex is not a bool and to_replace is not None.
TypeError
• If to_replace is a dict and value is not a list, dict, ndarray, or Series
• If to_replace is None and regex is not compilable into a regular expression or is a list,
dict, ndarray, or Series.
ValueError
• If to_replace and value are list s or ndarray s, but they are not the same length.
See also:
NDFrame.reindex, NDFrame.asfreq, NDFrame.fillna

Notes

• Regex substitution is performed under the hood with re.sub. The rules for substitution for re.sub
are the same.
• Regular expressions will only substitute on strings, meaning you cannot provide, for example, a
regular expression matching floating point numbers and expect the columns in your frame that have
a numeric dtype to be matched. However, if those floating point numbers are strings, then you can
do this.
• This method has a lot of options. You are encouraged to experiment and play with this method to
gain intuition about how it works.

1372 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

pandas.Series.resample

Series.resample(rule, how=None, axis=0, fill_method=None, closed=None, label=None, con-

vention=’start’, kind=None, loffset=None, limit=None, base=0, on=None,
level=None)
Convenience method for frequency conversion and resampling of time series. Object must have a
datetime-like index (DatetimeIndex, PeriodIndex, or TimedeltaIndex), or pass datetime-like values to
the on or level keyword.
Parameters rule : string
the offset string or object representing target conversion
axis : int, optional, default 0
closed : {‘right’, ‘left’}
Which side of bin interval is closed. The default is ‘left’ for all frequency offsets
except for ‘M’, ‘A’, ‘Q’, ‘BM’, ‘BA’, ‘BQ’, and ‘W’ which all have a default of
‘right’.
label : {‘right’, ‘left’}
Which bin edge label to label bucket with. The default is ‘left’ for all frequency
offsets except for ‘M’, ‘A’, ‘Q’, ‘BM’, ‘BA’, ‘BQ’, and ‘W’ which all have a
default of ‘right’.
convention : {‘start’, ‘end’, ‘s’, ‘e’}
For PeriodIndex only, controls whether to use the start or end of rule
loffset : timedelta
Adjust the resampled time labels
base : int, default 0
For frequencies that evenly subdivide 1 day, the “origin” of the aggregated in-
tervals. For example, for ‘5min’ frequency, base could range from 0 through 4.
Defaults to 0
on : string, optional
For a DataFrame, column to use instead of index for resampling. Column must
be datetime-like.
New in version 0.19.0.
level : string or int, optional
For a MultiIndex, level (name or number) to use for resampling. Level must be
datetime-like.
New in version 0.19.0.

Notes

To learn more about the offset strings, please see this link.

34.3. Series 1373

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Examples

Start by creating a series with 9 one minute timestamps.

>>> index = pd.date_range('1/1/2000', periods=9, freq='T')

>>> series = pd.Series(range(9), index=index)
>>> series
2000-01-01 00:00:00 0
2000-01-01 00:01:00 1
2000-01-01 00:02:00 2
2000-01-01 00:03:00 3
2000-01-01 00:04:00 4
2000-01-01 00:05:00 5
2000-01-01 00:06:00 6
2000-01-01 00:07:00 7
2000-01-01 00:08:00 8
Freq: T, dtype: int64

Downsample the series into 3 minute bins and sum the values of the timestamps falling into a bin.

>>> series.resample('3T').sum()
2000-01-01 00:00:00 3
2000-01-01 00:03:00 12
2000-01-01 00:06:00 21
Freq: 3T, dtype: int64

Downsample the series into 3 minute bins as above, but label each bin using the right edge instead of the
left. Please note that the value in the bucket used as the label is not included in the bucket, which it labels.
For example, in the original series the bucket 2000-01-01 00:03:00 contains the value 3, but the
summed value in the resampled bucket with the label 2000-01-01 00:03:00 does not include 3 (if
it did, the summed value would be 6, not 3). To include this value close the right side of the bin interval
as illustrated in the example below this one.

>>> series.resample('3T', label='right').sum()

2000-01-01 00:03:00 3
2000-01-01 00:06:00 12
2000-01-01 00:09:00 21
Freq: 3T, dtype: int64

Downsample the series into 3 minute bins as above, but close the right side of the bin interval.

>>> series.resample('3T', label='right', closed='right').sum()

2000-01-01 00:00:00 0
2000-01-01 00:03:00 6
2000-01-01 00:06:00 15
2000-01-01 00:09:00 15
Freq: 3T, dtype: int64

Upsample the series into 30 second bins.

>>> series.resample('30S').asfreq()[0:5] #select first 5 rows

2000-01-01 00:00:00 0.0
2000-01-01 00:00:30 NaN
2000-01-01 00:01:00 1.0
2000-01-01 00:01:30 NaN
2000-01-01 00:02:00 2.0
Freq: 30S, dtype: float64

1374 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Upsample the series into 30 second bins and fill the NaN values using the pad method.
>>> series.resample('30S').pad()[0:5]
2000-01-01 00:00:00 0
2000-01-01 00:00:30 0
2000-01-01 00:01:00 1
2000-01-01 00:01:30 1
2000-01-01 00:02:00 2
Freq: 30S, dtype: int64

Upsample the series into 30 second bins and fill the NaN values using the bfill method.
>>> series.resample('30S').bfill()[0:5]
2000-01-01 00:00:00 0
2000-01-01 00:00:30 1
2000-01-01 00:01:00 1
2000-01-01 00:01:30 2
2000-01-01 00:02:00 2
Freq: 30S, dtype: int64

Pass a custom function via apply

>>> def custom_resampler(array_like):
... return np.sum(array_like)+5

>>> series.resample('3T').apply(custom_resampler)
2000-01-01 00:00:00 8
2000-01-01 00:03:00 17
2000-01-01 00:06:00 26
Freq: 3T, dtype: int64

For a Series with a PeriodIndex, the keyword convention can be used to control whether to use the start or
end of rule.
>>> s = pd.Series([1, 2], index=pd.period_range('2012-01-01',
freq='A',
periods=2))
>>> s
2012 1
2013 2
Freq: A-DEC, dtype: int64

Resample by month using ‘start’ convention. Values are assigned to the first month of the period.
>>> s.resample('M', convention='start').asfreq().head()
2012-01 1.0
2012-02 NaN
2012-03 NaN
2012-04 NaN
2012-05 NaN
Freq: M, dtype: float64

Resample by month using ‘end’ convention. Values are assigned to the last month of the period.
>>> s.resample('M', convention='end').asfreq()
2012-12 1.0
2013-01 NaN
2013-02 NaN

34.3. Series 1375

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

2013-03 NaN
2013-04 NaN
2013-05 NaN
2013-06 NaN
2013-07 NaN
2013-08 NaN
2013-09 NaN
2013-10 NaN
2013-11 NaN
2013-12 2.0
Freq: M, dtype: float64

For DataFrame objects, the keyword on can be used to specify the column instead of the index for resam-
pling.

>>> df = pd.DataFrame(data=9*[range(4)], columns=['a', 'b', 'c', 'd'])

>>> df['time'] = pd.date_range('1/1/2000', periods=9, freq='T')
>>> df.resample('3T', on='time').sum()
a b c d
time
2000-01-01 00:00:00 0 3 6 9
2000-01-01 00:03:00 0 3 6 9
2000-01-01 00:06:00 0 3 6 9

For a DataFrame with MultiIndex, the keyword level can be used to specify on level the resampling
needs to take place.

>>> time = pd.date_range('1/1/2000', periods=5, freq='T')

>>> df2 = pd.DataFrame(data=10*[range(4)],
columns=['a', 'b', 'c', 'd'],
index=pd.MultiIndex.from_product([time, [1, 2]])
)
>>> df2.resample('3T', level=0).sum()
a b c d
2000-01-01 00:00:00 0 6 12 18
2000-01-01 00:03:00 0 4 8 12

pandas.Series.reset_index

Series.reset_index(level=None, drop=False, name=None, inplace=False)

Analogous to the pandas.DataFrame.reset_index() function, see docstring there.
Parameters level : int, str, tuple, or list, default None
Only remove the given levels from the index. Removes all levels by default
drop : boolean, default False
Do not try to insert index into dataframe columns
name : object, default None
The name of the column corresponding to the Series values
inplace : boolean, default False
Modify the Series in place (do not create a new object)
Returns resetted : DataFrame, or Series if drop == True

1376 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Examples

>>> s = pd.Series([1, 2, 3, 4], index=pd.Index(['a', 'b', 'c', 'd'],

... name = 'idx'))
>>> s.reset_index()
index 0
0 0 1
1 1 2
2 2 3
3 3 4

>>> arrays = [np.array(['bar', 'bar', 'baz', 'baz', 'foo',

... 'foo', 'qux', 'qux']),
... np.array(['one', 'two', 'one', 'two', 'one', 'two',
... 'one', 'two'])]
>>> s2 = pd.Series(
... np.random.randn(8),
... index=pd.MultiIndex.from_arrays(arrays,
... names=['a', 'b']))
>>> s2.reset_index(level='a')
a 0
b
one bar -0.286320
two bar -0.587934
one baz 0.710491
two baz -1.429006
one foo 0.790700
two foo 0.824863
one qux -0.718963
two qux -0.055028

pandas.Series.reshape

Series.reshape(*args, **kwargs)
Deprecated since version 0.19.0: Calling this method will raise an error. Please call .values.
reshape(...) instead.
return an ndarray with the values shape if the specified shape matches exactly the current shape, then
return self (for compat)
See also:
numpy.ndarray.reshape

pandas.Series.rfloordiv

Series.rfloordiv(other, level=None, fill_value=None, axis=0)

Integer division of series and other, element-wise (binary operator rfloordiv).
Equivalent to other // series, but with support to substitute a fill_value for missing data in one of
the inputs.
Parameters other : Series or scalar value
fill_value : None or float value, default None (NaN)

34.3. Series 1377

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Fill missing (NaN) values with this value. If both Series are missing, the result
will be missing
level : int or name
Broadcast across a level, matching Index values on the passed MultiIndex level
Returns result : Series
See also:
Series.floordiv

pandas.Series.rmod

Series.rmod(other, level=None, fill_value=None, axis=0)

Modulo of series and other, element-wise (binary operator rmod).
Equivalent to other % series, but with support to substitute a fill_value for missing data in one of
the inputs.
Parameters other : Series or scalar value
fill_value : None or float value, default None (NaN)
Fill missing (NaN) values with this value. If both Series are missing, the result
will be missing
level : int or name
Broadcast across a level, matching Index values on the passed MultiIndex level
Returns result : Series
See also:
Series.mod

pandas.Series.rmul

Series.rmul(other, level=None, fill_value=None, axis=0)

Multiplication of series and other, element-wise (binary operator rmul).
Equivalent to other * series, but with support to substitute a fill_value for missing data in one of
the inputs.
Parameters other : Series or scalar value
fill_value : None or float value, default None (NaN)
Fill missing (NaN) values with this value. If both Series are missing, the result
will be missing
level : int or name
Broadcast across a level, matching Index values on the passed MultiIndex level
Returns result : Series
See also:
Series.mul

1378 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

pandas.Series.rolling

Series.rolling(window, min_periods=None, freq=None, center=False, win_type=None,

on=None, axis=0, closed=None)
Provides rolling window calculations.
New in version 0.18.0.
Parameters window : int, or offset
Size of the moving window. This is the number of observations used for calculat-
ing the statistic. Each window will be a fixed size.
If its an offset then this will be the time period of each window. Each window will
be a variable sized based on the observations included in the time-period. This is
only valid for datetimelike indexes. This is new in 0.19.0
min_periods : int, default None
Minimum number of observations in window required to have a value (otherwise
result is NA). For a window that is specified by an offset, this will default to 1.
freq : string or DateOffset object, optional (default None)
Deprecated since version 0.18.0: Frequency to conform the data to before com-
puting the statistic. Specified as a frequency string or DateOffset object.
center : boolean, default False
Set the labels at the center of the window.
win_type : string, default None
Provide a window type. See the notes below.
on : string, optional
For a DataFrame, column on which to calculate the rolling window, rather than
the index
closed : string, default None
Make the interval closed on the ‘right’, ‘left’, ‘both’ or ‘neither’ endpoints. For
offset-based windows, it defaults to ‘right’. For fixed windows, defaults to ‘both’.
Remaining cases not implemented for fixed windows.
New in version 0.20.0.
axis : int or string, default 0
Returns a Window or Rolling sub-classed for the particular operation

Notes

By default, the result is set to the right edge of the window. This can be changed to the center of the
window by setting center=True.
The freq keyword is used to conform time series data to a specified frequency by resampling the data.
This is done with the default parameters of resample() (i.e. using the mean).
To learn more about the offsets & frequency strings, please see this link.
The recognized win_types are:

34.3. Series 1379

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• boxcar
• triang
• blackman
• hamming
• bartlett
• parzen
• bohman
• blackmanharris
• nuttall
• barthann
• kaiser (needs beta)
• gaussian (needs std)
• general_gaussian (needs power, width)
• slepian (needs width).

Examples

>>> df = pd.DataFrame({'B': [0, 1, 2, np.nan, 4]})

>>> df
B
0 0.0
1 1.0
2 2.0
3 NaN
4 4.0

Rolling sum with a window length of 2, using the ‘triang’ window type.

>>> df.rolling(2, win_type='triang').sum()

B
0 NaN
1 1.0
2 2.5
3 NaN
4 NaN

Rolling sum with a window length of 2, min_periods defaults to the window length.

>>> df.rolling(2).sum()
B
0 NaN
1 1.0
2 3.0
3 NaN
4 NaN

Same as above, but explicity set the min_periods

1380 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

>>> df.rolling(2, min_periods=1).sum()

B
0 0.0
1 1.0
2 3.0
3 2.0
4 4.0

A ragged (meaning not-a-regular frequency), time-indexed DataFrame

>>> df = pd.DataFrame({'B': [0, 1, 2, np.nan, 4]},

....: index = [pd.Timestamp('20130101 09:00:00'),
....: pd.Timestamp('20130101 09:00:02'),
....: pd.Timestamp('20130101 09:00:03'),
....: pd.Timestamp('20130101 09:00:05'),
....: pd.Timestamp('20130101 09:00:06')])

>>> df
B
2013-01-01 09:00:00 0.0
2013-01-01 09:00:02 1.0
2013-01-01 09:00:03 2.0
2013-01-01 09:00:05 NaN
2013-01-01 09:00:06 4.0

Contrasting to an integer rolling window, this will roll a variable length window corresponding to the time
period. The default for min_periods is 1.

>>> df.rolling('2s').sum()
B
2013-01-01 09:00:00 0.0
2013-01-01 09:00:02 1.0
2013-01-01 09:00:03 3.0
2013-01-01 09:00:05 NaN
2013-01-01 09:00:06 4.0

pandas.Series.round

Series.round(decimals=0, *args, **kwargs)

Round each value in a Series to the given number of decimals.
Parameters decimals : int
Number of decimal places to round to (default: 0). If decimals is negative, it
specifies the number of positions to the left of the decimal point.
Returns Series object
See also:
numpy.around, DataFrame.round

pandas.Series.rpow

Series.rpow(other, level=None, fill_value=None, axis=0)

Exponential power of series and other, element-wise (binary operator rpow).

34.3. Series 1381

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Equivalent to other ** series, but with support to substitute a fill_value for missing data in one of
the inputs.
Parameters other : Series or scalar value
fill_value : None or float value, default None (NaN)
Fill missing (NaN) values with this value. If both Series are missing, the result
will be missing
level : int or name
Broadcast across a level, matching Index values on the passed MultiIndex level
Returns result : Series
See also:
Series.pow

pandas.Series.rsub

Series.rsub(other, level=None, fill_value=None, axis=0)

Subtraction of series and other, element-wise (binary operator rsub).
Equivalent to other - series, but with support to substitute a fill_value for missing data in one of
the inputs.
Parameters other : Series or scalar value
fill_value : None or float value, default None (NaN)
Fill missing (NaN) values with this value. If both Series are missing, the result
will be missing
level : int or name
Broadcast across a level, matching Index values on the passed MultiIndex level
Returns result : Series
See also:
Series.sub

pandas.Series.rtruediv

Series.rtruediv(other, level=None, fill_value=None, axis=0)

Floating division of series and other, element-wise (binary operator rtruediv).
Equivalent to other / series, but with support to substitute a fill_value for missing data in one of
the inputs.
Parameters other : Series or scalar value
fill_value : None or float value, default None (NaN)
Fill missing (NaN) values with this value. If both Series are missing, the result
will be missing
level : int or name
Broadcast across a level, matching Index values on the passed MultiIndex level

1382 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Returns result : Series

See also:
Series.truediv

pandas.Series.sample

Series.sample(n=None, frac=None, replace=False, weights=None, random_state=None,

axis=None)
Returns a random sample of items from an axis of object.
Parameters n : int, optional
Number of items from axis to return. Cannot be used with frac. Default = 1 if
frac = None.
frac : float, optional
Fraction of axis items to return. Cannot be used with n.
replace : boolean, optional
Sample with or without replacement. Default = False.
weights : str or ndarray-like, optional
Default ‘None’ results in equal probability weighting. If passed a Series, will
align with target object on index. Index values in weights not found in sampled
object will be ignored and index values in sampled object not in weights will be
assigned weights of zero. If called on a DataFrame, will accept the name of a
column when axis = 0. Unless weights are a Series, weights must be same length
as axis being sampled. If weights do not sum to 1, they will be normalized to sum
to 1. Missing values in the weights column will be treated as zero. inf and -inf
values not allowed.
random_state : int or numpy.random.RandomState, optional
Seed for the random number generator (if int), or numpy RandomState object.
axis : int or string, optional
Axis to sample. Accepts axis number or name. Default is stat axis for given data
type (0 for Series and DataFrames, 1 for Panels).
Returns A new object of same type as caller.

Examples

Generate an example Series and DataFrame:

>>> s = pd.Series(np.random.randn(50))
>>> s.head()
0 -0.038497
1 1.820773
2 -0.972766
3 -1.598270
4 -1.095526
dtype: float64
>>> df = pd.DataFrame(np.random.randn(50, 4), columns=list('ABCD'))

34.3. Series 1383

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

>>> df.head()
A B C D
0 0.016443 -2.318952 -0.566372 -1.028078
1 -1.051921 0.438836 0.658280 -0.175797
2 -1.243569 -0.364626 -0.215065 0.057736
3 1.768216 0.404512 -0.385604 -1.457834
4 1.072446 -1.137172 0.314194 -0.046661

Next extract a random sample from both of these objects...

3 random elements from the Series:

>>> s.sample(n=3)
27 -0.994689
55 -1.049016
67 -0.224565
dtype: float64

And a random 10% of the DataFrame with replacement:

>>> df.sample(frac=0.1, replace=True)

A B C D
35 1.981780 0.142106 1.817165 -0.290805
49 -1.336199 -0.448634 -0.789640 0.217116
40 0.823173 -0.078816 1.009536 1.015108
15 1.421154 -0.055301 -1.922594 -0.019696
6 -0.148339 0.832938 1.787600 -1.383767

pandas.Series.searchsorted

Series.searchsorted(value, side=’left’, sorter=None)

Find indices where elements should be inserted to maintain order.
Find the indices into a sorted Series self such that, if the corresponding elements in value were inserted
before the indices, the order of self would be preserved.
Parameters value : array_like
Values to insert into self.
side : {‘left’, ‘right’}, optional
If ‘left’, the index of the first suitable location found is given. If ‘right’, return the
last such index. If there is no suitable index, return either 0 or N (where N is the
length of self ).
sorter : 1-D array_like, optional
Optional array of integer indices that sort self into ascending order. They are
typically the result of np.argsort.
Returns indices : array of ints
Array of insertion points with the same shape as value.
See also:
numpy.searchsorted

1384 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Notes

Binary search is used to find the required insertion points.

Examples

>>> x = pd.Series([1, 2, 3])

>>> x
0 1
1 2
2 3
dtype: int64

>>> x.searchsorted(4)
array([3])

>>> x.searchsorted([0, 4])

array([0, 3])

>>> x.searchsorted([1, 3], side='left')

array([0, 2])

>>> x.searchsorted([1, 3], side='right')

array([1, 3])

>>> x = pd.Categorical(['apple', 'bread', 'bread', 'cheese', 'milk' ])

[apple, bread, bread, cheese, milk]
Categories (4, object): [apple < bread < cheese < milk]

>>> x.searchsorted('bread')
array([1]) # Note: an array, not a scalar

>>> x.searchsorted(['bread'])
array([1])

>>> x.searchsorted(['bread', 'eggs'])

array([1, 4])

>>> x.searchsorted(['bread', 'eggs'], side='right')

array([3, 4]) # eggs before milk

pandas.Series.select

Series.select(crit, axis=0)
Return data corresponding to axis labels matching criteria
DEPRECATED: use df.loc[df.index.map(crit)] to select via labels
Parameters crit : function
To be called on each index (label). Should return True or False

34.3. Series 1385

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

axis : int
Returns selection : type of caller

pandas.Series.sem

Series.sem(axis=None, skipna=None, level=None, ddof=1, numeric_only=None, **kwargs)

Return unbiased standard error of the mean over requested axis.
Normalized by N-1 by default. This can be changed using the ddof argument
Parameters axis : {index (0)}
skipna : boolean, default True
Exclude NA/null values. If an entire row/column is NA, the result will be NA
level : int or level name, default None
If the axis is a MultiIndex (hierarchical), count along a particular level, collapsing
into a scalar
ddof : int, default 1
degrees of freedom
numeric_only : boolean, default None
Include only float, int, boolean columns. If None, will attempt to use everything,
then use only numeric data. Not implemented for Series.
Returns sem : scalar or Series (if level specified)

pandas.Series.set_axis

Series.set_axis(labels, axis=0, inplace=None)

Assign desired index to given axis
Parameters labels: list-like or Index
The values for the new index
axis : int or string, default 0
inplace : boolean, default None
Whether to return a new NDFrame instance.
WARNING: inplace=None currently falls back to to True, but in a future ver-
sion, will default to False. Use inplace=True explicitly rather than relying on the
default.
.. versionadded:: 0.21.0
The signature is make consistent to the rest of the API. Previously, the “axis” and
“labels” arguments were respectively the first and second positional arguments.
Returns renamed : NDFrame or None
An object of same type as caller if inplace=False, None otherwise.
See also:
pandas.NDFrame.rename

1386 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Examples

>>> s = pd.Series([1, 2, 3])

>>> s
0 1
1 2
2 3
dtype: int64
>>> s.set_axis(['a', 'b', 'c'], axis=0, inplace=False)
a 1
b 2
c 3
dtype: int64
>>> df = pd.DataFrame({"A": [1, 2, 3], "B": [4, 5, 6]})
>>> df.set_axis(['a', 'b', 'c'], axis=0, inplace=False)
A B
a 1 4
b 2 5
c 3 6
>>> df.set_axis(['I', 'II'], axis=1, inplace=False)
I II
0 1 4
1 2 5
2 3 6
>>> df.set_axis(['i', 'ii'], axis=1, inplace=True)
>>> df
i ii
0 1 4
1 2 5
2 3 6

pandas.Series.set_value

Series.set_value(label, value, takeable=False)

Quickly set single value at passed label. If label is not contained, a new object is created with the label
placed at the end of the result index
Deprecated since version 0.21.0.
Please use .at[] or .iat[] accessors.
Parameters label : object
Partial indexing with MultiIndex not allowed
value : object
Scalar value
takeable : interpret the index as indexers, default False
Returns series : Series
If label is contained, will be reference to calling Series, otherwise a new object

34.3. Series 1387

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

pandas.Series.shift

Series.shift(periods=1, freq=None, axis=0)

Shift index by desired number of periods with an optional time freq
Parameters periods : int
Number of periods to move, can be positive or negative
freq : DateOffset, timedelta, or time rule string, optional
Increment to use from the tseries module or time rule (e.g. ‘EOM’). See Notes.
axis : {0, ‘index’}
Returns shifted : Series

Notes

If freq is specified then the index values are shifted but the data is not realigned. That is, use freq if you
would like to extend the index when shifting and preserve the original data.

pandas.Series.skew

Series.skew(axis=None, skipna=None, level=None, numeric_only=None, **kwargs)

Return unbiased skew over requested axis Normalized by N-1
Parameters axis : {index (0)}
skipna : boolean, default True
Exclude NA/null values. If an entire row/column is NA or empty, the result will
be NA
level : int or level name, default None
If the axis is a MultiIndex (hierarchical), count along a particular level, collapsing
into a scalar
numeric_only : boolean, default None
Include only float, int, boolean columns. If None, will attempt to use everything,
then use only numeric data. Not implemented for Series.
Returns skew : scalar or Series (if level specified)

pandas.Series.slice_shift

Series.slice_shift(periods=1, axis=0)
Equivalent to shift without copying data. The shifted data will not include the dropped periods and the
shifted axis will be smaller than the original.
Parameters periods : int
Number of periods to move, can be positive or negative
Returns shifted : same type as caller

1388 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Notes

While the slice_shift is faster than shift, you may pay for it later during alignment.

pandas.Series.sort_index

Series.sort_index(axis=0, level=None, ascending=True, inplace=False, kind=’quicksort’,

na_position=’last’, sort_remaining=True)
Sort object by labels (along an axis)
Parameters axis : index to direct sorting
level : int or level name or list of ints or list of level names
if not None, sort on values in specified index level(s)
ascending : boolean, default True
Sort ascending vs. descending
inplace : bool, default False
if True, perform operation in-place
kind : {‘quicksort’, ‘mergesort’, ‘heapsort’}, default ‘quicksort’
Choice of sorting algorithm. See also ndarray.np.sort for more information.
mergesort is the only stable algorithm. For DataFrames, this option is only ap-
plied when sorting on a single column or label.
na_position : {‘first’, ‘last’}, default ‘last’
first puts NaNs at the beginning, last puts NaNs at the end. Not implemented for
MultiIndex.
sort_remaining : bool, default True
if true and sorting by level and index is multilevel, sort by other levels too (in
order) after sorting by specified level
Returns sorted_obj : Series

pandas.Series.sort_values

Series.sort_values(axis=0, ascending=True, inplace=False, kind=’quicksort’,

na_position=’last’)
Sort by the values along either axis
New in version 0.17.0.
Parameters axis : {0, ‘index’}, default 0
Axis to direct sorting
ascending : bool or list of bool, default True
Sort ascending vs. descending. Specify list for multiple sort orders. If this is a
list of bools, must match the length of the by.
inplace : bool, default False
if True, perform operation in-place

34.3. Series 1389

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

kind : {‘quicksort’, ‘mergesort’, ‘heapsort’}, default ‘quicksort’

Choice of sorting algorithm. See also ndarray.np.sort for more information.
mergesort is the only stable algorithm. For DataFrames, this option is only ap-
plied when sorting on a single column or label.
na_position : {‘first’, ‘last’}, default ‘last’
first puts NaNs at the beginning, last puts NaNs at the end
Returns sorted_obj : Series

Examples

>>> df = pd.DataFrame({
... 'col1' : ['A', 'A', 'B', np.nan, 'D', 'C'],
... 'col2' : [2, 1, 9, 8, 7, 4],
... 'col3': [0, 1, 9, 4, 2, 3],
... })
>>> df
col1 col2 col3
0 A 2 0
1 A 1 1
2 B 9 9
3 NaN 8 4
4 D 7 2
5 C 4 3

Sort by col1

>>> df.sort_values(by=['col1'])
col1 col2 col3
0 A 2 0
1 A 1 1
2 B 9 9
5 C 4 3
4 D 7 2
3 NaN 8 4

Sort by multiple columns

>>> df.sort_values(by=['col1', 'col2'])

col1 col2 col3
1 A 1 1
0 A 2 0
2 B 9 9
5 C 4 3
4 D 7 2
3 NaN 8 4

Sort Descending

>>> df.sort_values(by='col1', ascending=False)

col1 col2 col3
4 D 7 2
5 C 4 3
2 B 9 9
0 A 2 0

1390 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

1 A 1 1
3 NaN 8 4

Putting NAs first

>>> df.sort_values(by='col1', ascending=False, na_position='first')

col1 col2 col3
3 NaN 8 4
4 D 7 2
5 C 4 3
2 B 9 9
0 A 2 0
1 A 1 1

pandas.Series.sortlevel

Series.sortlevel(level=0, ascending=True, sort_remaining=True)

DEPRECATED: use Series.sort_index()
Sort Series with MultiIndex by chosen level. Data will be lexicographically sorted by the chosen level
followed by the other levels (in order)
Parameters level : int or level name, default None
ascending : bool, default True
Returns sorted : Series
See also:
Series.sort_index

pandas.Series.squeeze

Series.squeeze(axis=None)
Squeeze length 1 dimensions.
Parameters axis : None, integer or string axis name, optional
The axis to squeeze if 1-sized.
New in version 0.20.0.
Returns scalar if 1-sized, else original object

pandas.Series.std

Series.std(axis=None, skipna=None, level=None, ddof=1, numeric_only=None, **kwargs)

Return sample standard deviation over requested axis.
Normalized by N-1 by default. This can be changed using the ddof argument
Parameters axis : {index (0)}
skipna : boolean, default True
Exclude NA/null values. If an entire row/column is NA, the result will be NA

34.3. Series 1391

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

level : int or level name, default None

If the axis is a MultiIndex (hierarchical), count along a particular level, collapsing
into a scalar
ddof : int, default 1
degrees of freedom
numeric_only : boolean, default None
Include only float, int, boolean columns. If None, will attempt to use everything,
then use only numeric data. Not implemented for Series.
Returns std : scalar or Series (if level specified)

pandas.Series.str

Series.str()
Vectorized string functions for Series and Index. NAs stay NA unless handled otherwise by a particular
method. Patterned after Python’s string methods, with some inspiration from R’s stringr package.

Examples

>>> s.str.split('_')
>>> s.str.replace('_', '')

pandas.Series.sub

Series.sub(other, level=None, fill_value=None, axis=0)

Subtraction of series and other, element-wise (binary operator sub).
Equivalent to series - other, but with support to substitute a fill_value for missing data in one of
the inputs.
Parameters other : Series or scalar value
fill_value : None or float value, default None (NaN)
Fill missing (NaN) values with this value. If both Series are missing, the result
will be missing
level : int or name
Broadcast across a level, matching Index values on the passed MultiIndex level
Returns result : Series
See also:
Series.rsub

pandas.Series.subtract

Series.subtract(other, level=None, fill_value=None, axis=0)

Subtraction of series and other, element-wise (binary operator sub).

1392 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Equivalent to series - other, but with support to substitute a fill_value for missing data in one of
the inputs.
Parameters other : Series or scalar value
fill_value : None or float value, default None (NaN)
Fill missing (NaN) values with this value. If both Series are missing, the result
will be missing
level : int or name
Broadcast across a level, matching Index values on the passed MultiIndex level
Returns result : Series
See also:
Series.rsub

pandas.Series.sum

Series.sum(axis=None, skipna=None, level=None, numeric_only=None, **kwargs)

Return the sum of the values for the requested axis
Parameters axis : {index (0)}
skipna : boolean, default True
Exclude NA/null values. If an entire row/column is NA or empty, the result will
be NA
level : int or level name, default None
If the axis is a MultiIndex (hierarchical), count along a particular level, collapsing
into a scalar
numeric_only : boolean, default None
Include only float, int, boolean columns. If None, will attempt to use everything,
then use only numeric data. Not implemented for Series.
Returns sum : scalar or Series (if level specified)

pandas.Series.swapaxes

Series.swapaxes(axis1, axis2, copy=True)

Interchange axes and swap values axes appropriately
Returns y : same as input

pandas.Series.swaplevel

Series.swaplevel(i=-2, j=-1, copy=True)

Swap levels i and j in a MultiIndex
Parameters i, j : int, string (can be mixed)
Level of index to be swapped. Can pass level name as string.

34.3. Series 1393

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Returns swapped : Series

Changed in version 0.18.1: The indexes i and j are now optional, and default to the two
innermost levels of the index.

pandas.Series.tail

Series.tail(n=5)
Return the last n rows.
Parameters n : int, default 5
Number of rows to select.
Returns obj_tail : type of caller
The last n rows of the caller object.

pandas.Series.take

Series.take(indices, axis=0, convert=None, is_copy=True, **kwargs)

Return the elements in the given positional indices along an axis.
This means that we are not indexing according to actual values in the index attribute of the object. We are
indexing according to the actual position of the element in the object.
Parameters indices : array-like
An array of ints indicating which positions to take.
axis : int, default 0
The axis on which to select elements. “0” means that we are selecting rows, “1”
means that we are selecting columns, etc.
convert : bool, default True
Deprecated since version 0.21.0: In the future, negative indices will always be
converted.
Whether to convert negative indices into positive ones. For example, -1 would
map to the len(axis) - 1. The conversions are similar to the behavior of
indexing a regular Python list.
is_copy : bool, default True
Whether to return a copy of the original object or not.
Returns taken : type of caller
An array-like containing the elements taken from the object.
See also:
numpy.ndarray.take, numpy.take

Examples

1394 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

>>> df = pd.DataFrame([('falcon', 'bird', 389.0),

('parrot', 'bird', 24.0),
('lion', 'mammal', 80.5),
('monkey', 'mammal', np.nan)],
columns=('name', 'class', 'max_speed'),
index=[0, 2, 3, 1])
>>> df
name class max_speed
0 falcon bird 389.0
2 parrot bird 24.0
3 lion mammal 80.5
1 monkey mammal NaN

Take elements at positions 0 and 3 along the axis 0 (default).

Note how the actual indices selected (0 and 1) do not correspond to our selected indices 0 and 3. That’s
because we are selecting the 0th and 3rd rows, not rows whose indices equal 0 and 3.

>>> df.take([0, 3])

0 falcon bird 389.0
1 monkey mammal NaN

Take elements at indices 1 and 2 along the axis 1 (column selection).

>>> df.take([1, 2], axis=1)

class max_speed
0 bird 389.0
2 bird 24.0
3 mammal 80.5
1 mammal NaN

We may take elements using negative integers for positive indices, starting from the end of the object, just
like with Python lists.

>>> df.take([-1, -2])

name class max_speed
1 monkey mammal NaN
3 lion mammal 80.5

pandas.Series.to_clipboard

Series.to_clipboard(excel=None, sep=None, **kwargs)

Attempt to write text representation of object to the system clipboard This can be pasted into Excel, for
example.
Parameters excel : boolean, defaults to True
if True, use the provided separator, writing in a csv format for allowing easy past-
ing into excel. if False, write a string representation of the object to the clipboard
sep : optional, defaults to tab
other keywords are passed to to_csv

34.3. Series 1395

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Notes

Requirements for your platform

• Linux: xclip, or xsel (with gtk or PyQt4 modules)
• Windows: none
• OS X: none

pandas.Series.to_csv

Series.to_csv(path=None, index=True, sep=’, ‘, na_rep=’‘, float_format=None, header=False,

index_label=None, mode=’w’, encoding=None, date_format=None, decimal=’.’)
Write Series to a comma-separated values (csv) file
Parameters path : string or file handle, default None
File path or object, if None is provided the result is returned as a string.
na_rep : string, default ‘’
Missing data representation
float_format : string, default None
Format string for floating point numbers
header : boolean, default False
Write out series name
index : boolean, default True
Write row names (index)
index_label : string or sequence, default None
Column label for index column(s) if desired. If None is given, and header and
index are True, then the index names are used. A sequence should be given if the
DataFrame uses MultiIndex.
mode : Python write mode, default ‘w’
sep : character, default ”,”
Field delimiter for the output file.
encoding : string, optional
a string representing the encoding to use if the contents are non-ascii, for python
versions prior to 3
date_format: string, default None
Format string for datetime objects.
decimal: string, default ‘.’
Character recognized as decimal separator. E.g. use ‘,’ for European data

1396 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

pandas.Series.to_dense

Series.to_dense()
Return dense representation of NDFrame (as opposed to sparse)

pandas.Series.to_dict

Series.to_dict(into=<class ‘dict’>)
Convert Series to {label -> value} dict or dict-like object.
Parameters into : class, default dict
The collections.Mapping subclass to use as the return object. Can be the actual
class or an empty instance of the mapping type you want. If you want a collec-
tions.defaultdict, you must pass it initialized.
New in version 0.21.0.
Returns value_dict : collections.Mapping

Examples

>>> s = pd.Series([1, 2, 3, 4])

>>> s.to_dict()
{0: 1, 1: 2, 2: 3, 3: 4}
>>> from collections import OrderedDict, defaultdict
>>> s.to_dict(OrderedDict)
OrderedDict([(0, 1), (1, 2), (2, 3), (3, 4)])
>>> dd = defaultdict(list)
>>> s.to_dict(dd)
defaultdict(<type 'list'>, {0: 1, 1: 2, 2: 3, 3: 4})

pandas.Series.to_excel

Series.to_excel(excel_writer, sheet_name=’Sheet1’, na_rep=’‘, float_format=None,

columns=None, header=True, index=True, index_label=None, startrow=0,
startcol=0, engine=None, merge_cells=True, encoding=None, inf_rep=’inf’,
verbose=True)
Write Series to an excel sheet
New in version 0.20.0.
Parameters excel_writer : string or ExcelWriter object
File path or existing ExcelWriter
sheet_name : string, default ‘Sheet1’
Name of sheet which will contain DataFrame
na_rep : string, default ‘’
Missing data representation
float_format : string, default None
Format string for floating point numbers

34.3. Series 1397

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

columns : sequence, optional

Columns to write
header : boolean or list of string, default True
Write out the column names. If a list of strings is given it is assumed to be aliases
for the column names
index : boolean, default True
Write row names (index)
index_label : string or sequence, default None
Column label for index column(s) if desired. If None is given, and header and
index are True, then the index names are used. A sequence should be given if the
DataFrame uses MultiIndex.
startrow :
upper left cell row to dump data frame
startcol :
upper left cell column to dump data frame
engine : string, default None
write engine to use - you can also set this via the options io.excel.xlsx.
writer, io.excel.xls.writer, and io.excel.xlsm.writer.
merge_cells : boolean, default True
Write MultiIndex and Hierarchical Rows as merged cells.
encoding: string, default None
encoding of the resulting excel file. Only necessary for xlwt, other writers support
unicode natively.
inf_rep : string, default ‘inf’
Representation for infinity (there is no native representation for infinity in Excel)
freeze_panes : tuple of integer (length 2), default None
Specifies the one-based bottommost row and rightmost column that is to be frozen
New in version 0.20.0.

Notes

If passing an existing ExcelWriter object, then the sheet will be added to the existing workbook. This can
be used to save different DataFrames to one workbook:

>>> writer = pd.ExcelWriter('output.xlsx')

>>> df1.to_excel(writer,'Sheet1')
>>> df2.to_excel(writer,'Sheet2')
>>> writer.save()

For compatibility with to_csv, to_excel serializes lists and dicts to strings before writing.

1398 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

pandas.Series.to_frame

Series.to_frame(name=None)
Convert Series to DataFrame
Parameters name : object, default None
The passed name should substitute for the series name (if it has one).
Returns data_frame : DataFrame

pandas.Series.to_hdf

Series.to_hdf(path_or_buf, key, **kwargs)

Write the contained data to an HDF5 file using HDFStore.
Parameters path_or_buf : the path (string) or HDFStore object
key : string
identifier for the group in the store
mode : optional, {‘a’, ‘w’, ‘r+’}, default ‘a’
'w' Write; a new file is created (an existing file with the same name would be
deleted).
'a' Append; an existing file is opened for reading and writing, and if the file
does not exist it is created.
'r+' It is similar to 'a', but the file must already exist.
format : ‘fixed(f)|table(t)’, default is ‘fixed’
fixed(f) [Fixed format] Fast writing/reading. Not-appendable, nor searchable
table(t) [Table format] Write as a PyTables Table structure which may perform
worse but allow more flexible operations like searching / selecting subsets of
the data
append : boolean, default False
For Table formats, append the input data to the existing
data_columns : list of columns, or True, default None
List of columns to create as indexed data columns for on-disk queries, or True to
use all columns. By default only the axes of the object are indexed. See here.
Applicable only to format=’table’.
complevel : int, 0-9, default None
Specifies a compression level for data. A value of 0 disables compression.
complib : {‘zlib’, ‘lzo’, ‘bzip2’, ‘blosc’}, default ‘zlib’
Specifies the compression library to be used. As of v0.20.2 these addi-
tional compressors for Blosc are supported (default if no compressor speci-
fied: ‘blosc:blosclz’): {‘blosc:blosclz’, ‘blosc:lz4’, ‘blosc:lz4hc’, ‘blosc:snappy’,
‘blosc:zlib’, ‘blosc:zstd’}. Specifying a compression library which is not avail-
able issues a ValueError.
fletcher32 : bool, default False

34.3. Series 1399

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

If applying compression use the fletcher32 checksum

dropna : boolean, default False.
If true, ALL nan rows will not be written to store.

pandas.Series.to_json

Series.to_json(path_or_buf=None, orient=None, date_format=None, double_precision=10,

force_ascii=True, date_unit=’ms’, default_handler=None, lines=False, compres-
sion=None)
Convert the object to a JSON string.
Note NaN’s and None will be converted to null and datetime objects will be converted to UNIX times-
tamps.
Parameters path_or_buf : the path or buffer to write the result string
if this is None, return the converted string
orient : string
• Series
– default is ‘index’
– allowed values are: {‘split’,’records’,’index’}
• DataFrame
– default is ‘columns’
– allowed values are: {‘split’,’records’,’index’,’columns’,’values’}
• The format of the JSON string
– split : dict like {index -> [index], columns -> [columns], data -> [values]}
– records : list like [{column -> value}, ... , {column -> value}]
– index : dict like {index -> {column -> value}}
– columns : dict like {column -> {index -> value}}
– values : just the values array
– table : dict like {‘schema’: {schema}, ‘data’: {data}} describing the data, and the
data component is like orient='records'.
Changed in version 0.20.0.
date_format : {None, ‘epoch’, ‘iso’}
Type of date conversion. epoch = epoch milliseconds, iso = ISO8601. The default
depends on the orient. For orient=’table’, the default is ‘iso’. For all other orients,
the default is ‘epoch’.
double_precision : The number of decimal places to use when encoding
floating point values, default 10.
force_ascii : force encoded string to be ASCII, default True.
date_unit : string, default ‘ms’ (milliseconds)

1400 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

The time unit to encode to, governs timestamp and ISO8601 precision. One of
‘s’, ‘ms’, ‘us’, ‘ns’ for second, millisecond, microsecond, and nanosecond re-
spectively.
default_handler : callable, default None
Handler to call if object cannot otherwise be converted to a suitable format for
JSON. Should receive a single argument which is the object to convert and return
a serialisable object.
lines : boolean, default False
If ‘orient’ is ‘records’ write out line delimited json format. Will throw ValueError
if incorrect ‘orient’ since others are not list like.
New in version 0.19.0.
compression : {None, ‘gzip’, ‘bz2’, ‘xz’}
A string representing the compression to use in the output file, only used when
the first argument is a filename
New in version 0.21.0.
Returns same type as input object with filtered info axis
See also:
pd.read_json

Examples

>>> df = pd.DataFrame([['a', 'b'], ['c', 'd']],

... index=['row 1', 'row 2'],
... columns=['col 1', 'col 2'])
>>> df.to_json(orient='split')
'{"columns":["col 1","col 2"],
"index":["row 1","row 2"],
"data":[["a","b"],["c","d"]]}'

Encoding/decoding a Dataframe using 'index' formatted JSON:

>>> df.to_json(orient='index')
'{"row 1":{"col 1":"a","col 2":"b"},"row 2":{"col 1":"c","col 2":"d"}}'

Encoding/decoding a Dataframe using 'records' formatted JSON. Note that index labels are not pre-
served with this encoding.

>>> df.to_json(orient='records')
'[{"col 1":"a","col 2":"b"},{"col 1":"c","col 2":"d"}]'

Encoding with Table Schema

>>> df.to_json(orient='table')
'{"schema": {"fields": [{"name": "index", "type": "string"},
{"name": "col 1", "type": "string"},
{"name": "col 2", "type": "string"}],
"primaryKey": "index",
"pandas_version": "0.20.0"},

34.3. Series 1401

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

"data": [{"index": "row 1", "col 1": "a", "col 2": "b"},
{"index": "row 2", "col 1": "c", "col 2": "d"}]}'

pandas.Series.to_latex

Series.to_latex(buf=None, columns=None, col_space=None, header=True, index=True,

na_rep=’NaN’, formatters=None, float_format=None, sparsify=None, in-
dex_names=True, bold_rows=False, column_format=None, longtable=None,
escape=None, encoding=None, decimal=’.’, multicolumn=None, multicol-
umn_format=None, multirow=None)
Render an object to a tabular environment table. You can splice this into a LaTeX document. Requires
\usepackage{booktabs}.
Changed in version 0.20.2: Added to Series
to_latex-specific options:
bold_rows [boolean, default False] Make the row labels bold in the output
column_format [str, default None] The columns format as specified in LaTeX table format e.g ‘rcl’ for
3 columns
longtable [boolean, default will be read from the pandas config module] Default: False. Use a longtable
environment instead of tabular. Requires adding a \usepackage{longtable} to your LaTeX preamble.
escape [boolean, default will be read from the pandas config module] Default: True. When set to False
prevents from escaping latex special characters in column names.
encoding [str, default None] A string representing the encoding to use in the output file, defaults to ‘ascii’
on Python 2 and ‘utf-8’ on Python 3.
decimal [string, default ‘.’] Character recognized as decimal separator, e.g. ‘,’ in Europe.
New in version 0.18.0.
multicolumn [boolean, default True] Use multicolumn to enhance MultiIndex columns. The default will
be read from the config module.
New in version 0.20.0.
multicolumn_format [str, default ‘l’] The alignment for multicolumns, similar to column_format The
default will be read from the config module.
New in version 0.20.0.
multirow [boolean, default False] Use multirow to enhance MultiIndex rows. Requires adding a \usepa-
ckage{multirow} to your LaTeX preamble. Will print centered labels (instead of top-aligned) across
the contained rows, separating groups via clines. The default will be read from the pandas config
module.
New in version 0.20.0.

pandas.Series.to_msgpack

Series.to_msgpack(path_or_buf=None, encoding=’utf-8’, **kwargs)

msgpack (serialize) object to input file path
THIS IS AN EXPERIMENTAL LIBRARY and the storage format may not be stable until a future release.
Parameters path : string File path, buffer-like, or None

1402 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

if None, return generated string

append : boolean whether to append to an existing msgpack
(default is False)
compress : type of compressor (zlib or blosc), default to None (no
compression)

pandas.Series.to_period

Series.to_period(freq=None, copy=True)
Convert Series from DatetimeIndex to PeriodIndex with desired frequency (inferred from index if not
passed)
Parameters freq : string, default
Returns ts : Series with PeriodIndex

pandas.Series.to_pickle

Series.to_pickle(path, compression=’infer’, protocol=4)

Pickle (serialize) object to input file path.
Parameters path : string
File path
compression : {‘infer’, ‘gzip’, ‘bz2’, ‘xz’, None}, default ‘infer’
a string representing the compression to use in the output file
New in version 0.20.0.
protocol : int
Int which indicates which protocol should be used by the pickler, default HIGH-
EST_PROTOCOL (see [1], paragraph 12.1.2). The possible values for this pa-
rameter depend on the version of Python. For Python 2.x, possible values are
0, 1, 2. For Python>=3.0, 3 is a valid value. For Python >= 3.4, 4 is a valid
value.A negative value for the protocol parameter is equivalent to setting its value
to HIGHEST_PROTOCOL.
New in version 0.21.0.

pandas.Series.to_sparse

Series.to_sparse(kind=’block’, fill_value=None)
Convert Series to SparseSeries
Parameters kind : {‘block’, ‘integer’}
fill_value : float, defaults to NaN (missing)
Returns sp : SparseSeries

34.3. Series 1403

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

pandas.Series.to_sql

Series.to_sql(name, con, flavor=None, schema=None, if_exists=’fail’, index=True, in-

dex_label=None, chunksize=None, dtype=None)
Write records stored in a DataFrame to a SQL database.
Parameters name : string
Name of SQL table
con : SQLAlchemy engine or DBAPI2 connection (legacy mode)
Using SQLAlchemy makes it possible to use any DB supported by that library. If
a DBAPI2 object, only sqlite3 is supported.
flavor : ‘sqlite’, default None
Deprecated since version 0.19.0: ‘sqlite’ is the only supported option if
SQLAlchemy is not used.
schema : string, default None
Specify the schema (if database flavor supports this). If None, use default schema.
if_exists : {‘fail’, ‘replace’, ‘append’}, default ‘fail’
• fail: If table exists, do nothing.
• replace: If table exists, drop it, recreate it, and insert data.
• append: If table exists, insert data. Create if does not exist.
index : boolean, default True
Write DataFrame index as a column.
index_label : string or sequence, default None
Column label for index column(s). If None is given (default) and index is True,
then the index names are used. A sequence should be given if the DataFrame uses
MultiIndex.
chunksize : int, default None
If not None, then rows will be written in batches of this size at a time. If None,
all rows will be written at once.
dtype : dict of column name to SQL type, default None
Optional specifying the datatype for columns. The SQL type should be a
SQLAlchemy type, or a string for sqlite3 fallback connection.

pandas.Series.to_string

Series.to_string(buf=None, na_rep=’NaN’, float_format=None, header=True, index=True,

length=False, dtype=False, name=False, max_rows=None)
Render a string representation of the Series
Parameters buf : StringIO-like, optional
buffer to write to
na_rep : string, optional
string representation of NAN to use, default ‘NaN’

1404 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

float_format : one-parameter function, optional

formatter function to apply to columns’ elements if they are floats default None
header: boolean, default True
Add the Series header (index name)
index : bool, optional
Add index (row) labels, default True
length : boolean, default False
Add the Series length
dtype : boolean, default False
Add the Series dtype
name : boolean, default False
Add the Series name if not None
max_rows : int, optional
Maximum number of rows to show before truncating. If None, show all.
Returns formatted : string (if not buffer passed)

pandas.Series.to_timestamp

Series.to_timestamp(freq=None, how=’start’, copy=True)

Cast to datetimeindex of timestamps, at beginning of period
Parameters freq : string, default frequency of PeriodIndex
Desired frequency
how : {‘s’, ‘e’, ‘start’, ‘end’}
Convention for converting period to timestamp; start of period vs. end
Returns ts : Series with DatetimeIndex

pandas.Series.to_xarray

Series.to_xarray()
Return an xarray object from the pandas object.
Returns a DataArray for a Series
a Dataset for a DataFrame
a DataArray for higher dims

Notes

See the xarray docs

34.3. Series 1405

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Examples

>>> df = pd.DataFrame({'A' : [1, 1, 2],

'B' : ['foo', 'bar', 'foo'],
'C' : np.arange(4.,7)})
>>> df
A B C
0 1 foo 4.0
1 1 bar 5.0
2 2 foo 6.0

>>> df.to_xarray()
<xarray.Dataset>
Dimensions: (index: 3)
Coordinates:
* index (index) int64 0 1 2
Data variables:
A (index) int64 1 1 2
B (index) object 'foo' 'bar' 'foo'
C (index) float64 4.0 5.0 6.0

>>> df = pd.DataFrame({'A' : [1, 1, 2],

'B' : ['foo', 'bar', 'foo'],
'C' : np.arange(4.,7)}
).set_index(['B','A'])
>>> df
C
B A
foo 1 4.0
bar 1 5.0
foo 2 6.0

>>> df.to_xarray()
<xarray.Dataset>
Dimensions: (A: 2, B: 2)
Coordinates:
* B (B) object 'bar' 'foo'
* A (A) int64 1 2
Data variables:
C (B, A) float64 5.0 nan 4.0 6.0

>>> p = pd.Panel(np.arange(24).reshape(4,3,2),
items=list('ABCD'),
major_axis=pd.date_range('20130101', periods=3),
minor_axis=['first', 'second'])
>>> p
<class 'pandas.core.panel.Panel'>
Dimensions: 4 (items) x 3 (major_axis) x 2 (minor_axis)
Items axis: A to D
Major_axis axis: 2013-01-01 00:00:00 to 2013-01-03 00:00:00
Minor_axis axis: first to second

>>> p.to_xarray()
<xarray.DataArray (items: 4, major_axis: 3, minor_axis: 2)>
array([[[ 0, 1],
[ 2, 3],

1406 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

[ 4, 5]],
[[ 6, 7],
[ 8, 9],
[10, 11]],
[[12, 13],
[14, 15],
[16, 17]],
[[18, 19],
[20, 21],
[22, 23]]])
Coordinates:
* items (items) object 'A' 'B' 'C' 'D'
* major_axis (major_axis) datetime64[ns] 2013-01-01 2013-01-02 2013-01-03
˓→ # noqa

* minor_axis (minor_axis) object 'first' 'second'

pandas.Series.tolist

Series.tolist()
Return a list of the values.
These are each a scalar type, which is a Python scalar (for str, int, float) or a pandas scalar (for Times-
tamp/Timedelta/Interval/Period)
See also:
numpy.ndarray.tolist

pandas.Series.transform

Series.transform(func, *args, **kwargs)

Call function producing a like-indexed NDFrame and return a NDFrame with the transformed values
New in version 0.20.0.
Parameters func : callable, string, dictionary, or list of string/callables
To apply to column
Accepted Combinations are:
• string function name
• function
• list of functions
• dict of column names -> functions (or list of functions)
Returns transformed : NDFrame
See also:
pandas.NDFrame.aggregate, pandas.NDFrame.apply

34.3. Series 1407

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Examples

>>> df = pd.DataFrame(np.random.randn(10, 3), columns=['A', 'B', 'C'],

... index=pd.date_range('1/1/2000', periods=10))
df.iloc[3:7] = np.nan

>>> df.transform(lambda x: (x - x.mean()) / x.std())

A B C
2000-01-01 0.579457 1.236184 0.123424
2000-01-02 0.370357 -0.605875 -1.231325
2000-01-03 1.455756 -0.277446 0.288967
2000-01-04 NaN NaN NaN
2000-01-05 NaN NaN NaN
2000-01-06 NaN NaN NaN
2000-01-07 NaN NaN NaN
2000-01-08 -0.498658 1.274522 1.642524
2000-01-09 -0.540524 -1.012676 -0.828968
2000-01-10 -1.366388 -0.614710 0.005378

pandas.Series.transpose

Series.transpose(*args, **kwargs)
return the transpose, which is by definition self

pandas.Series.truediv

Series.truediv(other, level=None, fill_value=None, axis=0)

Floating division of series and other, element-wise (binary operator truediv).
Equivalent to series / other, but with support to substitute a fill_value for missing data in one of
the inputs.
Parameters other : Series or scalar value
fill_value : None or float value, default None (NaN)
Fill missing (NaN) values with this value. If both Series are missing, the result
will be missing
level : int or name
Broadcast across a level, matching Index values on the passed MultiIndex level
Returns result : Series
See also:
Series.rtruediv

pandas.Series.truncate

Series.truncate(before=None, after=None, axis=None, copy=True)

Truncates a sorted DataFrame/Series before and/or after some particular index value. If the axis contains
only datetime values, before/after parameters are converted to datetime values.
Parameters before : date, string, int

1408 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Truncate all rows before this index value

after : date, string, int
Truncate all rows after this index value
axis : {0 or ‘index’, 1 or ‘columns’}
• 0 or ‘index’: apply truncation to rows
• 1 or ‘columns’: apply truncation to columns
Default is stat axis for given data type (0 for Series and DataFrames, 1 for Panels)
copy : boolean, default is True,
return a copy of the truncated section
Returns truncated : type of caller

Examples

>>> df = pd.DataFrame({'A': ['a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'e'],

... 'B': ['f', 'g', 'h', 'i', 'j'],
... 'C': ['k', 'l', 'm', 'n', 'o']},
... index=[1, 2, 3, 4, 5])
>>> df.truncate(before=2, after=4)
A B C
2 b g l
3 c h m
4 d i n
>>> df = pd.DataFrame({'A': [1, 2, 3, 4, 5],
... 'B': [6, 7, 8, 9, 10],
... 'C': [11, 12, 13, 14, 15]},
... index=['a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'e'])
>>> df.truncate(before='b', after='d')
A B C
b 2 7 12
c 3 8 13
d 4 9 14

The index values in truncate can be datetimes or string dates. Note that truncate assumes a 0
value for any unspecified date component in a DatetimeIndex in contrast to slicing which returns any
partially matching dates.

>>> dates = pd.date_range('2016-01-01', '2016-02-01', freq='s')

>>> df = pd.DataFrame(index=dates, data={'A': 1})
>>> df.truncate('2016-01-05', '2016-01-10').tail()
A
2016-01-09 23:59:56 1
2016-01-09 23:59:57 1
2016-01-09 23:59:58 1
2016-01-09 23:59:59 1
2016-01-10 00:00:00 1
>>> df.loc['2016-01-05':'2016-01-10', :].tail()
A
2016-01-10 23:59:55 1
2016-01-10 23:59:56 1
2016-01-10 23:59:57 1

34.3. Series 1409

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

2016-01-10 23:59:58 1
2016-01-10 23:59:59 1

pandas.Series.tshift

Series.tshift(periods=1, freq=None, axis=0)

Shift the time index, using the index’s frequency if available.
Parameters periods : int
Number of periods to move, can be positive or negative
freq : DateOffset, timedelta, or time rule string, default None
Increment to use from the tseries module or time rule (e.g. ‘EOM’)
axis : int or basestring
Corresponds to the axis that contains the Index
Returns shifted : NDFrame

Notes

If freq is not specified then tries to use the freq or inferred_freq attributes of the index. If neither of those
attributes exist, a ValueError is thrown

pandas.Series.tz_convert

Series.tz_convert(tz, axis=0, level=None, copy=True)

Convert tz-aware axis to target time zone.
Parameters tz : string or pytz.timezone object
axis : the axis to convert
level : int, str, default None
If axis ia a MultiIndex, convert a specific level. Otherwise must be None
copy : boolean, default True
Also make a copy of the underlying data
Raises TypeError
If the axis is tz-naive.

pandas.Series.tz_localize

Series.tz_localize(tz, axis=0, level=None, copy=True, ambiguous=’raise’)

Localize tz-naive TimeSeries to target time zone.
Parameters tz : string or pytz.timezone object
axis : the axis to localize
level : int, str, default None

1410 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

If axis ia a MultiIndex, localize a specific level. Otherwise must be None

copy : boolean, default True
Also make a copy of the underlying data
ambiguous : ‘infer’, bool-ndarray, ‘NaT’, default ‘raise’
• ‘infer’ will attempt to infer fall dst-transition hours based on order
• bool-ndarray where True signifies a DST time, False designates a non-DST time (note
that this flag is only applicable for ambiguous times)
• ‘NaT’ will return NaT where there are ambiguous times
• ‘raise’ will raise an AmbiguousTimeError if there are ambiguous times
infer_dst : boolean, default False
Deprecated since version 0.15.0: Attempt to infer fall dst-transition hours based
on order
Raises TypeError
If the TimeSeries is tz-aware and tz is not None.

pandas.Series.unique

Series.unique()
Return unique values in the object. Uniques are returned in order of appearance, this does NOT sort. Hash
table-based unique.
Parameters values : 1d array-like
Returns unique values.
• If the input is an Index, the return is an Index
• If the input is a Categorical dtype, the return is a Categorical
• If the input is a Series/ndarray, the return will be an ndarray
See also:
unique, Index.unique, Series.unique

pandas.Series.unstack

Series.unstack(level=-1, fill_value=None)
Unstack, a.k.a. pivot, Series with MultiIndex to produce DataFrame. The level involved will automatically
get sorted.
Parameters level : int, string, or list of these, default last level
Level(s) to unstack, can pass level name
fill_value : replace NaN with this value if the unstack produces
missing values
Returns unstacked : DataFrame

34.3. Series 1411

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Examples

>>> s = pd.Series([1, 2, 3, 4],

... index=pd.MultiIndex.from_product([['one', 'two'], ['a', 'b']]))
>>> s
one a 1
b 2
two a 3
b 4
dtype: int64

>>> s.unstack(level=-1)
a b
one 1 2
two 3 4

>>> s.unstack(level=0)
one two
a 1 3
b 2 4

pandas.Series.update

Series.update(other)
Modify Series in place using non-NA values from passed Series. Aligns on index
Parameters other : Series

Examples

>>> s = pd.Series([1, 2, 3])

>>> s.update(pd.Series([4, 5, 6]))
>>> s
0 4
1 5
2 6
dtype: int64

>>> s = pd.Series(['a', 'b', 'c'])

>>> s.update(pd.Series(['d', 'e'], index=[0, 2]))
>>> s
0 d
1 b
2 e
dtype: object

>>> s = pd.Series([1, 2, 3])

>>> s.update(pd.Series([4, 5, 6, 7, 8]))
>>> s
0 4
1 5
2 6
dtype: int64

1412 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

If other contains NaNs the corresponding values are not updated in the original Series.

>>> s = pd.Series([1, 2, 3])

>>> s.update(pd.Series([4, np.nan, 6]))
>>> s
0 4
1 2
2 6
dtype: int64

pandas.Series.valid

Series.valid(inplace=False, **kwargs)

pandas.Series.value_counts

Series.value_counts(normalize=False, sort=True, ascending=False, bins=None,

dropna=True)
Returns object containing counts of unique values.
The resulting object will be in descending order so that the first element is the most frequently-occurring
element. Excludes NA values by default.
Parameters normalize : boolean, default False
If True then the object returned will contain the relative frequencies of the unique
values.
sort : boolean, default True
Sort by values
ascending : boolean, default False
Sort in ascending order
bins : integer, optional
Rather than count values, group them into half-open bins, a convenience for
pd.cut, only works with numeric data
dropna : boolean, default True
Don’t include counts of NaN.
Returns counts : Series

pandas.Series.var

Series.var(axis=None, skipna=None, level=None, ddof=1, numeric_only=None, **kwargs)

Return unbiased variance over requested axis.
Normalized by N-1 by default. This can be changed using the ddof argument
Parameters axis : {index (0)}
skipna : boolean, default True
Exclude NA/null values. If an entire row/column is NA, the result will be NA

34.3. Series 1413

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

level : int or level name, default None

If the axis is a MultiIndex (hierarchical), count along a particular level, collapsing
into a scalar
ddof : int, default 1
degrees of freedom
numeric_only : boolean, default None
Include only float, int, boolean columns. If None, will attempt to use everything,
then use only numeric data. Not implemented for Series.
Returns var : scalar or Series (if level specified)

pandas.Series.view

Series.view(dtype=None)

pandas.Series.where

Series.where(cond, other=nan, inplace=False, axis=None, level=None, errors=’raise’,

try_cast=False, raise_on_error=None)
Return an object of same shape as self and whose corresponding entries are from self where cond is True
and otherwise are from other.
Parameters cond : boolean NDFrame, array-like, or callable
Where cond is True, keep the original value. Where False, replace with corre-
sponding value from other. If cond is callable, it is computed on the NDFrame
and should return boolean NDFrame or array. The callable must not change input
NDFrame (though pandas doesn’t check it).
New in version 0.18.1: A callable can be used as cond.
other : scalar, NDFrame, or callable
Entries where cond is False are replaced with corresponding value from other.
If other is callable, it is computed on the NDFrame and should return scalar or
NDFrame. The callable must not change input NDFrame (though pandas doesn’t
check it).
New in version 0.18.1: A callable can be used as other.
inplace : boolean, default False
Whether to perform the operation in place on the data
axis : alignment axis if needed, default None
level : alignment level if needed, default None
errors : str, {‘raise’, ‘ignore’}, default ‘raise’
• raise : allow exceptions to be raised
• ignore : suppress exceptions. On error return original object
Note that currently this parameter won’t affect the results and will always coerce
to a suitable dtype.
try_cast : boolean, default False

1414 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

try to cast the result back to the input type (if possible),
raise_on_error : boolean, default True
Whether to raise on invalid data types (e.g. trying to where on strings)
Deprecated since version 0.21.0.
Returns wh : same type as caller
See also:
DataFrame.mask()

Notes

The where method is an application of the if-then idiom. For each element in the calling DataFrame, if
cond is True the element is used; otherwise the corresponding element from the DataFrame other is
used.
The signature for DataFrame.where() differs from numpy.where(). Roughly df1.where(m,
df2) is equivalent to np.where(m, df1, df2).
For further details and examples see the where documentation in indexing.

Examples

>>> s = pd.Series(range(5))
>>> s.where(s > 0)
0 NaN
1 1.0
2 2.0
3 3.0
4 4.0

>>> s.mask(s > 0)

0 0.0
1 NaN
2 NaN
3 NaN
4 NaN

>>> s.where(s > 1, 10)

0 10.0
1 10.0
2 2.0
3 3.0
4 4.0

>>> df = pd.DataFrame(np.arange(10).reshape(-1, 2), columns=['A', 'B'])

>>> m = df % 3 == 0
>>> df.where(m, -df)
A B
0 0 -1
1 -2 3
2 -4 -5
3 6 -7

34.3. Series 1415

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

4 -8 9
>>> df.where(m, -df) == np.where(m, df, -df)
A B
0 True True
1 True True
2 True True
3 True True
4 True True
>>> df.where(m, -df) == df.mask(~m, -df)
A B
0 True True
1 True True
2 True True
3 True True
4 True True

pandas.Series.xs

Series.xs(key, axis=0, level=None, drop_level=True)

Returns a cross-section (row(s) or column(s)) from the Series/DataFrame. Defaults to cross-section on
the rows (axis=0).
Parameters key : object
Some label contained in the index, or partially in a MultiIndex
axis : int, default 0
Axis to retrieve cross-section on
level : object, defaults to first n levels (n=1 or len(key))
In case of a key partially contained in a MultiIndex, indicate which levels are
used. Levels can be referred by label or position.
drop_level : boolean, default True
If False, returns object with same levels as self.
Returns xs : Series or DataFrame

Notes

xs is only for getting, not setting values.

MultiIndex Slicers is a generic way to get/set values on any level or levels. It is a superset of xs function-
ality, see MultiIndex Slicers

Examples

>>> df
A B C
a 4 5 2
b 4 0 9
c 9 7 3
>>> df.xs('a')

1416 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

A 4
B 5
C 2
Name: a
>>> df.xs('C', axis=1)
a 2
b 9
c 3
Name: C

>>> df
A B C D
first second third
bar one 1 4 1 8 9
two 1 7 5 5 0
baz one 1 6 6 8 0
three 2 5 3 5 3
>>> df.xs(('baz', 'three'))
A B C D
third
2 5 3 5 3
>>> df.xs('one', level=1)
A B C D
first third
bar 1 4 1 8 9
baz 1 6 6 8 0
>>> df.xs(('baz', 2), level=[0, 'third'])
A B C D
second
three 5 3 5 3

34.3.2 Attributes

Axes
• index: axis labels

Series.values Return Series as ndarray or ndarray-like

Series.dtype return the dtype object of the underlying data
Series.ftype return if the data is sparse|dense
Series.shape return a tuple of the shape of the underlying data
Series.nbytes return the number of bytes in the underlying data
Series.ndim return the number of dimensions of the underlying data,
Series.size return the number of elements in the underlying data
Series.strides return the strides of the underlying data
Series.itemsize return the size of the dtype of the item of the underlying
data
Series.base return the base object if the memory of the underlying data
is
Series.T return the transpose, which is by definition self
Series.memory_usage([index, deep]) Memory usage of the Series

34.3. Series 1417

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

34.3.3 Conversion

Series.astype(dtype[, copy, errors]) Cast a pandas object to a specified dtype dtype.

Series.infer_objects() Attempt to infer better dtypes for object columns.
Series.copy([deep]) Make a copy of this objects data.
Series.isna() Return a boolean same-sized object indicating if the values
are NA.
Series.notna() Return a boolean same-sized object indicating if the values
are not NA.

34.3.4 Indexing, iteration

Series.get(key[, default]) Get item from object for given key (DataFrame column,
Panel slice, etc.).
Series.at Fast label-based scalar accessor
Series.iat Fast integer location scalar accessor.
Series.loc Purely label-location based indexer for selection by label.
Series.iloc Purely integer-location based indexing for selection by po-
sition.
Series.__iter__() Return an iterator of the values.
Series.iteritems() Lazily iterate over (index, value) tuples

34.3.4.1 pandas.Series.__iter__

Series.__iter__()
Return an iterator of the values.
These are each a scalar type, which is a Python scalar (for str, int, float) or a pandas scalar (for Times-
tamp/Timedelta/Interval/Period)
For more information on .at, .iat, .loc, and .iloc, see the indexing documentation.

34.3.5 Binary operator functions

Series.add(other[, level, fill_value, axis]) Addition of series and other, element-wise (binary operator
add).
Series.sub(other[, level, fill_value, axis]) Subtraction of series and other, element-wise (binary oper-
ator sub).
Series.mul(other[, level, fill_value, axis]) Multiplication of series and other, element-wise (binary op-
erator mul).
Series.div(other[, level, fill_value, axis]) Floating division of series and other, element-wise (binary
operator truediv).
Series.truediv(other[, level, fill_value, axis]) Floating division of series and other, element-wise (binary
operator truediv).
Series.floordiv(other[, level, fill_value, axis]) Integer division of series and other, element-wise (binary
operator floordiv).
Series.mod(other[, level, fill_value, axis]) Modulo of series and other, element-wise (binary operator
mod).
Continued on next page

1418 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Table 34.29 – continued from previous page

Series.pow(other[, level, fill_value, axis]) Exponential power of series and other, element-wise (bi-
nary operator pow).
Series.radd(other[, level, fill_value, axis]) Addition of series and other, element-wise (binary operator
radd).
Series.rsub(other[, level, fill_value, axis]) Subtraction of series and other, element-wise (binary oper-
ator rsub).
Series.rmul(other[, level, fill_value, axis]) Multiplication of series and other, element-wise (binary op-
erator rmul).
Series.rdiv(other[, level, fill_value, axis]) Floating division of series and other, element-wise (binary
operator rtruediv).
Series.rtruediv(other[, level, fill_value, axis]) Floating division of series and other, element-wise (binary
operator rtruediv).
Series.rfloordiv(other[, level, fill_value, ...]) Integer division of series and other, element-wise (binary
operator rfloordiv).
Series.rmod(other[, level, fill_value, axis]) Modulo of series and other, element-wise (binary operator
rmod).
Series.rpow(other[, level, fill_value, axis]) Exponential power of series and other, element-wise (bi-
nary operator rpow).
Series.combine(other, func[, fill_value]) Perform elementwise binary operation on two Series using
given function
Series.combine_first(other) Combine Series values, choosing the calling Series’s values
first.
Series.round([decimals]) Round each value in a Series to the given number of deci-
mals.
Series.lt(other[, level, fill_value, axis]) Less than of series and other, element-wise (binary operator
lt).
Series.gt(other[, level, fill_value, axis]) Greater than of series and other, element-wise (binary op-
erator gt).
Series.le(other[, level, fill_value, axis]) Less than or equal to of series and other, element-wise (bi-
nary operator le).
Series.ge(other[, level, fill_value, axis]) Greater than or equal to of series and other, element-wise
(binary operator ge).
Series.ne(other[, level, fill_value, axis]) Not equal to of series and other, element-wise (binary op-
erator ne).
Series.eq(other[, level, fill_value, axis]) Equal to of series and other, element-wise (binary operator
eq).

34.3.6 Function application, GroupBy & Window

Series.apply(func[, convert_dtype, args]) Invoke function on values of Series.

Series.aggregate(func[, axis]) Aggregate using callable, string, dict, or list of
string/callables
Series.transform(func, *args, **kwargs) Call function producing a like-indexed NDFrame
Series.map(arg[, na_action]) Map values of Series using input correspondence (which
can be
Series.groupby([by, axis, level, as_index, ...]) Group series using mapper (dict or key function, apply
given function to group, return result as series) or by a se-
ries of columns.
Series.rolling(window[, min_periods, freq, ...]) Provides rolling window calculations.
Series.expanding([min_periods, freq, ...]) Provides expanding transformations.
Continued on next page

34.3. Series 1419

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Table 34.30 – continued from previous page

Series.ewm([com, span, halflife, alpha, ...]) Provides exponential weighted functions

34.3.7 Computations / Descriptive Stats

Series.abs() Return an object with absolute value taken–only applicable

to objects that are all numeric.
Series.all([axis, bool_only, skipna, level]) Return whether all elements are True over requested axis
Series.any([axis, bool_only, skipna, level]) Return whether any element is True over requested axis
Series.autocorr([lag]) Lag-N autocorrelation
Series.between(left, right[, inclusive]) Return boolean Series equivalent to left <= series <= right.
Series.clip([lower, upper, axis, inplace]) Trim values at input threshold(s).
Series.clip_lower(threshold[, axis, inplace]) Return copy of the input with values below given value(s)
truncated.
Series.clip_upper(threshold[, axis, inplace]) Return copy of input with values above given value(s) trun-
cated.
Series.corr(other[, method, min_periods]) Compute correlation with other Series, excluding missing
values
Series.count([level]) Return number of non-NA/null observations in the Series
Series.cov(other[, min_periods]) Compute covariance with Series, excluding missing values
Series.cummax([axis, skipna]) Return cumulative max over requested axis.
Series.cummin([axis, skipna]) Return cumulative minimum over requested axis.
Series.cumprod([axis, skipna]) Return cumulative product over requested axis.
Series.cumsum([axis, skipna]) Return cumulative sum over requested axis.
Series.describe([percentiles, include, exclude]) Generates descriptive statistics that summarize the central
tendency, dispersion and shape of a dataset’s distribution,
excluding NaN values.
Series.diff([periods]) 1st discrete difference of object
Series.factorize([sort, na_sentinel]) Encode the object as an enumerated type or categorical
variable
Series.kurt([axis, skipna, level, numeric_only]) Return unbiased kurtosis over requested axis using Fisher’s
definition of kurtosis (kurtosis of normal == 0.0).
Series.mad([axis, skipna, level]) Return the mean absolute deviation of the values for the
requested axis
Series.max([axis, skipna, level, numeric_only]) This method returns the maximum of the values in the ob-
ject.
Series.mean([axis, skipna, level, numeric_only]) Return the mean of the values for the requested axis
Series.median([axis, skipna, level, ...]) Return the median of the values for the requested axis
Series.min([axis, skipna, level, numeric_only]) This method returns the minimum of the values in the ob-
ject.
Series.mode() Return the mode(s) of the dataset.
Series.nlargest([n, keep]) Return the largest n elements.
Series.nsmallest([n, keep]) Return the smallest n elements.
Series.pct_change([periods, fill_method, ...]) Percent change over given number of periods.
Series.prod([axis, skipna, level, numeric_only]) Return the product of the values for the requested axis
Series.quantile([q, interpolation]) Return value at the given quantile, a la numpy.percentile.
Series.rank([axis, method, numeric_only, ...]) Compute numerical data ranks (1 through n) along axis.
Series.sem([axis, skipna, level, ddof, ...]) Return unbiased standard error of the mean over requested
axis.
Series.skew([axis, skipna, level, numeric_only]) Return unbiased skew over requested axis
Continued on next page

1420 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Table 34.31 – continued from previous page

Series.std([axis, skipna, level, ddof, ...]) Return sample standard deviation over requested axis.
Series.sum([axis, skipna, level, numeric_only]) Return the sum of the values for the requested axis
Series.var([axis, skipna, level, ddof, ...]) Return unbiased variance over requested axis.
Series.unique() Return unique values in the object.
Series.nunique([dropna]) Return number of unique elements in the object.
Series.is_unique Return boolean if values in the object are unique
Series.is_monotonic Return boolean if values in the object are
Series.is_monotonic_increasing Return boolean if values in the object are
Series.is_monotonic_decreasing Return boolean if values in the object are
Series.value_counts([normalize, sort, ...]) Returns object containing counts of unique values.

34.3.8 Reindexing / Selection / Label manipulation

Series.align(other[, join, axis, level, ...]) Align two objects on their axes with the
Series.drop([labels, axis, index, columns, ...]) Return new object with labels in requested axis removed.
Series.drop_duplicates([keep, inplace]) Return Series with duplicate values removed
Series.duplicated([keep]) Return boolean Series denoting duplicate values
Series.equals(other) Determines if two NDFrame objects contain the same ele-
ments.
Series.first(offset) Convenience method for subsetting initial periods of time
series data based on a date offset.
Series.head([n]) Return the first n rows.
Series.idxmax([axis, skipna]) Index label of the first occurrence of maximum of values.
Series.idxmin([axis, skipna]) Index label of the first occurrence of minimum of values.
Series.isin(values) Return a boolean Series showing whether each element
in the Series is exactly contained in the passed sequence
of values.
Series.last(offset) Convenience method for subsetting final periods of time
series data based on a date offset.
Series.reindex([index]) Conform Series to new index with optional filling logic,
placing NA/NaN in locations having no value in the previ-
ous index.
Series.reindex_like(other[, method, copy, ...]) Return an object with matching indices to myself.
Series.rename([index]) Alter Series index labels or name
Series.rename_axis(mapper[, axis, copy, inplace]) Alter the name of the index or columns.
Series.reset_index([level, drop, name, inplace]) Analogous to the pandas.DataFrame.
reset_index() function, see docstring there.
Series.sample([n, frac, replace, weights, ...]) Returns a random sample of items from an axis of object.
Series.select(crit[, axis]) Return data corresponding to axis labels matching criteria
Series.set_axis(labels[, axis, inplace]) Assign desired index to given axis
Series.take(indices[, axis, convert, is_copy]) Return the elements in the given positional indices along
an axis.
Series.tail([n]) Return the last n rows.
Series.truncate([before, after, axis, copy]) Truncates a sorted DataFrame/Series before and/or after
some particular index value.
Series.where(cond[, other, inplace, axis, ...]) Return an object of same shape as self and whose corre-
sponding entries are from self where cond is True and oth-
erwise are from other.
Continued on next page

34.3. Series 1421

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Table 34.32 – continued from previous page

Series.mask(cond[, other, inplace, axis, ...]) Return an object of same shape as self and whose corre-
sponding entries are from self where cond is False and oth-
erwise are from other.

34.3.9 Missing data handling

Series.dropna([axis, inplace]) Return Series without null values

Series.fillna([value, method, axis, ...]) Fill NA/NaN values using the specified method
Series.interpolate([method, axis, limit, ...]) Interpolate values according to different methods.

34.3.10 Reshaping, sorting

Series.argsort([axis, kind, order]) Overrides ndarray.argsort.

Series.reorder_levels(order) Rearrange index levels using input order.
Series.sort_values([axis, ascending, ...]) Sort by the values along either axis
Series.sort_index([axis, level, ascending, ...]) Sort object by labels (along an axis)
Series.swaplevel([i, j, copy]) Swap levels i and j in a MultiIndex
Series.unstack([level, fill_value]) Unstack, a.k.a.
Series.searchsorted(value[, side, sorter]) Find indices where elements should be inserted to maintain
order.

34.3.11 Combining / joining / merging

Series.append(to_append[, ignore_index, ...]) Concatenate two or more Series.

Series.replace([to_replace, value, inplace, ...]) Replace values given in ‘to_replace’ with ‘value’.
Series.update(other) Modify Series in place using non-NA values from passed
Series.

34.3.12 Time series-related

Series.asfreq(freq[, method, how, ...]) Convert TimeSeries to specified frequency.

Series.asof(where[, subset]) The last row without any NaN is taken (or the last row with-
out
Series.shift([periods, freq, axis]) Shift index by desired number of periods with an optional
time freq
Series.first_valid_index() Return index for first non-NA/null value.
Series.last_valid_index() Return index for last non-NA/null value.
Series.resample(rule[, how, axis, ...]) Convenience method for frequency conversion and resam-
pling of time series.
Series.tz_convert(tz[, axis, level, copy]) Convert tz-aware axis to target time zone.
Series.tz_localize(tz[, axis, level, copy, ...]) Localize tz-naive TimeSeries to target time zone.

34.3.13 Datetimelike Properties

Series.dt can be used to access the values of the series as datetimelike and return several properties. These can be

1422 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

accessed like Series.dt.<property>.

Datetime Properties

Series.dt.date Returns numpy array of python datetime.date objects

(namely, the date part of Timestamps without timezone in-
formation).
Series.dt.time Returns numpy array of datetime.time.
Series.dt.year The year of the datetime
Series.dt.month The month as January=1, December=12
Series.dt.day The days of the datetime
Series.dt.hour The hours of the datetime
Series.dt.minute The minutes of the datetime
Series.dt.second The seconds of the datetime
Series.dt.microsecond The microseconds of the datetime
Series.dt.nanosecond The nanoseconds of the datetime
Series.dt.week The week ordinal of the year
Series.dt.weekofyear The week ordinal of the year
Series.dt.dayofweek The day of the week with Monday=0, Sunday=6
Series.dt.weekday The day of the week with Monday=0, Sunday=6
Series.dt.weekday_name The name of day in a week (ex: Friday)
Series.dt.dayofyear The ordinal day of the year
Series.dt.quarter The quarter of the date
Series.dt.is_month_start Logical indicating if first day of month (defined by fre-
quency)
Series.dt.is_month_end Logical indicating if last day of month (defined by fre-
quency)
Series.dt.is_quarter_start Logical indicating if first day of quarter (defined by fre-
quency)
Series.dt.is_quarter_end Logical indicating if last day of quarter (defined by fre-
quency)
Series.dt.is_year_start Logical indicating if first day of year (defined by fre-
quency)
Series.dt.is_year_end Logical indicating if last day of year (defined by frequency)
Series.dt.is_leap_year Logical indicating if the date belongs to a leap year
Series.dt.daysinmonth The number of days in the month
Series.dt.days_in_month The number of days in the month
Series.dt.tz
Series.dt.freq

34.3.13.1 pandas.Series.dt.date

Series.dt.date
Returns numpy array of python datetime.date objects (namely, the date part of Timestamps without timezone
information).

34.3.13.2 pandas.Series.dt.time

Series.dt.time
Returns numpy array of datetime.time. The time part of the Timestamps.

34.3. Series 1423

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

34.3.13.3 pandas.Series.dt.year

Series.dt.year
The year of the datetime

34.3.13.4 pandas.Series.dt.month

Series.dt.month
The month as January=1, December=12

34.3.13.5 pandas.Series.dt.day

Series.dt.day
The days of the datetime

34.3.13.6 pandas.Series.dt.hour

Series.dt.hour
The hours of the datetime

34.3.13.7 pandas.Series.dt.minute

Series.dt.minute
The minutes of the datetime

34.3.13.8 pandas.Series.dt.second

Series.dt.second
The seconds of the datetime

34.3.13.9 pandas.Series.dt.microsecond

Series.dt.microsecond
The microseconds of the datetime

34.3.13.10 pandas.Series.dt.nanosecond

Series.dt.nanosecond
The nanoseconds of the datetime

34.3.13.11 pandas.Series.dt.week

Series.dt.week
The week ordinal of the year

1424 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

34.3.13.12 pandas.Series.dt.weekofyear

Series.dt.weekofyear
The week ordinal of the year

34.3.13.13 pandas.Series.dt.dayofweek

Series.dt.dayofweek
The day of the week with Monday=0, Sunday=6

34.3.13.14 pandas.Series.dt.weekday

Series.dt.weekday
The day of the week with Monday=0, Sunday=6

34.3.13.15 pandas.Series.dt.weekday_name

Series.dt.weekday_name
The name of day in a week (ex: Friday)
New in version 0.18.1.

34.3.13.16 pandas.Series.dt.dayofyear

Series.dt.dayofyear
The ordinal day of the year

34.3.13.17 pandas.Series.dt.quarter

Series.dt.quarter
The quarter of the date

34.3.13.18 pandas.Series.dt.is_month_start

Series.dt.is_month_start
Logical indicating if first day of month (defined by frequency)

34.3.13.19 pandas.Series.dt.is_month_end

Series.dt.is_month_end
Logical indicating if last day of month (defined by frequency)

34.3.13.20 pandas.Series.dt.is_quarter_start

Series.dt.is_quarter_start
Logical indicating if first day of quarter (defined by frequency)

34.3. Series 1425

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

34.3.13.21 pandas.Series.dt.is_quarter_end

Series.dt.is_quarter_end
Logical indicating if last day of quarter (defined by frequency)

34.3.13.22 pandas.Series.dt.is_year_start

Series.dt.is_year_start
Logical indicating if first day of year (defined by frequency)

34.3.13.23 pandas.Series.dt.is_year_end

Series.dt.is_year_end
Logical indicating if last day of year (defined by frequency)

34.3.13.24 pandas.Series.dt.is_leap_year

Series.dt.is_leap_year
Logical indicating if the date belongs to a leap year

34.3.13.25 pandas.Series.dt.daysinmonth

Series.dt.daysinmonth
The number of days in the month

34.3.13.26 pandas.Series.dt.days_in_month

Series.dt.days_in_month
The number of days in the month

34.3.13.27 pandas.Series.dt.tz

Series.dt.tz

34.3.13.28 pandas.Series.dt.freq

Series.dt.freq
Datetime Methods

Series.dt.to_period(*args, **kwargs) Cast to PeriodIndex at a particular frequency

Series.dt.to_pydatetime()
Series.dt.tz_localize(*args, **kwargs) Localize tz-naive DatetimeIndex to given time zone (using
Series.dt.tz_convert(*args, **kwargs) Convert tz-aware DatetimeIndex from one time zone to an-
other (using
Series.dt.normalize(*args, **kwargs) Return DatetimeIndex with times to midnight.
Continued on next page

1426 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Table 34.38 – continued from previous page

Series.dt.strftime(*args, **kwargs) Return an array of formatted strings specified by
date_format, which supports the same string format as the
python standard library.
Series.dt.round(*args, **kwargs) round the index to the specified freq
Series.dt.floor(*args, **kwargs) floor the index to the specified freq
Series.dt.ceil(*args, **kwargs) ceil the index to the specified freq

34.3.13.29 pandas.Series.dt.to_period

Series.dt.to_period(*args, **kwargs)
Cast to PeriodIndex at a particular frequency

34.3.13.30 pandas.Series.dt.to_pydatetime

Series.dt.to_pydatetime()

34.3.13.31 pandas.Series.dt.tz_localize

Series.dt.tz_localize(*args, **kwargs)
Localize tz-naive DatetimeIndex to given time zone (using pytz/dateutil), or remove timezone from tz-aware
DatetimeIndex
Parameters tz : string, pytz.timezone, dateutil.tz.tzfile or None
Time zone for time. Corresponding timestamps would be converted to time zone of
the TimeSeries. None will remove timezone holding local time.
ambiguous : ‘infer’, bool-ndarray, ‘NaT’, default ‘raise’
• ‘infer’ will attempt to infer fall dst-transition hours based on order
• bool-ndarray where True signifies a DST time, False signifies a non-DST time (note that
this flag is only applicable for ambiguous times)
• ‘NaT’ will return NaT where there are ambiguous times
• ‘raise’ will raise an AmbiguousTimeError if there are ambiguous times
errors : ‘raise’, ‘coerce’, default ‘raise’
• ‘raise’ will raise a NonExistentTimeError if a timestamp is not valid in the
specified timezone (e.g. due to a transition from or to DST time)
• ‘coerce’ will return NaT if the timestamp can not be converted into the specified
timezone
New in version 0.19.0.
infer_dst : boolean, default False
Deprecated since version 0.15.0: Attempt to infer fall dst-transition hours based on
order
Returns localized : DatetimeIndex
Raises TypeError
If the DatetimeIndex is tz-aware and tz is not None.

34.3. Series 1427

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

34.3.13.32 pandas.Series.dt.tz_convert

Series.dt.tz_convert(*args, **kwargs)
Convert tz-aware DatetimeIndex from one time zone to another (using pytz/dateutil)
Parameters tz : string, pytz.timezone, dateutil.tz.tzfile or None
Time zone for time. Corresponding timestamps would be converted to time zone of
the TimeSeries. None will remove timezone holding UTC time.
Returns normalized : DatetimeIndex
Raises TypeError
If DatetimeIndex is tz-naive.

34.3.13.33 pandas.Series.dt.normalize

Series.dt.normalize(*args, **kwargs)
Return DatetimeIndex with times to midnight. Length is unaltered
Returns normalized : DatetimeIndex

34.3.13.34 pandas.Series.dt.strftime

Series.dt.strftime(*args, **kwargs)
Return an array of formatted strings specified by date_format, which supports the same string format as the
python standard library. Details of the string format can be found in python string format doc
New in version 0.17.0.
Parameters date_format : str
date format string (e.g. “%Y-%m-%d”)
Returns ndarray of formatted strings

34.3.13.35 pandas.Series.dt.round

Series.dt.round(*args, **kwargs)
round the index to the specified freq
Parameters freq : freq string/object
Returns index of same type
Raises ValueError if the freq cannot be converted

34.3.13.36 pandas.Series.dt.floor

Series.dt.floor(*args, **kwargs)
floor the index to the specified freq
Parameters freq : freq string/object
Returns index of same type
Raises ValueError if the freq cannot be converted

1428 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

34.3.13.37 pandas.Series.dt.ceil

Series.dt.ceil(*args, **kwargs)
ceil the index to the specified freq
Parameters freq : freq string/object
Returns index of same type
Raises ValueError if the freq cannot be converted
Timedelta Properties

Series.dt.days Number of days for each element.

Series.dt.seconds Number of seconds (>= 0 and less than 1 day) for each
element.
Series.dt.microseconds Number of microseconds (>= 0 and less than 1 second) for
each element.
Series.dt.nanoseconds Number of nanoseconds (>= 0 and less than 1 microsec-
ond) for each element.
Series.dt.components Return a dataframe of the components (days, hours, min-
utes, seconds, milliseconds, microseconds, nanoseconds)
of the Timedeltas.

34.3.13.38 pandas.Series.dt.days

Series.dt.days
Number of days for each element.

34.3.13.39 pandas.Series.dt.seconds

Series.dt.seconds
Number of seconds (>= 0 and less than 1 day) for each element.

34.3.13.40 pandas.Series.dt.microseconds

Series.dt.microseconds
Number of microseconds (>= 0 and less than 1 second) for each element.

34.3.13.41 pandas.Series.dt.nanoseconds

Series.dt.nanoseconds
Number of nanoseconds (>= 0 and less than 1 microsecond) for each element.

34.3.13.42 pandas.Series.dt.components

Series.dt.components
Return a dataframe of the components (days, hours, minutes, seconds, milliseconds, microseconds, nanosec-
onds) of the Timedeltas.
Returns a DataFrame
Timedelta Methods

34.3. Series 1429

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Series.dt.to_pytimedelta()
Series.dt.total_seconds(*args, **kwargs) Total duration of each element expressed in seconds.

34.3.13.43 pandas.Series.dt.to_pytimedelta

Series.dt.to_pytimedelta()

34.3.13.44 pandas.Series.dt.total_seconds

Series.dt.total_seconds(*args, **kwargs)
Total duration of each element expressed in seconds.
New in version 0.17.0.

34.3.14 String handling

Series.str can be used to access the values of the series as strings and apply several methods to it. These can be
accessed like Series.str.<function/property>.

Series.str.capitalize() Convert strings in the Series/Index to be capitalized.

Series.str.cat([others, sep, na_rep]) Concatenate strings in the Series/Index with given separa-
tor.
Series.str.center(width[, fillchar]) Filling left and right side of strings in the Series/Index with
an additional character.
Series.str.contains(pat[, case, flags, na, ...]) Return boolean Series/array whether given pattern/regex
is contained in each string in the Series/Index.
Series.str.count(pat[, flags]) Count occurrences of pattern in each string of the Se-
ries/Index.
Series.str.decode(encoding[, errors]) Decode character string in the Series/Index using indicated
encoding.
Series.str.encode(encoding[, errors]) Encode character string in the Series/Index using indicated
encoding.
Series.str.endswith(pat[, na]) Return boolean Series indicating whether each string in the
Series/Index ends with passed pattern.
Series.str.extract(pat[, flags, expand]) For each subject string in the Series, extract groups from
the first match of regular expression pat.
Series.str.extractall(pat[, flags]) For each subject string in the Series, extract groups from
all matches of regular expression pat.
Series.str.find(sub[, start, end]) Return lowest indexes in each strings in the Series/Index
where the substring is fully contained between [start:end].
Series.str.findall(pat[, flags]) Find all occurrences of pattern or regular expression in the
Series/Index.
Series.str.get(i) Extract element from lists, tuples, or strings in each ele-
ment in the Series/Index.
Series.str.index(sub[, start, end]) Return lowest indexes in each strings where the substring
is fully contained between [start:end].
Series.str.join(sep) Join lists contained as elements in the Series/Index with
passed delimiter.
Series.str.len() Compute length of each string in the Series/Index.
Continued on next page

1430 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Table 34.41 – continued from previous page

Series.str.ljust(width[, fillchar]) Filling right side of strings in the Series/Index with an ad-
ditional character.
Series.str.lower() Convert strings in the Series/Index to lowercase.
Series.str.lstrip([to_strip]) Strip whitespace (including newlines) from each string in
the Series/Index from left side.
Series.str.match(pat[, case, flags, na, ...]) Determine if each string matches a regular expression.
Series.str.normalize(form) Return the Unicode normal form for the strings in the Se-
ries/Index.
Series.str.pad(width[, side, fillchar]) Pad strings in the Series/Index with an additional character
to specified side.
Series.str.partition([pat, expand]) Split the string at the first occurrence of sep, and return 3
elements containing the part before the separator, the sepa-
rator itself, and the part after the separator.
Series.str.repeat(repeats) Duplicate each string in the Series/Index by indicated num-
ber of times.
Series.str.replace(pat, repl[, n, case, flags]) Replace occurrences of pattern/regex in the Series/Index
with some other string.
Series.str.rfind(sub[, start, end]) Return highest indexes in each strings in the Series/Index
where the substring is fully contained between [start:end].
Series.str.rindex(sub[, start, end]) Return highest indexes in each strings where the substring
is fully contained between [start:end].
Series.str.rjust(width[, fillchar]) Filling left side of strings in the Series/Index with an addi-
tional character.
Series.str.rpartition([pat, expand]) Split the string at the last occurrence of sep, and return 3
elements containing the part before the separator, the sepa-
rator itself, and the part after the separator.
Series.str.rstrip([to_strip]) Strip whitespace (including newlines) from each string in
the Series/Index from right side.
Series.str.slice([start, stop, step]) Slice substrings from each element in the Series/Index
Series.str.slice_replace([start, stop, repl]) Replace a slice of each string in the Series/Index with an-
other string.
Series.str.split([pat, n, expand]) Split each string (a la re.split) in the Series/Index by given
pattern, propagating NA values.
Series.str.rsplit([pat, n, expand]) Split each string in the Series/Index by the given delimiter
string, starting at the end of the string and working to the
front.
Series.str.startswith(pat[, na]) Return boolean Series/array indicating whether each
string in the Series/Index starts with passed pattern.
Series.str.strip([to_strip]) Strip whitespace (including newlines) from each string in
the Series/Index from left and right sides.
Series.str.swapcase() Convert strings in the Series/Index to be swapcased.
Series.str.title() Convert strings in the Series/Index to titlecase.
Series.str.translate(table[, deletechars]) Map all characters in the string through the given mapping
table.
Series.str.upper() Convert strings in the Series/Index to uppercase.
Series.str.wrap(width, **kwargs) Wrap long strings in the Series/Index to be formatted in
paragraphs with length less than a given width.
Series.str.zfill(width) Filling left side of strings in the Series/Index with 0.
Series.str.isalnum() Check whether all characters in each string in the Se-
ries/Index are alphanumeric.
Continued on next page

34.3. Series 1431

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Table 34.41 – continued from previous page

Series.str.isalpha() Check whether all characters in each string in the Se-
ries/Index are alphabetic.
Series.str.isdigit() Check whether all characters in each string in the Se-
ries/Index are digits.
Series.str.isspace() Check whether all characters in each string in the Se-
ries/Index are whitespace.
Series.str.islower() Check whether all characters in each string in the Se-
ries/Index are lowercase.
Series.str.isupper() Check whether all characters in each string in the Se-
ries/Index are uppercase.
Series.str.istitle() Check whether all characters in each string in the Se-
ries/Index are titlecase.
Series.str.isnumeric() Check whether all characters in each string in the Se-
ries/Index are numeric.
Series.str.isdecimal() Check whether all characters in each string in the Se-
ries/Index are decimal.
Series.str.get_dummies([sep]) Split each string in the Series by sep and return a frame of
dummy/indicator variables.

34.3.14.1 pandas.Series.str.capitalize

Series.str.capitalize()
Convert strings in the Series/Index to be capitalized. Equivalent to str.capitalize().
Returns converted : Series/Index of objects

34.3.14.2 pandas.Series.str.cat

Series.str.cat(others=None, sep=None, na_rep=None)

Concatenate strings in the Series/Index with given separator.
Parameters others : list-like, or list of list-likes
If None, returns str concatenating strings of the Series
sep : string or None, default None
na_rep : string or None, default None
If None, NA in the series are ignored.
Returns concat : Series/Index of objects or str

Examples

When na_rep is None (default behavior), NaN value(s) in the Series are ignored.

>>> Series(['a','b',np.nan,'c']).str.cat(sep=' ')

'a b c'

>>> Series(['a','b',np.nan,'c']).str.cat(sep=' ', na_rep='?')

'a b ? c'

1432 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

If others is specified, corresponding values are concatenated with the separator. Result will be a Series of
strings.

>>> Series(['a', 'b', 'c']).str.cat(['A', 'B', 'C'], sep=',')

0 a,A
1 b,B
2 c,C
dtype: object

Otherwise, strings in the Series are concatenated. Result will be a string.

>>> Series(['a', 'b', 'c']).str.cat(sep=',')

'a,b,c'

Also, you can pass a list of list-likes.

>>> Series(['a', 'b']).str.cat([['x', 'y'], ['1', '2']], sep=',')

0 a,x,1
1 b,y,2
dtype: object

34.3.14.3 pandas.Series.str.center

Series.str.center(width, fillchar=’ ‘)
Filling left and right side of strings in the Series/Index with an additional character. Equivalent to str.
center().
Parameters width : int
Minimum width of resulting string; additional characters will be filled with
fillchar
fillchar : str
Additional character for filling, default is whitespace
Returns filled : Series/Index of objects

34.3.14.4 pandas.Series.str.contains

Series.str.contains(pat, case=True, flags=0, na=nan, regex=True)

Return boolean Series/array whether given pattern/regex is contained in each string in the Series/Index.
Parameters pat : string
Character sequence or regular expression
case : boolean, default True
If True, case sensitive
flags : int, default 0 (no flags)
re module flags, e.g. re.IGNORECASE
na : default NaN, fill value for missing values.
regex : bool, default True
If True use re.search, otherwise use Python in operator

34.3. Series 1433

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Returns contained : Series/array of boolean values

See also:

match analogous, but stricter, relying on re.match instead of re.search

34.3.14.5 pandas.Series.str.count

Series.str.count(pat, flags=0, **kwargs)

Count occurrences of pattern in each string of the Series/Index.
Parameters pat : string, valid regular expression
flags : int, default 0 (no flags)
re module flags, e.g. re.IGNORECASE
Returns counts : Series/Index of integer values

34.3.14.6 pandas.Series.str.decode

Series.str.decode(encoding, errors=’strict’)
Decode character string in the Series/Index using indicated encoding. Equivalent to str.decode() in
python2 and bytes.decode() in python3.
Parameters encoding : str
errors : str, optional
Returns decoded : Series/Index of objects

34.3.14.7 pandas.Series.str.encode

Series.str.encode(encoding, errors=’strict’)
Encode character string in the Series/Index using indicated encoding. Equivalent to str.encode().
Parameters encoding : str
errors : str, optional
Returns encoded : Series/Index of objects

34.3.14.8 pandas.Series.str.endswith

Series.str.endswith(pat, na=nan)
Return boolean Series indicating whether each string in the Series/Index ends with passed pattern. Equivalent
to str.endswith().
Parameters pat : string
Character sequence
na : bool, default NaN
Returns endswith : Series/array of boolean values

1434 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

34.3.14.9 pandas.Series.str.extract

Series.str.extract(pat, flags=0, expand=None)

For each subject string in the Series, extract groups from the first match of regular expression pat.
Parameters pat : string
Regular expression pattern with capturing groups
flags : int, default 0 (no flags)
re module flags, e.g. re.IGNORECASE
expand : bool, default False
• If True, return DataFrame.
• If False, return Series/Index/DataFrame.
New in version 0.18.0.
Returns DataFrame with one row for each subject string, and one column for
each group. Any capture group names in regular expression pat will
be used for column names; otherwise capture group numbers will be
used. The dtype of each result column is always object, even when
no match is found. If expand=False and pat has only one capture group,
then return a Series (if subject is a Series) or Index (if subject
is an Index).
See also:

extractall returns all matches (not just the first match)

Examples

A pattern with two groups will return a DataFrame with two columns. Non-matches will be NaN.

>>> s = Series(['a1', 'b2', 'c3'])

>>> s.str.extract('([ab])(\d)')
0 1
0 a 1
1 b 2
2 NaN NaN

A pattern may contain optional groups.

>>> s.str.extract('([ab])?(\d)')
0 1
0 a 1
1 b 2
2 NaN 3

Named groups will become column names in the result.

34.3. Series 1435

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

>>> s.str.extract('(?P<letter>[ab])(?P<digit>\d)')
letter digit
0 a 1
1 b 2
2 NaN NaN

A pattern with one group will return a DataFrame with one column if expand=True.

>>> s.str.extract('[ab](\d)', expand=True)

0
0 1
1 2
2 NaN

A pattern with one group will return a Series if expand=False.

>>> s.str.extract('[ab](\d)', expand=False)

0 1
1 2
2 NaN
dtype: object

34.3.14.10 pandas.Series.str.extractall

Series.str.extractall(pat, flags=0)
For each subject string in the Series, extract groups from all matches of regular expression pat. When each
subject string in the Series has exactly one match, extractall(pat).xs(0, level=’match’) is the same as extract(pat).
New in version 0.18.0.
Parameters pat : string
Regular expression pattern with capturing groups
flags : int, default 0 (no flags)
re module flags, e.g. re.IGNORECASE
Returns A DataFrame with one row for each match, and one column for each
group. Its rows have a MultiIndex with first levels that come from
the subject Series. The last level is named ‘match’ and indicates
the order in the subject. Any capture group names in regular
expression pat will be used for column names; otherwise capture
group numbers will be used.
See also:

extract returns first match only (not all matches)

Examples

A pattern with one group will return a DataFrame with one column. Indices with no matches will not appear in
the result.

1436 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

>>> s = Series(["a1a2", "b1", "c1"], index=["A", "B", "C"])

>>> s.str.extractall("[ab](\d)")
0
match
A 0 1
1 2
B 0 1

Capture group names are used for column names of the result.

>>> s.str.extractall("[ab](?P<digit>\d)")
digit
match
A 0 1
1 2
B 0 1

A pattern with two groups will return a DataFrame with two columns.

>>> s.str.extractall("(?P<letter>[ab])(?P<digit>\d)")
letter digit
match
A 0 a 1
1 a 2
B 0 b 1

Optional groups that do not match are NaN in the result.

>>> s.str.extractall("(?P<letter>[ab])?(?P<digit>\d)")
letter digit
match
A 0 a 1
1 a 2
B 0 b 1
C 0 NaN 1

34.3.14.11 pandas.Series.str.find

Series.str.find(sub, start=0, end=None)

Return lowest indexes in each strings in the Series/Index where the substring is fully contained between
[start:end]. Return -1 on failure. Equivalent to standard str.find().
Parameters sub : str
Substring being searched
start : int
Left edge index
end : int
Right edge index
Returns found : Series/Index of integer values
See also:

rfind Return highest indexes in each strings

34.3. Series 1437

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

34.3.14.12 pandas.Series.str.findall

Series.str.findall(pat, flags=0, **kwargs)

Find all occurrences of pattern or regular expression in the Series/Index. Equivalent to re.findall().
Parameters pat : string
Pattern or regular expression
flags : int, default 0 (no flags)
re module flags, e.g. re.IGNORECASE
Returns matches : Series/Index of lists
See also:

extractall returns DataFrame with one column per capture group

34.3.14.13 pandas.Series.str.get

Series.str.get(i)
Extract element from lists, tuples, or strings in each element in the Series/Index.
Parameters i : int
Integer index (location)
Returns items : Series/Index of objects

34.3.14.14 pandas.Series.str.index

Series.str.index(sub, start=0, end=None)

Return lowest indexes in each strings where the substring is fully contained between [start:end]. This is the same
as str.find except instead of returning -1, it raises a ValueError when the substring is not found. Equivalent
to standard str.index.
Parameters sub : str
Substring being searched
start : int
Left edge index
end : int
Right edge index
Returns found : Series/Index of objects
See also:

rindex Return highest indexes in each strings

34.3.14.15 pandas.Series.str.join

Series.str.join(sep)
Join lists contained as elements in the Series/Index with passed delimiter. Equivalent to str.join().
Parameters sep : string

1438 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Delimiter
Returns joined : Series/Index of objects

34.3.14.16 pandas.Series.str.len

Series.str.len()
Compute length of each string in the Series/Index.
Returns lengths : Series/Index of integer values

34.3.14.17 pandas.Series.str.ljust

Series.str.ljust(width, fillchar=’ ‘)
Filling right side of strings in the Series/Index with an additional character. Equivalent to str.ljust().
Parameters width : int
Minimum width of resulting string; additional characters will be filled with
fillchar
fillchar : str
Additional character for filling, default is whitespace
Returns filled : Series/Index of objects

34.3.14.18 pandas.Series.str.lower

Series.str.lower()
Convert strings in the Series/Index to lowercase. Equivalent to str.lower().
Returns converted : Series/Index of objects

34.3.14.19 pandas.Series.str.lstrip

Series.str.lstrip(to_strip=None)
Strip whitespace (including newlines) from each string in the Series/Index from left side. Equivalent to str.
lstrip().
Returns stripped : Series/Index of objects

34.3.14.20 pandas.Series.str.match

Series.str.match(pat, case=True, flags=0, na=nan, as_indexer=None)

Determine if each string matches a regular expression.
Parameters pat : string
Character sequence or regular expression
case : boolean, default True
If True, case sensitive
flags : int, default 0 (no flags)
re module flags, e.g. re.IGNORECASE

34.3. Series 1439

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

na : default NaN, fill value for missing values.

as_indexer : DEPRECATED - Keyword is ignored.
Returns Series/array of boolean values
See also:

contains analogous, but less strict, relying on re.search instead of re.match

extract extract matched groups

34.3.14.21 pandas.Series.str.normalize

Series.str.normalize(form)
Return the Unicode normal form for the strings in the Series/Index. For more information on the forms, see the
unicodedata.normalize().
Parameters form : {‘NFC’, ‘NFKC’, ‘NFD’, ‘NFKD’}
Unicode form
Returns normalized : Series/Index of objects

34.3.14.22 pandas.Series.str.pad

Series.str.pad(width, side=’left’, fillchar=’ ‘)

Pad strings in the Series/Index with an additional character to specified side.
Parameters width : int
Minimum width of resulting string; additional characters will be filled with spaces
side : {‘left’, ‘right’, ‘both’}, default ‘left’
fillchar : str
Additional character for filling, default is whitespace
Returns padded : Series/Index of objects

34.3.14.23 pandas.Series.str.partition

Series.str.partition(pat=’ ‘, expand=True)
Split the string at the first occurrence of sep, and return 3 elements containing the part before the separator, the
separator itself, and the part after the separator. If the separator is not found, return 3 elements containing the
string itself, followed by two empty strings.
Parameters pat : string, default whitespace
String to split on.
expand : bool, default True
• If True, return DataFrame/MultiIndex expanding dimensionality.
• If False, return Series/Index.
Returns split : DataFrame/MultiIndex or Series/Index of objects
See also:

1440 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

rpartition Split the string at the last occurrence of sep

Examples

>>> s = Series(['A_B_C', 'D_E_F', 'X'])

0 A_B_C
1 D_E_F
2 X
dtype: object

>>> s.str.partition('_')
0 1 2
0 A _ B_C
1 D _ E_F
2 X

>>> s.str.rpartition('_')
0 1 2
0 A_B _ C
1 D_E _ F
2 X

34.3.14.24 pandas.Series.str.repeat

Series.str.repeat(repeats)
Duplicate each string in the Series/Index by indicated number of times.
Parameters repeats : int or array
Same value for all (int) or different value per (array)
Returns repeated : Series/Index of objects

34.3.14.25 pandas.Series.str.replace

Series.str.replace(pat, repl, n=-1, case=None, flags=0)

Replace occurrences of pattern/regex in the Series/Index with some other string. Equivalent to str.
replace() or re.sub().
Parameters pat : string or compiled regex
String can be a character sequence or regular expression.
New in version 0.20.0: pat also accepts a compiled regex.
repl : string or callable
Replacement string or a callable. The callable is passed the regex match object and
must return a replacement string to be used. See re.sub().
New in version 0.20.0: repl also accepts a callable.
n : int, default -1 (all)
Number of replacements to make from start
case : boolean, default None

34.3. Series 1441

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• If True, case sensitive (the default if pat is a string)

• Set to False for case insensitive
• Cannot be set if pat is a compiled regex
flags : int, default 0 (no flags)
• re module flags, e.g. re.IGNORECASE
• Cannot be set if pat is a compiled regex
Returns replaced : Series/Index of objects

Notes

When pat is a compiled regex, all flags should be included in the compiled regex. Use of case or flags with a
compiled regex will raise an error.

Examples

When repl is a string, every pat is replaced as with str.replace(). NaN value(s) in the Series are left as is.

>>> pd.Series(['foo', 'fuz', np.nan]).str.replace('f', 'b')

0 boo
1 buz
2 NaN
dtype: object

When repl is a callable, it is called on every pat using re.sub(). The callable should expect one positional
argument (a regex object) and return a string.
To get the idea:

>>> pd.Series(['foo', 'fuz', np.nan]).str.replace('f', repr)

0 <_sre.SRE_Match object; span=(0, 1), match='f'>oo
1 <_sre.SRE_Match object; span=(0, 1), match='f'>uz
2 NaN
dtype: object

Reverse every lowercase alphabetic word:

>>> repl = lambda m: m.group(0)[::-1]

>>> pd.Series(['foo 123', 'bar baz', np.nan]).str.replace(r'[a-z]+', repl)
0 oof 123
1 rab zab
2 NaN
dtype: object

Using regex groups (extract second group and swap case):

>>> pat = r"(?P<one>\w+) (?P<two>\w+) (?P<three>\w+)"

>>> repl = lambda m: m.group('two').swapcase()
>>> pd.Series(['One Two Three', 'Foo Bar Baz']).str.replace(pat, repl)
0 tWO
1 bAR
dtype: object

1442 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Using a compiled regex with flags

>>> regex_pat = re.compile(r'FUZ', flags=re.IGNORECASE)

>>> pd.Series(['foo', 'fuz', np.nan]).str.replace(regex_pat, 'bar')
0 foo
1 bar
2 NaN
dtype: object

34.3.14.26 pandas.Series.str.rfind

Series.str.rfind(sub, start=0, end=None)

Return highest indexes in each strings in the Series/Index where the substring is fully contained between
[start:end]. Return -1 on failure. Equivalent to standard str.rfind().
Parameters sub : str
Substring being searched
start : int
Left edge index
end : int
Right edge index
Returns found : Series/Index of integer values
See also:

find Return lowest indexes in each strings

34.3.14.27 pandas.Series.str.rindex

Series.str.rindex(sub, start=0, end=None)

Return highest indexes in each strings where the substring is fully contained between [start:end]. This is the
same as str.rfind except instead of returning -1, it raises a ValueError when the substring is not found.
Equivalent to standard str.rindex.
Parameters sub : str
Substring being searched
start : int
Left edge index
end : int
Right edge index
Returns found : Series/Index of objects
See also:

index Return lowest indexes in each strings

34.3. Series 1443

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

34.3.14.28 pandas.Series.str.rjust

Series.str.rjust(width, fillchar=’ ‘)
Filling left side of strings in the Series/Index with an additional character. Equivalent to str.rjust().
Parameters width : int
Minimum width of resulting string; additional characters will be filled with
fillchar
fillchar : str
Additional character for filling, default is whitespace
Returns filled : Series/Index of objects

34.3.14.29 pandas.Series.str.rpartition

Series.str.rpartition(pat=’ ‘, expand=True)
Split the string at the last occurrence of sep, and return 3 elements containing the part before the separator, the
separator itself, and the part after the separator. If the separator is not found, return 3 elements containing two
empty strings, followed by the string itself.
Parameters pat : string, default whitespace
String to split on.
expand : bool, default True
• If True, return DataFrame/MultiIndex expanding dimensionality.
• If False, return Series/Index.
Returns split : DataFrame/MultiIndex or Series/Index of objects
See also:

partition Split the string at the first occurrence of sep

Examples

>>> s = Series(['A_B_C', 'D_E_F', 'X'])

0 A_B_C
1 D_E_F
2 X
dtype: object

>>> s.str.partition('_')
0 1 2
0 A _ B_C
1 D _ E_F
2 X

>>> s.str.rpartition('_')
0 1 2
0 A_B _ C
1 D_E _ F
2 X

1444 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

34.3.14.30 pandas.Series.str.rstrip

Series.str.rstrip(to_strip=None)
Strip whitespace (including newlines) from each string in the Series/Index from right side. Equivalent to str.
rstrip().
Returns stripped : Series/Index of objects

34.3.14.31 pandas.Series.str.slice

Series.str.slice(start=None, stop=None, step=None)

Slice substrings from each element in the Series/Index
Parameters start : int or None
stop : int or None
step : int or None
Returns sliced : Series/Index of objects

34.3.14.32 pandas.Series.str.slice_replace

Series.str.slice_replace(start=None, stop=None, repl=None)

Replace a slice of each string in the Series/Index with another string.
Parameters start : int or None
stop : int or None
repl : str or None
String for replacement
Returns replaced : Series/Index of objects

34.3.14.33 pandas.Series.str.split

Series.str.split(pat=None, n=-1, expand=False)

Split each string (a la re.split) in the Series/Index by given pattern, propagating NA values. Equivalent to str.
split().
Parameters pat : string, default None
String or regular expression to split on. If None, splits on whitespace
n : int, default -1 (all)
None, 0 and -1 will be interpreted as return all splits
expand : bool, default False
• If True, return DataFrame/MultiIndex expanding dimensionality.
• If False, return Series/Index.
return_type : deprecated, use expand
Returns split : Series/Index or DataFrame/MultiIndex of objects

34.3. Series 1445

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

34.3.14.34 pandas.Series.str.rsplit

Series.str.rsplit(pat=None, n=-1, expand=False)

Split each string in the Series/Index by the given delimiter string, starting at the end of the string and working
to the front. Equivalent to str.rsplit().
Parameters pat : string, default None
Separator to split on. If None, splits on whitespace
n : int, default -1 (all)
None, 0 and -1 will be interpreted as return all splits
expand : bool, default False
• If True, return DataFrame/MultiIndex expanding dimensionality.
• If False, return Series/Index.
Returns split : Series/Index or DataFrame/MultiIndex of objects

34.3.14.35 pandas.Series.str.startswith

Series.str.startswith(pat, na=nan)
Return boolean Series/array indicating whether each string in the Series/Index starts with passed pattern.
Equivalent to str.startswith().
Parameters pat : string
Character sequence
na : bool, default NaN
Returns startswith : Series/array of boolean values

34.3.14.36 pandas.Series.str.strip

Series.str.strip(to_strip=None)
Strip whitespace (including newlines) from each string in the Series/Index from left and right sides. Equivalent
to str.strip().
Returns stripped : Series/Index of objects

34.3.14.37 pandas.Series.str.swapcase

Series.str.swapcase()
Convert strings in the Series/Index to be swapcased. Equivalent to str.swapcase().
Returns converted : Series/Index of objects

34.3.14.38 pandas.Series.str.title

Series.str.title()
Convert strings in the Series/Index to titlecase. Equivalent to str.title().
Returns converted : Series/Index of objects

1446 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

34.3.14.39 pandas.Series.str.translate

Series.str.translate(table, deletechars=None)
Map all characters in the string through the given mapping table. Equivalent to standard str.translate().
Note that the optional argument deletechars is only valid if you are using python 2. For python 3, character
deletion should be specified via the table argument.
Parameters table : dict (python 3), str or None (python 2)
In python 3, table is a mapping of Unicode ordinals to Unicode ordinals, strings,
or None. Unmapped characters are left untouched. Characters mapped to None are
deleted. str.maketrans() is a helper function for making translation tables.
In python 2, table is either a string of length 256 or None. If the table argument is
None, no translation is applied and the operation simply removes the characters in
deletechars. string.maketrans() is a helper function for making translation
tables.
deletechars : str, optional (python 2)
A string of characters to delete. This argument is only valid in python 2.
Returns translated : Series/Index of objects

34.3.14.40 pandas.Series.str.upper

Series.str.upper()
Convert strings in the Series/Index to uppercase. Equivalent to str.upper().
Returns converted : Series/Index of objects

34.3.14.41 pandas.Series.str.wrap

Series.str.wrap(width, **kwargs)
Wrap long strings in the Series/Index to be formatted in paragraphs with length less than a given width.
This method has the same keyword parameters and defaults as textwrap.TextWrapper.
Parameters width : int
Maximum line-width
expand_tabs : bool, optional
If true, tab characters will be expanded to spaces (default: True)
replace_whitespace : bool, optional
If true, each whitespace character (as defined by string.whitespace) remaining after
tab expansion will be replaced by a single space (default: True)
drop_whitespace : bool, optional
If true, whitespace that, after wrapping, happens to end up at the beginning or end of
a line is dropped (default: True)
break_long_words : bool, optional
If true, then words longer than width will be broken in order to ensure that no lines
are longer than width. If it is false, long words will not be broken, and some lines
may be longer than width. (default: True)

34.3. Series 1447

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

break_on_hyphens : bool, optional

If true, wrapping will occur preferably on whitespace and right after hyphens in com-
pound words, as it is customary in English. If false, only whitespaces will be consid-
ered as potentially good places for line breaks, but you need to set break_long_words
to false if you want truly insecable words. (default: True)
Returns wrapped : Series/Index of objects

Notes

Internally, this method uses a textwrap.TextWrapper instance with default settings. To achieve behavior
matching R’s stringr library str_wrap function, use the arguments:
• expand_tabs = False
• replace_whitespace = True
• drop_whitespace = True
• break_long_words = False
• break_on_hyphens = False

Examples

>>> s = pd.Series(['line to be wrapped', 'another line to be wrapped'])

>>> s.str.wrap(12)
0 line to be\nwrapped
1 another line\nto be\nwrapped

34.3.14.42 pandas.Series.str.zfill

Series.str.zfill(width)
Filling left side of strings in the Series/Index with 0. Equivalent to str.zfill().
Parameters width : int
Minimum width of resulting string; additional characters will be filled with 0
Returns filled : Series/Index of objects

34.3.14.43 pandas.Series.str.isalnum

Series.str.isalnum()
Check whether all characters in each string in the Series/Index are alphanumeric. Equivalent to str.
isalnum().
Returns is : Series/array of boolean values

34.3.14.44 pandas.Series.str.isalpha

Series.str.isalpha()
Check whether all characters in each string in the Series/Index are alphabetic. Equivalent to str.isalpha().
Returns is : Series/array of boolean values

1448 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

34.3.14.45 pandas.Series.str.isdigit

Series.str.isdigit()
Check whether all characters in each string in the Series/Index are digits. Equivalent to str.isdigit().
Returns is : Series/array of boolean values

34.3.14.46 pandas.Series.str.isspace

Series.str.isspace()
Check whether all characters in each string in the Series/Index are whitespace. Equivalent to str.
isspace().
Returns is : Series/array of boolean values

34.3.14.47 pandas.Series.str.islower

Series.str.islower()
Check whether all characters in each string in the Series/Index are lowercase. Equivalent to str.islower().
Returns is : Series/array of boolean values

34.3.14.48 pandas.Series.str.isupper

Series.str.isupper()
Check whether all characters in each string in the Series/Index are uppercase. Equivalent to str.isupper().
Returns is : Series/array of boolean values

34.3.14.49 pandas.Series.str.istitle

Series.str.istitle()
Check whether all characters in each string in the Series/Index are titlecase. Equivalent to str.istitle().
Returns is : Series/array of boolean values

34.3.14.50 pandas.Series.str.isnumeric

Series.str.isnumeric()
Check whether all characters in each string in the Series/Index are numeric. Equivalent to str.
isnumeric().
Returns is : Series/array of boolean values

34.3.14.51 pandas.Series.str.isdecimal

Series.str.isdecimal()
Check whether all characters in each string in the Series/Index are decimal. Equivalent to str.isdecimal().
Returns is : Series/array of boolean values

34.3. Series 1449

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

34.3.14.52 pandas.Series.str.get_dummies

Series.str.get_dummies(sep=’|’)
Split each string in the Series by sep and return a frame of dummy/indicator variables.
Parameters sep : string, default “|”
String to split on.
Returns dummies : DataFrame
See also:
pandas.get_dummies

Examples

>>> Series(['a|b', 'a', 'a|c']).str.get_dummies()

a b c
0 1 1 0
1 1 0 0
2 1 0 1

>>> Series(['a|b', np.nan, 'a|c']).str.get_dummies()

a b c
0 1 1 0
1 0 0 0
2 1 0 1

34.3.15 Categorical

The dtype of a Categorical can be described by a pandas.api.types.CategoricalDtype.

api.types.CategoricalDtype([categories, or- Type for categorical data with the categories and ordered-
dered]) ness

34.3.15.1 pandas.api.types.CategoricalDtype

class pandas.api.types.CategoricalDtype(categories=None, ordered=False)

Type for categorical data with the categories and orderedness
Changed in version 0.21.0.
Parameters categories : sequence, optional
Must be unique, and must not contain any nulls.
ordered : bool, default False
See also:
pandas.Categorical

1450 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Notes

This class is useful for specifying the type of a Categorical independent of the values. See CategoricalDtype
for more.

Examples

>>> t = CategoricalDtype(categories=['b', 'a'], ordered=True)

>>> pd.Series(['a', 'b', 'a', 'c'], dtype=t)
0 a
1 b
2 a
3 NaN
dtype: category
Categories (2, object): [b < a]

If the Series is of dtype CategoricalDtype, Series.cat can be used to change the categorical data. This
accessor is similar to the Series.dt or Series.str and has the following usable methods and properties:

Series.cat.categories The categories of this categorical.

Series.cat.ordered Whether the categories have an ordered relationship
Series.cat.codes

34.3.15.2 pandas.Series.cat.categories

Series.cat.categories
The categories of this categorical.
Setting assigns new values to each category (effectively a rename of each individual category).
The assigned value has to be a list-like object. All items must be unique and the number of items in the new
categories must be the same as the number of items in the old categories.
Assigning to categories is a inplace operation!
Raises ValueError
If the new categories do not validate as categories or if the number of new categories
is unequal the number of old categories
See also:
rename_categories, reorder_categories, add_categories, remove_categories,
remove_unused_categories, set_categories

34.3.15.3 pandas.Series.cat.ordered

Series.cat.ordered
Whether the categories have an ordered relationship

34.3.15.4 pandas.Series.cat.codes

Series.cat.codes

34.3. Series 1451

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Series.cat.rename_categories(*args, Renames categories.

**kwargs)
Series.cat.reorder_categories(*args, Reorders categories as specified in new_categories.
**kwargs)
Series.cat.add_categories(*args, **kwargs) Add new categories.
Series.cat.remove_categories(*args, Removes the specified categories.
**kwargs)
Series.cat.remove_unused_categories(*args, Removes categories which are not used.
...)
Series.cat.set_categories(*args, **kwargs) Sets the categories to the specified new_categories.
Series.cat.as_ordered(*args, **kwargs) Sets the Categorical to be ordered
Series.cat.as_unordered(*args, **kwargs) Sets the Categorical to be unordered

34.3.15.5 pandas.Series.cat.rename_categories

Series.cat.rename_categories(*args, **kwargs)
Renames categories.
Parameters new_categories : list-like or dict-like
• list-like: all items must be unique and the number of items in the new categories
must match the existing number of categories.
• dict-like: specifies a mapping from old categories to new. Categories not con-
tained in the mapping are passed through and extra categories in the mapping
are ignored. New in version 0.21.0.

Warning: Currently, Series are considered list like. In a future version of pandas
they’ll be considered dict-like.

inplace : boolean (default: False)

Whether or not to rename the categories inplace or return a copy of this categorical
with renamed categories.
Returns cat : Categorical or None
With inplace=False, the new categorical is returned. With inplace=True,
there is no return value.
Raises ValueError
If new categories are list-like and do not have the same number of items than the
current categories or do not validate as categories
See also:
reorder_categories, add_categories, remove_categories,
remove_unused_categories, set_categories

Examples

1452 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

>>> c = Categorical(['a', 'a', 'b'])

>>> c.rename_categories([0, 1])
[0, 0, 1]
Categories (2, int64): [0, 1]

For dict-like new_categories, extra keys are ignored and categories not in the dictionary are passed through

>>> c.rename_categories({'a': 'A', 'c': 'C'})

[A, A, b]
Categories (2, object): [A, b]

34.3.15.6 pandas.Series.cat.reorder_categories

Series.cat.reorder_categories(*args, **kwargs)
Reorders categories as specified in new_categories.
new_categories need to include all old categories and no new category items.
Parameters new_categories : Index-like
The categories in new order.
ordered : boolean, optional
Whether or not the categorical is treated as a ordered categorical. If not given, do
not change the ordered information.
inplace : boolean (default: False)
Whether or not to reorder the categories inplace or return a copy of this categorical
with reordered categories.
Returns cat : Categorical with reordered categories or None if inplace.
Raises ValueError
If the new categories do not contain all old category items or any new ones
See also:
rename_categories, add_categories, remove_categories,
remove_unused_categories, set_categories

34.3.15.7 pandas.Series.cat.add_categories

Series.cat.add_categories(*args, **kwargs)
Add new categories.
new_categories will be included at the last/highest place in the categories and will be unused directly after this
call.
Parameters new_categories : category or list-like of category
The new categories to be included.
inplace : boolean (default: False)
Whether or not to add the categories inplace or return a copy of this categorical with
added categories.
Returns cat : Categorical with new categories added or None if inplace.

34.3. Series 1453

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Raises ValueError
If the new categories include old categories or do not validate as categories
See also:
rename_categories, reorder_categories, remove_categories,
remove_unused_categories, set_categories

34.3.15.8 pandas.Series.cat.remove_categories

Series.cat.remove_categories(*args, **kwargs)
Removes the specified categories.
removals must be included in the old categories. Values which were in the removed categories will be set to
NaN
Parameters removals : category or list of categories
The categories which should be removed.
inplace : boolean (default: False)
Whether or not to remove the categories inplace or return a copy of this categorical
with removed categories.
Returns cat : Categorical with removed categories or None if inplace.
Raises ValueError
If the removals are not contained in the categories
See also:
rename_categories, reorder_categories, add_categories,
remove_unused_categories, set_categories

34.3.15.9 pandas.Series.cat.remove_unused_categories

Series.cat.remove_unused_categories(*args, **kwargs)
Removes categories which are not used.
Parameters inplace : boolean (default: False)
Whether or not to drop unused categories inplace or return a copy of this categorical
with unused categories dropped.
Returns cat : Categorical with unused categories dropped or None if inplace.
See also:
rename_categories, reorder_categories, add_categories, remove_categories,
set_categories

34.3.15.10 pandas.Series.cat.set_categories

Series.cat.set_categories(*args, **kwargs)
Sets the categories to the specified new_categories.

1454 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

new_categories can include new categories (which will result in unused categories) or remove old categories
(which results in values set to NaN). If rename==True, the categories will simple be renamed (less or more
items than in old categories will result in values set to NaN or in unused categories respectively).
This method can be used to perform more than one action of adding, removing, and reordering simultaneously
and is therefore faster than performing the individual steps via the more specialised methods.
On the other hand this methods does not do checks (e.g., whether the old categories are included in the new
categories on a reorder), which can result in surprising changes, for example when using special string dtypes
on python3, which does not considers a S1 string equal to a single char python string.
Parameters new_categories : Index-like
The categories in new order.
ordered : boolean, (default: False)
Whether or not the categorical is treated as a ordered categorical. If not given, do
not change the ordered information.
rename : boolean (default: False)
Whether or not the new_categories should be considered as a rename of the old
categories or as reordered categories.
inplace : boolean (default: False)
Whether or not to reorder the categories inplace or return a copy of this categorical
with reordered categories.
Returns cat : Categorical with reordered categories or None if inplace.
Raises ValueError
If new_categories does not validate as categories
See also:
rename_categories, reorder_categories, add_categories, remove_categories,
remove_unused_categories

34.3.15.11 pandas.Series.cat.as_ordered

Series.cat.as_ordered(*args, **kwargs)
Sets the Categorical to be ordered
Parameters inplace : boolean (default: False)
Whether or not to set the ordered attribute inplace or return a copy of this categorical
with ordered set to True

34.3.15.12 pandas.Series.cat.as_unordered

Series.cat.as_unordered(*args, **kwargs)
Sets the Categorical to be unordered
Parameters inplace : boolean (default: False)
Whether or not to set the ordered attribute inplace or return a copy of this categorical
with ordered set to False

34.3. Series 1455

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

To create a Series of dtype category, use cat = s.astype("category").

The following two Categorical constructors are considered API but should only be used when adding ordering
information or special categories is need at creation time of the categorical data:

Categorical(values[, categories, ordered, ...]) Represents a categorical variable in classic R / S-plus fash-
ion

34.3.15.13 pandas.Categorical

class pandas.Categorical(values, categories=None, ordered=None, dtype=None, fastpath=False)

Represents a categorical variable in classic R / S-plus fashion
Categoricals can only take on only a limited, and usually fixed, number of possible values (categories). In con-
trast to statistical categorical variables, a Categorical might have an order, but numerical operations (additions,
divisions, ...) are not possible.
All values of the Categorical are either in categories or np.nan. Assigning values outside of categories will raise
a ValueError. Order is defined by the order of the categories, not lexical order of the values.
Parameters values : list-like
The values of the categorical. If categories are given, values not in categories will be
replaced with NaN.
categories : Index-like (unique), optional
The unique categories for this categorical. If not given, the categories are assumed
to be the unique values of values.
ordered : boolean, (default False)
Whether or not this categorical is treated as a ordered categorical. If not given, the
resulting categorical will not be ordered.
dtype : CategoricalDtype
An instance of CategoricalDtype to use for this categorical
New in version 0.21.0.
Raises ValueError
If the categories do not validate.
TypeError
If an explicit ordered=True is given but no categories and the values are not
sortable.
See also:

pandas.api.types.CategoricalDtype Type for categorical data

CategoricalIndex An Index with an underlying Categorical

Notes

See the user guide for more.

1456 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Examples

>>> pd.Categorical([1, 2, 3, 1, 2, 3])

[1, 2, 3, 1, 2, 3]
Categories (3, int64): [1, 2, 3]

>>> pd.Categorical(['a', 'b', 'c', 'a', 'b', 'c'])

[a, b, c, a, b, c]
Categories (3, object): [a, b, c]

Ordered Categoricals can be sorted according to the custom order of the categories and can have a min and max
value.

>>> c = pd.Categorical(['a','b','c','a','b','c'], ordered=True,

... categories=['c', 'b', 'a'])
>>> c
[a, b, c, a, b, c]
Categories (3, object): [c < b < a]
>>> c.min()
'c'

Categorical.from_codes(codes, categories[, ...]) Make a Categorical type from codes and categories arrays.

34.3.15.14 pandas.Categorical.from_codes

classmethod Categorical.from_codes(codes, categories, ordered=False)

Make a Categorical type from codes and categories arrays.
This constructor is useful if you already have codes and categories and so do not need the (computation intensive)
factorization step, which is usually done on the constructor.
If your data does not follow this convention, please use the normal constructor.
Parameters codes : array-like, integers
An integer array, where each integer points to a category in categories or -1 for NaN
categories : index-like
The categories for the categorical. Items need to be unique.
ordered : boolean, (default False)
Whether or not this categorical is treated as a ordered categorical. If not given, the
resulting categorical will be unordered.
np.asarray(categorical) works by implementing the array interface. Be aware, that this converts the Cate-
gorical back to a numpy array, so categories and order information is not preserved!

Categorical.__array__([dtype]) The numpy array interface.

34.3.15.15 pandas.Categorical.__array__

Categorical.__array__(dtype=None)
The numpy array interface.
Returns values : numpy array

34.3. Series 1457

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

A numpy array of either the specified dtype or, if dtype==None (default), the same
dtype as categorical.categories.dtype

34.3.16 Plotting

Series.plot is both a callable method and a namespace attribute for specific plotting methods of the form
Series.plot.<kind>.

Series.plot([kind, ax, figsize, ....]) Series plotting accessor and method

Series.plot.area(**kwds) Area plot

Series.plot.bar(**kwds) Vertical bar plot
Series.plot.barh(**kwds) Horizontal bar plot
Series.plot.box(**kwds) Boxplot
Series.plot.density(**kwds) Kernel Density Estimate plot
Series.plot.hist([bins]) Histogram
Series.plot.kde(**kwds) Kernel Density Estimate plot
Series.plot.line(**kwds) Line plot
Series.plot.pie(**kwds) Pie chart

34.3.16.1 pandas.Series.plot.area

Series.plot.area(**kwds)
Area plot
New in version 0.17.0.
Parameters **kwds : optional
Keyword arguments to pass on to pandas.Series.plot().
Returns axes : matplotlib.AxesSubplot or np.array of them

34.3.16.2 pandas.Series.plot.bar

Series.plot.bar(**kwds)
Vertical bar plot
New in version 0.17.0.
Parameters **kwds : optional
Keyword arguments to pass on to pandas.Series.plot().
Returns axes : matplotlib.AxesSubplot or np.array of them

34.3.16.3 pandas.Series.plot.barh

Series.plot.barh(**kwds)
Horizontal bar plot
New in version 0.17.0.
Parameters **kwds : optional

1458 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Keyword arguments to pass on to pandas.Series.plot().

Returns axes : matplotlib.AxesSubplot or np.array of them

34.3.16.4 pandas.Series.plot.box

Series.plot.box(**kwds)
Boxplot
New in version 0.17.0.
Parameters **kwds : optional
Keyword arguments to pass on to pandas.Series.plot().
Returns axes : matplotlib.AxesSubplot or np.array of them

34.3.16.5 pandas.Series.plot.density

Series.plot.density(**kwds)
Kernel Density Estimate plot
New in version 0.17.0.
Parameters **kwds : optional
Keyword arguments to pass on to pandas.Series.plot().
Returns axes : matplotlib.AxesSubplot or np.array of them

34.3.16.6 pandas.Series.plot.hist

Series.plot.hist(bins=10, **kwds)
Histogram
New in version 0.17.0.
Parameters bins: integer, default 10
Number of histogram bins to be used
**kwds : optional
Keyword arguments to pass on to pandas.Series.plot().
Returns axes : matplotlib.AxesSubplot or np.array of them

34.3.16.7 pandas.Series.plot.kde

Series.plot.kde(**kwds)
Kernel Density Estimate plot
New in version 0.17.0.
Parameters **kwds : optional
Keyword arguments to pass on to pandas.Series.plot().
Returns axes : matplotlib.AxesSubplot or np.array of them

34.3. Series 1459

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

34.3.16.8 pandas.Series.plot.line

Series.plot.line(**kwds)
Line plot
New in version 0.17.0.
Parameters **kwds : optional
Keyword arguments to pass on to pandas.Series.plot().
Returns axes : matplotlib.AxesSubplot or np.array of them

34.3.16.9 pandas.Series.plot.pie

Series.plot.pie(**kwds)
Pie chart
New in version 0.17.0.
Parameters **kwds : optional
Keyword arguments to pass on to pandas.Series.plot().
Returns axes : matplotlib.AxesSubplot or np.array of them

Series.hist([by, ax, grid, xlabelsize, ...]) Draw histogram of the input series using matplotlib

34.3.17 Serialization / IO / Conversion

Series.from_csv(path[, sep, parse_dates, ...]) Read CSV file (DEPRECATED, please use pandas.
read_csv() instead).
Series.to_pickle(path[, compression, protocol]) Pickle (serialize) object to input file path.
Series.to_csv([path, index, sep, na_rep, ...]) Write Series to a comma-separated values (csv) file
Series.to_dict([into]) Convert Series to {label -> value} dict or dict-like object.
Series.to_excel(excel_writer[, sheet_name, ...]) Write Series to an excel sheet
Series.to_frame([name]) Convert Series to DataFrame
Series.to_xarray() Return an xarray object from the pandas object.
Series.to_hdf(path_or_buf, key, **kwargs) Write the contained data to an HDF5 file using HDFStore.
Series.to_sql(name, con[, flavor, schema, ...]) Write records stored in a DataFrame to a SQL database.
Series.to_msgpack([path_or_buf, encoding]) msgpack (serialize) object to input file path
Series.to_json([path_or_buf, orient, ...]) Convert the object to a JSON string.
Series.to_sparse([kind, fill_value]) Convert Series to SparseSeries
Series.to_dense() Return dense representation of NDFrame (as opposed to
sparse)
Series.to_string([buf, na_rep, ...]) Render a string representation of the Series
Series.to_clipboard([excel, sep]) Attempt to write text representation of object to the system
clipboard This can be pasted into Excel, for example.
Series.to_latex([buf, columns, col_space, ...]) Render an object to a tabular environment table.

34.3.18 Sparse

1460 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

SparseSeries.to_coo([row_levels, ...]) Create a scipy.sparse.coo_matrix from a SparseSeries with

MultiIndex.
SparseSeries.from_coo(A[, dense_index]) Create a SparseSeries from a scipy.sparse.coo_matrix.

34.3.18.1 pandas.SparseSeries.to_coo

SparseSeries.to_coo(row_levels=(0, ), column_levels=(1, ), sort_labels=False)

Create a scipy.sparse.coo_matrix from a SparseSeries with MultiIndex.
Use row_levels and column_levels to determine the row and column coordinates respectively. row_levels and
column_levels are the names (labels) or numbers of the levels. {row_levels, column_levels} must be a partition
of the MultiIndex level names (or numbers).
Parameters row_levels : tuple/list
column_levels : tuple/list
sort_labels : bool, default False
Sort the row and column labels before forming the sparse matrix.
Returns y : scipy.sparse.coo_matrix
rows : list (row labels)
columns : list (column labels)

Examples

>>> from numpy import nan

>>> s = Series([3.0, nan, 1.0, 3.0, nan, nan])
>>> s.index = MultiIndex.from_tuples([(1, 2, 'a', 0),
(1, 2, 'a', 1),
(1, 1, 'b', 0),
(1, 1, 'b', 1),
(2, 1, 'b', 0),
(2, 1, 'b', 1)],
names=['A', 'B', 'C', 'D'])
>>> ss = s.to_sparse()
>>> A, rows, columns = ss.to_coo(row_levels=['A', 'B'],
column_levels=['C', 'D'],
sort_labels=True)
>>> A
<3x4 sparse matrix of type '<class 'numpy.float64'>'
with 3 stored elements in COOrdinate format>
>>> A.todense()
matrix([[ 0., 0., 1., 3.],
[ 3., 0., 0., 0.],
[ 0., 0., 0., 0.]])
>>> rows
[(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 1)]
>>> columns
[('a', 0), ('a', 1), ('b', 0), ('b', 1)]

34.3. Series 1461

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

34.3.18.2 pandas.SparseSeries.from_coo

classmethod SparseSeries.from_coo(A, dense_index=False)

Create a SparseSeries from a scipy.sparse.coo_matrix.
Parameters A : scipy.sparse.coo_matrix
dense_index : bool, default False
If False (default), the SparseSeries index consists of only the coords of the non-null
entries of the original coo_matrix. If True, the SparseSeries index consists of the full
sorted (row, col) coordinates of the coo_matrix.
Returns s : SparseSeries

Examples

>>> from scipy import sparse

>>> A = sparse.coo_matrix(([3.0, 1.0, 2.0], ([1, 0, 0], [0, 2, 3])),
shape=(3, 4))
>>> A
<3x4 sparse matrix of type '<class 'numpy.float64'>'
with 3 stored elements in COOrdinate format>
>>> A.todense()
matrix([[ 0., 0., 1., 2.],
[ 3., 0., 0., 0.],
[ 0., 0., 0., 0.]])
>>> ss = SparseSeries.from_coo(A)
>>> ss
0 2 1
3 2
1 0 3
dtype: float64
BlockIndex
Block locations: array([0], dtype=int32)
Block lengths: array([3], dtype=int32)

34.4 DataFrame

34.4.1 Constructor

DataFrame([data, index, columns, dtype, copy]) Two-dimensional size-mutable, potentially heterogeneous

tabular data structure with labeled axes (rows and
columns).

34.4.1.1 pandas.DataFrame

class pandas.DataFrame(data=None, index=None, columns=None, dtype=None, copy=False)

Two-dimensional size-mutable, potentially heterogeneous tabular data structure with labeled axes (rows and
columns). Arithmetic operations align on both row and column labels. Can be thought of as a dict-like container
for Series objects. The primary pandas data structure
Parameters data : numpy ndarray (structured or homogeneous), dict, or DataFrame

1462 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Dict can contain Series, arrays, constants, or list-like objects

index : Index or array-like
Index to use for resulting frame. Will default to np.arange(n) if no indexing infor-
mation part of input data and no index provided
columns : Index or array-like
Column labels to use for resulting frame. Will default to np.arange(n) if no column
labels are provided
dtype : dtype, default None
Data type to force. Only a single dtype is allowed. If None, infer
copy : boolean, default False
Copy data from inputs. Only affects DataFrame / 2d ndarray input
See also:

DataFrame.from_records constructor from tuples, also record arrays

DataFrame.from_dict from dicts of Series, arrays, or dicts
DataFrame.from_items from sequence of (key, value) pairs

pandas.read_csv, pandas.read_table, pandas.read_clipboard

Examples

Constructing DataFrame from a dictionary.

>>> d = {'col1': [1, 2], 'col2': [3, 4]}

>>> df = pd.DataFrame(data=d)
>>> df
col1 col2
0 1 3
1 2 4

Notice that the inferred dtype is int64.

>>> df.dtypes
col1 int64
col2 int64
dtype: object

To enforce a single dtype:

>>> df = pd.DataFrame(data=d, dtype=np.int8)

>>> df.dtypes
col1 int8
col2 int8
dtype: object

Constructing DataFrame from numpy ndarray:

34.4. DataFrame 1463

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

>>> df2 = pd.DataFrame(np.random.randint(low=0, high=10, size=(5, 5)),

... columns=['a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'e'])
>>> df2
a b c d e
0 2 8 8 3 4
1 4 2 9 0 9
2 1 0 7 8 0
3 5 1 7 1 3
4 6 0 2 4 2

Attributes

T Transpose index and columns

at Fast label-based scalar accessor
axes Return a list with the row axis labels and column axis
labels as the only members.
blocks Internal property, property synonym for as_blocks()
dtypes Return the dtypes in this object.
empty True if NDFrame is entirely empty [no items], meaning
any of the axes are of length 0.
ftypes Return the ftypes (indication of sparse/dense and dtype)
in this object.
iat Fast integer location scalar accessor.
iloc Purely integer-location based indexing for selection by
position.
is_copy
ix A primarily label-location based indexer, with integer
position fallback.
loc Purely label-location based indexer for selection by la-
bel.
ndim Number of axes / array dimensions
shape Return a tuple representing the dimensionality of the
DataFrame.
size number of elements in the NDFrame
style Property returning a Styler object containing meth-
ods for building a styled HTML representation fo the
DataFrame.
values Numpy representation of NDFrame

pandas.DataFrame.T

DataFrame.T
Transpose index and columns

pandas.DataFrame.at

DataFrame.at
Fast label-based scalar accessor
Similarly to loc, at provides label based scalar lookups. You can also set using these indexers.

1464 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

pandas.DataFrame.axes

DataFrame.axes
Return a list with the row axis labels and column axis labels as the only members. They are returned in
that order.

pandas.DataFrame.blocks

DataFrame.blocks
Internal property, property synonym for as_blocks()
Deprecated since version 0.21.0.

pandas.DataFrame.dtypes

DataFrame.dtypes
Return the dtypes in this object.

pandas.DataFrame.empty

DataFrame.empty
True if NDFrame is entirely empty [no items], meaning any of the axes are of length 0.
See also:
pandas.Series.dropna, pandas.DataFrame.dropna

Notes

If NDFrame contains only NaNs, it is still not considered empty. See the example below.

Examples

An example of an actual empty DataFrame. Notice the index is empty:

>>> df_empty = pd.DataFrame({'A' : []})

>>> df_empty
Empty DataFrame
Columns: [A]
Index: []
>>> df_empty.empty
True

If we only have NaNs in our DataFrame, it is not considered empty! We will need to drop the NaNs to
make the DataFrame empty:

>>> df = pd.DataFrame({'A' : [np.nan]})

>>> df
A
0 NaN
>>> df.empty

34.4. DataFrame 1465

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

False
>>> df.dropna().empty
True

pandas.DataFrame.ftypes

DataFrame.ftypes
Return the ftypes (indication of sparse/dense and dtype) in this object.

pandas.DataFrame.iat

DataFrame.iat
Fast integer location scalar accessor.
Similarly to iloc, iat provides integer based lookups. You can also set using these indexers.

pandas.DataFrame.iloc

DataFrame.iloc
Purely integer-location based indexing for selection by position.
.iloc[] is primarily integer position based (from 0 to length-1 of the axis), but may also be used
with a boolean array.
Allowed inputs are:
• An integer, e.g. 5.
• A list or array of integers, e.g. [4, 3, 0].
• A slice object with ints, e.g. 1:7.
• A boolean array.
• A callable function with one argument (the calling Series, DataFrame or Panel) and that returns
valid output for indexing (one of the above)
.iloc will raise IndexError if a requested indexer is out-of-bounds, except slice indexers which
allow out-of-bounds indexing (this conforms with python/numpy slice semantics).
See more at Selection by Position

pandas.DataFrame.is_copy

DataFrame.is_copy = None

pandas.DataFrame.ix

DataFrame.ix
A primarily label-location based indexer, with integer position fallback.
.ix[] supports mixed integer and label based access. It is primarily label based, but will fall back to
integer positional access unless the corresponding axis is of integer type.

1466 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

.ix is the most general indexer and will support any of the inputs in .loc and .iloc. .ix also
supports floating point label schemes. .ix is exceptionally useful when dealing with mixed positional
and label based hierachical indexes.
However, when an axis is integer based, ONLY label based access and not positional access is supported.
Thus, in such cases, it’s usually better to be explicit and use .iloc or .loc.
See more at Advanced Indexing.

pandas.DataFrame.loc

DataFrame.loc
Purely label-location based indexer for selection by label.
.loc[] is primarily label based, but may also be used with a boolean array.
Allowed inputs are:
• A single label, e.g. 5 or 'a', (note that 5 is interpreted as a label of the index, and never as an
integer position along the index).
• A list or array of labels, e.g. ['a', 'b', 'c'].
• A slice object with labels, e.g. 'a':'f' (note that contrary to usual python slices, both the start
and the stop are included!).
• A boolean array.
• A callable function with one argument (the calling Series, DataFrame or Panel) and that returns
valid output for indexing (one of the above)
.loc will raise a KeyError when the items are not found.
See more at Selection by Label

pandas.DataFrame.ndim

DataFrame.ndim
Number of axes / array dimensions

pandas.DataFrame.shape

DataFrame.shape
Return a tuple representing the dimensionality of the DataFrame.

pandas.DataFrame.size

DataFrame.size
number of elements in the NDFrame

pandas.DataFrame.style

DataFrame.style
Property returning a Styler object containing methods for building a styled HTML representation fo the
DataFrame.

34.4. DataFrame 1467

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

See also:
pandas.io.formats.style.Styler

pandas.DataFrame.values

DataFrame.values
Numpy representation of NDFrame

Notes

The dtype will be a lower-common-denominator dtype (implicit upcasting); that is to say if the dtypes
(even of numeric types) are mixed, the one that accommodates all will be chosen. Use this with care if
you are not dealing with the blocks.
e.g. If the dtypes are float16 and float32, dtype will be upcast to float32. If dtypes are int32 and uint8,
dtype will be upcast to int32. By numpy.find_common_type convention, mixing int64 and uint64 will
result in a flot64 dtype.

Methods

abs() Return an object with absolute value taken–only appli-

cable to objects that are all numeric.
add(other[, axis, level, fill_value]) Addition of dataframe and other, element-wise (binary
operator add).
add_prefix(prefix) Concatenate prefix string with panel items names.
add_suffix(suffix) Concatenate suffix string with panel items names.
agg(func[, axis]) Aggregate using callable, string, dict, or list of
string/callables
aggregate(func[, axis]) Aggregate using callable, string, dict, or list of
string/callables
align(other[, join, axis, level, copy, ...]) Align two objects on their axes with the
all([axis, bool_only, skipna, level]) Return whether all elements are True over requested
axis
any([axis, bool_only, skipna, level]) Return whether any element is True over requested axis
append(other[, ignore_index, verify_integrity]) Append rows of other to the end of this frame, returning
a new object.
apply(func[, axis, broadcast, raw, reduce, args]) Applies function along input axis of DataFrame.
applymap(func) Apply a function to a DataFrame that is intended to op-
erate elementwise, i.e.
as_blocks([copy]) Convert the frame to a dict of dtype -> Constructor
Types that each has a homogeneous dtype.
as_matrix([columns]) Convert the frame to its Numpy-array representation.
asfreq(freq[, method, how, normalize, ...]) Convert TimeSeries to specified frequency.
asof(where[, subset]) The last row without any NaN is taken (or the last row
without
assign(**kwargs) Assign new columns to a DataFrame, returning a new
object (a copy) with all the original columns in addition
to the new ones.
astype(dtype[, copy, errors]) Cast a pandas object to a specified dtype dtype.
Continued on next page

1468 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Table 34.55 – continued from previous page

at_time(time[, asof]) Select values at particular time of day (e.g.
between_time(start_time, end_time[, ...]) Select values between particular times of the day (e.g.,
9:00-9:30 AM).
bfill([axis, inplace, limit, downcast]) Synonym for DataFrame.
fillna(method='bfill')
bool() Return the bool of a single element PandasObject.
boxplot([column, by, ax, fontsize, rot, ...]) Make a box plot from DataFrame column optionally
grouped by some columns or
clip([lower, upper, axis, inplace]) Trim values at input threshold(s).
clip_lower(threshold[, axis, inplace]) Return copy of the input with values below given
value(s) truncated.
clip_upper(threshold[, axis, inplace]) Return copy of input with values above given value(s)
truncated.
combine(other, func[, fill_value, overwrite]) Add two DataFrame objects and do not propagate NaN
values, so if for a
combine_first(other) Combine two DataFrame objects and default to non-null
values in frame calling the method.
compound([axis, skipna, level]) Return the compound percentage of the values for the
requested axis
consolidate([inplace]) DEPRECATED: consolidate will be an internal imple-
mentation only.
convert_objects([convert_dates, ...]) Deprecated.
copy([deep]) Make a copy of this objects data.
corr([method, min_periods]) Compute pairwise correlation of columns, excluding
NA/null values
corrwith(other[, axis, drop]) Compute pairwise correlation between rows or columns
of two DataFrame objects.
count([axis, level, numeric_only]) Return Series with number of non-NA/null observations
over requested axis.
cov([min_periods]) Compute pairwise covariance of columns, excluding
NA/null values
cummax([axis, skipna]) Return cumulative max over requested axis.
cummin([axis, skipna]) Return cumulative minimum over requested axis.
cumprod([axis, skipna]) Return cumulative product over requested axis.
cumsum([axis, skipna]) Return cumulative sum over requested axis.
describe([percentiles, include, exclude]) Generates descriptive statistics that summarize the cen-
tral tendency, dispersion and shape of a dataset’s distri-
bution, excluding NaN values.
diff([periods, axis]) 1st discrete difference of object
div(other[, axis, level, fill_value]) Floating division of dataframe and other, element-wise
(binary operator truediv).
divide(other[, axis, level, fill_value]) Floating division of dataframe and other, element-wise
(binary operator truediv).
dot(other) Matrix multiplication with DataFrame or Series objects
drop([labels, axis, index, columns, level, ...]) Return new object with labels in requested axis re-
moved.
drop_duplicates([subset, keep, inplace]) Return DataFrame with duplicate rows removed, op-
tionally only
dropna([axis, how, thresh, subset, inplace]) Return object with labels on given axis omitted where
alternately any
Continued on next page

34.4. DataFrame 1469

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Table 34.55 – continued from previous page

duplicated([subset, keep]) Return boolean Series denoting duplicate rows, option-
ally only
eq(other[, axis, level]) Wrapper for flexible comparison methods eq
equals(other) Determines if two NDFrame objects contain the same
elements.
eval(expr[, inplace]) Evaluate an expression in the context of the calling
DataFrame instance.
ewm([com, span, halflife, alpha, ...]) Provides exponential weighted functions
expanding([min_periods, freq, center, axis]) Provides expanding transformations.
ffill([axis, inplace, limit, downcast]) Synonym for DataFrame.
fillna(method='ffill')
fillna([value, method, axis, inplace, ...]) Fill NA/NaN values using the specified method
filter([items, like, regex, axis]) Subset rows or columns of dataframe according to labels
in the specified index.
first(offset) Convenience method for subsetting initial periods of
time series data based on a date offset.
first_valid_index() Return index for first non-NA/null value.
floordiv(other[, axis, level, fill_value]) Integer division of dataframe and other, element-wise
(binary operator floordiv).
from_csv(path[, header, sep, index_col, ...]) Read CSV file (DEPRECATED, please use pandas.
read_csv() instead).
from_dict(data[, orient, dtype]) Construct DataFrame from dict of array-like or dicts
from_items(items[, columns, orient]) Convert (key, value) pairs to DataFrame.
from_records(data[, index, exclude, ...]) Convert structured or record ndarray to DataFrame
ge(other[, axis, level]) Wrapper for flexible comparison methods ge
get(key[, default]) Get item from object for given key (DataFrame column,
Panel slice, etc.).
get_dtype_counts() Return the counts of dtypes in this object.
get_ftype_counts() Return the counts of ftypes in this object.
get_value(index, col[, takeable]) Quickly retrieve single value at passed column and in-
dex
get_values() same as values (but handles sparseness conversions)
groupby([by, axis, level, as_index, sort, ...]) Group series using mapper (dict or key function, apply
given function to group, return result as series) or by a
series of columns.
gt(other[, axis, level]) Wrapper for flexible comparison methods gt
head([n]) Return the first n rows.
hist(data[, column, by, grid, xlabelsize, ...]) Draw histogram of the DataFrame’s series using mat-
plotlib / pylab.
idxmax([axis, skipna]) Return index of first occurrence of maximum over re-
quested axis.
idxmin([axis, skipna]) Return index of first occurrence of minimum over re-
quested axis.
infer_objects() Attempt to infer better dtypes for object columns.
info([verbose, buf, max_cols, memory_usage, ...]) Concise summary of a DataFrame.
insert(loc, column, value[, allow_duplicates]) Insert column into DataFrame at specified location.
interpolate([method, axis, limit, inplace, ...]) Interpolate values according to different methods.
isin(values) Return boolean DataFrame showing whether each ele-
ment in the DataFrame is contained in values.
Continued on next page

1470 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Table 34.55 – continued from previous page

isna() Return a boolean same-sized object indicating if the val-
ues are NA.
isnull() Return a boolean same-sized object indicating if the val-
ues are NA.
items() Iterator over (column name, Series) pairs.
iteritems() Iterator over (column name, Series) pairs.
iterrows() Iterate over DataFrame rows as (index, Series) pairs.
itertuples([index, name]) Iterate over DataFrame rows as namedtuples, with index
value as first element of the tuple.
join(other[, on, how, lsuffix, rsuffix, sort]) Join columns with other DataFrame either on index or
on a key column.
keys() Get the ‘info axis’ (see Indexing for more)
kurt([axis, skipna, level, numeric_only]) Return unbiased kurtosis over requested axis using
Fisher’s definition of kurtosis (kurtosis of normal ==
0.0).
kurtosis([axis, skipna, level, numeric_only]) Return unbiased kurtosis over requested axis using
Fisher’s definition of kurtosis (kurtosis of normal ==
0.0).
last(offset) Convenience method for subsetting final periods of time
series data based on a date offset.
last_valid_index() Return index for first non-NA/null value.
le(other[, axis, level]) Wrapper for flexible comparison methods le
lookup(row_labels, col_labels) Label-based “fancy indexing” function for DataFrame.
lt(other[, axis, level]) Wrapper for flexible comparison methods lt
mad([axis, skipna, level]) Return the mean absolute deviation of the values for the
requested axis
mask(cond[, other, inplace, axis, level, ...]) Return an object of same shape as self and whose corre-
sponding entries are from self where cond is False and
otherwise are from other.
max([axis, skipna, level, numeric_only]) This method returns the maximum of the values in the
object.
mean([axis, skipna, level, numeric_only]) Return the mean of the values for the requested axis
median([axis, skipna, level, numeric_only]) Return the median of the values for the requested axis
melt([id_vars, value_vars, var_name, ...]) “Unpivots” a DataFrame from wide format to long for-
mat, optionally
memory_usage([index, deep]) Memory usage of DataFrame columns.
merge(right[, how, on, left_on, right_on, ...]) Merge DataFrame objects by performing a database-
style join operation by columns or indexes.
min([axis, skipna, level, numeric_only]) This method returns the minimum of the values in the
object.
mod(other[, axis, level, fill_value]) Modulo of dataframe and other, element-wise (binary
operator mod).
mode([axis, numeric_only]) Gets the mode(s) of each element along the axis se-
lected.
mul(other[, axis, level, fill_value]) Multiplication of dataframe and other, element-wise (bi-
nary operator mul).
multiply(other[, axis, level, fill_value]) Multiplication of dataframe and other, element-wise (bi-
nary operator mul).
ne(other[, axis, level]) Wrapper for flexible comparison methods ne
nlargest(n, columns[, keep]) Get the rows of a DataFrame sorted by the n largest val-
ues of columns.
Continued on next page

34.4. DataFrame 1471

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Table 34.55 – continued from previous page

notna() Return a boolean same-sized object indicating if the val-
ues are not NA.
notnull() Return a boolean same-sized object indicating if the val-
ues are not NA.
nsmallest(n, columns[, keep]) Get the rows of a DataFrame sorted by the n smallest
values of columns.
nunique([axis, dropna]) Return Series with number of distinct observations over
requested axis.
pct_change([periods, fill_method, limit, freq]) Percent change over given number of periods.
pipe(func, *args, **kwargs) Apply func(self, *args, **kwargs)
pivot([index, columns, values]) Reshape data (produce a “pivot” table) based on column
values.
pivot_table([values, index, columns, ...]) Create a spreadsheet-style pivot table as a DataFrame.
plot alias of FramePlotMethods
pop(item) Return item and drop from frame.
pow(other[, axis, level, fill_value]) Exponential power of dataframe and other, element-
wise (binary operator pow).
prod([axis, skipna, level, numeric_only]) Return the product of the values for the requested axis
product([axis, skipna, level, numeric_only]) Return the product of the values for the requested axis
quantile([q, axis, numeric_only, interpolation]) Return values at the given quantile over requested axis,
a la numpy.percentile.
query(expr[, inplace]) Query the columns of a frame with a boolean expres-
sion.
radd(other[, axis, level, fill_value]) Addition of dataframe and other, element-wise (binary
operator radd).
rank([axis, method, numeric_only, ...]) Compute numerical data ranks (1 through n) along axis.
rdiv(other[, axis, level, fill_value]) Floating division of dataframe and other, element-wise
(binary operator rtruediv).
reindex([labels, index, columns, axis, ...]) Conform DataFrame to new index with optional filling
logic, placing NA/NaN in locations having no value in
the previous index.
reindex_axis(labels[, axis, method, level, ...]) Conform input object to new index with optional filling
logic, placing NA/NaN in locations having no value in
the previous index.
reindex_like(other[, method, copy, limit, ...]) Return an object with matching indices to myself.
rename([mapper, index, columns, axis, copy, ...]) Alter axes labels.
rename_axis(mapper[, axis, copy, inplace]) Alter the name of the index or columns.
reorder_levels(order[, axis]) Rearrange index levels using input order.
replace([to_replace, value, inplace, limit, ...]) Replace values given in ‘to_replace’ with ‘value’.
resample(rule[, how, axis, fill_method, ...]) Convenience method for frequency conversion and re-
sampling of time series.
reset_index([level, drop, inplace, ...]) For DataFrame with multi-level index, return new
DataFrame with labeling information in the columns un-
der the index names, defaulting to ‘level_0’, ‘level_1’,
etc.
rfloordiv(other[, axis, level, fill_value]) Integer division of dataframe and other, element-wise
(binary operator rfloordiv).
rmod(other[, axis, level, fill_value]) Modulo of dataframe and other, element-wise (binary
operator rmod).
rmul(other[, axis, level, fill_value]) Multiplication of dataframe and other, element-wise (bi-
nary operator rmul).
Continued on next page

1472 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Table 34.55 – continued from previous page

rolling(window[, min_periods, freq, center, ...]) Provides rolling window calculations.
round([decimals]) Round a DataFrame to a variable number of decimal
places.
rpow(other[, axis, level, fill_value]) Exponential power of dataframe and other, element-
wise (binary operator rpow).
rsub(other[, axis, level, fill_value]) Subtraction of dataframe and other, element-wise (bi-
nary operator rsub).
rtruediv(other[, axis, level, fill_value]) Floating division of dataframe and other, element-wise
(binary operator rtruediv).
sample([n, frac, replace, weights, ...]) Returns a random sample of items from an axis of ob-
ject.
select(crit[, axis]) Return data corresponding to axis labels matching crite-
ria
select_dtypes([include, exclude]) Return a subset of a DataFrame including/excluding
columns based on their dtype.
sem([axis, skipna, level, ddof, numeric_only]) Return unbiased standard error of the mean over re-
quested axis.
set_axis(labels[, axis, inplace]) Assign desired index to given axis
set_index(keys[, drop, append, inplace, ...]) Set the DataFrame index (row labels) using one or more
existing columns.
set_value(index, col, value[, takeable]) Put single value at passed column and index
shift([periods, freq, axis]) Shift index by desired number of periods with an op-
tional time freq
skew([axis, skipna, level, numeric_only]) Return unbiased skew over requested axis
slice_shift([periods, axis]) Equivalent to shift without copying data.
sort_index([axis, level, ascending, ...]) Sort object by labels (along an axis)
sort_values(by[, axis, ascending, inplace, ...]) Sort by the values along either axis
sortlevel([level, axis, ascending, inplace, ...]) DEPRECATED: use DataFrame.sort_index()
squeeze([axis]) Squeeze length 1 dimensions.
stack([level, dropna]) Pivot a level of the (possibly hierarchical) column la-
bels, returning a DataFrame (or Series in the case of
an object with a single level of column labels) having
a hierarchical index with a new inner-most level of row
labels.
std([axis, skipna, level, ddof, numeric_only]) Return sample standard deviation over requested axis.
sub(other[, axis, level, fill_value]) Subtraction of dataframe and other, element-wise (bi-
nary operator sub).
subtract(other[, axis, level, fill_value]) Subtraction of dataframe and other, element-wise (bi-
nary operator sub).
sum([axis, skipna, level, numeric_only]) Return the sum of the values for the requested axis
swapaxes(axis1, axis2[, copy]) Interchange axes and swap values axes appropriately
swaplevel([i, j, axis]) Swap levels i and j in a MultiIndex on a particular axis
tail([n]) Return the last n rows.
take(indices[, axis, convert, is_copy]) Return the elements in the given positional indices
along an axis.
to_clipboard([excel, sep]) Attempt to write text representation of object to the sys-
tem clipboard This can be pasted into Excel, for exam-
ple.
to_csv([path_or_buf, sep, na_rep, ...]) Write DataFrame to a comma-separated values (csv) file
to_dense() Return dense representation of NDFrame (as opposed to
sparse)
Continued on next page

34.4. DataFrame 1473

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Table 34.55 – continued from previous page

to_dict([orient, into]) Convert DataFrame to dictionary.
to_excel(excel_writer[, sheet_name, na_rep, ...]) Write DataFrame to an excel sheet
to_feather(fname) write out the binary feather-format for DataFrames
to_gbq(destination_table, project_id[, ...]) Write a DataFrame to a Google BigQuery table.
to_hdf(path_or_buf, key, **kwargs) Write the contained data to an HDF5 file using HDFS-
tore.
to_html([buf, columns, col_space, header, ...]) Render a DataFrame as an HTML table.
to_json([path_or_buf, orient, date_format, ...]) Convert the object to a JSON string.
to_latex([buf, columns, col_space, header, ...]) Render an object to a tabular environment table.
to_msgpack([path_or_buf, encoding]) msgpack (serialize) object to input file path
to_panel() Transform long (stacked) format (DataFrame) into wide
(3D, Panel) format.
to_parquet(fname[, engine, compression]) Write a DataFrame to the binary parquet format.
to_period([freq, axis, copy]) Convert DataFrame from DatetimeIndex to PeriodIndex
with desired
to_pickle(path[, compression, protocol]) Pickle (serialize) object to input file path.
to_records([index, convert_datetime64]) Convert DataFrame to record array.
to_sparse([fill_value, kind]) Convert to SparseDataFrame
to_sql(name, con[, flavor, schema, ...]) Write records stored in a DataFrame to a SQL database.
to_stata(fname[, convert_dates, ...]) A class for writing Stata binary dta files from array-like
objects
to_string([buf, columns, col_space, header, ...]) Render a DataFrame to a console-friendly tabular out-
put.
to_timestamp([freq, how, axis, copy]) Cast to DatetimeIndex of timestamps, at beginning of
period
to_xarray() Return an xarray object from the pandas object.
transform(func, *args, **kwargs) Call function producing a like-indexed NDFrame
transpose(*args, **kwargs) Transpose index and columns
truediv(other[, axis, level, fill_value]) Floating division of dataframe and other, element-wise
(binary operator truediv).
truncate([before, after, axis, copy]) Truncates a sorted DataFrame/Series before and/or after
some particular index value.
tshift([periods, freq, axis]) Shift the time index, using the index’s frequency if avail-
able.
tz_convert(tz[, axis, level, copy]) Convert tz-aware axis to target time zone.
tz_localize(tz[, axis, level, copy, ambiguous]) Localize tz-naive TimeSeries to target time zone.
unstack([level, fill_value]) Pivot a level of the (necessarily hierarchical) index la-
bels, returning a DataFrame having a new level of col-
umn labels whose inner-most level consists of the piv-
oted index labels.
update(other[, join, overwrite, ...]) Modify DataFrame in place using non-NA values from
passed DataFrame.
var([axis, skipna, level, ddof, numeric_only]) Return unbiased variance over requested axis.
where(cond[, other, inplace, axis, level, ...]) Return an object of same shape as self and whose cor-
responding entries are from self where cond is True and
otherwise are from other.
xs(key[, axis, level, drop_level]) Returns a cross-section (row(s) or column(s)) from the
Series/DataFrame.

1474 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

pandas.DataFrame.abs

DataFrame.abs()
Return an object with absolute value taken–only applicable to objects that are all numeric.
Returns abs: type of caller

pandas.DataFrame.add

DataFrame.add(other, axis=’columns’, level=None, fill_value=None)

Addition of dataframe and other, element-wise (binary operator add).
Equivalent to dataframe + other, but with support to substitute a fill_value for missing data in one
of the inputs.
Parameters other : Series, DataFrame, or constant
axis : {0, 1, ‘index’, ‘columns’}
For Series input, axis to match Series index on
fill_value : None or float value, default None
Fill missing (NaN) values with this value. If both DataFrame locations are miss-
ing, the result will be missing
level : int or name
Broadcast across a level, matching Index values on the passed MultiIndex level
Returns result : DataFrame
See also:
DataFrame.radd

Notes

Mismatched indices will be unioned together

pandas.DataFrame.add_prefix

DataFrame.add_prefix(prefix)
Concatenate prefix string with panel items names.
Parameters prefix : string
Returns with_prefix : type of caller

pandas.DataFrame.add_suffix

DataFrame.add_suffix(suffix)
Concatenate suffix string with panel items names.
Parameters suffix : string
Returns with_suffix : type of caller

34.4. DataFrame 1475

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

pandas.DataFrame.agg

DataFrame.agg(func, axis=0, *args, **kwargs)

Aggregate using callable, string, dict, or list of string/callables
New in version 0.20.0.
Parameters func : callable, string, dictionary, or list of string/callables
Function to use for aggregating the data. If a function, must either work when
passed a DataFrame or when passed to DataFrame.apply. For a DataFrame, can
pass a dict, if the keys are DataFrame column names.
Accepted Combinations are:
• string function name
• function
• list of functions
• dict of column names -> functions (or list of functions)
Returns aggregated : DataFrame
See also:
pandas.DataFrame.apply, pandas.DataFrame.transform, pandas.DataFrame.
groupby.aggregate, pandas.DataFrame.resample.aggregate, pandas.
DataFrame.rolling.aggregate

Notes

Numpy functions mean/median/prod/sum/std/var are special cased so the default behavior is applying
the function along axis=0 (e.g., np.mean(arr_2d, axis=0)) as opposed to mimicking the default Numpy
behavior (e.g., np.mean(arr_2d)).
agg is an alias for aggregate. Use the alias.

Examples

>>> df = pd.DataFrame(np.random.randn(10, 3), columns=['A', 'B', 'C'],

... index=pd.date_range('1/1/2000', periods=10))
>>> df.iloc[3:7] = np.nan

Aggregate these functions across all columns

>>> df.agg(['sum', 'min'])
A B C
sum -0.182253 -0.614014 -2.909534
min -1.916563 -1.460076 -1.568297

Different aggregations per column

>>> df.agg({'A' : ['sum', 'min'], 'B' : ['min', 'max']})
A B
max NaN 1.514318
min -1.916563 -1.460076
sum -0.182253 NaN

1476 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

pandas.DataFrame.aggregate

DataFrame.aggregate(func, axis=0, *args, **kwargs)

Aggregate using callable, string, dict, or list of string/callables
New in version 0.20.0.
Parameters func : callable, string, dictionary, or list of string/callables
Function to use for aggregating the data. If a function, must either work when
passed a DataFrame or when passed to DataFrame.apply. For a DataFrame, can
pass a dict, if the keys are DataFrame column names.
Accepted Combinations are:
• string function name
• function
• list of functions
• dict of column names -> functions (or list of functions)
Returns aggregated : DataFrame
See also:
pandas.DataFrame.apply, pandas.DataFrame.transform, pandas.DataFrame.
groupby.aggregate, pandas.DataFrame.resample.aggregate, pandas.
DataFrame.rolling.aggregate

Notes

Numpy functions mean/median/prod/sum/std/var are special cased so the default behavior is applying
the function along axis=0 (e.g., np.mean(arr_2d, axis=0)) as opposed to mimicking the default Numpy
behavior (e.g., np.mean(arr_2d)).
agg is an alias for aggregate. Use the alias.

Examples

>>> df = pd.DataFrame(np.random.randn(10, 3), columns=['A', 'B', 'C'],

... index=pd.date_range('1/1/2000', periods=10))
>>> df.iloc[3:7] = np.nan

Aggregate these functions across all columns

>>> df.agg(['sum', 'min'])

A B C
sum -0.182253 -0.614014 -2.909534
min -1.916563 -1.460076 -1.568297

Different aggregations per column

34.4. DataFrame 1477

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

>>> df.agg({'A' : ['sum', 'min'], 'B' : ['min', 'max']})

A B
max NaN 1.514318
min -1.916563 -1.460076
sum -0.182253 NaN

pandas.DataFrame.align

DataFrame.align(other, join=’outer’, axis=None, level=None, copy=True, fill_value=None,

method=None, limit=None, fill_axis=0, broadcast_axis=None)
Align two objects on their axes with the specified join method for each axis Index
Parameters other : DataFrame or Series
join : {‘outer’, ‘inner’, ‘left’, ‘right’}, default ‘outer’
axis : allowed axis of the other object, default None
Align on index (0), columns (1), or both (None)
level : int or level name, default None
Broadcast across a level, matching Index values on the passed MultiIndex level
copy : boolean, default True
Always returns new objects. If copy=False and no reindexing is required then
original objects are returned.
fill_value : scalar, default np.NaN
Value to use for missing values. Defaults to NaN, but can be any “compatible”
value
method : str, default None
limit : int, default None
fill_axis : {0 or ‘index’, 1 or ‘columns’}, default 0
Filling axis, method and limit
broadcast_axis : {0 or ‘index’, 1 or ‘columns’}, default None
Broadcast values along this axis, if aligning two objects of different dimensions
New in version 0.17.0.
Returns (left, right) : (DataFrame, type of other)
Aligned objects

pandas.DataFrame.all

DataFrame.all(axis=None, bool_only=None, skipna=None, level=None, **kwargs)

Return whether all elements are True over requested axis
Parameters axis : {index (0), columns (1)}
skipna : boolean, default True
Exclude NA/null values. If an entire row/column is NA, the result will be NA

1478 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

level : int or level name, default None

If the axis is a MultiIndex (hierarchical), count along a particular level, collapsing
into a Series
bool_only : boolean, default None
Include only boolean columns. If None, will attempt to use everything, then use
only boolean data. Not implemented for Series.
Returns all : Series or DataFrame (if level specified)

pandas.DataFrame.any

DataFrame.any(axis=None, bool_only=None, skipna=None, level=None, **kwargs)

Return whether any element is True over requested axis
Parameters axis : {index (0), columns (1)}
skipna : boolean, default True
Exclude NA/null values. If an entire row/column is NA, the result will be NA
level : int or level name, default None
If the axis is a MultiIndex (hierarchical), count along a particular level, collapsing
into a Series
bool_only : boolean, default None
Include only boolean columns. If None, will attempt to use everything, then use
only boolean data. Not implemented for Series.
Returns any : Series or DataFrame (if level specified)

pandas.DataFrame.append

DataFrame.append(other, ignore_index=False, verify_integrity=False)

Append rows of other to the end of this frame, returning a new object. Columns not in this frame are
added as new columns.
Parameters other : DataFrame or Series/dict-like object, or list of these
The data to append.
ignore_index : boolean, default False
If True, do not use the index labels.
verify_integrity : boolean, default False
If True, raise ValueError on creating index with duplicates.
Returns appended : DataFrame
See also:

pandas.concat General function to concatenate DataFrame, Series or Panel objects

34.4. DataFrame 1479

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Notes

If a list of dict/series is passed and the keys are all contained in the DataFrame’s index, the order of the
columns in the resulting DataFrame will be unchanged.
Iteratively appending rows to a DataFrame can be more computationally intensive than a single concate-
nate. A better solution is to append those rows to a list and then concatenate the list with the original
DataFrame all at once.

Examples

>>> df = pd.DataFrame([[1, 2], [3, 4]], columns=list('AB'))

>>> df
A B
0 1 2
1 3 4
>>> df2 = pd.DataFrame([[5, 6], [7, 8]], columns=list('AB'))
>>> df.append(df2)
A B
0 1 2
1 3 4
0 5 6
1 7 8

With ignore_index set to True:

>>> df.append(df2, ignore_index=True)
A B
0 1 2
1 3 4
2 5 6
3 7 8

The following, while not recommended methods for generating DataFrames, show two ways to generate
a DataFrame from multiple data sources.
Less efficient:
>>> df = pd.DataFrame(columns=['A'])
>>> for i in range(5):
... df = df.append({'A'}: i}, ignore_index=True)
>>> df
A
0 0
1 1
2 2
3 3
4 4

More efficient:
>>> pd.concat([pd.DataFrame([i], columns=['A']) for i in range(5)],
... ignore_index=True)
A
0 0
1 1
2 2

1480 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

3 3
4 4

pandas.DataFrame.apply

DataFrame.apply(func, axis=0, broadcast=False, raw=False, reduce=None, args=(), **kwds)

Applies function along input axis of DataFrame.
Objects passed to functions are Series objects having index either the DataFrame’s index (axis=0) or the
columns (axis=1). Return type depends on whether passed function aggregates, or the reduce argument if
the DataFrame is empty.
Parameters func : function
Function to apply to each column/row
axis : {0 or ‘index’, 1 or ‘columns’}, default 0
• 0 or ‘index’: apply function to each column
• 1 or ‘columns’: apply function to each row
broadcast : boolean, default False
For aggregation functions, return object of same size with values propagated
raw : boolean, default False
If False, convert each row or column into a Series. If raw=True the passed func-
tion will receive ndarray objects instead. If you are just applying a NumPy reduc-
tion function this will achieve much better performance
reduce : boolean or None, default None
Try to apply reduction procedures. If the DataFrame is empty, apply will use
reduce to determine whether the result should be a Series or a DataFrame. If
reduce is None (the default), apply’s return value will be guessed by calling func
an empty Series (note: while guessing, exceptions raised by func will be ignored).
If reduce is True a Series will always be returned, and if False a DataFrame will
always be returned.
args : tuple
Positional arguments to pass to function in addition to the array/series
Additional keyword arguments will be passed as keywords to the function
Returns applied : Series or DataFrame
See also:

DataFrame.applymap For elementwise operations

DataFrame.aggregate only perform aggregating type operations
DataFrame.transform only perform transformating type operations

34.4. DataFrame 1481

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Notes

In the current implementation apply calls func twice on the first column/row to decide whether it can take
a fast or slow code path. This can lead to unexpected behavior if func has side-effects, as they will take
effect twice for the first column/row.

Examples

>>> df.apply(numpy.sqrt) # returns DataFrame

>>> df.apply(numpy.sum, axis=0) # equiv to df.sum(0)
>>> df.apply(numpy.sum, axis=1) # equiv to df.sum(1)

pandas.DataFrame.applymap

DataFrame.applymap(func)
Apply a function to a DataFrame that is intended to operate elementwise, i.e. like doing map(func, series)
for each series in the DataFrame
Parameters func : function
Python function, returns a single value from a single value
Returns applied : DataFrame
See also:

DataFrame.apply For operations on rows/columns

Examples

>>> df = pd.DataFrame(np.random.randn(3, 3))

>>> df
0 1 2
0 -0.029638 1.081563 1.280300
1 0.647747 0.831136 -1.549481
2 0.513416 -0.884417 0.195343
>>> df = df.applymap(lambda x: '%.2f' % x)
>>> df
0 1 2
0 -0.03 1.08 1.28
1 0.65 0.83 -1.55
2 0.51 -0.88 0.20

pandas.DataFrame.as_blocks

DataFrame.as_blocks(copy=True)
Convert the frame to a dict of dtype -> Constructor Types that each has a homogeneous dtype.
Deprecated since version 0.21.0.
NOTE: the dtypes of the blocks WILL BE PRESERVED HERE (unlike in as_matrix)

1482 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Parameters copy : boolean, default True

Returns values : a dict of dtype -> Constructor Types

pandas.DataFrame.as_matrix

DataFrame.as_matrix(columns=None)
Convert the frame to its Numpy-array representation.
Parameters columns: list, optional, default:None
If None, return all columns, otherwise, returns specified columns.
Returns values : ndarray
If the caller is heterogeneous and contains booleans or objects, the result will be
of dtype=object. See Notes.
See also:
pandas.DataFrame.values

Notes

Return is NOT a Numpy-matrix, rather, a Numpy-array.

The dtype will be a lower-common-denominator dtype (implicit upcasting); that is to say if the dtypes
(even of numeric types) are mixed, the one that accommodates all will be chosen. Use this with care if
you are not dealing with the blocks.
e.g. If the dtypes are float16 and float32, dtype will be upcast to float32. If dtypes are int32 and uint8,
dtype will be upcase to int32. By numpy.find_common_type convention, mixing int64 and uint64 will
result in a flot64 dtype.
This method is provided for backwards compatibility. Generally, it is recommended to use ‘.values’.

pandas.DataFrame.asfreq

DataFrame.asfreq(freq, method=None, how=None, normalize=False, fill_value=None)

Convert TimeSeries to specified frequency.
Optionally provide filling method to pad/backfill missing values.
Returns the original data conformed to a new index with the specified frequency. resample is more
appropriate if an operation, such as summarization, is necessary to represent the data at the new frequency.
Parameters freq : DateOffset object, or string
method : {‘backfill’/’bfill’, ‘pad’/’ffill’}, default None
Method to use for filling holes in reindexed Series (note this does not fill NaNs
that already were present):
• ‘pad’ / ‘ffill’: propagate last valid observation forward to next valid
• ‘backfill’ / ‘bfill’: use NEXT valid observation to fill
how : {‘start’, ‘end’}, default end
For PeriodIndex only, see PeriodIndex.asfreq

34.4. DataFrame 1483

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

normalize : bool, default False

Whether to reset output index to midnight
fill_value: scalar, optional
Value to use for missing values, applied during upsampling (note this does not fill
NaNs that already were present).
New in version 0.20.0.
Returns converted : type of caller
See also:
reindex

Notes

To learn more about the frequency strings, please see this link.

Examples

Start by creating a series with 4 one minute timestamps.

>>> index = pd.date_range('1/1/2000', periods=4, freq='T')

>>> series = pd.Series([0.0, None, 2.0, 3.0], index=index)
>>> df = pd.DataFrame({'s':series})
>>> df
s
2000-01-01 00:00:00 0.0
2000-01-01 00:01:00 NaN
2000-01-01 00:02:00 2.0
2000-01-01 00:03:00 3.0

Upsample the series into 30 second bins.

>>> df.asfreq(freq='30S')
s
2000-01-01 00:00:00 0.0
2000-01-01 00:00:30 NaN
2000-01-01 00:01:00 NaN
2000-01-01 00:01:30 NaN
2000-01-01 00:02:00 2.0
2000-01-01 00:02:30 NaN
2000-01-01 00:03:00 3.0

Upsample again, providing a fill value.

>>> df.asfreq(freq='30S', fill_value=9.0)

s
2000-01-01 00:00:00 0.0
2000-01-01 00:00:30 9.0
2000-01-01 00:01:00 NaN
2000-01-01 00:01:30 9.0
2000-01-01 00:02:00 2.0
2000-01-01 00:02:30 9.0
2000-01-01 00:03:00 3.0

1484 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Upsample again, providing a method.

>>> df.asfreq(freq='30S', method='bfill')

s
2000-01-01 00:00:00 0.0
2000-01-01 00:00:30 NaN
2000-01-01 00:01:00 NaN
2000-01-01 00:01:30 2.0
2000-01-01 00:02:00 2.0
2000-01-01 00:02:30 3.0
2000-01-01 00:03:00 3.0

pandas.DataFrame.asof

DataFrame.asof(where, subset=None)
The last row without any NaN is taken (or the last row without NaN considering only the subset of
columns in the case of a DataFrame)
New in version 0.19.0: For DataFrame
If there is no good value, NaN is returned for a Series a Series of NaN values for a DataFrame
Parameters where : date or array of dates
subset : string or list of strings, default None
if not None use these columns for NaN propagation
Returns where is scalar
• value or NaN if input is Series
• Series if input is DataFrame
where is Index: same shape object as input
See also:
merge_asof

Notes

Dates are assumed to be sorted Raises if this is not the case

pandas.DataFrame.assign

DataFrame.assign(**kwargs)
Assign new columns to a DataFrame, returning a new object (a copy) with all the original columns in
addition to the new ones.
Parameters kwargs : keyword, value pairs
keywords are the column names. If the values are callable, they are computed on
the DataFrame and assigned to the new columns. The callable must not change
input DataFrame (though pandas doesn’t check it). If the values are not callable,
(e.g. a Series, scalar, or array), they are simply assigned.
Returns df : DataFrame

34.4. DataFrame 1485

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

A new DataFrame with the new columns in addition to all the existing columns.

Notes

For python 3.6 and above, the columns are inserted in the order of **kwargs. For python 3.5 and earlier,
since **kwargs is unordered, the columns are inserted in alphabetical order at the end of your DataFrame.
Assigning multiple columns within the same assign is possible, but you cannot reference other columns
created within the same assign call.

Examples

>>> df = DataFrame({'A': range(1, 11), 'B': np.random.randn(10)})

Where the value is a callable, evaluated on df :

>>> df.assign(ln_A = lambda x: np.log(x.A))

A B ln_A
0 1 0.426905 0.000000
1 2 -0.780949 0.693147
2 3 -0.418711 1.098612
3 4 -0.269708 1.386294
4 5 -0.274002 1.609438
5 6 -0.500792 1.791759
6 7 1.649697 1.945910
7 8 -1.495604 2.079442
8 9 0.549296 2.197225
9 10 -0.758542 2.302585

Where the value already exists and is inserted:

>>> newcol = np.log(df['A'])

>>> df.assign(ln_A=newcol)
A B ln_A
0 1 0.426905 0.000000
1 2 -0.780949 0.693147
2 3 -0.418711 1.098612
3 4 -0.269708 1.386294
4 5 -0.274002 1.609438
5 6 -0.500792 1.791759
6 7 1.649697 1.945910
7 8 -1.495604 2.079442
8 9 0.549296 2.197225
9 10 -0.758542 2.302585

pandas.DataFrame.astype

DataFrame.astype(dtype, copy=True, errors=’raise’, **kwargs)

Cast a pandas object to a specified dtype dtype.
Parameters dtype : data type, or dict of column name -> data type
Use a numpy.dtype or Python type to cast entire pandas object to the same type.
Alternatively, use {col: dtype, ...}, where col is a column label and dtype is a

1486 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

numpy.dtype or Python type to cast one or more of the DataFrame’s columns to

column-specific types.
copy : bool, default True.
Return a copy when copy=True (be very careful setting copy=False as
changes to values then may propagate to other pandas objects).
errors : {‘raise’, ‘ignore’}, default ‘raise’.
Control raising of exceptions on invalid data for provided dtype.
• raise : allow exceptions to be raised
• ignore : suppress exceptions. On error return original object
New in version 0.20.0.
raise_on_error : raise on invalid input
Deprecated since version 0.20.0: Use errors instead
kwargs : keyword arguments to pass on to the constructor
Returns casted : type of caller
See also:

pandas.to_datetime Convert argument to datetime.

pandas.to_timedelta Convert argument to timedelta.
pandas.to_numeric Convert argument to a numeric type.
numpy.ndarray.astype Cast a numpy array to a specified type.

Examples

>>> ser = pd.Series([1, 2], dtype='int32')

>>> ser
0 1
1 2
dtype: int32
>>> ser.astype('int64')
0 1
1 2
dtype: int64

Convert to categorical type:

>>> ser.astype('category')
0 1
1 2
dtype: category
Categories (2, int64): [1, 2]

Convert to ordered categorical type with custom ordering:

>>> ser.astype('category', ordered=True, categories=[2, 1])

0 1
1 2

34.4. DataFrame 1487

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

dtype: category
Categories (2, int64): [2 < 1]

Note that using copy=False and changing data on a new pandas object may propagate changes:

>>> s1 = pd.Series([1,2])
>>> s2 = s1.astype('int', copy=False)
>>> s2[0] = 10
>>> s1 # note that s1[0] has changed too
0 10
1 2
dtype: int64

pandas.DataFrame.at_time

DataFrame.at_time(time, asof=False)
Select values at particular time of day (e.g. 9:30AM).
Parameters time : datetime.time or string
Returns values_at_time : type of caller

pandas.DataFrame.between_time

DataFrame.between_time(start_time, end_time, include_start=True, include_end=True)

Select values between particular times of the day (e.g., 9:00-9:30 AM).
Parameters start_time : datetime.time or string
end_time : datetime.time or string
include_start : boolean, default True
include_end : boolean, default True
Returns values_between_time : type of caller

pandas.DataFrame.bfill

DataFrame.bfill(axis=None, inplace=False, limit=None, downcast=None)

Synonym for DataFrame.fillna(method='bfill')

pandas.DataFrame.bool

DataFrame.bool()
Return the bool of a single element PandasObject.
This must be a boolean scalar value, either True or False. Raise a ValueError if the PandasObject does not
have exactly 1 element, or that element is not boolean

1488 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

pandas.DataFrame.boxplot

DataFrame.boxplot(column=None, by=None, ax=None, fontsize=None, rot=0, grid=True, fig-

size=None, layout=None, return_type=None, **kwds)
Make a box plot from DataFrame column optionally grouped by some columns or other inputs
Parameters data : the pandas object holding the data
column : column name or list of names, or vector
Can be any valid input to groupby
by : string or sequence
Column in the DataFrame to group by
ax : Matplotlib axes object, optional
fontsize : int or string
rot : label rotation angle
figsize : A tuple (width, height) in inches
grid : Setting this to True will show the grid
layout : tuple (optional)
(rows, columns) for the layout of the plot
return_type : {None, ‘axes’, ‘dict’, ‘both’}, default None
The kind of object to return. The default is axes ‘axes’ returns the matplotlib
axes the boxplot is drawn on; ‘dict’ returns a dictionary whose values are the
matplotlib Lines of the boxplot; ‘both’ returns a namedtuple with the axes and
dict.
When grouping with by, a Series mapping columns to return_type is re-
turned, unless return_type is None, in which case a NumPy array of axes is
returned with the same shape as layout. See the prose documentation for more.
kwds : other plotting keyword arguments to be passed to matplotlib boxplot
function
Returns lines : dict
ax : matplotlib Axes
(ax, lines): namedtuple

Notes

Use return_type='dict' when you want to tweak the appearance of the lines after plotting. In this
case a dict containing the Lines making up the boxes, caps, fliers, medians, and whiskers is returned.

pandas.DataFrame.clip

DataFrame.clip(lower=None, upper=None, axis=None, inplace=False, *args, **kwargs)

Trim values at input threshold(s).

34.4. DataFrame 1489

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Parameters lower : float or array_like, default None

upper : float or array_like, default None
axis : int or string axis name, optional
Align object with lower and upper along the given axis.
inplace : boolean, default False
Whether to perform the operation in place on the data New in version
0.21.0.
Returns clipped : Series

Examples

>>> df
0 1
0 0.335232 -1.256177
1 -1.367855 0.746646
2 0.027753 -1.176076
3 0.230930 -0.679613
4 1.261967 0.570967

>>> df.clip(-1.0, 0.5)

0 1
0 0.335232 -1.000000
1 -1.000000 0.500000
2 0.027753 -1.000000
3 0.230930 -0.679613
4 0.500000 0.500000

>>> t
0 -0.3
1 -0.2
2 -0.1
3 0.0
4 0.1
dtype: float64

>>> df.clip(t, t + 1, axis=0)

0 1
0 0.335232 -0.300000
1 -0.200000 0.746646
2 0.027753 -0.100000
3 0.230930 0.000000
4 1.100000 0.570967

pandas.DataFrame.clip_lower

DataFrame.clip_lower(threshold, axis=None, inplace=False)

Return copy of the input with values below given value(s) truncated.
Parameters threshold : float or array_like
axis : int or string axis name, optional

1490 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Align object with threshold along the given axis.

inplace : boolean, default False
Whether to perform the operation in place on the data New in version
0.21.0.
Returns clipped : same type as input
See also:
clip

pandas.DataFrame.clip_upper

DataFrame.clip_upper(threshold, axis=None, inplace=False)

Return copy of input with values above given value(s) truncated.
Parameters threshold : float or array_like
axis : int or string axis name, optional
Align object with threshold along the given axis.
inplace : boolean, default False
Whether to perform the operation in place on the data New in version
0.21.0.
Returns clipped : same type as input
See also:
clip

pandas.DataFrame.combine

DataFrame.combine(other, func, fill_value=None, overwrite=True)

Add two DataFrame objects and do not propagate NaN values, so if for a (column, time) one frame is
missing a value, it will default to the other frame’s value (which might be NaN as well)
Parameters other : DataFrame
func : function
fill_value : scalar value
overwrite : boolean, default True
If True then overwrite values for common keys in the calling frame
Returns result : DataFrame

pandas.DataFrame.combine_first

DataFrame.combine_first(other)
Combine two DataFrame objects and default to non-null values in frame calling the method. Result index
columns will be the union of the respective indexes and columns
Parameters other : DataFrame
Returns combined : DataFrame

34.4. DataFrame 1491

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Examples

a’s values prioritized, use values from b to fill holes:

>>> a.combine_first(b)

pandas.DataFrame.compound

DataFrame.compound(axis=None, skipna=None, level=None)

Return the compound percentage of the values for the requested axis
Parameters axis : {index (0), columns (1)}
skipna : boolean, default True
Exclude NA/null values. If an entire row/column is NA or empty, the result will
be NA
level : int or level name, default None
If the axis is a MultiIndex (hierarchical), count along a particular level, collapsing
into a Series
numeric_only : boolean, default None
Include only float, int, boolean columns. If None, will attempt to use everything,
then use only numeric data. Not implemented for Series.
Returns compounded : Series or DataFrame (if level specified)

pandas.DataFrame.consolidate

DataFrame.consolidate(inplace=False)
DEPRECATED: consolidate will be an internal implementation only.

pandas.DataFrame.convert_objects

DataFrame.convert_objects(convert_dates=True, convert_numeric=False, con-

vert_timedeltas=True, copy=True)
Deprecated. Attempt to infer better dtype for object columns
Parameters convert_dates : boolean, default True
If True, convert to date where possible. If ‘coerce’, force conversion, with uncon-
vertible values becoming NaT.
convert_numeric : boolean, default False
If True, attempt to coerce to numbers (including strings), with unconvertible val-
ues becoming NaN.
convert_timedeltas : boolean, default True
If True, convert to timedelta where possible. If ‘coerce’, force conversion, with
unconvertible values becoming NaT.
copy : boolean, default True

1492 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

If True, return a copy even if no copy is necessary (e.g. no conversion was done).
Note: This is meant for internal use, and should not be confused with inplace.
Returns converted : same as input object
See also:

pandas.to_datetime Convert argument to datetime.

pandas.to_timedelta Convert argument to timedelta.
pandas.to_numeric Return a fixed frequency timedelta index, with day as the default.

pandas.DataFrame.copy

DataFrame.copy(deep=True)
Make a copy of this objects data.
Parameters deep : boolean or string, default True
Make a deep copy, including a copy of the data and the indices. With
deep=False neither the indices or the data are copied.
Note that when deep=True data is copied, actual python objects will not be
copied recursively, only the reference to the object. This is in contrast to copy.
deepcopy in the Standard Library, which recursively copies object data.
Returns copy : type of caller

pandas.DataFrame.corr

DataFrame.corr(method=’pearson’, min_periods=1)
Compute pairwise correlation of columns, excluding NA/null values
Parameters method : {‘pearson’, ‘kendall’, ‘spearman’}
• pearson : standard correlation coefficient
• kendall : Kendall Tau correlation coefficient
• spearman : Spearman rank correlation
min_periods : int, optional
Minimum number of observations required per pair of columns to have a valid
result. Currently only available for pearson and spearman correlation
Returns y : DataFrame

pandas.DataFrame.corrwith

DataFrame.corrwith(other, axis=0, drop=False)

Compute pairwise correlation between rows or columns of two DataFrame objects.
Parameters other : DataFrame
axis : {0 or ‘index’, 1 or ‘columns’}, default 0
0 or ‘index’ to compute column-wise, 1 or ‘columns’ for row-wise

34.4. DataFrame 1493

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

drop : boolean, default False

Drop missing indices from result, default returns union of all
Returns correls : Series

pandas.DataFrame.count

DataFrame.count(axis=0, level=None, numeric_only=False)

Return Series with number of non-NA/null observations over requested axis. Works with non-floating
point data as well (detects NaN and None)
Parameters axis : {0 or ‘index’, 1 or ‘columns’}, default 0
0 or ‘index’ for row-wise, 1 or ‘columns’ for column-wise
level : int or level name, default None
If the axis is a MultiIndex (hierarchical), count along a particular level, collapsing
into a DataFrame
numeric_only : boolean, default False
Include only float, int, boolean data
Returns count : Series (or DataFrame if level specified)

pandas.DataFrame.cov

DataFrame.cov(min_periods=None)
Compute pairwise covariance of columns, excluding NA/null values
Parameters min_periods : int, optional
Minimum number of observations required per pair of columns to have a valid
result.
Returns y : DataFrame

Notes

y contains the covariance matrix of the DataFrame’s time series. The covariance is normalized by N-1
(unbiased estimator).

pandas.DataFrame.cummax

DataFrame.cummax(axis=None, skipna=True, *args, **kwargs)

Return cumulative max over requested axis.
Parameters axis : {index (0), columns (1)}
skipna : boolean, default True
Exclude NA/null values. If an entire row/column is NA, the result will be NA
Returns cummax : Series
See also:

1494 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

pandas.core.window.Expanding.max Similar functionality but ignores NaN values.

pandas.DataFrame.cummin

DataFrame.cummin(axis=None, skipna=True, *args, **kwargs)

Return cumulative minimum over requested axis.
Parameters axis : {index (0), columns (1)}
skipna : boolean, default True
Exclude NA/null values. If an entire row/column is NA, the result will be NA
Returns cummin : Series
See also:

pandas.core.window.Expanding.min Similar functionality but ignores NaN values.

pandas.DataFrame.cumprod

DataFrame.cumprod(axis=None, skipna=True, *args, **kwargs)

Return cumulative product over requested axis.
Parameters axis : {index (0), columns (1)}
skipna : boolean, default True
Exclude NA/null values. If an entire row/column is NA, the result will be NA
Returns cumprod : Series
See also:

pandas.core.window.Expanding.prod Similar functionality but ignores NaN values.

pandas.DataFrame.cumsum

DataFrame.cumsum(axis=None, skipna=True, *args, **kwargs)

Return cumulative sum over requested axis.
Parameters axis : {index (0), columns (1)}
skipna : boolean, default True
Exclude NA/null values. If an entire row/column is NA, the result will be NA
Returns cumsum : Series
See also:

pandas.core.window.Expanding.sum Similar functionality but ignores NaN values.

34.4. DataFrame 1495

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

pandas.DataFrame.describe

DataFrame.describe(percentiles=None, include=None, exclude=None)

Generates descriptive statistics that summarize the central tendency, dispersion and shape of a dataset’s
distribution, excluding NaN values.
Analyzes both numeric and object series, as well as DataFrame column sets of mixed data types. The
output will vary depending on what is provided. Refer to the notes below for more detail.
Parameters percentiles : list-like of numbers, optional
The percentiles to include in the output. All should fall between 0 and 1. The de-
fault is [.25, .5, .75], which returns the 25th, 50th, and 75th percentiles.
include : ‘all’, list-like of dtypes or None (default), optional
A white list of data types to include in the result. Ignored for Series. Here are
the options:
• ‘all’ : All columns of the input will be included in the output.
• A list-like of dtypes : Limits the results to the provided data types. To limit the
result to numeric types submit numpy.number. To limit it instead to object
columns submit the numpy.object data type. Strings can also be used in
the style of select_dtypes (e.g. df.describe(include=['O'])).
To select pandas categorical columns, use 'category'
• None (default) : The result will include all numeric columns.
exclude : list-like of dtypes or None (default), optional,
A black list of data types to omit from the result. Ignored for Series. Here are
the options:
• A list-like of dtypes : Excludes the provided data types from the result. To
exclude numeric types submit numpy.number. To exclude object columns
submit the data type numpy.object. Strings can also be used in the style of
select_dtypes (e.g. df.describe(include=['O'])). To exclude
pandas categorical columns, use 'category'
• None (default) : The result will exclude nothing.
Returns summary: Series/DataFrame of summary statistics
See also:
DataFrame.count, DataFrame.max, DataFrame.min, DataFrame.mean, DataFrame.
std, DataFrame.select_dtypes

Notes

For numeric data, the result’s index will include count, mean, std, min, max as well as lower, 50 and
upper percentiles. By default the lower percentile is 25 and the upper percentile is 75. The 50 percentile
is the same as the median.
For object data (e.g. strings or timestamps), the result’s index will include count, unique, top, and
freq. The top is the most common value. The freq is the most common value’s frequency. Times-
tamps also include the first and last items.
If multiple object values have the highest count, then the count and top results will be arbitrarily chosen
from among those with the highest count.

1496 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

For mixed data types provided via a DataFrame, the default is to return only an analysis of numeric
columns. If the dataframe consists only of object and categorical data without any numeric columns,
the default is to return an analysis of both the object and categorical columns. If include='all' is
provided as an option, the result will include a union of attributes of each type.
The include and exclude parameters can be used to limit which columns in a DataFrame are analyzed
for the output. The parameters are ignored when analyzing a Series.

Examples

Describing a numeric Series.

>>> s = pd.Series([1, 2, 3])

>>> s.describe()
count 3.0
mean 2.0
std 1.0
min 1.0
25% 1.5
50% 2.0
75% 2.5
max 3.0

Describing a categorical Series.

>>> s = pd.Series(['a', 'a', 'b', 'c'])

>>> s.describe()
count 4
unique 3
top a
freq 2
dtype: object

Describing a timestamp Series.

>>> s = pd.Series([
... np.datetime64("2000-01-01"),
... np.datetime64("2010-01-01"),
... np.datetime64("2010-01-01")
... ])
>>> s.describe()
count 3
unique 2
top 2010-01-01 00:00:00
freq 2
first 2000-01-01 00:00:00
last 2010-01-01 00:00:00
dtype: object

Describing a DataFrame. By default only numeric fields are returned.

>>> df = pd.DataFrame({ 'object': ['a', 'b', 'c'],

... 'numeric': [1, 2, 3],
... 'categorical': pd.Categorical(['d','e','f'])
... })
>>> df.describe()
numeric

34.4. DataFrame 1497

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

count 3.0
mean 2.0
std 1.0
min 1.0
25% 1.5
50% 2.0
75% 2.5
max 3.0

Describing all columns of a DataFrame regardless of data type.

>>> df.describe(include='all')
categorical numeric object
count 3 3.0 3
unique 3 NaN 3
top f NaN c
freq 1 NaN 1
mean NaN 2.0 NaN
std NaN 1.0 NaN
min NaN 1.0 NaN
25% NaN 1.5 NaN
50% NaN 2.0 NaN
75% NaN 2.5 NaN
max NaN 3.0 NaN

Describing a column from a DataFrame by accessing it as an attribute.

>>> df.numeric.describe()
count 3.0
mean 2.0
std 1.0
min 1.0
25% 1.5
50% 2.0
75% 2.5
max 3.0
Name: numeric, dtype: float64

Including only numeric columns in a DataFrame description.

>>> df.describe(include=[np.number])
numeric
count 3.0
mean 2.0
std 1.0
min 1.0
25% 1.5
50% 2.0
75% 2.5
max 3.0

Including only string columns in a DataFrame description.

>>> df.describe(include=[np.object])
object
count 3
unique 3

1498 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

top c
freq 1

Including only categorical columns from a DataFrame description.

>>> df.describe(include=['category'])
categorical
count 3
unique 3
top f
freq 1

Excluding numeric columns from a DataFrame description.

>>> df.describe(exclude=[np.number])
categorical object
count 3 3
unique 3 3
top f c
freq 1 1

Excluding object columns from a DataFrame description.

>>> df.describe(exclude=[np.object])
categorical numeric
count 3 3.0
unique 3 NaN
top f NaN
freq 1 NaN
mean NaN 2.0
std NaN 1.0
min NaN 1.0
25% NaN 1.5
50% NaN 2.0
75% NaN 2.5
max NaN 3.0

pandas.DataFrame.diff

DataFrame.diff(periods=1, axis=0)
1st discrete difference of object
Parameters periods : int, default 1
Periods to shift for forming difference
axis : {0 or ‘index’, 1 or ‘columns’}, default 0
Take difference over rows (0) or columns (1).
Returns diffed : DataFrame

pandas.DataFrame.div

DataFrame.div(other, axis=’columns’, level=None, fill_value=None)

Floating division of dataframe and other, element-wise (binary operator truediv).

34.4. DataFrame 1499

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Equivalent to dataframe / other, but with support to substitute a fill_value for missing data in one
of the inputs.
Parameters other : Series, DataFrame, or constant
axis : {0, 1, ‘index’, ‘columns’}
For Series input, axis to match Series index on
fill_value : None or float value, default None
Fill missing (NaN) values with this value. If both DataFrame locations are miss-
ing, the result will be missing
level : int or name
Broadcast across a level, matching Index values on the passed MultiIndex level
Returns result : DataFrame
See also:
DataFrame.rtruediv

Notes

Mismatched indices will be unioned together

pandas.DataFrame.divide

DataFrame.divide(other, axis=’columns’, level=None, fill_value=None)

Floating division of dataframe and other, element-wise (binary operator truediv).
Equivalent to dataframe / other, but with support to substitute a fill_value for missing data in one
of the inputs.
Parameters other : Series, DataFrame, or constant
axis : {0, 1, ‘index’, ‘columns’}
For Series input, axis to match Series index on
fill_value : None or float value, default None
Fill missing (NaN) values with this value. If both DataFrame locations are miss-
ing, the result will be missing
level : int or name
Broadcast across a level, matching Index values on the passed MultiIndex level
Returns result : DataFrame
See also:
DataFrame.rtruediv

Notes

Mismatched indices will be unioned together

1500 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

pandas.DataFrame.dot

DataFrame.dot(other)
Matrix multiplication with DataFrame or Series objects
Parameters other : DataFrame or Series
Returns dot_product : DataFrame or Series

pandas.DataFrame.drop

DataFrame.drop(labels=None, axis=0, index=None, columns=None, level=None, inplace=False,

errors=’raise’)
Return new object with labels in requested axis removed.
Parameters labels : single label or list-like
Index or column labels to drop.
axis : int or axis name
Whether to drop labels from the index (0 / ‘index’) or columns (1 / ‘columns’).
index, columns : single label or list-like
Alternative to specifying axis (labels, axis=1 is equivalent to
columns=labels).
New in version 0.21.0.
level : int or level name, default None
For MultiIndex
inplace : bool, default False
If True, do operation inplace and return None.
errors : {‘ignore’, ‘raise’}, default ‘raise’
If ‘ignore’, suppress error and existing labels are dropped.
Returns dropped : type of caller

Notes

Specifying both labels and index or columns will raise a ValueError.

Examples

>>> df = pd.DataFrame(np.arange(12).reshape(3,4),
columns=['A', 'B', 'C', 'D'])
>>> df
A B C D
0 0 1 2 3
1 4 5 6 7
2 8 9 10 11

Drop columns

34.4. DataFrame 1501

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

>>> df.drop(['B', 'C'], axis=1)

A D
0 0 3
1 4 7
2 8 11

>>> df.drop(columns=['B', 'C'])

A D
0 0 3
1 4 7
2 8 11

Drop a row by index

>>> df.drop([0, 1])

A B C D
2 8 9 10 11

pandas.DataFrame.drop_duplicates

DataFrame.drop_duplicates(subset=None, keep=’first’, inplace=False)

Return DataFrame with duplicate rows removed, optionally only considering certain columns
Parameters subset : column label or sequence of labels, optional
Only consider certain columns for identifying duplicates, by default use all of the
columns
keep : {‘first’, ‘last’, False}, default ‘first’
• first : Drop duplicates except for the first occurrence.
• last : Drop duplicates except for the last occurrence.
• False : Drop all duplicates.
inplace : boolean, default False
Whether to drop duplicates in place or to return a copy
Returns deduplicated : DataFrame

pandas.DataFrame.dropna

DataFrame.dropna(axis=0, how=’any’, thresh=None, subset=None, inplace=False)

Return object with labels on given axis omitted where alternately any or all of the data are missing
Parameters axis : {0 or ‘index’, 1 or ‘columns’}, or tuple/list thereof
Pass tuple or list to drop on multiple axes
how : {‘any’, ‘all’}
• any : if any NA values are present, drop that label
• all : if all values are NA, drop that label
thresh : int, default None
int value : require that many non-NA values

1502 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

subset : array-like
Labels along other axis to consider, e.g. if you are dropping rows these would be
a list of columns to include
inplace : boolean, default False
If True, do operation inplace and return None.
Returns dropped : DataFrame

Examples

>>> df = pd.DataFrame([[np.nan, 2, np.nan, 0], [3, 4, np.nan, 1],

... [np.nan, np.nan, np.nan, 5]],
... columns=list('ABCD'))
>>> df
A B C D
0 NaN 2.0 NaN 0
1 3.0 4.0 NaN 1
2 NaN NaN NaN 5

Drop the columns where all elements are nan:

>>> df.dropna(axis=1, how='all')
A B D
0 NaN 2.0 0
1 3.0 4.0 1
2 NaN NaN 5

Drop the columns where any of the elements is nan

>>> df.dropna(axis=1, how='any')
D
0 0
1 1
2 5

Drop the rows where all of the elements are nan (there is no row to drop, so df stays the same):
>>> df.dropna(axis=0, how='all')
A B C D
0 NaN 2.0 NaN 0
1 3.0 4.0 NaN 1
2 NaN NaN NaN 5

Keep only the rows with at least 2 non-na values:

>>> df.dropna(thresh=2)
A B C D
0 NaN 2.0 NaN 0
1 3.0 4.0 NaN 1

pandas.DataFrame.duplicated

DataFrame.duplicated(subset=None, keep=’first’)
Return boolean Series denoting duplicate rows, optionally only considering certain columns

34.4. DataFrame 1503

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Parameters subset : column label or sequence of labels, optional

Only consider certain columns for identifying duplicates, by default use all of the
columns
keep : {‘first’, ‘last’, False}, default ‘first’
• first : Mark duplicates as True except for the first occurrence.
• last : Mark duplicates as True except for the last occurrence.
• False : Mark all duplicates as True.
Returns duplicated : Series

pandas.DataFrame.eq

DataFrame.eq(other, axis=’columns’, level=None)

Wrapper for flexible comparison methods eq

pandas.DataFrame.equals

DataFrame.equals(other)
Determines if two NDFrame objects contain the same elements. NaNs in the same location are considered
equal.

pandas.DataFrame.eval

DataFrame.eval(expr, inplace=False, **kwargs)

Evaluate an expression in the context of the calling DataFrame instance.
Parameters expr : string
The expression string to evaluate.
inplace : bool, default False
If the expression contains an assignment, whether to perform the operation in-
place and mutate the existing DataFrame. Otherwise, a new DataFrame is re-
turned.
New in version 0.18.0.
kwargs : dict
See the documentation for eval() for complete details on the keyword argu-
ments accepted by query().
Returns ret : ndarray, scalar, or pandas object
See also:
pandas.DataFrame.query, pandas.DataFrame.assign, pandas.eval

Notes

For more details see the API documentation for eval(). For detailed examples see enhancing perfor-
mance with eval.

1504 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Examples

>>> from numpy.random import randn

>>> from pandas import DataFrame
>>> df = DataFrame(randn(10, 2), columns=list('ab'))
>>> df.eval('a + b')
>>> df.eval('c = a + b')

pandas.DataFrame.ewm

DataFrame.ewm(com=None, span=None, halflife=None, alpha=None, min_periods=0, freq=None,

adjust=True, ignore_na=False, axis=0)
Provides exponential weighted functions
New in version 0.18.0.
Parameters com : float, optional
Specify decay in terms of center of mass, 𝛼 = 1/(1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑚), for 𝑐𝑜𝑚 ≥ 0
span : float, optional
Specify decay in terms of span, 𝛼 = 2/(𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛 + 1), for 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛 ≥ 1
halflife : float, optional
Specify decay in terms of half-life, 𝛼 = 1 −
𝑒𝑥𝑝(𝑙𝑜𝑔(0.5)/ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑓 𝑒), for ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑓 𝑒 > 0
alpha : float, optional
Specify smoothing factor 𝛼 directly, 0 < 𝛼 ≤ 1
New in version 0.18.0.
min_periods : int, default 0
Minimum number of observations in window required to have a value (otherwise
result is NA).
freq : None or string alias / date offset object, default=None
Deprecated since version 0.18.0: Frequency to conform to before computing
statistic
adjust : boolean, default True
Divide by decaying adjustment factor in beginning periods to account for imbal-
ance in relative weightings (viewing EWMA as a moving average)
ignore_na : boolean, default False
Ignore missing values when calculating weights; specify True to reproduce pre-
0.15.0 behavior
Returns a Window sub-classed for the particular operation

34.4. DataFrame 1505

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Notes

Exactly one of center of mass, span, half-life, and alpha must be provided. Allowed values and relation-
ship between the parameters are specified in the parameter descriptions above; see the link at the end of
this section for a detailed explanation.
The freq keyword is used to conform time series data to a specified frequency by resampling the data.
This is done with the default parameters of resample() (i.e. using the mean).
When adjust is True (default), weighted averages are calculated using weights (1-alpha)**(n-1), (1-
alpha)**(n-2), ..., 1-alpha, 1.
When adjust is False, weighted averages are calculated recursively as: weighted_average[0] =
arg[0]; weighted_average[i] = (1-alpha)*weighted_average[i-1] + alpha*arg[i].
When ignore_na is False (default), weights are based on absolute positions. For example, the weights of
x and y used in calculating the final weighted average of [x, None, y] are (1-alpha)**2 and 1 (if adjust is
True), and (1-alpha)**2 and alpha (if adjust is False).
When ignore_na is True (reproducing pre-0.15.0 behavior), weights are based on relative positions. For
example, the weights of x and y used in calculating the final weighted average of [x, None, y] are 1-alpha
and 1 (if adjust is True), and 1-alpha and alpha (if adjust is False).
More details can be found at http://pandas.pydata.org/pandas-docs/stable/computation.html#
exponentially-weighted-windows

Examples

>>> df = DataFrame({'B': [0, 1, 2, np.nan, 4]})

B
0 0.0
1 1.0
2 2.0
3 NaN
4 4.0

>>> df.ewm(com=0.5).mean()
B
0 0.000000
1 0.750000
2 1.615385
3 1.615385
4 3.670213

pandas.DataFrame.expanding

DataFrame.expanding(min_periods=1, freq=None, center=False, axis=0)

Provides expanding transformations.
New in version 0.18.0.
Parameters min_periods : int, default None
Minimum number of observations in window required to have a value (otherwise
result is NA).
freq : string or DateOffset object, optional (default None)

1506 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Deprecated since version 0.18.0: Frequency to conform the data to before com-
puting the statistic. Specified as a frequency string or DateOffset object.
center : boolean, default False
Set the labels at the center of the window.
axis : int or string, default 0
Returns a Window sub-classed for the particular operation

Notes

By default, the result is set to the right edge of the window. This can be changed to the center of the
window by setting center=True.
The freq keyword is used to conform time series data to a specified frequency by resampling the data.
This is done with the default parameters of resample() (i.e. using the mean).

Examples

>>> df = DataFrame({'B': [0, 1, 2, np.nan, 4]})

B
0 0.0
1 1.0
2 2.0
3 NaN
4 4.0

>>> df.expanding(2).sum()
B
0 NaN
1 1.0
2 3.0
3 3.0
4 7.0

pandas.DataFrame.ffill

DataFrame.ffill(axis=None, inplace=False, limit=None, downcast=None)

Synonym for DataFrame.fillna(method='ffill')

pandas.DataFrame.fillna

DataFrame.fillna(value=None, method=None, axis=None, inplace=False, limit=None, down-

cast=None, **kwargs)
Fill NA/NaN values using the specified method
Parameters value : scalar, dict, Series, or DataFrame
Value to use to fill holes (e.g. 0), alternately a dict/Series/DataFrame of val-
ues specifying which value to use for each index (for a Series) or column (for
a DataFrame). (values not in the dict/Series/DataFrame will not be filled). This
value cannot be a list.

34.4. DataFrame 1507

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

method : {‘backfill’, ‘bfill’, ‘pad’, ‘ffill’, None}, default None

Method to use for filling holes in reindexed Series pad / ffill: propagate last valid
observation forward to next valid backfill / bfill: use NEXT valid observation to
fill gap
axis : {0 or ‘index’, 1 or ‘columns’}
inplace : boolean, default False
If True, fill in place. Note: this will modify any other views on this object, (e.g. a
no-copy slice for a column in a DataFrame).
limit : int, default None
If method is specified, this is the maximum number of consecutive NaN values to
forward/backward fill. In other words, if there is a gap with more than this number
of consecutive NaNs, it will only be partially filled. If method is not specified,
this is the maximum number of entries along the entire axis where NaNs will be
filled. Must be greater than 0 if not None.
downcast : dict, default is None
a dict of item->dtype of what to downcast if possible, or the string ‘infer’ which
will try to downcast to an appropriate equal type (e.g. float64 to int64 if possible)
Returns filled : DataFrame
See also:
reindex, asfreq

Examples

>>> df = pd.DataFrame([[np.nan, 2, np.nan, 0],

... [3, 4, np.nan, 1],
... [np.nan, np.nan, np.nan, 5],
... [np.nan, 3, np.nan, 4]],
... columns=list('ABCD'))
>>> df
A B C D
0 NaN 2.0 NaN 0
1 3.0 4.0 NaN 1
2 NaN NaN NaN 5
3 NaN 3.0 NaN 4

Replace all NaN elements with 0s.

>>> df.fillna(0)
A B C D
0 0.0 2.0 0.0 0
1 3.0 4.0 0.0 1
2 0.0 0.0 0.0 5
3 0.0 3.0 0.0 4

We can also propagate non-null values forward or backward.

>>> df.fillna(method='ffill')
A B C D
0 NaN 2.0 NaN 0

1508 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

1 3.0 4.0 NaN 1

2 3.0 4.0 NaN 5
3 3.0 3.0 NaN 4

Replace all NaN elements in column ‘A’, ‘B’, ‘C’, and ‘D’, with 0, 1, 2, and 3 respectively.

>>> values = {'A': 0, 'B': 1, 'C': 2, 'D': 3}

>>> df.fillna(value=values)
A B C D
0 0.0 2.0 2.0 0
1 3.0 4.0 2.0 1
2 0.0 1.0 2.0 5
3 0.0 3.0 2.0 4

Only replace the first NaN element.

>>> df.fillna(value=values, limit=1)

A B C D
0 0.0 2.0 2.0 0
1 3.0 4.0 NaN 1
2 NaN 1.0 NaN 5
3 NaN 3.0 NaN 4

pandas.DataFrame.filter

DataFrame.filter(items=None, like=None, regex=None, axis=None)

Subset rows or columns of dataframe according to labels in the specified index.
Note that this routine does not filter a dataframe on its contents. The filter is applied to the labels of the
index.
Parameters items : list-like
List of info axis to restrict to (must not all be present)
like : string
Keep info axis where “arg in col == True”
regex : string (regular expression)
Keep info axis with re.search(regex, col) == True
axis : int or string axis name
The axis to filter on. By default this is the info axis, ‘index’ for Series, ‘columns’
for DataFrame
Returns same type as input object
See also:
pandas.DataFrame.loc

Notes

The items, like, and regex parameters are enforced to be mutually exclusive.
axis defaults to the info axis that is used when indexing with [].

34.4. DataFrame 1509

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Examples

>>> df
one two three
mouse 1 2 3
rabbit 4 5 6

>>> # select columns by name

>>> df.filter(items=['one', 'three'])
one three
mouse 1 3
rabbit 4 6

>>> # select columns by regular expression

>>> df.filter(regex='e$', axis=1)
one three
mouse 1 3
rabbit 4 6

>>> # select rows containing 'bbi'

>>> df.filter(like='bbi', axis=0)
one two three
rabbit 4 5 6

pandas.DataFrame.first

DataFrame.first(offset)
Convenience method for subsetting initial periods of time series data based on a date offset.
Parameters offset : string, DateOffset, dateutil.relativedelta
Returns subset : type of caller

Examples

ts.first(‘10D’) -> First 10 days

pandas.DataFrame.first_valid_index

DataFrame.first_valid_index()
Return index for first non-NA/null value.
Returns scalar : type of index

Notes

If all elements are non-NA/null, returns None. Also returns None for empty DataFrame.

1510 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

pandas.DataFrame.floordiv

DataFrame.floordiv(other, axis=’columns’, level=None, fill_value=None)

Integer division of dataframe and other, element-wise (binary operator floordiv).
Equivalent to dataframe // other, but with support to substitute a fill_value for missing data in
one of the inputs.
Parameters other : Series, DataFrame, or constant
axis : {0, 1, ‘index’, ‘columns’}
For Series input, axis to match Series index on
fill_value : None or float value, default None
Fill missing (NaN) values with this value. If both DataFrame locations are miss-
ing, the result will be missing
level : int or name
Broadcast across a level, matching Index values on the passed MultiIndex level
Returns result : DataFrame
See also:
DataFrame.rfloordiv

Notes

Mismatched indices will be unioned together

pandas.DataFrame.from_csv

classmethod DataFrame.from_csv(path, header=0, sep=’, ‘, index_col=0,

parse_dates=True, encoding=None, tupleize_cols=None,
infer_datetime_format=False)
Read CSV file (DEPRECATED, please use pandas.read_csv() instead).
It is preferable to use the more powerful pandas.read_csv() for most general purposes, but
from_csv makes for an easy roundtrip to and from a file (the exact counterpart of to_csv), espe-
cially with a DataFrame of time series data.
This method only differs from the preferred pandas.read_csv() in some defaults:
• index_col is 0 instead of None (take first column as index by default)
• parse_dates is True instead of False (try parsing the index as datetime by default)
So a pd.DataFrame.from_csv(path) can be replaced by pd.read_csv(path,
index_col=0, parse_dates=True).
Parameters path : string file path or file handle / StringIO
header : int, default 0
Row to use as header (skip prior rows)
sep : string, default ‘,’
Field delimiter

34.4. DataFrame 1511

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

index_col : int or sequence, default 0

Column to use for index. If a sequence is given, a MultiIndex is used. Different
default from read_table
parse_dates : boolean, default True
Parse dates. Different default from read_table
tupleize_cols : boolean, default False
write multi_index columns as a list of tuples (if True) or new (expanded format)
if False)
infer_datetime_format: boolean, default False
If True and parse_dates is True for a column, try to infer the datetime format
based on the first datetime string. If the format can be inferred, there often will
be a large parsing speed-up.
Returns y : DataFrame
See also:
pandas.read_csv

pandas.DataFrame.from_dict

classmethod DataFrame.from_dict(data, orient=’columns’, dtype=None)

Construct DataFrame from dict of array-like or dicts
Parameters data : dict
{field : array-like} or {field : dict}
orient : {‘columns’, ‘index’}, default ‘columns’
The “orientation” of the data. If the keys of the passed dict should be the columns
of the resulting DataFrame, pass ‘columns’ (default). Otherwise if the keys
should be rows, pass ‘index’.
dtype : dtype, default None
Data type to force, otherwise infer
Returns DataFrame

pandas.DataFrame.from_items

classmethod DataFrame.from_items(items, columns=None, orient=’columns’)

Convert (key, value) pairs to DataFrame. The keys will be the axis index (usually the columns, but depends
on the specified orientation). The values should be arrays or Series.
Parameters items : sequence of (key, value) pairs
Values should be arrays or Series.
columns : sequence of column labels, optional
Must be passed if orient=’index’.
orient : {‘columns’, ‘index’}, default ‘columns’

1512 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

The “orientation” of the data. If the keys of the input correspond to column
labels, pass ‘columns’ (default). Otherwise if the keys correspond to the index,
pass ‘index’.
Returns frame : DataFrame

pandas.DataFrame.from_records

classmethod DataFrame.from_records(data, index=None, exclude=None, columns=None, co-

erce_float=False, nrows=None)
Convert structured or record ndarray to DataFrame
Parameters data : ndarray (structured dtype), list of tuples, dict, or DataFrame
index : string, list of fields, array-like
Field of array to use as the index, alternately a specific set of input labels to use
exclude : sequence, default None
Columns or fields to exclude
columns : sequence, default None
Column names to use. If the passed data do not have names associated with
them, this argument provides names for the columns. Otherwise this argument
indicates the order of the columns in the result (any names not found in the data
will become all-NA columns)
coerce_float : boolean, default False
Attempt to convert values of non-string, non-numeric objects (like deci-
mal.Decimal) to floating point, useful for SQL result sets
Returns df : DataFrame

pandas.DataFrame.ge

DataFrame.ge(other, axis=’columns’, level=None)

Wrapper for flexible comparison methods ge

pandas.DataFrame.get

DataFrame.get(key, default=None)
Get item from object for given key (DataFrame column, Panel slice, etc.). Returns default value if not
found.
Parameters key : object
Returns value : type of items contained in object

pandas.DataFrame.get_dtype_counts

DataFrame.get_dtype_counts()
Return the counts of dtypes in this object.

34.4. DataFrame 1513

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

pandas.DataFrame.get_ftype_counts

DataFrame.get_ftype_counts()
Return the counts of ftypes in this object.

pandas.DataFrame.get_value

DataFrame.get_value(index, col, takeable=False)

Quickly retrieve single value at passed column and index
Deprecated since version 0.21.0.
Please use .at[] or .iat[] accessors.
Parameters index : row label
col : column label
takeable : interpret the index/col as indexers, default False
Returns value : scalar value

pandas.DataFrame.get_values

DataFrame.get_values()
same as values (but handles sparseness conversions)

pandas.DataFrame.groupby

DataFrame.groupby(by=None, axis=0, level=None, as_index=True, sort=True, group_keys=True,

squeeze=False, **kwargs)
Group series using mapper (dict or key function, apply given function to group, return result as series) or
by a series of columns.
Parameters by : mapping, function, str, or iterable
Used to determine the groups for the groupby. If by is a function, it’s called
on each value of the object’s index. If a dict or Series is passed, the Series or
dict VALUES will be used to determine the groups (the Series’ values are first
aligned; see .align() method). If an ndarray is passed, the values are used
as-is determine the groups. A str or list of strs may be passed to group by the
columns in self
axis : int, default 0
level : int, level name, or sequence of such, default None
If the axis is a MultiIndex (hierarchical), group by a particular level or levels
as_index : boolean, default True
For aggregated output, return object with group labels as the index. Only relevant
for DataFrame input. as_index=False is effectively “SQL-style” grouped output
sort : boolean, default True

1514 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Sort group keys. Get better performance by turning this off. Note this does not
influence the order of observations within each group. groupby preserves the
order of rows within each group.
group_keys : boolean, default True
When calling apply, add group keys to index to identify pieces
squeeze : boolean, default False
reduce the dimensionality of the return type if possible, otherwise return a con-
sistent type
Returns GroupBy object

Examples

DataFrame results

>>> data.groupby(func, axis=0).mean()

>>> data.groupby(['col1', 'col2'])['col3'].mean()

DataFrame with hierarchical index

>>> data.groupby(['col1', 'col2']).mean()

pandas.DataFrame.gt

DataFrame.gt(other, axis=’columns’, level=None)

Wrapper for flexible comparison methods gt

pandas.DataFrame.head

DataFrame.head(n=5)
Return the first n rows.
Parameters n : int, default 5
Number of rows to select.
Returns obj_head : type of caller
The first n rows of the caller object.

pandas.DataFrame.hist

DataFrame.hist(data, column=None, by=None, grid=True, xlabelsize=None, xrot=None, ylabel-

size=None, yrot=None, ax=None, sharex=False, sharey=False, figsize=None, lay-
out=None, bins=10, **kwds)
Draw histogram of the DataFrame’s series using matplotlib / pylab.
Parameters data : DataFrame
column : string or sequence
If passed, will be used to limit data to a subset of columns

34.4. DataFrame 1515

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

by : object, optional
If passed, then used to form histograms for separate groups
grid : boolean, default True
Whether to show axis grid lines
xlabelsize : int, default None
If specified changes the x-axis label size
xrot : float, default None
rotation of x axis labels
ylabelsize : int, default None
If specified changes the y-axis label size
yrot : float, default None
rotation of y axis labels
ax : matplotlib axes object, default None
sharex : boolean, default True if ax is None else False
In case subplots=True, share x axis and set some x axis labels to invisible; defaults
to True if ax is None otherwise False if an ax is passed in; Be aware, that passing
in both an ax and sharex=True will alter all x axis labels for all subplots in a
figure!
sharey : boolean, default False
In case subplots=True, share y axis and set some y axis labels to invisible
figsize : tuple
The size of the figure to create in inches by default
layout : tuple, optional
Tuple of (rows, columns) for the layout of the histograms
bins : integer, default 10
Number of histogram bins to be used
kwds : other plotting keyword arguments
To be passed to hist function

pandas.DataFrame.idxmax

DataFrame.idxmax(axis=0, skipna=True)
Return index of first occurrence of maximum over requested axis. NA/null values are excluded.
Parameters axis : {0 or ‘index’, 1 or ‘columns’}, default 0
0 or ‘index’ for row-wise, 1 or ‘columns’ for column-wise
skipna : boolean, default True
Exclude NA/null values. If an entire row/column is NA, the result will be first
index.

1516 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Returns idxmax : Series

See also:
Series.idxmax

Notes

This method is the DataFrame version of ndarray.argmax.

pandas.DataFrame.idxmin

DataFrame.idxmin(axis=0, skipna=True)
Return index of first occurrence of minimum over requested axis. NA/null values are excluded.
Parameters axis : {0 or ‘index’, 1 or ‘columns’}, default 0
0 or ‘index’ for row-wise, 1 or ‘columns’ for column-wise
skipna : boolean, default True
Exclude NA/null values. If an entire row/column is NA, the result will be NA
Returns idxmin : Series
See also:
Series.idxmin

Notes

This method is the DataFrame version of ndarray.argmin.

pandas.DataFrame.infer_objects

DataFrame.infer_objects()
Attempt to infer better dtypes for object columns.
Attempts soft conversion of object-dtyped columns, leaving non-object and unconvertible columns un-
changed. The inference rules are the same as during normal Series/DataFrame construction.
New in version 0.21.0.
Returns converted : same type as input object
See also:

pandas.to_datetime Convert argument to datetime.

pandas.to_timedelta Convert argument to timedelta.
pandas.to_numeric Convert argument to numeric typeR

34.4. DataFrame 1517

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Examples

>>> df = pd.DataFrame({"A": ["a", 1, 2, 3]})

>>> df = df.iloc[1:]
>>> df
A
1 1
2 2
3 3

>>> df.dtypes
A object
dtype: object

>>> df.infer_objects().dtypes
A int64
dtype: object

pandas.DataFrame.info

DataFrame.info(verbose=None, buf=None, max_cols=None, memory_usage=None,

null_counts=None)
Concise summary of a DataFrame.
Parameters verbose : {None, True, False}, optional
Whether to print the full summary. None follows the display.max_info_columns
setting. True or False overrides the display.max_info_columns setting.
buf : writable buffer, defaults to sys.stdout
max_cols : int, default None
Determines whether full summary or short summary is printed. None follows the
display.max_info_columns setting.
memory_usage : boolean/string, default None
Specifies whether total memory usage of the DataFrame elements (including in-
dex) should be displayed. None follows the display.memory_usage setting. True
or False overrides the display.memory_usage setting. A value of ‘deep’ is equiva-
lent of True, with deep introspection. Memory usage is shown in human-readable
units (base-2 representation).
null_counts : boolean, default None
Whether to show the non-null counts
• If None, then only show if the frame is smaller than max_info_rows and
max_info_columns.
• If True, always show counts.
• If False, never show counts.

1518 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

pandas.DataFrame.insert

DataFrame.insert(loc, column, value, allow_duplicates=False)

Insert column into DataFrame at specified location.
Raises a ValueError if column is already contained in the DataFrame, unless allow_duplicates is set to
True.
Parameters loc : int
Insertion index. Must verify 0 <= loc <= len(columns)
column : string, number, or hashable object
label of the inserted column
value : int, Series, or array-like
allow_duplicates : bool, optional

pandas.DataFrame.interpolate

DataFrame.interpolate(method=’linear’, axis=0, limit=None, inplace=False,

limit_direction=’forward’, downcast=None, **kwargs)
Interpolate values according to different methods.
Please note that only method='linear' is supported for DataFrames/Series with a MultiIndex.
Parameters method : {‘linear’, ‘time’, ‘index’, ‘values’, ‘nearest’, ‘zero’,
‘slinear’, ‘quadratic’, ‘cubic’, ‘barycentric’, ‘krogh’, ‘polynomial’, ‘spline’,
‘piecewise_polynomial’, ‘from_derivatives’, ‘pchip’, ‘akima’}

• ‘linear’: ignore the index and treat the values as equally spaced. This is the
only method supported on MultiIndexes. default
• ‘time’: interpolation works on daily and higher resolution data to interpolate
given length of interval
• ‘index’, ‘values’: use the actual numerical values of the index
• ‘nearest’, ‘zero’, ‘slinear’, ‘quadratic’, ‘cubic’, ‘barycentric’, ‘polyno-
mial’ is passed to scipy.interpolate.interp1d. Both ‘poly-
nomial’ and ‘spline’ require that you also specify an order (int), e.g.
df.interpolate(method=’polynomial’, order=4). These use the actual numeri-
cal values of the index.
• ‘krogh’, ‘piecewise_polynomial’, ‘spline’, ‘pchip’ and ‘akima’ are all wrap-
pers around the scipy interpolation methods of similar names. These use the
actual numerical values of the index. For more information on their behavior,
see the scipy documentation and tutorial documentation
• ‘from_derivatives’ refers to BPoly.from_derivatives which replaces ‘piece-
wise_polynomial’ interpolation method in scipy 0.18

New in version 0.18.1: Added support for the ‘akima’ method Added interpolate
method ‘from_derivatives’ which replaces ‘piecewise_polynomial’ in scipy 0.18;
backwards-compatible with scipy < 0.18
axis : {0, 1}, default 0

34.4. DataFrame 1519

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• 0: fill column-by-column
• 1: fill row-by-row
limit : int, default None.
Maximum number of consecutive NaNs to fill. Must be greater than 0.
limit_direction : {‘forward’, ‘backward’, ‘both’}, default ‘forward’
If limit is specified, consecutive NaNs will be filled in this direction.
New in version 0.17.0.
inplace : bool, default False
Update the NDFrame in place if possible.
downcast : optional, ‘infer’ or None, defaults to None
Downcast dtypes if possible.
kwargs : keyword arguments to pass on to the interpolating function.
Returns Series or DataFrame of same shape interpolated at the NaNs
See also:
reindex, replace, fillna

Examples

Filling in NaNs

>>> s = pd.Series([0, 1, np.nan, 3])

>>> s.interpolate()
0 0
1 1
2 2
3 3
dtype: float64

pandas.DataFrame.isin

DataFrame.isin(values)
Return boolean DataFrame showing whether each element in the DataFrame is contained in values.
Parameters values : iterable, Series, DataFrame or dictionary
The result will only be true at a location if all the labels match. If values is a
Series, that’s the index. If values is a dictionary, the keys must be the column
names, which must match. If values is a DataFrame, then both the index and
column labels must match.
Returns DataFrame of booleans

Examples

When values is a list:

1520 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

>>> df = DataFrame({'A': [1, 2, 3], 'B': ['a', 'b', 'f']})

>>> df.isin([1, 3, 12, 'a'])
A B
0 True True
1 False False
2 True False

When values is a dict:

>>> df = DataFrame({'A': [1, 2, 3], 'B': [1, 4, 7]})

>>> df.isin({'A': [1, 3], 'B': [4, 7, 12]})
A B
0 True False # Note that B didn't match the 1 here.
1 False True
2 True True

When values is a Series or DataFrame:

>>> df = DataFrame({'A': [1, 2, 3], 'B': ['a', 'b', 'f']})

>>> other = DataFrame({'A': [1, 3, 3, 2], 'B': ['e', 'f', 'f', 'e']})
>>> df.isin(other)
A B
0 True False
1 False False # Column A in `other` has a 3, but not at index 1.
2 True True

pandas.DataFrame.isna

DataFrame.isna()
Return a boolean same-sized object indicating if the values are NA.
See also:

DataFrame.notna boolean inverse of isna

DataFrame.isnull alias of isna
isna top-level isna

pandas.DataFrame.isnull

DataFrame.isnull()
Return a boolean same-sized object indicating if the values are NA.
See also:

DataFrame.notna boolean inverse of isna

DataFrame.isnull alias of isna
isna top-level isna

34.4. DataFrame 1521

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

pandas.DataFrame.items

DataFrame.items()
Iterator over (column name, Series) pairs.
See also:

iterrows Iterate over DataFrame rows as (index, Series) pairs.

itertuples Iterate over DataFrame rows as namedtuples of the values.

pandas.DataFrame.iteritems

DataFrame.iteritems()
Iterator over (column name, Series) pairs.
See also:

iterrows Iterate over DataFrame rows as (index, Series) pairs.

itertuples Iterate over DataFrame rows as namedtuples of the values.

pandas.DataFrame.iterrows

DataFrame.iterrows()
Iterate over DataFrame rows as (index, Series) pairs.
Returns it : generator
A generator that iterates over the rows of the frame.
See also:

itertuples Iterate over DataFrame rows as namedtuples of the values.

iteritems Iterate over (column name, Series) pairs.

Notes

1. Because iterrows returns a Series for each row, it does not preserve dtypes across the rows
(dtypes are preserved across columns for DataFrames). For example,

>>> df = pd.DataFrame([[1, 1.5]], columns=['int', 'float'])

>>> row = next(df.iterrows())[1]
>>> row
int 1.0
float 1.5
Name: 0, dtype: float64
>>> print(row['int'].dtype)
float64
>>> print(df['int'].dtype)
int64

To preserve dtypes while iterating over the rows, it is better to use itertuples() which returns
namedtuples of the values and which is generally faster than iterrows.

1522 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

2. You should never modify something you are iterating over. This is not guaranteed to work in all
cases. Depending on the data types, the iterator returns a copy and not a view, and writing to it will
have no effect.

pandas.DataFrame.itertuples

DataFrame.itertuples(index=True, name=’Pandas’)
Iterate over DataFrame rows as namedtuples, with index value as first element of the tuple.
Parameters index : boolean, default True
If True, return the index as the first element of the tuple.
name : string, default “Pandas”
The name of the returned namedtuples or None to return regular tuples.
See also:

iterrows Iterate over DataFrame rows as (index, Series) pairs.

iteritems Iterate over (column name, Series) pairs.

Notes

The column names will be renamed to positional names if they are invalid Python identifiers, repeated, or
start with an underscore. With a large number of columns (>255), regular tuples are returned.

Examples

>>> df = pd.DataFrame({'col1': [1, 2], 'col2': [0.1, 0.2]},

index=['a', 'b'])
>>> df
col1 col2
a 1 0.1
b 2 0.2
>>> for row in df.itertuples():
... print(row)
...
Pandas(Index='a', col1=1, col2=0.10000000000000001)
Pandas(Index='b', col1=2, col2=0.20000000000000001)

pandas.DataFrame.join

DataFrame.join(other, on=None, how=’left’, lsuffix=’‘, rsuffix=’‘, sort=False)

Join columns with other DataFrame either on index or on a key column. Efficiently Join multiple
DataFrame objects by index at once by passing a list.
Parameters other : DataFrame, Series with name field set, or list of DataFrame
Index should be similar to one of the columns in this one. If a Series is passed,
its name attribute must be set, and that will be used as the column name in the
resulting joined DataFrame
on : column name, tuple/list of column names, or array-like

34.4. DataFrame 1523

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Column(s) in the caller to join on the index in other, otherwise joins index-on-
index. If multiples columns given, the passed DataFrame must have a MultiIn-
dex. Can pass an array as the join key if not already contained in the calling
DataFrame. Like an Excel VLOOKUP operation
how : {‘left’, ‘right’, ‘outer’, ‘inner’}, default: ‘left’
How to handle the operation of the two objects.
• left: use calling frame’s index (or column if on is specified)
• right: use other frame’s index
• outer: form union of calling frame’s index (or column if on is specified) with
other frame’s index, and sort it lexicographically
• inner: form intersection of calling frame’s index (or column if on is specified)
with other frame’s index, preserving the order of the calling’s one
lsuffix : string
Suffix to use from left frame’s overlapping columns
rsuffix : string
Suffix to use from right frame’s overlapping columns
sort : boolean, default False
Order result DataFrame lexicographically by the join key. If False, the order of
the join key depends on the join type (how keyword)
Returns joined : DataFrame
See also:

DataFrame.merge For column(s)-on-columns(s) operations

Notes

on, lsuffix, and rsuffix options are not supported when passing a list of DataFrame objects

Examples

>>> caller = pd.DataFrame({'key': ['K0', 'K1', 'K2', 'K3', 'K4', 'K5'],

... 'A': ['A0', 'A1', 'A2', 'A3', 'A4', 'A5']})

>>> caller
A key
0 A0 K0
1 A1 K1
2 A2 K2
3 A3 K3
4 A4 K4
5 A5 K5

>>> other = pd.DataFrame({'key': ['K0', 'K1', 'K2'],

... 'B': ['B0', 'B1', 'B2']})

1524 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

>>> other
B key
0 B0 K0
1 B1 K1
2 B2 K2

Join DataFrames using their indexes.

>>> caller.join(other, lsuffix='_caller', rsuffix='_other')

>>> A key_caller B key_other

0 A0 K0 B0 K0
1 A1 K1 B1 K1
2 A2 K2 B2 K2
3 A3 K3 NaN NaN
4 A4 K4 NaN NaN
5 A5 K5 NaN NaN

If we want to join using the key columns, we need to set key to be the index in both caller and other. The
joined DataFrame will have key as its index.

>>> caller.set_index('key').join(other.set_index('key'))

>>> A B
key
K0 A0 B0
K1 A1 B1
K2 A2 B2
K3 A3 NaN
K4 A4 NaN
K5 A5 NaN

Another option to join using the key columns is to use the on parameter. DataFrame.join always uses
other’s index but we can use any column in the caller. This method preserves the original caller’s index in
the result.

>>> caller.join(other.set_index('key'), on='key')

>>> A key B
0 A0 K0 B0
1 A1 K1 B1
2 A2 K2 B2
3 A3 K3 NaN
4 A4 K4 NaN
5 A5 K5 NaN

pandas.DataFrame.keys

DataFrame.keys()
Get the ‘info axis’ (see Indexing for more)
This is index for Series, columns for DataFrame and major_axis for Panel.

34.4. DataFrame 1525

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

pandas.DataFrame.kurt

DataFrame.kurt(axis=None, skipna=None, level=None, numeric_only=None, **kwargs)

Return unbiased kurtosis over requested axis using Fisher’s definition of kurtosis (kurtosis of normal ==
0.0). Normalized by N-1
Parameters axis : {index (0), columns (1)}
skipna : boolean, default True
Exclude NA/null values. If an entire row/column is NA or empty, the result will
be NA
level : int or level name, default None
If the axis is a MultiIndex (hierarchical), count along a particular level, collapsing
into a Series
numeric_only : boolean, default None
Include only float, int, boolean columns. If None, will attempt to use everything,
then use only numeric data. Not implemented for Series.
Returns kurt : Series or DataFrame (if level specified)

pandas.DataFrame.kurtosis

DataFrame.kurtosis(axis=None, skipna=None, level=None, numeric_only=None, **kwargs)

Return unbiased kurtosis over requested axis using Fisher’s definition of kurtosis (kurtosis of normal ==
0.0). Normalized by N-1
Parameters axis : {index (0), columns (1)}
skipna : boolean, default True
Exclude NA/null values. If an entire row/column is NA or empty, the result will
be NA
level : int or level name, default None
If the axis is a MultiIndex (hierarchical), count along a particular level, collapsing
into a Series
numeric_only : boolean, default None
Include only float, int, boolean columns. If None, will attempt to use everything,
then use only numeric data. Not implemented for Series.
Returns kurt : Series or DataFrame (if level specified)

pandas.DataFrame.last

DataFrame.last(offset)
Convenience method for subsetting final periods of time series data based on a date offset.
Parameters offset : string, DateOffset, dateutil.relativedelta
Returns subset : type of caller

1526 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Examples

ts.last(‘5M’) -> Last 5 months

pandas.DataFrame.last_valid_index

DataFrame.last_valid_index()
Return index for first non-NA/null value.
Returns scalar : type of index

Notes

If all elements are non-NA/null, returns None. Also returns None for empty DataFrame.

pandas.DataFrame.le

DataFrame.le(other, axis=’columns’, level=None)

Wrapper for flexible comparison methods le

pandas.DataFrame.lookup

DataFrame.lookup(row_labels, col_labels)
Label-based “fancy indexing” function for DataFrame. Given equal-length arrays of row and column
labels, return an array of the values corresponding to each (row, col) pair.
Parameters row_labels : sequence
The row labels to use for lookup
col_labels : sequence
The column labels to use for lookup

Notes

Akin to:

result = []
for row, col in zip(row_labels, col_labels):
result.append(df.get_value(row, col))

Examples

values [ndarray] The found values

34.4. DataFrame 1527

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

pandas.DataFrame.lt

DataFrame.lt(other, axis=’columns’, level=None)

Wrapper for flexible comparison methods lt

pandas.DataFrame.mad

DataFrame.mad(axis=None, skipna=None, level=None)

Return the mean absolute deviation of the values for the requested axis
Parameters axis : {index (0), columns (1)}
skipna : boolean, default True
Exclude NA/null values. If an entire row/column is NA or empty, the result will
be NA
level : int or level name, default None
If the axis is a MultiIndex (hierarchical), count along a particular level, collapsing
into a Series
numeric_only : boolean, default None
Include only float, int, boolean columns. If None, will attempt to use everything,
then use only numeric data. Not implemented for Series.
Returns mad : Series or DataFrame (if level specified)

pandas.DataFrame.mask

DataFrame.mask(cond, other=nan, inplace=False, axis=None, level=None, errors=’raise’,

try_cast=False, raise_on_error=None)
Return an object of same shape as self and whose corresponding entries are from self where cond is False
and otherwise are from other.
Parameters cond : boolean NDFrame, array-like, or callable
Where cond is False, keep the original value. Where True, replace with corre-
sponding value from other. If cond is callable, it is computed on the NDFrame
and should return boolean NDFrame or array. The callable must not change input
NDFrame (though pandas doesn’t check it).
New in version 0.18.1: A callable can be used as cond.
other : scalar, NDFrame, or callable
Entries where cond is True are replaced with corresponding value from other.
If other is callable, it is computed on the NDFrame and should return scalar or
NDFrame. The callable must not change input NDFrame (though pandas doesn’t
check it).
New in version 0.18.1: A callable can be used as other.
inplace : boolean, default False
Whether to perform the operation in place on the data

1528 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

axis : alignment axis if needed, default None

level : alignment level if needed, default None
errors : str, {‘raise’, ‘ignore’}, default ‘raise’
• raise : allow exceptions to be raised
• ignore : suppress exceptions. On error return original object
Note that currently this parameter won’t affect the results and will always coerce
to a suitable dtype.
try_cast : boolean, default False
try to cast the result back to the input type (if possible),
raise_on_error : boolean, default True
Whether to raise on invalid data types (e.g. trying to where on strings)
Deprecated since version 0.21.0.
Returns wh : same type as caller
See also:
DataFrame.where()

Notes

The mask method is an application of the if-then idiom. For each element in the calling DataFrame, if
cond is False the element is used; otherwise the corresponding element from the DataFrame other
is used.
The signature for DataFrame.where() differs from numpy.where(). Roughly df1.where(m,
df2) is equivalent to np.where(m, df1, df2).
For further details and examples see the mask documentation in indexing.

Examples

>>> s = pd.Series(range(5))
>>> s.where(s > 0)
0 NaN
1 1.0
2 2.0
3 3.0
4 4.0

>>> s.mask(s > 0)

0 0.0
1 NaN
2 NaN
3 NaN
4 NaN

34.4. DataFrame 1529

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

>>> s.where(s > 1, 10)

0 10.0
1 10.0
2 2.0
3 3.0
4 4.0

>>> df = pd.DataFrame(np.arange(10).reshape(-1, 2), columns=['A', 'B'])

>>> m = df % 3 == 0
>>> df.where(m, -df)
A B
0 0 -1
1 -2 3
2 -4 -5
3 6 -7
4 -8 9
>>> df.where(m, -df) == np.where(m, df, -df)
A B
0 True True
1 True True
2 True True
3 True True
4 True True
>>> df.where(m, -df) == df.mask(~m, -df)
A B
0 True True
1 True True
2 True True
3 True True
4 True True

pandas.DataFrame.max

DataFrame.max(axis=None, skipna=None, level=None, numeric_only=None, **kwargs)

This method returns the maximum of the values in the object. If you want the index of the maximum,
use idxmax. This is the equivalent of the numpy.ndarray method argmax.

Parameters axis : {index (0), columns (1)}

skipna : boolean, default True
Exclude NA/null values. If an entire row/column is NA or empty, the result will
be NA
level : int or level name, default None
If the axis is a MultiIndex (hierarchical), count along a particular level, collapsing
into a Series
numeric_only : boolean, default None
Include only float, int, boolean columns. If None, will attempt to use everything,
then use only numeric data. Not implemented for Series.
Returns max : Series or DataFrame (if level specified)

1530 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

pandas.DataFrame.mean

DataFrame.mean(axis=None, skipna=None, level=None, numeric_only=None, **kwargs)

Return the mean of the values for the requested axis
Parameters axis : {index (0), columns (1)}
skipna : boolean, default True
Exclude NA/null values. If an entire row/column is NA or empty, the result will
be NA
level : int or level name, default None
If the axis is a MultiIndex (hierarchical), count along a particular level, collapsing
into a Series
numeric_only : boolean, default None
Include only float, int, boolean columns. If None, will attempt to use everything,
then use only numeric data. Not implemented for Series.
Returns mean : Series or DataFrame (if level specified)

pandas.DataFrame.median

DataFrame.median(axis=None, skipna=None, level=None, numeric_only=None, **kwargs)

Return the median of the values for the requested axis
Parameters axis : {index (0), columns (1)}
skipna : boolean, default True
Exclude NA/null values. If an entire row/column is NA or empty, the result will
be NA
level : int or level name, default None
If the axis is a MultiIndex (hierarchical), count along a particular level, collapsing
into a Series
numeric_only : boolean, default None
Include only float, int, boolean columns. If None, will attempt to use everything,
then use only numeric data. Not implemented for Series.
Returns median : Series or DataFrame (if level specified)

pandas.DataFrame.melt

DataFrame.melt(id_vars=None, value_vars=None, var_name=None, value_name=’value’,

col_level=None)
“Unpivots” a DataFrame from wide format to long format, optionally leaving identifier variables set.
This function is useful to massage a DataFrame into a format where one or more columns are identifier
variables (id_vars), while all other columns, considered measured variables (value_vars), are “unpivoted”
to the row axis, leaving just two non-identifier columns, ‘variable’ and ‘value’.
New in version 0.20.0.

34.4. DataFrame 1531

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Parameters frame : DataFrame

id_vars : tuple, list, or ndarray, optional
Column(s) to use as identifier variables.
value_vars : tuple, list, or ndarray, optional
Column(s) to unpivot. If not specified, uses all columns that are not set as id_vars.
var_name : scalar
Name to use for the ‘variable’ column. If None it uses frame.columns.name
or ‘variable’.
value_name : scalar, default ‘value’
Name to use for the ‘value’ column.
col_level : int or string, optional
If columns are a MultiIndex then use this level to melt.
See also:
melt, pivot_table, DataFrame.pivot

Examples

>>> import pandas as pd

>>> df = pd.DataFrame({'A': {0: 'a', 1: 'b', 2: 'c'},
... 'B': {0: 1, 1: 3, 2: 5},
... 'C': {0: 2, 1: 4, 2: 6}})
>>> df
A B C
0 a 1 2
1 b 3 4
2 c 5 6

>>> df.melt(id_vars=['A'], value_vars=['B'])

A variable value
0 a B 1
1 b B 3
2 c B 5

>>> df.melt(id_vars=['A'], value_vars=['B', 'C'])

A variable value
0 a B 1
1 b B 3
2 c B 5
3 a C 2
4 b C 4
5 c C 6

The names of ‘variable’ and ‘value’ columns can be customized:

>>> df.melt(id_vars=['A'], value_vars=['B'],

... var_name='myVarname', value_name='myValname')
A myVarname myValname
0 a B 1

1532 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

1 b B 3
2 c B 5

If you have multi-index columns:

>>> df.columns = [list('ABC'), list('DEF')]

>>> df
A B C
D E F
0 a 1 2
1 b 3 4
2 c 5 6

>>> df.melt(col_level=0, id_vars=['A'], value_vars=['B'])

A variable value
0 a B 1
1 b B 3
2 c B 5

>>> df.melt(id_vars=[('A', 'D')], value_vars=[('B', 'E')])

(A, D) variable_0 variable_1 value
0 a B E 1
1 b B E 3
2 c B E 5

pandas.DataFrame.memory_usage

DataFrame.memory_usage(index=True, deep=False)
Memory usage of DataFrame columns.
Parameters index : bool
Specifies whether to include memory usage of DataFrame’s index in returned
Series. If index=True (default is False) the first index of the Series is Index.
deep : bool
Introspect the data deeply, interrogate object dtypes for system-level memory
consumption
Returns sizes : Series
A series with column names as index and memory usage of columns with units
of bytes.
See also:
numpy.ndarray.nbytes

Notes

Memory usage does not include memory consumed by elements that are not components of the array if
deep=False

34.4. DataFrame 1533

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

pandas.DataFrame.merge

DataFrame.merge(right, how=’inner’, on=None, left_on=None, right_on=None, left_index=False,

right_index=False, sort=False, suffixes=(‘_x’, ‘_y’), copy=True, indica-
tor=False, validate=None)
Merge DataFrame objects by performing a database-style join operation by columns or indexes.
If joining columns on columns, the DataFrame indexes will be ignored. Otherwise if joining indexes on
indexes or indexes on a column or columns, the index will be passed on.
Parameters right : DataFrame
how : {‘left’, ‘right’, ‘outer’, ‘inner’}, default ‘inner’
• left: use only keys from left frame, similar to a SQL left outer join; preserve key order
• right: use only keys from right frame, similar to a SQL right outer join; preserve key
order
• outer: use union of keys from both frames, similar to a SQL full outer join; sort keys
lexicographically
• inner: use intersection of keys from both frames, similar to a SQL inner join; preserve
the order of the left keys
on : label or list
Field names to join on. Must be found in both DataFrames. If on is None and not
merging on indexes, then it merges on the intersection of the columns by default.
left_on : label or list, or array-like
Field names to join on in left DataFrame. Can be a vector or list of vectors of
the length of the DataFrame to use a particular vector as the join key instead of
columns
right_on : label or list, or array-like
Field names to join on in right DataFrame or vector/list of vectors per left_on
docs
left_index : boolean, default False
Use the index from the left DataFrame as the join key(s). If it is a MultiIndex, the
number of keys in the other DataFrame (either the index or a number of columns)
must match the number of levels
right_index : boolean, default False
Use the index from the right DataFrame as the join key. Same caveats as
left_index
sort : boolean, default False
Sort the join keys lexicographically in the result DataFrame. If False, the order
of the join keys depends on the join type (how keyword)
suffixes : 2-length sequence (tuple, list, ...)
Suffix to apply to overlapping column names in the left and right side, respectively
copy : boolean, default True
If False, do not copy data unnecessarily
indicator : boolean or string, default False

1534 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

If True, adds a column to output DataFrame called “_merge” with information on

the source of each row. If string, column with information on source of each row
will be added to output DataFrame, and column will be named value of string.
Information column is Categorical-type and takes on a value of “left_only” for
observations whose merge key only appears in ‘left’ DataFrame, “right_only” for
observations whose merge key only appears in ‘right’ DataFrame, and “both” if
the observation’s merge key is found in both.
New in version 0.17.0.
validate : string, default None
If specified, checks if merge is of specified type.
• “one_to_one” or “1:1”: check if merge keys are unique in both left and right
datasets.
• “one_to_many” or “1:m”: check if merge keys are unique in left dataset.
• “many_to_one” or “m:1”: check if merge keys are unique in right dataset.
• “many_to_many” or “m:m”: allowed, but does not result in checks.
New in version 0.21.0.
Returns merged : DataFrame
The output type will the be same as ‘left’, if it is a subclass of DataFrame.
See also:
merge_ordered, merge_asof

Examples

>>> A >>> B
lkey value rkey value
0 foo 1 0 foo 5
1 bar 2 1 bar 6
2 baz 3 2 qux 7
3 foo 4 3 bar 8

>>> A.merge(B, left_on='lkey', right_on='rkey', how='outer')

lkey value_x rkey value_y
0 foo 1 foo 5
1 foo 4 foo 5
2 bar 2 bar 6
3 bar 2 bar 8
4 baz 3 NaN NaN
5 NaN NaN qux 7

pandas.DataFrame.min

DataFrame.min(axis=None, skipna=None, level=None, numeric_only=None, **kwargs)

This method returns the minimum of the values in the object. If you want the index of the minimum,
use idxmin. This is the equivalent of the numpy.ndarray method argmin.

34.4. DataFrame 1535

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Parameters axis : {index (0), columns (1)}

skipna : boolean, default True
Exclude NA/null values. If an entire row/column is NA or empty, the result will
be NA
level : int or level name, default None
If the axis is a MultiIndex (hierarchical), count along a particular level, collapsing
into a Series
numeric_only : boolean, default None
Include only float, int, boolean columns. If None, will attempt to use everything,
then use only numeric data. Not implemented for Series.
Returns min : Series or DataFrame (if level specified)

pandas.DataFrame.mod

DataFrame.mod(other, axis=’columns’, level=None, fill_value=None)

Modulo of dataframe and other, element-wise (binary operator mod).
Equivalent to dataframe % other, but with support to substitute a fill_value for missing data in one
of the inputs.
Parameters other : Series, DataFrame, or constant
axis : {0, 1, ‘index’, ‘columns’}
For Series input, axis to match Series index on
fill_value : None or float value, default None
Fill missing (NaN) values with this value. If both DataFrame locations are miss-
ing, the result will be missing
level : int or name
Broadcast across a level, matching Index values on the passed MultiIndex level
Returns result : DataFrame
See also:
DataFrame.rmod

Notes

Mismatched indices will be unioned together

pandas.DataFrame.mode

DataFrame.mode(axis=0, numeric_only=False)
Gets the mode(s) of each element along the axis selected. Adds a row for each mode per label, fills in
gaps with nan.
Note that there could be multiple values returned for the selected axis (when more than one item share
the maximum frequency), which is the reason why a dataframe is returned. If you want to impute missing
values with the mode in a dataframe df, you can just do this: df.fillna(df.mode().iloc[0])

1536 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Parameters axis : {0 or ‘index’, 1 or ‘columns’}, default 0

• 0 or ‘index’ : get mode of each column
• 1 or ‘columns’ : get mode of each row
numeric_only : boolean, default False
if True, only apply to numeric columns
Returns modes : DataFrame (sorted)

Examples

>>> df = pd.DataFrame({'A': [1, 2, 1, 2, 1, 2, 3]})

>>> df.mode()
A
0 1
1 2

pandas.DataFrame.mul

DataFrame.mul(other, axis=’columns’, level=None, fill_value=None)

Multiplication of dataframe and other, element-wise (binary operator mul).
Equivalent to dataframe * other, but with support to substitute a fill_value for missing data in one
of the inputs.
Parameters other : Series, DataFrame, or constant
axis : {0, 1, ‘index’, ‘columns’}
For Series input, axis to match Series index on
fill_value : None or float value, default None
Fill missing (NaN) values with this value. If both DataFrame locations are miss-
ing, the result will be missing
level : int or name
Broadcast across a level, matching Index values on the passed MultiIndex level
Returns result : DataFrame
See also:
DataFrame.rmul

Notes

Mismatched indices will be unioned together

pandas.DataFrame.multiply

DataFrame.multiply(other, axis=’columns’, level=None, fill_value=None)

Multiplication of dataframe and other, element-wise (binary operator mul).

34.4. DataFrame 1537

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Equivalent to dataframe * other, but with support to substitute a fill_value for missing data in one
of the inputs.
Parameters other : Series, DataFrame, or constant
axis : {0, 1, ‘index’, ‘columns’}
For Series input, axis to match Series index on
fill_value : None or float value, default None
Fill missing (NaN) values with this value. If both DataFrame locations are miss-
ing, the result will be missing
level : int or name
Broadcast across a level, matching Index values on the passed MultiIndex level
Returns result : DataFrame
See also:
DataFrame.rmul

Notes

Mismatched indices will be unioned together

pandas.DataFrame.ne

DataFrame.ne(other, axis=’columns’, level=None)

Wrapper for flexible comparison methods ne

pandas.DataFrame.nlargest

DataFrame.nlargest(n, columns, keep=’first’)

Get the rows of a DataFrame sorted by the n largest values of columns.
New in version 0.17.0.
Parameters n : int
Number of items to retrieve
columns : list or str
Column name or names to order by
keep : {‘first’, ‘last’, False}, default ‘first’
Where there are duplicate values: - first : take the first occurrence. - last :
take the last occurrence.
Returns DataFrame

Examples

1538 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

>>> df = DataFrame({'a': [1, 10, 8, 11, -1],

... 'b': list('abdce'),
... 'c': [1.0, 2.0, np.nan, 3.0, 4.0]})
>>> df.nlargest(3, 'a')
a b c
3 11 c 3
1 10 b 2
2 8 d NaN

pandas.DataFrame.notna

DataFrame.notna()
Return a boolean same-sized object indicating if the values are not NA.
See also:

DataFrame.isna boolean inverse of notna

DataFrame.notnull alias of notna
notna top-level notna

pandas.DataFrame.notnull

DataFrame.notnull()
Return a boolean same-sized object indicating if the values are not NA.
See also:

DataFrame.isna boolean inverse of notna

DataFrame.notnull alias of notna
notna top-level notna

pandas.DataFrame.nsmallest

DataFrame.nsmallest(n, columns, keep=’first’)

Get the rows of a DataFrame sorted by the n smallest values of columns.
New in version 0.17.0.
Parameters n : int
Number of items to retrieve
columns : list or str
Column name or names to order by
keep : {‘first’, ‘last’, False}, default ‘first’
Where there are duplicate values: - first : take the first occurrence. - last :
take the last occurrence.
Returns DataFrame

34.4. DataFrame 1539

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Examples

>>> df = DataFrame({'a': [1, 10, 8, 11, -1],

... 'b': list('abdce'),
... 'c': [1.0, 2.0, np.nan, 3.0, 4.0]})
>>> df.nsmallest(3, 'a')
a b c
4 -1 e 4
0 1 a 1
2 8 d NaN

pandas.DataFrame.nunique

DataFrame.nunique(axis=0, dropna=True)
Return Series with number of distinct observations over requested axis.
New in version 0.20.0.
Parameters axis : {0 or ‘index’, 1 or ‘columns’}, default 0
dropna : boolean, default True
Don’t include NaN in the counts.
Returns nunique : Series

Examples

>>> df = pd.DataFrame({'A': [1, 2, 3], 'B': [1, 1, 1]})

>>> df.nunique()
A 3
B 1

>>> df.nunique(axis=1)
0 1
1 2
2 2

pandas.DataFrame.pct_change

DataFrame.pct_change(periods=1, fill_method=’pad’, limit=None, freq=None, **kwargs)

Percent change over given number of periods.
Parameters periods : int, default 1
Periods to shift for forming percent change
fill_method : str, default ‘pad’
How to handle NAs before computing percent changes
limit : int, default None
The number of consecutive NAs to fill before stopping
freq : DateOffset, timedelta, or offset alias string, optional

1540 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Increment to use from time series API (e.g. ‘M’ or BDay())

Returns chg : NDFrame

Notes

By default, the percentage change is calculated along the stat axis: 0, or Index, for DataFrame and 1,
or minor for Panel. You can change this with the axis keyword argument.

pandas.DataFrame.pipe

DataFrame.pipe(func, *args, **kwargs)

Apply func(self, *args, **kwargs)
Parameters func : function
function to apply to the NDFrame. args, and kwargs are passed
into func. Alternatively a (callable, data_keyword) tuple where
data_keyword is a string indicating the keyword of callable that expects
the NDFrame.
args : iterable, optional
positional arguments passed into func.
kwargs : mapping, optional
a dictionary of keyword arguments passed into func.
Returns object : the return type of func.
See also:
pandas.DataFrame.apply, pandas.DataFrame.applymap, pandas.Series.map

Notes

Use .pipe when chaining together functions that expect Series, DataFrames or GroupBy objects. Instead
of writing

>>> f(g(h(df), arg1=a), arg2=b, arg3=c)

You can write

>>> (df.pipe(h)
... .pipe(g, arg1=a)
... .pipe(f, arg2=b, arg3=c)
... )

If you have a function that takes the data as (say) the second argument, pass a tuple indicating which
keyword expects the data. For example, suppose f takes its data as arg2:

>>> (df.pipe(h)
... .pipe(g, arg1=a)
... .pipe((f, 'arg2'), arg1=a, arg3=c)
... )

34.4. DataFrame 1541

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

pandas.DataFrame.pivot

DataFrame.pivot(index=None, columns=None, values=None)

Reshape data (produce a “pivot” table) based on column values. Uses unique values from index / columns
to form axes of the resulting DataFrame.
Parameters index : string or object, optional
Column name to use to make new frame’s index. If None, uses existing index.
columns : string or object
Column name to use to make new frame’s columns
values : string or object, optional
Column name to use for populating new frame’s values. If not specified, all
remaining columns will be used and the result will have hierarchically indexed
columns
Returns pivoted : DataFrame
See also:

DataFrame.pivot_table generalization of pivot that can handle duplicate values for one in-
dex/column pair
DataFrame.unstack pivot based on the index values instead of a column

Notes

For finer-tuned control, see hierarchical indexing documentation along with the related stack/unstack
methods

Examples

>>> df = pd.DataFrame({'foo': ['one','one','one','two','two','two'],

'bar': ['A', 'B', 'C', 'A', 'B', 'C'],
'baz': [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]})
>>> df
foo bar baz
0 one A 1
1 one B 2
2 one C 3
3 two A 4
4 two B 5
5 two C 6

>>> df.pivot(index='foo', columns='bar', values='baz')

A B C
one 1 2 3
two 4 5 6

>>> df.pivot(index='foo', columns='bar')['baz']

A B C
one 1 2 3
two 4 5 6

1542 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

pandas.DataFrame.pivot_table

DataFrame.pivot_table(values=None, index=None, columns=None, aggfunc=’mean’,

fill_value=None, margins=False, dropna=True, margins_name=’All’)
Create a spreadsheet-style pivot table as a DataFrame. The levels in the pivot table will be stored in
MultiIndex objects (hierarchical indexes) on the index and columns of the result DataFrame
Parameters values : column to aggregate, optional
index : column, Grouper, array, or list of the previous
If an array is passed, it must be the same length as the data. The list can contain
any of the other types (except list). Keys to group by on the pivot table index. If
an array is passed, it is being used as the same manner as column values.
columns : column, Grouper, array, or list of the previous
If an array is passed, it must be the same length as the data. The list can contain
any of the other types (except list). Keys to group by on the pivot table column.
If an array is passed, it is being used as the same manner as column values.
aggfunc : function or list of functions, default numpy.mean
If list of functions passed, the resulting pivot table will have hierarchical columns
whose top level are the function names (inferred from the function objects them-
selves)
fill_value : scalar, default None
Value to replace missing values with
margins : boolean, default False
Add all row / columns (e.g. for subtotal / grand totals)
dropna : boolean, default True
Do not include columns whose entries are all NaN
margins_name : string, default ‘All’
Name of the row / column that will contain the totals when margins is True.
Returns table : DataFrame
See also:

DataFrame.pivot pivot without aggregation that can handle non-numeric data

Examples

>>> df = pd.DataFrame({"A": ["foo", "foo", "foo", "foo", "foo",

... "bar", "bar", "bar", "bar"],
... "B": ["one", "one", "one", "two", "two",
... "one", "one", "two", "two"],
... "C": ["small", "large", "large", "small",
... "small", "large", "small", "small",
... "large"],
... "D": [1, 2, 2, 3, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7]})

34.4. DataFrame 1543

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

>>> df
A B C D
0 foo one small 1
1 foo one large 2
2 foo one large 2
3 foo two small 3
4 foo two small 3
5 bar one large 4
6 bar one small 5
7 bar two small 6
8 bar two large 7

>>> table = pivot_table(df, values='D', index=['A', 'B'],

... columns=['C'], aggfunc=np.sum)
>>> table
...
C large small
A B
bar one 4.0 5.0
two 7.0 6.0
foo one 4.0 1.0
two NaN 6.0

pandas.DataFrame.plot

DataFrame.plot(x=None, y=None, kind=’line’, ax=None, subplots=False, sharex=None,

sharey=False, layout=None, figsize=None, use_index=True, title=None,
grid=None, legend=True, style=None, logx=False, logy=False, loglog=False,
xticks=None, yticks=None, xlim=None, ylim=None, rot=None, fontsize=None,
colormap=None, table=False, yerr=None, xerr=None, secondary_y=False,
sort_columns=False, **kwds)
Make plots of DataFrame using matplotlib / pylab.
New in version 0.17.0: Each plot kind has a corresponding method on the DataFrame.plot accessor:
df.plot(kind='line') is equivalent to df.plot.line().
Parameters data : DataFrame
x : label or position, default None
y : label or position, default None
Allows plotting of one column versus another
kind : str
• ‘line’ : line plot (default)
• ‘bar’ : vertical bar plot
• ‘barh’ : horizontal bar plot
• ‘hist’ : histogram
• ‘box’ : boxplot
• ‘kde’ : Kernel Density Estimation plot
• ‘density’ : same as ‘kde’
• ‘area’ : area plot

1544 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• ‘pie’ : pie plot

• ‘scatter’ : scatter plot
• ‘hexbin’ : hexbin plot
ax : matplotlib axes object, default None
subplots : boolean, default False
Make separate subplots for each column
sharex : boolean, default True if ax is None else False
In case subplots=True, share x axis and set some x axis labels to invisible; defaults
to True if ax is None otherwise False if an ax is passed in; Be aware, that passing
in both an ax and sharex=True will alter all x axis labels for all axis in a figure!
sharey : boolean, default False
In case subplots=True, share y axis and set some y axis labels to invisible
layout : tuple (optional)
(rows, columns) for the layout of subplots
figsize : a tuple (width, height) in inches
use_index : boolean, default True
Use index as ticks for x axis
title : string or list
Title to use for the plot. If a string is passed, print the string at the top of the
figure. If a list is passed and subplots is True, print each item in the list above the
corresponding subplot.
grid : boolean, default None (matlab style default)
Axis grid lines
legend : False/True/’reverse’
Place legend on axis subplots
style : list or dict
matplotlib line style per column
logx : boolean, default False
Use log scaling on x axis
logy : boolean, default False
Use log scaling on y axis
loglog : boolean, default False
Use log scaling on both x and y axes
xticks : sequence
Values to use for the xticks
yticks : sequence
Values to use for the yticks

34.4. DataFrame 1545

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

xlim : 2-tuple/list
ylim : 2-tuple/list
rot : int, default None
Rotation for ticks (xticks for vertical, yticks for horizontal plots)
fontsize : int, default None
Font size for xticks and yticks
colormap : str or matplotlib colormap object, default None
Colormap to select colors from. If string, load colormap with that name from
matplotlib.
colorbar : boolean, optional
If True, plot colorbar (only relevant for ‘scatter’ and ‘hexbin’ plots)
position : float
Specify relative alignments for bar plot layout. From 0 (left/bottom-end) to 1
(right/top-end). Default is 0.5 (center)
table : boolean, Series or DataFrame, default False
If True, draw a table using the data in the DataFrame and the data will be trans-
posed to meet matplotlib’s default layout. If a Series or DataFrame is passed, use
passed data to draw a table.
yerr : DataFrame, Series, array-like, dict and str
See Plotting with Error Bars for detail.
xerr : same types as yerr.
stacked : boolean, default False in line and
bar plots, and True in area plot. If True, create stacked plot.
sort_columns : boolean, default False
Sort column names to determine plot ordering
secondary_y : boolean or sequence, default False
Whether to plot on the secondary y-axis If a list/tuple, which columns to plot on
secondary y-axis
mark_right : boolean, default True
When using a secondary_y axis, automatically mark the column labels with
“(right)” in the legend
kwds : keywords
Options to pass to matplotlib plotting method
Returns axes : matplotlib.AxesSubplot or np.array of them

Notes

• See matplotlib documentation online for more on this subject

1546 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• If kind = ‘bar’ or ‘barh’, you can specify relative alignments for bar plot layout by position keyword.
From 0 (left/bottom-end) to 1 (right/top-end). Default is 0.5 (center)
• If kind = ‘scatter’ and the argument c is the name of a dataframe column, the values of that column
are used to color each point.
• If kind = ‘hexbin’, you can control the size of the bins with the gridsize argument. By default, a his-
togram of the counts around each (x, y) point is computed. You can specify alternative aggregations
by passing values to the C and reduce_C_function arguments. C specifies the value at each (x, y)
point and reduce_C_function is a function of one argument that reduces all the values in a bin to a
single number (e.g. mean, max, sum, std).

pandas.DataFrame.pop

DataFrame.pop(item)
Return item and drop from frame. Raise KeyError if not found.
Parameters item : str
Column label to be popped
Returns popped : Series

Examples

>>> df = pd.DataFrame([('falcon', 'bird', 389.0),

... ('parrot', 'bird', 24.0),
... ('lion', 'mammal', 80.5),
... ('monkey', 'mammal', np.nan)],
... columns=('name', 'class', 'max_speed'))
>>> df
name class max_speed
0 falcon bird 389.0
1 parrot bird 24.0
2 lion mammal 80.5
3 monkey mammal NaN

>>> df.pop('class')
0 bird
1 bird
2 mammal
3 mammal
Name: class, dtype: object

>>> df
name max_speed
0 falcon 389.0
1 parrot 24.0
2 lion 80.5
3 monkey NaN

34.4. DataFrame 1547

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

pandas.DataFrame.pow

DataFrame.pow(other, axis=’columns’, level=None, fill_value=None)

Exponential power of dataframe and other, element-wise (binary operator pow).
Equivalent to dataframe ** other, but with support to substitute a fill_value for missing data in
one of the inputs.
Parameters other : Series, DataFrame, or constant
axis : {0, 1, ‘index’, ‘columns’}
For Series input, axis to match Series index on
fill_value : None or float value, default None
Fill missing (NaN) values with this value. If both DataFrame locations are miss-
ing, the result will be missing
level : int or name
Broadcast across a level, matching Index values on the passed MultiIndex level
Returns result : DataFrame
See also:
DataFrame.rpow

Notes

Mismatched indices will be unioned together

pandas.DataFrame.prod

DataFrame.prod(axis=None, skipna=None, level=None, numeric_only=None, **kwargs)

Return the product of the values for the requested axis
Parameters axis : {index (0), columns (1)}
skipna : boolean, default True
Exclude NA/null values. If an entire row/column is NA or empty, the result will
be NA
level : int or level name, default None
If the axis is a MultiIndex (hierarchical), count along a particular level, collapsing
into a Series
numeric_only : boolean, default None
Include only float, int, boolean columns. If None, will attempt to use everything,
then use only numeric data. Not implemented for Series.
Returns prod : Series or DataFrame (if level specified)

1548 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

pandas.DataFrame.product

DataFrame.product(axis=None, skipna=None, level=None, numeric_only=None, **kwargs)

Return the product of the values for the requested axis
Parameters axis : {index (0), columns (1)}
skipna : boolean, default True
Exclude NA/null values. If an entire row/column is NA or empty, the result will
be NA
level : int or level name, default None
If the axis is a MultiIndex (hierarchical), count along a particular level, collapsing
into a Series
numeric_only : boolean, default None
Include only float, int, boolean columns. If None, will attempt to use everything,
then use only numeric data. Not implemented for Series.
Returns prod : Series or DataFrame (if level specified)

pandas.DataFrame.quantile

DataFrame.quantile(q=0.5, axis=0, numeric_only=True, interpolation=’linear’)

Return values at the given quantile over requested axis, a la numpy.percentile.
Parameters q : float or array-like, default 0.5 (50% quantile)
0 <= q <= 1, the quantile(s) to compute
axis : {0, 1, ‘index’, ‘columns’} (default 0)
0 or ‘index’ for row-wise, 1 or ‘columns’ for column-wise
interpolation : {‘linear’, ‘lower’, ‘higher’, ‘midpoint’, ‘nearest’}
New in version 0.18.0.
This optional parameter specifies the interpolation method to use, when the de-
sired quantile lies between two data points i and j:
• linear: i + (j - i) * fraction, where fraction is the fractional part of the index
surrounded by i and j.
• lower: i.
• higher: j.
• nearest: i or j whichever is nearest.
• midpoint: (i + j) / 2.
Returns quantiles : Series or DataFrame
• If q is an array, a DataFrame will be returned where the index is q, the columns are
the columns of self, and the values are the quantiles.
• If q is a float, a Series will be returned where the index is the columns of self and the
values are the quantiles.

34.4. DataFrame 1549

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Examples

>>> df = DataFrame(np.array([[1, 1], [2, 10], [3, 100], [4, 100]]),

columns=['a', 'b'])
>>> df.quantile(.1)
a 1.3
b 3.7
dtype: float64
>>> df.quantile([.1, .5])
a b
0.1 1.3 3.7
0.5 2.5 55.0

pandas.DataFrame.query

DataFrame.query(expr, inplace=False, **kwargs)

Query the columns of a frame with a boolean expression.
Parameters expr : string
The query string to evaluate. You can refer to variables in the environment by
prefixing them with an ‘@’ character like @a + b.
inplace : bool
Whether the query should modify the data in place or return a modified copy
New in version 0.18.0.
kwargs : dict
See the documentation for pandas.eval() for complete details on the key-
word arguments accepted by DataFrame.query().
Returns q : DataFrame
See also:
pandas.eval, DataFrame.eval

Notes

The result of the evaluation of this expression is first passed to DataFrame.loc and if that fails be-
cause of a multidimensional key (e.g., a DataFrame) then the result will be passed to DataFrame.
__getitem__().
This method uses the top-level pandas.eval() function to evaluate the passed query.
The query() method uses a slightly modified Python syntax by default. For example, the & and |
(bitwise) operators have the precedence of their boolean cousins, and and or. This is syntactically valid
Python, however the semantics are different.
You can change the semantics of the expression by passing the keyword argument parser='python'.
This enforces the same semantics as evaluation in Python space. Likewise, you can pass
engine='python' to evaluate an expression using Python itself as a backend. This is not recom-
mended as it is inefficient compared to using numexpr as the engine.
The DataFrame.index and DataFrame.columns attributes of the DataFrame instance are
placed in the query namespace by default, which allows you to treat both the index and columns of

1550 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

the frame as a column in the frame. The identifier index is used for the frame index; you can also use
the name of the index to identify it in a query.
For further details and examples see the query documentation in indexing.

Examples

>>> from numpy.random import randn

>>> from pandas import DataFrame
>>> df = DataFrame(randn(10, 2), columns=list('ab'))
>>> df.query('a > b')
>>> df[df.a > df.b] # same result as the previous expression

pandas.DataFrame.radd

DataFrame.radd(other, axis=’columns’, level=None, fill_value=None)

Addition of dataframe and other, element-wise (binary operator radd).
Equivalent to other + dataframe, but with support to substitute a fill_value for missing data in one
of the inputs.
Parameters other : Series, DataFrame, or constant
axis : {0, 1, ‘index’, ‘columns’}
For Series input, axis to match Series index on
fill_value : None or float value, default None
Fill missing (NaN) values with this value. If both DataFrame locations are miss-
ing, the result will be missing
level : int or name
Broadcast across a level, matching Index values on the passed MultiIndex level
Returns result : DataFrame
See also:
DataFrame.add

Notes

Mismatched indices will be unioned together

pandas.DataFrame.rank

DataFrame.rank(axis=0, method=’average’, numeric_only=None, na_option=’keep’, ascend-

ing=True, pct=False)
Compute numerical data ranks (1 through n) along axis. Equal values are assigned a rank that is the
average of the ranks of those values
Parameters axis : {0 or ‘index’, 1 or ‘columns’}, default 0
index to direct ranking

34.4. DataFrame 1551

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

method : {‘average’, ‘min’, ‘max’, ‘first’, ‘dense’}

• average: average rank of group
• min: lowest rank in group
• max: highest rank in group
• first: ranks assigned in order they appear in the array
• dense: like ‘min’, but rank always increases by 1 between groups
numeric_only : boolean, default None
Include only float, int, boolean data. Valid only for DataFrame or Panel objects
na_option : {‘keep’, ‘top’, ‘bottom’}
• keep: leave NA values where they are
• top: smallest rank if ascending
• bottom: smallest rank if descending
ascending : boolean, default True
False for ranks by high (1) to low (N)
pct : boolean, default False
Computes percentage rank of data
Returns ranks : same type as caller

pandas.DataFrame.rdiv

DataFrame.rdiv(other, axis=’columns’, level=None, fill_value=None)

Floating division of dataframe and other, element-wise (binary operator rtruediv).
Equivalent to other / dataframe, but with support to substitute a fill_value for missing data in one
of the inputs.
Parameters other : Series, DataFrame, or constant
axis : {0, 1, ‘index’, ‘columns’}
For Series input, axis to match Series index on
fill_value : None or float value, default None
Fill missing (NaN) values with this value. If both DataFrame locations are miss-
ing, the result will be missing
level : int or name
Broadcast across a level, matching Index values on the passed MultiIndex level
Returns result : DataFrame
See also:
DataFrame.truediv

1552 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Notes

Mismatched indices will be unioned together

pandas.DataFrame.reindex

DataFrame.reindex(labels=None, index=None, columns=None, axis=None, method=None,

copy=True, level=None, fill_value=nan, limit=None, tolerance=None)
Conform DataFrame to new index with optional filling logic, placing NA/NaN in locations having no
value in the previous index. A new object is produced unless the new index is equivalent to the current
one and copy=False
Parameters labels : array-like, optional
New labels / index to conform the axis specified by ‘axis’ to.
index, columns : array-like, optional (should be specified using keywords)
New labels / index to conform to. Preferably an Index object to avoid duplicating
data
axis : int or str, optional
Axis to target. Can be either the axis name (‘index’, ‘columns’) or number (0, 1).
method : {None, ‘backfill’/’bfill’, ‘pad’/’ffill’, ‘nearest’}, optional
method to use for filling holes in reindexed DataFrame. Please note: this is only
applicable to DataFrames/Series with a monotonically increasing/decreasing in-
dex.
• default: don’t fill gaps
• pad / ffill: propagate last valid observation forward to next valid
• backfill / bfill: use next valid observation to fill gap
• nearest: use nearest valid observations to fill gap
copy : boolean, default True
Return a new object, even if the passed indexes are the same
level : int or name
Broadcast across a level, matching Index values on the passed MultiIndex level
fill_value : scalar, default np.NaN
Value to use for missing values. Defaults to NaN, but can be any “compatible”
value
limit : int, default None
Maximum number of consecutive elements to forward or backward fill
tolerance : optional
Maximum distance between original and new labels for inexact matches.
The values of the index at the matching locations most satisfy the equation
abs(index[indexer] - target) <= tolerance.
Tolerance may be a scalar value, which applies the same tolerance to all values,
or list-like, which applies variable tolerance per element. List-like includes list,

34.4. DataFrame 1553

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

tuple, array, Series, and must be the same size as the index and its dtype must
exactly match the index’s type.
New in version 0.17.0.
New in version 0.21.0: (list-like tolerance)
Returns reindexed : DataFrame

Examples

DataFrame.reindex supports two calling conventions

• (index=index_labels, columns=column_labels, ...)
• (labels, axis={'index', 'columns'}, ...)
We highly recommend using keyword arguments to clarify your intent.
Create a dataframe with some fictional data.

>>> index = ['Firefox', 'Chrome', 'Safari', 'IE10', 'Konqueror']

>>> df = pd.DataFrame({
... 'http_status': [200,200,404,404,301],
... 'response_time': [0.04, 0.02, 0.07, 0.08, 1.0]},
... index=index)
>>> df
http_status response_time
Firefox 200 0.04
Chrome 200 0.02
Safari 404 0.07
IE10 404 0.08
Konqueror 301 1.00

Create a new index and reindex the dataframe. By default values in the new index that do not have
corresponding records in the dataframe are assigned NaN.

>>> new_index= ['Safari', 'Iceweasel', 'Comodo Dragon', 'IE10',

... 'Chrome']
>>> df.reindex(new_index)
http_status response_time
Safari 404.0 0.07
Iceweasel NaN NaN
Comodo Dragon NaN NaN
IE10 404.0 0.08
Chrome 200.0 0.02

We can fill in the missing values by passing a value to the keyword fill_value. Because the index is
not monotonically increasing or decreasing, we cannot use arguments to the keyword method to fill the
NaN values.

>>> df.reindex(new_index, fill_value=0)

http_status response_time
Safari 404 0.07
Iceweasel 0 0.00
Comodo Dragon 0 0.00
IE10 404 0.08
Chrome 200 0.02

1554 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

>>> df.reindex(new_index, fill_value='missing')

http_status response_time
Safari 404 0.07
Iceweasel missing missing
Comodo Dragon missing missing
IE10 404 0.08
Chrome 200 0.02

We can also reindex the columns.

>>> df.reindex(columns=['http_status', 'user_agent'])
http_status user_agent
Firefox 200 NaN
Chrome 200 NaN
Safari 404 NaN
IE10 404 NaN
Konqueror 301 NaN

Or we can use “axis-style” keyword arguments

>>> df.reindex(['http_status', 'user_agent'], axis="columns")
http_status user_agent
Firefox 200 NaN
Chrome 200 NaN
Safari 404 NaN
IE10 404 NaN
Konqueror 301 NaN

To further illustrate the filling functionality in reindex, we will create a dataframe with a monotonically
increasing index (for example, a sequence of dates).
>>> date_index = pd.date_range('1/1/2010', periods=6, freq='D')
>>> df2 = pd.DataFrame({"prices": [100, 101, np.nan, 100, 89, 88]},
... index=date_index)
>>> df2
prices
2010-01-01 100
2010-01-02 101
2010-01-03 NaN
2010-01-04 100
2010-01-05 89
2010-01-06 88

Suppose we decide to expand the dataframe to cover a wider date range.

>>> date_index2 = pd.date_range('12/29/2009', periods=10, freq='D')
>>> df2.reindex(date_index2)
prices
2009-12-29 NaN
2009-12-30 NaN
2009-12-31 NaN
2010-01-01 100
2010-01-02 101
2010-01-03 NaN
2010-01-04 100
2010-01-05 89
2010-01-06 88
2010-01-07 NaN

34.4. DataFrame 1555

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

The index entries that did not have a value in the original data frame (for example, ‘2009-12-29’) are by
default filled with NaN. If desired, we can fill in the missing values using one of several options.
For example, to backpropagate the last valid value to fill the NaN values, pass bfill as an argument to
the method keyword.

>>> df2.reindex(date_index2, method='bfill')

prices
2009-12-29 100
2009-12-30 100
2009-12-31 100
2010-01-01 100
2010-01-02 101
2010-01-03 NaN
2010-01-04 100
2010-01-05 89
2010-01-06 88
2010-01-07 NaN

Please note that the NaN value present in the original dataframe (at index value 2010-01-03) will not be
filled by any of the value propagation schemes. This is because filling while reindexing does not look at
dataframe values, but only compares the original and desired indexes. If you do want to fill in the NaN
values present in the original dataframe, use the fillna() method.
See the user guide for more.

pandas.DataFrame.reindex_axis

DataFrame.reindex_axis(labels, axis=0, method=None, level=None, copy=True, limit=None,

fill_value=nan)
Conform input object to new index with optional filling logic, placing NA/NaN in locations having no
value in the previous index. A new object is produced unless the new index is equivalent to the current
one and copy=False
Parameters labels : array-like
New labels / index to conform to. Preferably an Index object to avoid duplicating
data
axis : {0 or ‘index’, 1 or ‘columns’}
method : {None, ‘backfill’/’bfill’, ‘pad’/’ffill’, ‘nearest’}, optional
Method to use for filling holes in reindexed DataFrame:
• default: don’t fill gaps
• pad / ffill: propagate last valid observation forward to next valid
• backfill / bfill: use next valid observation to fill gap
• nearest: use nearest valid observations to fill gap
copy : boolean, default True
Return a new object, even if the passed indexes are the same
level : int or name
Broadcast across a level, matching Index values on the passed MultiIndex level
limit : int, default None

1556 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Maximum number of consecutive elements to forward or backward fill

tolerance : optional
Maximum distance between original and new labels for inexact matches.
The values of the index at the matching locations most satisfy the equation
abs(index[indexer] - target) <= tolerance.
Tolerance may be a scalar value, which applies the same tolerance to all values,
or list-like, which applies variable tolerance per element. List-like includes list,
tuple, array, Series, and must be the same size as the index and its dtype must
exactly match the index’s type.
New in version 0.17.0.
New in version 0.21.0: (list-like tolerance)
Returns reindexed : DataFrame
See also:
reindex, reindex_like

Examples

>>> df.reindex_axis(['A', 'B', 'C'], axis=1)

pandas.DataFrame.reindex_like

DataFrame.reindex_like(other, method=None, copy=True, limit=None, tolerance=None)

Return an object with matching indices to myself.
Parameters other : Object
method : string or None
copy : boolean, default True
limit : int, default None
Maximum number of consecutive labels to fill for inexact matches.
tolerance : optional
Maximum distance between labels of the other object and this object for inexact
matches. Can be list-like.
New in version 0.17.0.
New in version 0.21.0: (list-like tolerance)
Returns reindexed : same as input

Notes

Like calling s.reindex(index=other.index, columns=other.columns, method=...)

34.4. DataFrame 1557

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

pandas.DataFrame.rename

DataFrame.rename(mapper=None, index=None, columns=None, axis=None, copy=True, in-

place=False, level=None)
Alter axes labels.
Function / dict values must be unique (1-to-1). Labels not contained in a dict / Series will be left as-is.
Extra labels listed don’t throw an error.
See the user guide for more.
Parameters mapper, index, columns : dict-like or function, optional
dict-like or functions transformations to apply to that axis’ values. Use either
mapper and axis to specify the axis to target with mapper, or index and
columns.
axis : int or str, optional
Axis to target with mapper. Can be either the axis name (‘index’, ‘columns’) or
number (0, 1). The default is ‘index’.
copy : boolean, default True
Also copy underlying data
inplace : boolean, default False
Whether to return a new %(klass)s. If True then value of copy is ignored.
level : int or level name, default None
In case of a MultiIndex, only rename labels in the specified level.
Returns renamed : DataFrame
See also:
pandas.DataFrame.rename_axis

Examples

DataFrame.rename supports two calling conventions

• (index=index_mapper, columns=columns_mapper, ...)
• (mapper, axis={'index', 'columns'}, ...)
We highly recommend using keyword arguments to clarify your intent.

>>> df = pd.DataFrame({"A": [1, 2, 3], "B": [4, 5, 6]})

>>> df.rename(index=str, columns={"A": "a", "B": "c"})
a c
0 1 4
1 2 5
2 3 6

>>> df.rename(index=str, columns={"A": "a", "C": "c"})

a B
0 1 4
1 2 5
2 3 6

1558 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Using axis-style parameters

>>> df.rename(str.lower, axis='columns')

a b
0 1 4
1 2 5
2 3 6

>>> df.rename({1: 2, 2: 4}, axis='index')

A B
0 1 4
2 2 5
4 3 6

pandas.DataFrame.rename_axis

DataFrame.rename_axis(mapper, axis=0, copy=True, inplace=False)

Alter the name of the index or columns.
Parameters mapper : scalar, list-like, optional
Value to set the axis name attribute.
axis : int or string, default 0
copy : boolean, default True
Also copy underlying data
inplace : boolean, default False
Returns renamed : type of caller or None if inplace=True
See also:
pandas.Series.rename, pandas.DataFrame.rename, pandas.Index.rename

Notes

Prior to version 0.21.0, rename_axis could also be used to change the axis labels by passing a mapping
or scalar. This behavior is deprecated and will be removed in a future version. Use rename instead.

Examples

>>> df = pd.DataFrame({"A": [1, 2, 3], "B": [4, 5, 6]})

>>> df.rename_axis("foo")
A B
foo
0 1 4
1 2 5
2 3 6

>>> df.rename_axis("bar", axis="columns")

bar A B
0 1 4

34.4. DataFrame 1559

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

1 2 5
2 3 6

pandas.DataFrame.reorder_levels

DataFrame.reorder_levels(order, axis=0)
Rearrange index levels using input order. May not drop or duplicate levels
Parameters order : list of int or list of str
List representing new level order. Reference level by number (position) or by key
(label).
axis : int
Where to reorder levels.
Returns type of caller (new object)

pandas.DataFrame.replace

DataFrame.replace(to_replace=None, value=None, inplace=False, limit=None, regex=False,

method=’pad’, axis=None)
Replace values given in ‘to_replace’ with ‘value’.
Parameters to_replace : str, regex, list, dict, Series, numeric, or None
• str or regex:
– str: string exactly matching to_replace will be replaced with value
– regex: regexs matching to_replace will be replaced with value
• list of str, regex, or numeric:
– First, if to_replace and value are both lists, they must be the same length.
– Second, if regex=True then all of the strings in both lists will be in-
terpreted as regexs otherwise they will match directly. This doesn’t matter
much for value since there are only a few possible substitution regexes you
can use.
– str and regex rules apply as above.
• dict:
– Nested dictionaries, e.g., {‘a’: {‘b’: nan}}, are read as follows: look in
column ‘a’ for the value ‘b’ and replace it with nan. You can nest regular
expressions as well. Note that column names (the top-level dictionary keys
in a nested dictionary) cannot be regular expressions.
– Keys map to column names and values map to substitution values. You can
treat this as a special case of passing two lists except that you are specifying
the column to search in.
• None:
– This means that the regex argument must be a string, compiled regular
expression, or list, dict, ndarray or Series of such elements. If value is also
None then this must be a nested dictionary or Series.

1560 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

See the examples section for examples of each of these.

value : scalar, dict, list, str, regex, default None
Value to use to fill holes (e.g. 0), alternately a dict of values specifying which
value to use for each column (columns not in the dict will not be filled). Regular
expressions, strings and lists or dicts of such objects are also allowed.
inplace : boolean, default False
If True, in place. Note: this will modify any other views on this object (e.g. a
column from a DataFrame). Returns the caller if this is True.
limit : int, default None
Maximum size gap to forward or backward fill
regex : bool or same types as to_replace, default False
Whether to interpret to_replace and/or value as regular expressions. If this is
True then to_replace must be a string. Otherwise, to_replace must be None
because this parameter will be interpreted as a regular expression or a list, dict, or
array of regular expressions.
method : string, optional, {‘pad’, ‘ffill’, ‘bfill’}
The method to use when for replacement, when to_replace is a list.
Returns filled : NDFrame
Raises AssertionError
• If regex is not a bool and to_replace is not None.
TypeError
• If to_replace is a dict and value is not a list, dict, ndarray, or Series
• If to_replace is None and regex is not compilable into a regular expression or is a list,
dict, ndarray, or Series.
ValueError
• If to_replace and value are list s or ndarray s, but they are not the same length.
See also:
NDFrame.reindex, NDFrame.asfreq, NDFrame.fillna

Notes

• Regex substitution is performed under the hood with re.sub. The rules for substitution for re.
sub are the same.
• Regular expressions will only substitute on strings, meaning you cannot provide, for example, a
regular expression matching floating point numbers and expect the columns in your frame that have
a numeric dtype to be matched. However, if those floating point numbers are strings, then you can
do this.
• This method has a lot of options. You are encouraged to experiment and play with this method to
gain intuition about how it works.

34.4. DataFrame 1561

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

pandas.DataFrame.resample

DataFrame.resample(rule, how=None, axis=0, fill_method=None, closed=None, label=None,

convention=’start’, kind=None, loffset=None, limit=None, base=0,
on=None, level=None)
Convenience method for frequency conversion and resampling of time series. Object must have a
datetime-like index (DatetimeIndex, PeriodIndex, or TimedeltaIndex), or pass datetime-like values to
the on or level keyword.
Parameters rule : string
the offset string or object representing target conversion
axis : int, optional, default 0
closed : {‘right’, ‘left’}
Which side of bin interval is closed. The default is ‘left’ for all frequency offsets
except for ‘M’, ‘A’, ‘Q’, ‘BM’, ‘BA’, ‘BQ’, and ‘W’ which all have a default of
‘right’.
label : {‘right’, ‘left’}
Which bin edge label to label bucket with. The default is ‘left’ for all frequency
offsets except for ‘M’, ‘A’, ‘Q’, ‘BM’, ‘BA’, ‘BQ’, and ‘W’ which all have a
default of ‘right’.
convention : {‘start’, ‘end’, ‘s’, ‘e’}
For PeriodIndex only, controls whether to use the start or end of rule
loffset : timedelta
Adjust the resampled time labels
base : int, default 0
For frequencies that evenly subdivide 1 day, the “origin” of the aggregated in-
tervals. For example, for ‘5min’ frequency, base could range from 0 through 4.
Defaults to 0
on : string, optional
For a DataFrame, column to use instead of index for resampling. Column must
be datetime-like.
New in version 0.19.0.
level : string or int, optional
For a MultiIndex, level (name or number) to use for resampling. Level must be
datetime-like.
New in version 0.19.0.

Notes

To learn more about the offset strings, please see this link.

1562 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Examples

Start by creating a series with 9 one minute timestamps.

>>> index = pd.date_range('1/1/2000', periods=9, freq='T')

>>> series = pd.Series(range(9), index=index)
>>> series
2000-01-01 00:00:00 0
2000-01-01 00:01:00 1
2000-01-01 00:02:00 2
2000-01-01 00:03:00 3
2000-01-01 00:04:00 4
2000-01-01 00:05:00 5
2000-01-01 00:06:00 6
2000-01-01 00:07:00 7
2000-01-01 00:08:00 8
Freq: T, dtype: int64

Downsample the series into 3 minute bins and sum the values of the timestamps falling into a bin.

>>> series.resample('3T').sum()
2000-01-01 00:00:00 3
2000-01-01 00:03:00 12
2000-01-01 00:06:00 21
Freq: 3T, dtype: int64

Downsample the series into 3 minute bins as above, but label each bin using the right edge instead of the
left. Please note that the value in the bucket used as the label is not included in the bucket, which it labels.
For example, in the original series the bucket 2000-01-01 00:03:00 contains the value 3, but the
summed value in the resampled bucket with the label 2000-01-01 00:03:00 does not include 3 (if
it did, the summed value would be 6, not 3). To include this value close the right side of the bin interval
as illustrated in the example below this one.

>>> series.resample('3T', label='right').sum()

2000-01-01 00:03:00 3
2000-01-01 00:06:00 12
2000-01-01 00:09:00 21
Freq: 3T, dtype: int64

Downsample the series into 3 minute bins as above, but close the right side of the bin interval.

>>> series.resample('3T', label='right', closed='right').sum()

2000-01-01 00:00:00 0
2000-01-01 00:03:00 6
2000-01-01 00:06:00 15
2000-01-01 00:09:00 15
Freq: 3T, dtype: int64

Upsample the series into 30 second bins.

>>> series.resample('30S').asfreq()[0:5] #select first 5 rows

2000-01-01 00:00:00 0.0
2000-01-01 00:00:30 NaN
2000-01-01 00:01:00 1.0
2000-01-01 00:01:30 NaN
2000-01-01 00:02:00 2.0
Freq: 30S, dtype: float64

34.4. DataFrame 1563

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Upsample the series into 30 second bins and fill the NaN values using the pad method.
>>> series.resample('30S').pad()[0:5]
2000-01-01 00:00:00 0
2000-01-01 00:00:30 0
2000-01-01 00:01:00 1
2000-01-01 00:01:30 1
2000-01-01 00:02:00 2
Freq: 30S, dtype: int64

Upsample the series into 30 second bins and fill the NaN values using the bfill method.
>>> series.resample('30S').bfill()[0:5]
2000-01-01 00:00:00 0
2000-01-01 00:00:30 1
2000-01-01 00:01:00 1
2000-01-01 00:01:30 2
2000-01-01 00:02:00 2
Freq: 30S, dtype: int64

Pass a custom function via apply

>>> def custom_resampler(array_like):
... return np.sum(array_like)+5

>>> series.resample('3T').apply(custom_resampler)
2000-01-01 00:00:00 8
2000-01-01 00:03:00 17
2000-01-01 00:06:00 26
Freq: 3T, dtype: int64

For a Series with a PeriodIndex, the keyword convention can be used to control whether to use the start or
end of rule.
>>> s = pd.Series([1, 2], index=pd.period_range('2012-01-01',
freq='A',
periods=2))
>>> s
2012 1
2013 2
Freq: A-DEC, dtype: int64

Resample by month using ‘start’ convention. Values are assigned to the first month of the period.
>>> s.resample('M', convention='start').asfreq().head()
2012-01 1.0
2012-02 NaN
2012-03 NaN
2012-04 NaN
2012-05 NaN
Freq: M, dtype: float64

Resample by month using ‘end’ convention. Values are assigned to the last month of the period.
>>> s.resample('M', convention='end').asfreq()
2012-12 1.0
2013-01 NaN
2013-02 NaN

1564 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

2013-03 NaN
2013-04 NaN
2013-05 NaN
2013-06 NaN
2013-07 NaN
2013-08 NaN
2013-09 NaN
2013-10 NaN
2013-11 NaN
2013-12 2.0
Freq: M, dtype: float64

For DataFrame objects, the keyword on can be used to specify the column instead of the index for resam-
pling.

>>> df = pd.DataFrame(data=9*[range(4)], columns=['a', 'b', 'c', 'd'])

>>> df['time'] = pd.date_range('1/1/2000', periods=9, freq='T')
>>> df.resample('3T', on='time').sum()
a b c d
time
2000-01-01 00:00:00 0 3 6 9
2000-01-01 00:03:00 0 3 6 9
2000-01-01 00:06:00 0 3 6 9

For a DataFrame with MultiIndex, the keyword level can be used to specify on level the resampling
needs to take place.

>>> time = pd.date_range('1/1/2000', periods=5, freq='T')

>>> df2 = pd.DataFrame(data=10*[range(4)],
columns=['a', 'b', 'c', 'd'],
index=pd.MultiIndex.from_product([time, [1, 2]])
)
>>> df2.resample('3T', level=0).sum()
a b c d
2000-01-01 00:00:00 0 6 12 18
2000-01-01 00:03:00 0 4 8 12

pandas.DataFrame.reset_index

DataFrame.reset_index(level=None, drop=False, inplace=False, col_level=0, col_fill=’‘)

For DataFrame with multi-level index, return new DataFrame with labeling information in the columns
under the index names, defaulting to ‘level_0’, ‘level_1’, etc. if any are None. For a standard index, the
index name will be used (if set), otherwise a default ‘index’ or ‘level_0’ (if ‘index’ is already taken) will
be used.
Parameters level : int, str, tuple, or list, default None
Only remove the given levels from the index. Removes all levels by default
drop : boolean, default False
Do not try to insert index into dataframe columns. This resets the index to the
default integer index.
inplace : boolean, default False
Modify the DataFrame in place (do not create a new object)

34.4. DataFrame 1565

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

col_level : int or str, default 0

If the columns have multiple levels, determines which level the labels are inserted
into. By default it is inserted into the first level.
col_fill : object, default ‘’
If the columns have multiple levels, determines how the other levels are named.
If None then the index name is repeated.
Returns resetted : DataFrame

Examples

>>> df = pd.DataFrame([('bird', 389.0),

... ('bird', 24.0),
... ('mammal', 80.5),
... ('mammal', np.nan)],
... index=['falcon', 'parrot', 'lion', 'monkey'],
... columns=('class', 'max_speed'))
>>> df
class max_speed
falcon bird 389.0
parrot bird 24.0
lion mammal 80.5
monkey mammal NaN

When we reset the index, the old index is added as a column, and a new sequential index is used:

>>> df.reset_index()
index class max_speed
0 falcon bird 389.0
1 parrot bird 24.0
2 lion mammal 80.5
3 monkey mammal NaN

We can use the drop parameter to avoid the old index being added as a column:

>>> df.reset_index(drop=True)
class max_speed
0 bird 389.0
1 bird 24.0
2 mammal 80.5
3 mammal NaN

You can also use reset_index with MultiIndex.

>>> index = pd.MultiIndex.from_tuples([('bird', 'falcon'),

... ('bird', 'parrot'),
... ('mammal', 'lion'),
... ('mammal', 'monkey')],
... names=['class', 'name'])
>>> columns = pd.MultiIndex.from_tuples([('speed', 'max'),
... ('species', 'type')])
>>> df = pd.DataFrame([(389.0, 'fly'),
... ( 24.0, 'fly'),
... ( 80.5, 'run'),
... (np.nan, 'jump')],

1566 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

... index=index,
... columns=columns)
>>> df
speed species
max type
class name
bird falcon 389.0 fly
parrot 24.0 fly
mammal lion 80.5 run
monkey NaN jump

If the index has multiple levels, we can reset a subset of them:

>>> df.reset_index(level='class')
class speed species
max type
name
falcon bird 389.0 fly
parrot bird 24.0 fly
lion mammal 80.5 run
monkey mammal NaN jump

If we are not dropping the index, by default, it is placed in the top level. We can place it in another level:

>>> df.reset_index(level='class', col_level=1)

speed species
class max type
name
falcon bird 389.0 fly
parrot bird 24.0 fly
lion mammal 80.5 run
monkey mammal NaN jump

When the index is inserted under another level, we can specify under which one with the parameter
col_fill:

>>> df.reset_index(level='class', col_level=1, col_fill='species')

species speed species
class max type
name
falcon bird 389.0 fly
parrot bird 24.0 fly
lion mammal 80.5 run
monkey mammal NaN jump

If we specify a nonexistent level for col_fill, it is created:

>>> df.reset_index(level='class', col_level=1, col_fill='genus')

genus speed species
class max type
name
falcon bird 389.0 fly
parrot bird 24.0 fly
lion mammal 80.5 run
monkey mammal NaN jump

34.4. DataFrame 1567

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

pandas.DataFrame.rfloordiv

DataFrame.rfloordiv(other, axis=’columns’, level=None, fill_value=None)

Integer division of dataframe and other, element-wise (binary operator rfloordiv).
Equivalent to other // dataframe, but with support to substitute a fill_value for missing data in
one of the inputs.
Parameters other : Series, DataFrame, or constant
axis : {0, 1, ‘index’, ‘columns’}
For Series input, axis to match Series index on
fill_value : None or float value, default None
Fill missing (NaN) values with this value. If both DataFrame locations are miss-
ing, the result will be missing
level : int or name
Broadcast across a level, matching Index values on the passed MultiIndex level
Returns result : DataFrame
See also:
DataFrame.floordiv

Notes

Mismatched indices will be unioned together

pandas.DataFrame.rmod

DataFrame.rmod(other, axis=’columns’, level=None, fill_value=None)

Modulo of dataframe and other, element-wise (binary operator rmod).
Equivalent to other % dataframe, but with support to substitute a fill_value for missing data in one
of the inputs.
Parameters other : Series, DataFrame, or constant
axis : {0, 1, ‘index’, ‘columns’}
For Series input, axis to match Series index on
fill_value : None or float value, default None
Fill missing (NaN) values with this value. If both DataFrame locations are miss-
ing, the result will be missing
level : int or name
Broadcast across a level, matching Index values on the passed MultiIndex level
Returns result : DataFrame
See also:
DataFrame.mod

1568 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Notes

Mismatched indices will be unioned together

pandas.DataFrame.rmul

DataFrame.rmul(other, axis=’columns’, level=None, fill_value=None)

Multiplication of dataframe and other, element-wise (binary operator rmul).
Equivalent to other * dataframe, but with support to substitute a fill_value for missing data in one
of the inputs.
Parameters other : Series, DataFrame, or constant
axis : {0, 1, ‘index’, ‘columns’}
For Series input, axis to match Series index on
fill_value : None or float value, default None
Fill missing (NaN) values with this value. If both DataFrame locations are miss-
ing, the result will be missing
level : int or name
Broadcast across a level, matching Index values on the passed MultiIndex level
Returns result : DataFrame
See also:
DataFrame.mul

Notes

Mismatched indices will be unioned together

pandas.DataFrame.rolling

DataFrame.rolling(window, min_periods=None, freq=None, center=False, win_type=None,

on=None, axis=0, closed=None)
Provides rolling window calculations.
New in version 0.18.0.
Parameters window : int, or offset
Size of the moving window. This is the number of observations used for calculat-
ing the statistic. Each window will be a fixed size.
If its an offset then this will be the time period of each window. Each window will
be a variable sized based on the observations included in the time-period. This is
only valid for datetimelike indexes. This is new in 0.19.0
min_periods : int, default None
Minimum number of observations in window required to have a value (otherwise
result is NA). For a window that is specified by an offset, this will default to 1.
freq : string or DateOffset object, optional (default None)

34.4. DataFrame 1569

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Deprecated since version 0.18.0: Frequency to conform the data to before com-
puting the statistic. Specified as a frequency string or DateOffset object.
center : boolean, default False
Set the labels at the center of the window.
win_type : string, default None
Provide a window type. See the notes below.
on : string, optional
For a DataFrame, column on which to calculate the rolling window, rather than
the index
closed : string, default None
Make the interval closed on the ‘right’, ‘left’, ‘both’ or ‘neither’ endpoints. For
offset-based windows, it defaults to ‘right’. For fixed windows, defaults to ‘both’.
Remaining cases not implemented for fixed windows.
New in version 0.20.0.
axis : int or string, default 0
Returns a Window or Rolling sub-classed for the particular operation

Notes

By default, the result is set to the right edge of the window. This can be changed to the center of the
window by setting center=True.
The freq keyword is used to conform time series data to a specified frequency by resampling the data.
This is done with the default parameters of resample() (i.e. using the mean).
To learn more about the offsets & frequency strings, please see this link.
The recognized win_types are:
• boxcar
• triang
• blackman
• hamming
• bartlett
• parzen
• bohman
• blackmanharris
• nuttall
• barthann
• kaiser (needs beta)
• gaussian (needs std)
• general_gaussian (needs power, width)
• slepian (needs width).

1570 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Examples

>>> df = pd.DataFrame({'B': [0, 1, 2, np.nan, 4]})

>>> df
B
0 0.0
1 1.0
2 2.0
3 NaN
4 4.0

Rolling sum with a window length of 2, using the ‘triang’ window type.

>>> df.rolling(2, win_type='triang').sum()

B
0 NaN
1 1.0
2 2.5
3 NaN
4 NaN

Rolling sum with a window length of 2, min_periods defaults to the window length.

>>> df.rolling(2).sum()
B
0 NaN
1 1.0
2 3.0
3 NaN
4 NaN

Same as above, but explicity set the min_periods

>>> df.rolling(2, min_periods=1).sum()

B
0 0.0
1 1.0
2 3.0
3 2.0
4 4.0

A ragged (meaning not-a-regular frequency), time-indexed DataFrame

>>> df = pd.DataFrame({'B': [0, 1, 2, np.nan, 4]},

....: index = [pd.Timestamp('20130101 09:00:00'),
....: pd.Timestamp('20130101 09:00:02'),
....: pd.Timestamp('20130101 09:00:03'),
....: pd.Timestamp('20130101 09:00:05'),
....: pd.Timestamp('20130101 09:00:06')])

>>> df
B
2013-01-01 09:00:00 0.0
2013-01-01 09:00:02 1.0
2013-01-01 09:00:03 2.0
2013-01-01 09:00:05 NaN
2013-01-01 09:00:06 4.0

34.4. DataFrame 1571

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Contrasting to an integer rolling window, this will roll a variable length window corresponding to the time
period. The default for min_periods is 1.

>>> df.rolling('2s').sum()
B
2013-01-01 09:00:00 0.0
2013-01-01 09:00:02 1.0
2013-01-01 09:00:03 3.0
2013-01-01 09:00:05 NaN
2013-01-01 09:00:06 4.0

pandas.DataFrame.round

DataFrame.round(decimals=0, *args, **kwargs)

Round a DataFrame to a variable number of decimal places.
New in version 0.17.0.
Parameters decimals : int, dict, Series
Number of decimal places to round each column to. If an int is given, round each
column to the same number of places. Otherwise dict and Series round to variable
numbers of places. Column names should be in the keys if decimals is a dict-like,
or in the index if decimals is a Series. Any columns not included in decimals will
be left as is. Elements of decimals which are not columns of the input will be
ignored.
Returns DataFrame object
See also:
numpy.around, Series.round

Examples

>>> df = pd.DataFrame(np.random.random([3, 3]),

... columns=['A', 'B', 'C'], index=['first', 'second', 'third'])
>>> df
A B C
first 0.028208 0.992815 0.173891
second 0.038683 0.645646 0.577595
third 0.877076 0.149370 0.491027
>>> df.round(2)
A B C
first 0.03 0.99 0.17
second 0.04 0.65 0.58
third 0.88 0.15 0.49
>>> df.round({'A': 1, 'C': 2})
A B C
first 0.0 0.992815 0.17
second 0.0 0.645646 0.58
third 0.9 0.149370 0.49
>>> decimals = pd.Series([1, 0, 2], index=['A', 'B', 'C'])
>>> df.round(decimals)
A B C
first 0.0 1 0.17

1572 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

second 0.0 1 0.58

third 0.9 0 0.49

pandas.DataFrame.rpow

DataFrame.rpow(other, axis=’columns’, level=None, fill_value=None)

Exponential power of dataframe and other, element-wise (binary operator rpow).
Equivalent to other ** dataframe, but with support to substitute a fill_value for missing data in
one of the inputs.
Parameters other : Series, DataFrame, or constant
axis : {0, 1, ‘index’, ‘columns’}
For Series input, axis to match Series index on
fill_value : None or float value, default None
Fill missing (NaN) values with this value. If both DataFrame locations are miss-
ing, the result will be missing
level : int or name
Broadcast across a level, matching Index values on the passed MultiIndex level
Returns result : DataFrame
See also:
DataFrame.pow

Notes

Mismatched indices will be unioned together

pandas.DataFrame.rsub

DataFrame.rsub(other, axis=’columns’, level=None, fill_value=None)

Subtraction of dataframe and other, element-wise (binary operator rsub).
Equivalent to other - dataframe, but with support to substitute a fill_value for missing data in one
of the inputs.
Parameters other : Series, DataFrame, or constant
axis : {0, 1, ‘index’, ‘columns’}
For Series input, axis to match Series index on
fill_value : None or float value, default None
Fill missing (NaN) values with this value. If both DataFrame locations are miss-
ing, the result will be missing
level : int or name
Broadcast across a level, matching Index values on the passed MultiIndex level
Returns result : DataFrame

34.4. DataFrame 1573

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

See also:
DataFrame.sub

Notes

Mismatched indices will be unioned together

pandas.DataFrame.rtruediv

DataFrame.rtruediv(other, axis=’columns’, level=None, fill_value=None)

Floating division of dataframe and other, element-wise (binary operator rtruediv).
Equivalent to other / dataframe, but with support to substitute a fill_value for missing data in one
of the inputs.
Parameters other : Series, DataFrame, or constant
axis : {0, 1, ‘index’, ‘columns’}
For Series input, axis to match Series index on
fill_value : None or float value, default None
Fill missing (NaN) values with this value. If both DataFrame locations are miss-
ing, the result will be missing
level : int or name
Broadcast across a level, matching Index values on the passed MultiIndex level
Returns result : DataFrame
See also:
DataFrame.truediv

Notes

Mismatched indices will be unioned together

pandas.DataFrame.sample

DataFrame.sample(n=None, frac=None, replace=False, weights=None, random_state=None,

axis=None)
Returns a random sample of items from an axis of object.
Parameters n : int, optional
Number of items from axis to return. Cannot be used with frac. Default = 1 if
frac = None.
frac : float, optional
Fraction of axis items to return. Cannot be used with n.
replace : boolean, optional
Sample with or without replacement. Default = False.

1574 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

weights : str or ndarray-like, optional

Default ‘None’ results in equal probability weighting. If passed a Series, will
align with target object on index. Index values in weights not found in sampled
object will be ignored and index values in sampled object not in weights will be
assigned weights of zero. If called on a DataFrame, will accept the name of a
column when axis = 0. Unless weights are a Series, weights must be same length
as axis being sampled. If weights do not sum to 1, they will be normalized to sum
to 1. Missing values in the weights column will be treated as zero. inf and -inf
values not allowed.
random_state : int or numpy.random.RandomState, optional
Seed for the random number generator (if int), or numpy RandomState object.
axis : int or string, optional
Axis to sample. Accepts axis number or name. Default is stat axis for given data
type (0 for Series and DataFrames, 1 for Panels).
Returns A new object of same type as caller.

Examples

Generate an example Series and DataFrame:

>>> s = pd.Series(np.random.randn(50))
>>> s.head()
0 -0.038497
1 1.820773
2 -0.972766
3 -1.598270
4 -1.095526
dtype: float64
>>> df = pd.DataFrame(np.random.randn(50, 4), columns=list('ABCD'))
>>> df.head()
A B C D
0 0.016443 -2.318952 -0.566372 -1.028078
1 -1.051921 0.438836 0.658280 -0.175797
2 -1.243569 -0.364626 -0.215065 0.057736
3 1.768216 0.404512 -0.385604 -1.457834
4 1.072446 -1.137172 0.314194 -0.046661

Next extract a random sample from both of these objects...

3 random elements from the Series:

>>> s.sample(n=3)
27 -0.994689
55 -1.049016
67 -0.224565
dtype: float64

And a random 10% of the DataFrame with replacement:

>>> df.sample(frac=0.1, replace=True)

A B C D
35 1.981780 0.142106 1.817165 -0.290805
49 -1.336199 -0.448634 -0.789640 0.217116

34.4. DataFrame 1575

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

40 0.823173 -0.078816 1.009536 1.015108

15 1.421154 -0.055301 -1.922594 -0.019696
6 -0.148339 0.832938 1.787600 -1.383767

pandas.DataFrame.select

DataFrame.select(crit, axis=0)
Return data corresponding to axis labels matching criteria
DEPRECATED: use df.loc[df.index.map(crit)] to select via labels
Parameters crit : function
To be called on each index (label). Should return True or False
axis : int
Returns selection : type of caller

pandas.DataFrame.select_dtypes

DataFrame.select_dtypes(include=None, exclude=None)
Return a subset of a DataFrame including/excluding columns based on their dtype.
Parameters include, exclude : scalar or list-like
A selection of dtypes or strings to be included/excluded. At least one of these
parameters must be supplied.
Returns subset : DataFrame
The subset of the frame including the dtypes in include and excluding the
dtypes in exclude.
Raises ValueError
• If both of include and exclude are empty
• If include and exclude have overlapping elements
• If any kind of string dtype is passed in.

Notes

• To select all numeric types use the numpy dtype numpy.number

• To select strings you must use the object dtype, but note that this will return all object dtype
columns
• See the numpy dtype hierarchy
• To select datetimes, use np.datetime64, ‘datetime’ or ‘datetime64’
• To select timedeltas, use np.timedelta64, ‘timedelta’ or ‘timedelta64’
• To select Pandas categorical dtypes, use ‘category’
• To select Pandas datetimetz dtypes, use ‘datetimetz’ (new in 0.20.0), or a ‘datetime64[ns, tz]’ string

1576 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Examples

>>> df = pd.DataFrame({'a': np.random.randn(6).astype('f4'),

... 'b': [True, False] * 3,
... 'c': [1.0, 2.0] * 3})
>>> df
a b c
0 0.3962 True 1
1 0.1459 False 2
2 0.2623 True 1
3 0.0764 False 2
4 -0.9703 True 1
5 -1.2094 False 2
>>> df.select_dtypes(include='bool')
c
0 True
1 False
2 True
3 False
4 True
5 False
>>> df.select_dtypes(include=['float64'])
c
0 1
1 2
2 1
3 2
4 1
5 2
>>> df.select_dtypes(exclude=['floating'])
b
0 True
1 False
2 True
3 False
4 True
5 False

pandas.DataFrame.sem

DataFrame.sem(axis=None, skipna=None, level=None, ddof=1, numeric_only=None, **kwargs)

Return unbiased standard error of the mean over requested axis.
Normalized by N-1 by default. This can be changed using the ddof argument
Parameters axis : {index (0), columns (1)}
skipna : boolean, default True
Exclude NA/null values. If an entire row/column is NA, the result will be NA
level : int or level name, default None
If the axis is a MultiIndex (hierarchical), count along a particular level, collapsing
into a Series
ddof : int, default 1
degrees of freedom

34.4. DataFrame 1577

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

numeric_only : boolean, default None

Include only float, int, boolean columns. If None, will attempt to use everything,
then use only numeric data. Not implemented for Series.
Returns sem : Series or DataFrame (if level specified)

pandas.DataFrame.set_axis

DataFrame.set_axis(labels, axis=0, inplace=None)

Assign desired index to given axis
Parameters labels: list-like or Index
The values for the new index
axis : int or string, default 0
inplace : boolean, default None
Whether to return a new NDFrame instance.
WARNING: inplace=None currently falls back to to True, but in a future ver-
sion, will default to False. Use inplace=True explicitly rather than relying on the
default.
.. versionadded:: 0.21.0
The signature is make consistent to the rest of the API. Previously, the “axis” and
“labels” arguments were respectively the first and second positional arguments.
Returns renamed : NDFrame or None
An object of same type as caller if inplace=False, None otherwise.
See also:
pandas.NDFrame.rename

Examples

>>> s = pd.Series([1, 2, 3])

>>> s
0 1
1 2
2 3
dtype: int64
>>> s.set_axis(['a', 'b', 'c'], axis=0, inplace=False)
a 1
b 2
c 3
dtype: int64
>>> df = pd.DataFrame({"A": [1, 2, 3], "B": [4, 5, 6]})
>>> df.set_axis(['a', 'b', 'c'], axis=0, inplace=False)
A B
a 1 4
b 2 5
c 3 6
>>> df.set_axis(['I', 'II'], axis=1, inplace=False)
I II

1578 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

0 1 4
1 2 5
2 3 6
>>> df.set_axis(['i', 'ii'], axis=1, inplace=True)
>>> df
i ii
0 1 4
1 2 5
2 3 6

pandas.DataFrame.set_index

DataFrame.set_index(keys, drop=True, append=False, inplace=False, verify_integrity=False)

Set the DataFrame index (row labels) using one or more existing columns. By default yields a new object.
Parameters keys : column label or list of column labels / arrays
drop : boolean, default True
Delete columns to be used as the new index
append : boolean, default False
Whether to append columns to existing index
inplace : boolean, default False
Modify the DataFrame in place (do not create a new object)
verify_integrity : boolean, default False
Check the new index for duplicates. Otherwise defer the check until necessary.
Setting to False will improve the performance of this method
Returns dataframe : DataFrame

Examples

>>> df = pd.DataFrame({'month': [1, 4, 7, 10],

... 'year': [2012, 2014, 2013, 2014],
... 'sale':[55, 40, 84, 31]})
month sale year
0 1 55 2012
1 4 40 2014
2 7 84 2013
3 10 31 2014

Set the index to become the ‘month’ column:

>>> df.set_index('month')
sale year
month
1 55 2012
4 40 2014
7 84 2013
10 31 2014

34.4. DataFrame 1579

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Create a multi-index using columns ‘year’ and ‘month’:

>>> df.set_index(['year', 'month'])

sale
year month
2012 1 55
2014 4 40
2013 7 84
2014 10 31

Create a multi-index using a set of values and a column:

>>> df.set_index([[1, 2, 3, 4], 'year'])

month sale
year
1 2012 1 55
2 2014 4 40
3 2013 7 84
4 2014 10 31

pandas.DataFrame.set_value

DataFrame.set_value(index, col, value, takeable=False)

Put single value at passed column and index
Deprecated since version 0.21.0.
Please use .at[] or .iat[] accessors.
Parameters index : row label
col : column label
value : scalar value
takeable : interpret the index/col as indexers, default False
Returns frame : DataFrame
If label pair is contained, will be reference to calling DataFrame, otherwise a new
object

pandas.DataFrame.shift

DataFrame.shift(periods=1, freq=None, axis=0)

Shift index by desired number of periods with an optional time freq
Parameters periods : int
Number of periods to move, can be positive or negative
freq : DateOffset, timedelta, or time rule string, optional
Increment to use from the tseries module or time rule (e.g. ‘EOM’). See Notes.
axis : {0 or ‘index’, 1 or ‘columns’}
Returns shifted : DataFrame

1580 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Notes

If freq is specified then the index values are shifted but the data is not realigned. That is, use freq if you
would like to extend the index when shifting and preserve the original data.

pandas.DataFrame.skew

DataFrame.skew(axis=None, skipna=None, level=None, numeric_only=None, **kwargs)

Return unbiased skew over requested axis Normalized by N-1
Parameters axis : {index (0), columns (1)}
skipna : boolean, default True
Exclude NA/null values. If an entire row/column is NA or empty, the result will
be NA
level : int or level name, default None
If the axis is a MultiIndex (hierarchical), count along a particular level, collapsing
into a Series
numeric_only : boolean, default None
Include only float, int, boolean columns. If None, will attempt to use everything,
then use only numeric data. Not implemented for Series.
Returns skew : Series or DataFrame (if level specified)

pandas.DataFrame.slice_shift

DataFrame.slice_shift(periods=1, axis=0)
Equivalent to shift without copying data. The shifted data will not include the dropped periods and the
shifted axis will be smaller than the original.
Parameters periods : int
Number of periods to move, can be positive or negative
Returns shifted : same type as caller

Notes

While the slice_shift is faster than shift, you may pay for it later during alignment.

pandas.DataFrame.sort_index

DataFrame.sort_index(axis=0, level=None, ascending=True, inplace=False, kind=’quicksort’,

na_position=’last’, sort_remaining=True, by=None)
Sort object by labels (along an axis)
Parameters axis : index, columns to direct sorting
level : int or level name or list of ints or list of level names
if not None, sort on values in specified index level(s)

34.4. DataFrame 1581

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

ascending : boolean, default True

Sort ascending vs. descending
inplace : bool, default False
if True, perform operation in-place
kind : {‘quicksort’, ‘mergesort’, ‘heapsort’}, default ‘quicksort’
Choice of sorting algorithm. See also ndarray.np.sort for more information.
mergesort is the only stable algorithm. For DataFrames, this option is only ap-
plied when sorting on a single column or label.
na_position : {‘first’, ‘last’}, default ‘last’
first puts NaNs at the beginning, last puts NaNs at the end. Not implemented for
MultiIndex.
sort_remaining : bool, default True
if true and sorting by level and index is multilevel, sort by other levels too (in
order) after sorting by specified level
Returns sorted_obj : DataFrame

pandas.DataFrame.sort_values

DataFrame.sort_values(by, axis=0, ascending=True, inplace=False, kind=’quicksort’,

na_position=’last’)
Sort by the values along either axis
New in version 0.17.0.
Parameters by : str or list of str
Name or list of names which refer to the axis items.
axis : {0 or ‘index’, 1 or ‘columns’}, default 0
Axis to direct sorting
ascending : bool or list of bool, default True
Sort ascending vs. descending. Specify list for multiple sort orders. If this is a
list of bools, must match the length of the by.
inplace : bool, default False
if True, perform operation in-place
kind : {‘quicksort’, ‘mergesort’, ‘heapsort’}, default ‘quicksort’
Choice of sorting algorithm. See also ndarray.np.sort for more information.
mergesort is the only stable algorithm. For DataFrames, this option is only ap-
plied when sorting on a single column or label.
na_position : {‘first’, ‘last’}, default ‘last’
first puts NaNs at the beginning, last puts NaNs at the end
Returns sorted_obj : DataFrame

1582 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Examples

>>> df = pd.DataFrame({
... 'col1' : ['A', 'A', 'B', np.nan, 'D', 'C'],
... 'col2' : [2, 1, 9, 8, 7, 4],
... 'col3': [0, 1, 9, 4, 2, 3],
... })
>>> df
col1 col2 col3
0 A 2 0
1 A 1 1
2 B 9 9
3 NaN 8 4
4 D 7 2
5 C 4 3

Sort by col1

>>> df.sort_values(by=['col1'])
col1 col2 col3
0 A 2 0
1 A 1 1
2 B 9 9
5 C 4 3
4 D 7 2
3 NaN 8 4

Sort by multiple columns

>>> df.sort_values(by=['col1', 'col2'])

col1 col2 col3
1 A 1 1
0 A 2 0
2 B 9 9
5 C 4 3
4 D 7 2
3 NaN 8 4

Sort Descending

>>> df.sort_values(by='col1', ascending=False)

col1 col2 col3
4 D 7 2
5 C 4 3
2 B 9 9
0 A 2 0
1 A 1 1
3 NaN 8 4

Putting NAs first

>>> df.sort_values(by='col1', ascending=False, na_position='first')

col1 col2 col3
3 NaN 8 4
4 D 7 2
5 C 4 3
2 B 9 9

34.4. DataFrame 1583

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

0 A 2 0
1 A 1 1

pandas.DataFrame.sortlevel

DataFrame.sortlevel(level=0, axis=0, ascending=True, inplace=False, sort_remaining=True)

DEPRECATED: use DataFrame.sort_index()
Sort multilevel index by chosen axis and primary level. Data will be lexicographically sorted by the
chosen level followed by the other levels (in order)
Parameters level : int
axis : {0 or ‘index’, 1 or ‘columns’}, default 0
ascending : boolean, default True
inplace : boolean, default False
Sort the DataFrame without creating a new instance
sort_remaining : boolean, default True
Sort by the other levels too.
Returns sorted : DataFrame
See also:
DataFrame.sort_index

pandas.DataFrame.squeeze

DataFrame.squeeze(axis=None)
Squeeze length 1 dimensions.
Parameters axis : None, integer or string axis name, optional
The axis to squeeze if 1-sized.
New in version 0.20.0.
Returns scalar if 1-sized, else original object

pandas.DataFrame.stack

DataFrame.stack(level=-1, dropna=True)
Pivot a level of the (possibly hierarchical) column labels, returning a DataFrame (or Series in the case of
an object with a single level of column labels) having a hierarchical index with a new inner-most level of
row labels. The level involved will automatically get sorted.
Parameters level : int, string, or list of these, default last level
Level(s) to stack, can pass level name
dropna : boolean, default True
Whether to drop rows in the resulting Frame/Series with no valid values
Returns stacked : DataFrame or Series

1584 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Examples

>>> s
a b
one 1. 2.
two 3. 4.

>>> s.stack()
one a 1
b 2
two a 3
b 4

pandas.DataFrame.std

DataFrame.std(axis=None, skipna=None, level=None, ddof=1, numeric_only=None, **kwargs)

Return sample standard deviation over requested axis.
Normalized by N-1 by default. This can be changed using the ddof argument
Parameters axis : {index (0), columns (1)}
skipna : boolean, default True
Exclude NA/null values. If an entire row/column is NA, the result will be NA
level : int or level name, default None
If the axis is a MultiIndex (hierarchical), count along a particular level, collapsing
into a Series
ddof : int, default 1
degrees of freedom
numeric_only : boolean, default None
Include only float, int, boolean columns. If None, will attempt to use everything,
then use only numeric data. Not implemented for Series.
Returns std : Series or DataFrame (if level specified)

pandas.DataFrame.sub

DataFrame.sub(other, axis=’columns’, level=None, fill_value=None)

Subtraction of dataframe and other, element-wise (binary operator sub).
Equivalent to dataframe - other, but with support to substitute a fill_value for missing data in one
of the inputs.
Parameters other : Series, DataFrame, or constant
axis : {0, 1, ‘index’, ‘columns’}
For Series input, axis to match Series index on
fill_value : None or float value, default None
Fill missing (NaN) values with this value. If both DataFrame locations are miss-
ing, the result will be missing

34.4. DataFrame 1585

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

level : int or name

Broadcast across a level, matching Index values on the passed MultiIndex level
Returns result : DataFrame
See also:
DataFrame.rsub

Notes

Mismatched indices will be unioned together

pandas.DataFrame.subtract

DataFrame.subtract(other, axis=’columns’, level=None, fill_value=None)

Subtraction of dataframe and other, element-wise (binary operator sub).
Equivalent to dataframe - other, but with support to substitute a fill_value for missing data in one
of the inputs.
Parameters other : Series, DataFrame, or constant
axis : {0, 1, ‘index’, ‘columns’}
For Series input, axis to match Series index on
fill_value : None or float value, default None
Fill missing (NaN) values with this value. If both DataFrame locations are miss-
ing, the result will be missing
level : int or name
Broadcast across a level, matching Index values on the passed MultiIndex level
Returns result : DataFrame
See also:
DataFrame.rsub

Notes

Mismatched indices will be unioned together

pandas.DataFrame.sum

DataFrame.sum(axis=None, skipna=None, level=None, numeric_only=None, **kwargs)

Return the sum of the values for the requested axis
Parameters axis : {index (0), columns (1)}
skipna : boolean, default True
Exclude NA/null values. If an entire row/column is NA or empty, the result will
be NA

1586 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

level : int or level name, default None

If the axis is a MultiIndex (hierarchical), count along a particular level, collapsing
into a Series
numeric_only : boolean, default None
Include only float, int, boolean columns. If None, will attempt to use everything,
then use only numeric data. Not implemented for Series.
Returns sum : Series or DataFrame (if level specified)

pandas.DataFrame.swapaxes

DataFrame.swapaxes(axis1, axis2, copy=True)

Interchange axes and swap values axes appropriately
Returns y : same as input

pandas.DataFrame.swaplevel

DataFrame.swaplevel(i=-2, j=-1, axis=0)

Swap levels i and j in a MultiIndex on a particular axis
Parameters i, j : int, string (can be mixed)
Level of index to be swapped. Can pass level name as string.
Returns swapped : type of caller (new object)
Changed in version 0.18.1: The indexes i and j are now optional, and default to the two
innermost levels of the index.

pandas.DataFrame.tail

DataFrame.tail(n=5)
Return the last n rows.
Parameters n : int, default 5
Number of rows to select.
Returns obj_tail : type of caller
The last n rows of the caller object.

pandas.DataFrame.take

DataFrame.take(indices, axis=0, convert=None, is_copy=True, **kwargs)

Return the elements in the given positional indices along an axis.
This means that we are not indexing according to actual values in the index attribute of the object. We are
indexing according to the actual position of the element in the object.
Parameters indices : array-like
An array of ints indicating which positions to take.

34.4. DataFrame 1587

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

axis : int, default 0

The axis on which to select elements. “0” means that we are selecting rows, “1”
means that we are selecting columns, etc.
convert : bool, default True
Deprecated since version 0.21.0: In the future, negative indices will always be
converted.
Whether to convert negative indices into positive ones. For example, -1 would
map to the len(axis) - 1. The conversions are similar to the behavior of
indexing a regular Python list.
is_copy : bool, default True
Whether to return a copy of the original object or not.
Returns taken : type of caller
An array-like containing the elements taken from the object.
See also:
numpy.ndarray.take, numpy.take

Examples

>>> df = pd.DataFrame([('falcon', 'bird', 389.0),

('parrot', 'bird', 24.0),
('lion', 'mammal', 80.5),
('monkey', 'mammal', np.nan)],
columns=('name', 'class', 'max_speed'),
index=[0, 2, 3, 1])
>>> df
name class max_speed
0 falcon bird 389.0
2 parrot bird 24.0
3 lion mammal 80.5
1 monkey mammal NaN

Take elements at positions 0 and 3 along the axis 0 (default).

Note how the actual indices selected (0 and 1) do not correspond to our selected indices 0 and 3. That’s
because we are selecting the 0th and 3rd rows, not rows whose indices equal 0 and 3.

>>> df.take([0, 3])

0 falcon bird 389.0
1 monkey mammal NaN

Take elements at indices 1 and 2 along the axis 1 (column selection).

>>> df.take([1, 2], axis=1)

class max_speed
0 bird 389.0
2 bird 24.0
3 mammal 80.5
1 mammal NaN

1588 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

We may take elements using negative integers for positive indices, starting from the end of the object, just
like with Python lists.

>>> df.take([-1, -2])

name class max_speed
1 monkey mammal NaN
3 lion mammal 80.5

pandas.DataFrame.to_clipboard

DataFrame.to_clipboard(excel=None, sep=None, **kwargs)

Attempt to write text representation of object to the system clipboard This can be pasted into Excel, for
example.
Parameters excel : boolean, defaults to True
if True, use the provided separator, writing in a csv format for allowing easy past-
ing into excel. if False, write a string representation of the object to the clipboard
sep : optional, defaults to tab
other keywords are passed to to_csv

Notes

Requirements for your platform

• Linux: xclip, or xsel (with gtk or PyQt4 modules)
• Windows: none
• OS X: none

pandas.DataFrame.to_csv

DataFrame.to_csv(path_or_buf=None, sep=’, ‘, na_rep=’‘, float_format=None, columns=None,

header=True, index=True, index_label=None, mode=’w’, encoding=None,
compression=None, quoting=None, quotechar=”’’, line_terminator=’\n’,
chunksize=None, tupleize_cols=None, date_format=None, doublequote=True,
escapechar=None, decimal=’.’)
Write DataFrame to a comma-separated values (csv) file
Parameters path_or_buf : string or file handle, default None
File path or object, if None is provided the result is returned as a string.
sep : character, default ‘,’
Field delimiter for the output file.
na_rep : string, default ‘’
Missing data representation
float_format : string, default None
Format string for floating point numbers
columns : sequence, optional

34.4. DataFrame 1589

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Columns to write
header : boolean or list of string, default True
Write out the column names. If a list of strings is given it is assumed to be aliases
for the column names
index : boolean, default True
Write row names (index)
index_label : string or sequence, or False, default None
Column label for index column(s) if desired. If None is given, and header and
index are True, then the index names are used. A sequence should be given if
the DataFrame uses MultiIndex. If False do not print fields for index names. Use
index_label=False for easier importing in R
mode : str
Python write mode, default ‘w’
encoding : string, optional
A string representing the encoding to use in the output file, defaults to ‘ascii’ on
Python 2 and ‘utf-8’ on Python 3.
compression : string, optional
a string representing the compression to use in the output file, allowed values are
‘gzip’, ‘bz2’, ‘xz’, only used when the first argument is a filename
line_terminator : string, default '\n'
The newline character or character sequence to use in the output file
quoting : optional constant from csv module
defaults to csv.QUOTE_MINIMAL. If you have set a float_format then floats
are converted to strings and thus csv.QUOTE_NONNUMERIC will treat them as
non-numeric
quotechar : string (length 1), default ‘”’
character used to quote fields
doublequote : boolean, default True
Control quoting of quotechar inside a field
escapechar : string (length 1), default None
character used to escape sep and quotechar when appropriate
chunksize : int or None
rows to write at a time
tupleize_cols : boolean, default False
Deprecated since version 0.21.0: This argument will be removed and will always
write each row of the multi-index as a separate row in the CSV file.
Write MultiIndex columns as a list of tuples (if True) or in the new, expanded
format, where each MultiIndex column is a row in the CSV (if False).
date_format : string, default None

1590 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Format string for datetime objects

decimal: string, default ‘.’
Character recognized as decimal separator. E.g. use ‘,’ for European data

pandas.DataFrame.to_dense

DataFrame.to_dense()
Return dense representation of NDFrame (as opposed to sparse)

pandas.DataFrame.to_dict

DataFrame.to_dict(orient=’dict’, into=<class ‘dict’>)

Convert DataFrame to dictionary.
Parameters orient : str {‘dict’, ‘list’, ‘series’, ‘split’, ‘records’, ‘index’}
Determines the type of the values of the dictionary.
• dict (default) : dict like {column -> {index -> value}}
• list : dict like {column -> [values]}
• series : dict like {column -> Series(values)}
• split : dict like {index -> [index], columns -> [columns], data -> [values]}
• records : list like [{column -> value}, ... , {column -> value}]
• index : dict like {index -> {column -> value}}
New in version 0.17.0.
Abbreviations are allowed. s indicates series and sp indicates split.
into : class, default dict
The collections.Mapping subclass used for all Mappings in the return value. Can
be the actual class or an empty instance of the mapping type you want. If you
want a collections.defaultdict, you must pass it initialized.
New in version 0.21.0.
Returns result : collections.Mapping like {column -> {index -> value}}

Examples

>>> df = pd.DataFrame(
{'col1': [1, 2], 'col2': [0.5, 0.75]}, index=['a', 'b'])
>>> df
col1 col2
a 1 0.1
b 2 0.2
>>> df.to_dict()
{'col1': {'a': 1, 'b': 2}, 'col2': {'a': 0.5, 'b': 0.75}}

You can specify the return orientation.

34.4. DataFrame 1591

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

>>> df.to_dict('series')
{'col1': a 1
b 2
Name: col1, dtype: int64, 'col2': a 0.50
b 0.75
Name: col2, dtype: float64}
>>> df.to_dict('split')
{'columns': ['col1', 'col2'],
'data': [[1.0, 0.5], [2.0, 0.75]],
'index': ['a', 'b']}
>>> df.to_dict('records')
[{'col1': 1.0, 'col2': 0.5}, {'col1': 2.0, 'col2': 0.75}]
>>> df.to_dict('index')
{'a': {'col1': 1.0, 'col2': 0.5}, 'b': {'col1': 2.0, 'col2': 0.75}}

You can also specify the mapping type.

>>> from collections import OrderedDict, defaultdict

>>> df.to_dict(into=OrderedDict)
OrderedDict([('col1', OrderedDict([('a', 1), ('b', 2)])),
('col2', OrderedDict([('a', 0.5), ('b', 0.75)]))])

If you want a defaultdict, you need to initialize it:

>>> dd = defaultdict(list)
>>> df.to_dict('records', into=dd)
[defaultdict(<type 'list'>, {'col2': 0.5, 'col1': 1.0}),
defaultdict(<type 'list'>, {'col2': 0.75, 'col1': 2.0})]

pandas.DataFrame.to_excel

DataFrame.to_excel(excel_writer, sheet_name=’Sheet1’, na_rep=’‘, float_format=None,

columns=None, header=True, index=True, index_label=None,
startrow=0, startcol=0, engine=None, merge_cells=True, encoding=None,
inf_rep=’inf’, verbose=True, freeze_panes=None)
Write DataFrame to an excel sheet
Parameters excel_writer : string or ExcelWriter object
File path or existing ExcelWriter
sheet_name : string, default ‘Sheet1’
Name of sheet which will contain DataFrame
na_rep : string, default ‘’
Missing data representation
float_format : string, default None
Format string for floating point numbers
columns : sequence, optional
Columns to write
header : boolean or list of string, default True

1592 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Write out the column names. If a list of strings is given it is assumed to be aliases
for the column names
index : boolean, default True
Write row names (index)
index_label : string or sequence, default None
Column label for index column(s) if desired. If None is given, and header and
index are True, then the index names are used. A sequence should be given if the
DataFrame uses MultiIndex.
startrow :
upper left cell row to dump data frame
startcol :
upper left cell column to dump data frame
engine : string, default None
write engine to use - you can also set this via the options io.excel.xlsx.
writer, io.excel.xls.writer, and io.excel.xlsm.writer.
merge_cells : boolean, default True
Write MultiIndex and Hierarchical Rows as merged cells.
encoding: string, default None
encoding of the resulting excel file. Only necessary for xlwt, other writers support
unicode natively.
inf_rep : string, default ‘inf’
Representation for infinity (there is no native representation for infinity in Excel)
freeze_panes : tuple of integer (length 2), default None
Specifies the one-based bottommost row and rightmost column that is to be frozen
New in version 0.20.0.

Notes

If passing an existing ExcelWriter object, then the sheet will be added to the existing workbook. This can
be used to save different DataFrames to one workbook:
>>> writer = pd.ExcelWriter('output.xlsx')
>>> df1.to_excel(writer,'Sheet1')
>>> df2.to_excel(writer,'Sheet2')
>>> writer.save()

For compatibility with to_csv, to_excel serializes lists and dicts to strings before writing.

pandas.DataFrame.to_feather

DataFrame.to_feather(fname)
write out the binary feather-format for DataFrames
New in version 0.20.0.

34.4. DataFrame 1593

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Parameters fname : str

string file path

pandas.DataFrame.to_gbq

DataFrame.to_gbq(destination_table, project_id, chunksize=10000, verbose=True, reauth=False,

if_exists=’fail’, private_key=None)
Write a DataFrame to a Google BigQuery table.
The main method a user calls to export pandas DataFrame contents to Google BigQuery table.
Google BigQuery API Client Library v2 for Python is used. Documentation is available here
Authentication to the Google BigQuery service is via OAuth 2.0.
• If “private_key” is not provided:
By default “application default credentials” are used.
If default application credentials are not found or are restrictive, user account credentials are used.
In this case, you will be asked to grant permissions for product name ‘pandas GBQ’.
• If “private_key” is provided:
Service account credentials will be used to authenticate.

Parameters dataframe : DataFrame

DataFrame to be written
destination_table : string
Name of table to be written, in the form ‘dataset.tablename’
project_id : str
Google BigQuery Account project ID.
chunksize : int (default 10000)
Number of rows to be inserted in each chunk from the dataframe.
verbose : boolean (default True)
Show percentage complete
reauth : boolean (default False)
Force Google BigQuery to reauthenticate the user. This is useful if multiple ac-
counts are used.
if_exists : {‘fail’, ‘replace’, ‘append’}, default ‘fail’
‘fail’: If table exists, do nothing. ‘replace’: If table exists, drop it, recreate it, and
insert data. ‘append’: If table exists, insert data. Create if does not exist.
private_key : str (optional)
Service account private key in JSON format. Can be file path or string contents.
This is useful for remote server authentication (eg. jupyter iPython notebook on
remote host)

1594 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

pandas.DataFrame.to_hdf

DataFrame.to_hdf(path_or_buf, key, **kwargs)

Write the contained data to an HDF5 file using HDFStore.
Parameters path_or_buf : the path (string) or HDFStore object
key : string
identifier for the group in the store
mode : optional, {‘a’, ‘w’, ‘r+’}, default ‘a’
'w' Write; a new file is created (an existing file with the same name would be
deleted).
'a' Append; an existing file is opened for reading and writing, and if the file
does not exist it is created.
'r+' It is similar to 'a', but the file must already exist.
format : ‘fixed(f)|table(t)’, default is ‘fixed’
fixed(f) [Fixed format] Fast writing/reading. Not-appendable, nor searchable
table(t) [Table format] Write as a PyTables Table structure which may perform
worse but allow more flexible operations like searching / selecting subsets of
the data
append : boolean, default False
For Table formats, append the input data to the existing
data_columns : list of columns, or True, default None
List of columns to create as indexed data columns for on-disk queries, or True to
use all columns. By default only the axes of the object are indexed. See here.
Applicable only to format=’table’.
complevel : int, 0-9, default None
Specifies a compression level for data. A value of 0 disables compression.
complib : {‘zlib’, ‘lzo’, ‘bzip2’, ‘blosc’}, default ‘zlib’
Specifies the compression library to be used. As of v0.20.2 these addi-
tional compressors for Blosc are supported (default if no compressor speci-
fied: ‘blosc:blosclz’): {‘blosc:blosclz’, ‘blosc:lz4’, ‘blosc:lz4hc’, ‘blosc:snappy’,
‘blosc:zlib’, ‘blosc:zstd’}. Specifying a compression library which is not avail-
able issues a ValueError.
fletcher32 : bool, default False
If applying compression use the fletcher32 checksum
dropna : boolean, default False.
If true, ALL nan rows will not be written to store.

34.4. DataFrame 1595

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

pandas.DataFrame.to_html

DataFrame.to_html(buf=None, columns=None, col_space=None, header=True, index=True,

na_rep=’NaN’, formatters=None, float_format=None, sparsify=None,
index_names=True, justify=None, bold_rows=True, classes=None, es-
cape=True, max_rows=None, max_cols=None, show_dimensions=False,
notebook=False, decimal=’.’, border=None)
Render a DataFrame as an HTML table.
to_html-specific options:
bold_rows [boolean, default True] Make the row labels bold in the output
classes [str or list or tuple, default None] CSS class(es) to apply to the resulting html table
escape [boolean, default True] Convert the characters <, >, and & to HTML-safe sequences.=
max_rows [int, optional] Maximum number of rows to show before truncating. If None, show all.
max_cols [int, optional] Maximum number of columns to show before truncating. If None, show all.
decimal [string, default ‘.’] Character recognized as decimal separator, e.g. ‘,’ in Europe
New in version 0.18.0.
border [int] A border=border attribute is included in the opening <table> tag. Default pd.
options.html.border.
New in version 0.19.0.

Parameters buf : StringIO-like, optional

buffer to write to
columns : sequence, optional
the subset of columns to write; default None writes all columns
col_space : int, optional
the minimum width of each column
header : bool, optional
whether to print column labels, default True
index : bool, optional
whether to print index (row) labels, default True
na_rep : string, optional
string representation of NAN to use, default ‘NaN’
formatters : list or dict of one-parameter functions, optional
formatter functions to apply to columns’ elements by position or name, default
None. The result of each function must be a unicode string. List must be of length
equal to the number of columns.
float_format : one-parameter function, optional
formatter function to apply to columns’ elements if they are floats, default None.
The result of this function must be a unicode string.
sparsify : bool, optional

1596 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Set to False for a DataFrame with a hierarchical index to print every multiindex
key at each row, default True
index_names : bool, optional
Prints the names of the indexes, default True
line_width : int, optional
Width to wrap a line in characters, default no wrap
justify : {‘left’, ‘right’, ‘center’, ‘justify’,
‘justify-all’, ‘start’, ‘end’, ‘inherit’, ‘match-parent’, ‘initial’, ‘unset’}, de-
fault None
How to justify the column labels. If None uses the option from the print configu-
ration (controlled by set_option), ‘right’ out of the box.
Returns formatted : string (or unicode, depending on data and options)

pandas.DataFrame.to_json

DataFrame.to_json(path_or_buf=None, orient=None, date_format=None, double_precision=10,

force_ascii=True, date_unit=’ms’, default_handler=None, lines=False, com-
pression=None)
Convert the object to a JSON string.
Note NaN’s and None will be converted to null and datetime objects will be converted to UNIX times-
tamps.
Parameters path_or_buf : the path or buffer to write the result string
if this is None, return the converted string
orient : string
• Series
– default is ‘index’
– allowed values are: {‘split’,’records’,’index’}
• DataFrame
– default is ‘columns’
– allowed values are: {‘split’,’records’,’index’,’columns’,’values’}
• The format of the JSON string
– split : dict like {index -> [index], columns -> [columns], data -> [values]}
– records : list like [{column -> value}, ... , {column -> value}]
– index : dict like {index -> {column -> value}}
– columns : dict like {column -> {index -> value}}
– values : just the values array
– table : dict like {‘schema’: {schema}, ‘data’: {data}} describing the data, and the
data component is like orient='records'.
Changed in version 0.20.0.
date_format : {None, ‘epoch’, ‘iso’}

34.4. DataFrame 1597

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Type of date conversion. epoch = epoch milliseconds, iso = ISO8601. The default
depends on the orient. For orient=’table’, the default is ‘iso’. For all other orients,
the default is ‘epoch’.
double_precision : The number of decimal places to use when encoding
floating point values, default 10.
force_ascii : force encoded string to be ASCII, default True.
date_unit : string, default ‘ms’ (milliseconds)
The time unit to encode to, governs timestamp and ISO8601 precision. One of
‘s’, ‘ms’, ‘us’, ‘ns’ for second, millisecond, microsecond, and nanosecond re-
spectively.
default_handler : callable, default None
Handler to call if object cannot otherwise be converted to a suitable format for
JSON. Should receive a single argument which is the object to convert and return
a serialisable object.
lines : boolean, default False
If ‘orient’ is ‘records’ write out line delimited json format. Will throw ValueError
if incorrect ‘orient’ since others are not list like.
New in version 0.19.0.
compression : {None, ‘gzip’, ‘bz2’, ‘xz’}
A string representing the compression to use in the output file, only used when
the first argument is a filename
New in version 0.21.0.
Returns same type as input object with filtered info axis
See also:
pd.read_json

Examples

>>> df = pd.DataFrame([['a', 'b'], ['c', 'd']],

... index=['row 1', 'row 2'],
... columns=['col 1', 'col 2'])
>>> df.to_json(orient='split')
'{"columns":["col 1","col 2"],
"index":["row 1","row 2"],
"data":[["a","b"],["c","d"]]}'

Encoding/decoding a Dataframe using 'index' formatted JSON:

>>> df.to_json(orient='index')
'{"row 1":{"col 1":"a","col 2":"b"},"row 2":{"col 1":"c","col 2":"d"}}'

Encoding/decoding a Dataframe using 'records' formatted JSON. Note that index labels are not pre-
served with this encoding.
>>> df.to_json(orient='records')
'[{"col 1":"a","col 2":"b"},{"col 1":"c","col 2":"d"}]'

1598 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Encoding with Table Schema

>>> df.to_json(orient='table')
'{"schema": {"fields": [{"name": "index", "type": "string"},
{"name": "col 1", "type": "string"},
{"name": "col 2", "type": "string"}],
"primaryKey": "index",
"pandas_version": "0.20.0"},
"data": [{"index": "row 1", "col 1": "a", "col 2": "b"},
{"index": "row 2", "col 1": "c", "col 2": "d"}]}'

pandas.DataFrame.to_latex

DataFrame.to_latex(buf=None, columns=None, col_space=None, header=True, in-

dex=True, na_rep=’NaN’, formatters=None, float_format=None, spar-
sify=None, index_names=True, bold_rows=False, column_format=None,
longtable=None, escape=None, encoding=None, decimal=’.’, multicol-
umn=None, multicolumn_format=None, multirow=None)
Render an object to a tabular environment table. You can splice this into a LaTeX document. Requires
\usepackage{booktabs}.
Changed in version 0.20.2: Added to Series
to_latex-specific options:
bold_rows [boolean, default False] Make the row labels bold in the output
column_format [str, default None] The columns format as specified in LaTeX table format e.g ‘rcl’ for
3 columns
longtable [boolean, default will be read from the pandas config module] Default: False. Use a longtable
environment instead of tabular. Requires adding a \usepackage{longtable} to your LaTeX preamble.
escape [boolean, default will be read from the pandas config module] Default: True. When set to False
prevents from escaping latex special characters in column names.
encoding [str, default None] A string representing the encoding to use in the output file, defaults to ‘ascii’
on Python 2 and ‘utf-8’ on Python 3.
decimal [string, default ‘.’] Character recognized as decimal separator, e.g. ‘,’ in Europe.
New in version 0.18.0.
multicolumn [boolean, default True] Use multicolumn to enhance MultiIndex columns. The default will
be read from the config module.
New in version 0.20.0.
multicolumn_format [str, default ‘l’] The alignment for multicolumns, similar to column_format The
default will be read from the config module.
New in version 0.20.0.
multirow [boolean, default False] Use multirow to enhance MultiIndex rows. Requires adding a \usepa-
ckage{multirow} to your LaTeX preamble. Will print centered labels (instead of top-aligned) across
the contained rows, separating groups via clines. The default will be read from the pandas config
module.
New in version 0.20.0.

34.4. DataFrame 1599

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

pandas.DataFrame.to_msgpack

DataFrame.to_msgpack(path_or_buf=None, encoding=’utf-8’, **kwargs)

msgpack (serialize) object to input file path
THIS IS AN EXPERIMENTAL LIBRARY and the storage format may not be stable until a future release.
Parameters path : string File path, buffer-like, or None
if None, return generated string
append : boolean whether to append to an existing msgpack
(default is False)
compress : type of compressor (zlib or blosc), default to None (no
compression)

pandas.DataFrame.to_panel

DataFrame.to_panel()
Transform long (stacked) format (DataFrame) into wide (3D, Panel) format.
Currently the index of the DataFrame must be a 2-level MultiIndex. This may be generalized later
Returns panel : Panel

pandas.DataFrame.to_parquet

DataFrame.to_parquet(fname, engine=’auto’, compression=’snappy’, **kwargs)

Write a DataFrame to the binary parquet format.
New in version 0.21.0.
Parameters fname : str
string file path
engine : {‘auto’, ‘pyarrow’, ‘fastparquet’}, default ‘auto’
Parquet reader library to use. If ‘auto’, then the option ‘io.parquet.engine’ is used.
If ‘auto’, then the first library to be installed is used.
compression : str, optional, default ‘snappy’
compression method, includes {‘gzip’, ‘snappy’, ‘brotli’}
kwargs
Additional keyword arguments passed to the engine

pandas.DataFrame.to_period

DataFrame.to_period(freq=None, axis=0, copy=True)

Convert DataFrame from DatetimeIndex to PeriodIndex with desired frequency (inferred from index if
not passed)
Parameters freq : string, default
axis : {0 or ‘index’, 1 or ‘columns’}, default 0

1600 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

The axis to convert (the index by default)

copy : boolean, default True
If False then underlying input data is not copied
Returns ts : TimeSeries with PeriodIndex

pandas.DataFrame.to_pickle

DataFrame.to_pickle(path, compression=’infer’, protocol=4)

Pickle (serialize) object to input file path.
Parameters path : string
File path
compression : {‘infer’, ‘gzip’, ‘bz2’, ‘xz’, None}, default ‘infer’
a string representing the compression to use in the output file
New in version 0.20.0.
protocol : int
Int which indicates which protocol should be used by the pickler, default HIGH-
EST_PROTOCOL (see [1], paragraph 12.1.2). The possible values for this pa-
rameter depend on the version of Python. For Python 2.x, possible values are
0, 1, 2. For Python>=3.0, 3 is a valid value. For Python >= 3.4, 4 is a valid
value.A negative value for the protocol parameter is equivalent to setting its value
to HIGHEST_PROTOCOL.
New in version 0.21.0.

pandas.DataFrame.to_records

DataFrame.to_records(index=True, convert_datetime64=True)
Convert DataFrame to record array. Index will be put in the ‘index’ field of the record array if requested
Parameters index : boolean, default True
Include index in resulting record array, stored in ‘index’ field
convert_datetime64 : boolean, default True
Whether to convert the index to datetime.datetime if it is a DatetimeIndex
Returns y : recarray

pandas.DataFrame.to_sparse

DataFrame.to_sparse(fill_value=None, kind=’block’)
Convert to SparseDataFrame
Parameters fill_value : float, default NaN
kind : {‘block’, ‘integer’}
Returns y : SparseDataFrame

34.4. DataFrame 1601

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

pandas.DataFrame.to_stata

DataFrame.to_stata(fname, convert_dates=None, write_index=True, encoding=’latin-1’, byte-

order=None, time_stamp=None, data_label=None, variable_labels=None)
A class for writing Stata binary dta files from array-like objects
Parameters fname : str or buffer
String path of file-like object
convert_dates : dict
Dictionary mapping columns containing datetime types to stata internal format
to use when wirting the dates. Options are ‘tc’, ‘td’, ‘tm’, ‘tw’, ‘th’, ‘tq’, ‘ty’.
Column can be either an integer or a name. Datetime columns that do not have a
conversion type specified will be converted to ‘tc’. Raises NotImplementedError
if a datetime column has timezone information
write_index : bool
Write the index to Stata dataset.
encoding : str
Default is latin-1. Unicode is not supported
byteorder : str
Can be “>”, “<”, “little”, or “big”. default is sys.byteorder
time_stamp : datetime
A datetime to use as file creation date. Default is the current time.
dataset_label : str
A label for the data set. Must be 80 characters or smaller.
variable_labels : dict
Dictionary containing columns as keys and variable labels as values. Each label
must be 80 characters or smaller.
New in version 0.19.0.
Raises NotImplementedError
• If datetimes contain timezone information
• Column dtype is not representable in Stata
ValueError
• Columns listed in convert_dates are noth either datetime64[ns] or date-
time.datetime
• Column listed in convert_dates is not in DataFrame
• Categorical label contains more than 32,000 characters
New in version 0.19.0.

1602 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Examples

>>> writer = StataWriter('./data_file.dta', data)

>>> writer.write_file()

Or with dates

>>> writer = StataWriter('./date_data_file.dta', data, {2 : 'tw'})

>>> writer.write_file()

pandas.DataFrame.to_string

DataFrame.to_string(buf=None, columns=None, col_space=None, header=True, index=True,

na_rep=’NaN’, formatters=None, float_format=None, sparsify=None,
index_names=True, justify=None, line_width=None, max_rows=None,
max_cols=None, show_dimensions=False)
Render a DataFrame to a console-friendly tabular output.
Parameters buf : StringIO-like, optional
buffer to write to
columns : sequence, optional
the subset of columns to write; default None writes all columns
col_space : int, optional
the minimum width of each column
header : bool, optional
Write out the column names. If a list of strings is given, it is assumed to be aliases
for the column names
index : bool, optional
whether to print index (row) labels, default True
na_rep : string, optional
string representation of NAN to use, default ‘NaN’
formatters : list or dict of one-parameter functions, optional
formatter functions to apply to columns’ elements by position or name, default
None. The result of each function must be a unicode string. List must be of length
equal to the number of columns.
float_format : one-parameter function, optional
formatter function to apply to columns’ elements if they are floats, default None.
The result of this function must be a unicode string.
sparsify : bool, optional
Set to False for a DataFrame with a hierarchical index to print every multiindex
key at each row, default True
index_names : bool, optional
Prints the names of the indexes, default True

34.4. DataFrame 1603

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

line_width : int, optional

Width to wrap a line in characters, default no wrap
justify : {‘left’, ‘right’, ‘center’, ‘justify’,
‘justify-all’, ‘start’, ‘end’, ‘inherit’, ‘match-parent’, ‘initial’, ‘unset’}, de-
fault None
How to justify the column labels. If None uses the option from the print configu-
ration (controlled by set_option), ‘right’ out of the box.
Returns formatted : string (or unicode, depending on data and options)

pandas.DataFrame.to_timestamp

DataFrame.to_timestamp(freq=None, how=’start’, axis=0, copy=True)

Cast to DatetimeIndex of timestamps, at beginning of period
Parameters freq : string, default frequency of PeriodIndex
Desired frequency
how : {‘s’, ‘e’, ‘start’, ‘end’}
Convention for converting period to timestamp; start of period vs. end
axis : {0 or ‘index’, 1 or ‘columns’}, default 0
The axis to convert (the index by default)
copy : boolean, default True
If false then underlying input data is not copied
Returns df : DataFrame with DatetimeIndex

pandas.DataFrame.to_xarray

DataFrame.to_xarray()
Return an xarray object from the pandas object.
Returns a DataArray for a Series
a Dataset for a DataFrame
a DataArray for higher dims

Notes

See the xarray docs

Examples

>>> df = pd.DataFrame({'A' : [1, 1, 2],

'B' : ['foo', 'bar', 'foo'],
'C' : np.arange(4.,7)})
>>> df

1604 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

A B C
0 1 foo 4.0
1 1 bar 5.0
2 2 foo 6.0

>>> df.to_xarray()
<xarray.Dataset>
Dimensions: (index: 3)
Coordinates:
* index (index) int64 0 1 2
Data variables:
A (index) int64 1 1 2
B (index) object 'foo' 'bar' 'foo'
C (index) float64 4.0 5.0 6.0

>>> df = pd.DataFrame({'A' : [1, 1, 2],

'B' : ['foo', 'bar', 'foo'],
'C' : np.arange(4.,7)}
).set_index(['B','A'])
>>> df
C
B A
foo 1 4.0
bar 1 5.0
foo 2 6.0

>>> df.to_xarray()
<xarray.Dataset>
Dimensions: (A: 2, B: 2)
Coordinates:
* B (B) object 'bar' 'foo'
* A (A) int64 1 2
Data variables:
C (B, A) float64 5.0 nan 4.0 6.0

>>> p = pd.Panel(np.arange(24).reshape(4,3,2),
items=list('ABCD'),
major_axis=pd.date_range('20130101', periods=3),
minor_axis=['first', 'second'])
>>> p
<class 'pandas.core.panel.Panel'>
Dimensions: 4 (items) x 3 (major_axis) x 2 (minor_axis)
Items axis: A to D
Major_axis axis: 2013-01-01 00:00:00 to 2013-01-03 00:00:00
Minor_axis axis: first to second

>>> p.to_xarray()
<xarray.DataArray (items: 4, major_axis: 3, minor_axis: 2)>
array([[[ 0, 1],
[ 2, 3],
[ 4, 5]],
[[ 6, 7],
[ 8, 9],
[10, 11]],
[[12, 13],
[14, 15],

34.4. DataFrame 1605

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

[16, 17]],
[[18, 19],
[20, 21],
[22, 23]]])
Coordinates:
* items (items) object 'A' 'B' 'C' 'D'
* major_axis (major_axis) datetime64[ns] 2013-01-01 2013-01-02 2013-01-03
˓→ # noqa

* minor_axis (minor_axis) object 'first' 'second'

pandas.DataFrame.transform

DataFrame.transform(func, *args, **kwargs)

Call function producing a like-indexed NDFrame and return a NDFrame with the transformed values
New in version 0.20.0.
Parameters func : callable, string, dictionary, or list of string/callables
To apply to column
Accepted Combinations are:
• string function name
• function
• list of functions
• dict of column names -> functions (or list of functions)
Returns transformed : NDFrame
See also:
pandas.NDFrame.aggregate, pandas.NDFrame.apply

Examples

>>> df = pd.DataFrame(np.random.randn(10, 3), columns=['A', 'B', 'C'],

... index=pd.date_range('1/1/2000', periods=10))
df.iloc[3:7] = np.nan

>>> df.transform(lambda x: (x - x.mean()) / x.std())

A B C
2000-01-01 0.579457 1.236184 0.123424
2000-01-02 0.370357 -0.605875 -1.231325
2000-01-03 1.455756 -0.277446 0.288967
2000-01-04 NaN NaN NaN
2000-01-05 NaN NaN NaN
2000-01-06 NaN NaN NaN
2000-01-07 NaN NaN NaN
2000-01-08 -0.498658 1.274522 1.642524
2000-01-09 -0.540524 -1.012676 -0.828968
2000-01-10 -1.366388 -0.614710 0.005378

1606 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

pandas.DataFrame.transpose

DataFrame.transpose(*args, **kwargs)
Transpose index and columns

pandas.DataFrame.truediv

DataFrame.truediv(other, axis=’columns’, level=None, fill_value=None)

Floating division of dataframe and other, element-wise (binary operator truediv).
Equivalent to dataframe / other, but with support to substitute a fill_value for missing data in one
of the inputs.
Parameters other : Series, DataFrame, or constant
axis : {0, 1, ‘index’, ‘columns’}
For Series input, axis to match Series index on
fill_value : None or float value, default None
Fill missing (NaN) values with this value. If both DataFrame locations are miss-
ing, the result will be missing
level : int or name
Broadcast across a level, matching Index values on the passed MultiIndex level
Returns result : DataFrame
See also:
DataFrame.rtruediv

Notes

Mismatched indices will be unioned together

pandas.DataFrame.truncate

DataFrame.truncate(before=None, after=None, axis=None, copy=True)

Truncates a sorted DataFrame/Series before and/or after some particular index value. If the axis contains
only datetime values, before/after parameters are converted to datetime values.
Parameters before : date, string, int
Truncate all rows before this index value
after : date, string, int
Truncate all rows after this index value
axis : {0 or ‘index’, 1 or ‘columns’}
• 0 or ‘index’: apply truncation to rows
• 1 or ‘columns’: apply truncation to columns
Default is stat axis for given data type (0 for Series and DataFrames, 1 for Panels)
copy : boolean, default is True,

34.4. DataFrame 1607

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

return a copy of the truncated section

Returns truncated : type of caller

Examples

>>> df = pd.DataFrame({'A': ['a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'e'],

... 'B': ['f', 'g', 'h', 'i', 'j'],
... 'C': ['k', 'l', 'm', 'n', 'o']},
... index=[1, 2, 3, 4, 5])
>>> df.truncate(before=2, after=4)
A B C
2 b g l
3 c h m
4 d i n
>>> df = pd.DataFrame({'A': [1, 2, 3, 4, 5],
... 'B': [6, 7, 8, 9, 10],
... 'C': [11, 12, 13, 14, 15]},
... index=['a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'e'])
>>> df.truncate(before='b', after='d')
A B C
b 2 7 12
c 3 8 13
d 4 9 14

The index values in truncate can be datetimes or string dates. Note that truncate assumes a 0
value for any unspecified date component in a DatetimeIndex in contrast to slicing which returns any
partially matching dates.

>>> dates = pd.date_range('2016-01-01', '2016-02-01', freq='s')

>>> df = pd.DataFrame(index=dates, data={'A': 1})
>>> df.truncate('2016-01-05', '2016-01-10').tail()
A
2016-01-09 23:59:56 1
2016-01-09 23:59:57 1
2016-01-09 23:59:58 1
2016-01-09 23:59:59 1
2016-01-10 00:00:00 1
>>> df.loc['2016-01-05':'2016-01-10', :].tail()
A
2016-01-10 23:59:55 1
2016-01-10 23:59:56 1
2016-01-10 23:59:57 1
2016-01-10 23:59:58 1
2016-01-10 23:59:59 1

pandas.DataFrame.tshift

DataFrame.tshift(periods=1, freq=None, axis=0)

Shift the time index, using the index’s frequency if available.
Parameters periods : int
Number of periods to move, can be positive or negative
freq : DateOffset, timedelta, or time rule string, default None

1608 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Increment to use from the tseries module or time rule (e.g. ‘EOM’)
axis : int or basestring
Corresponds to the axis that contains the Index
Returns shifted : NDFrame

Notes

If freq is not specified then tries to use the freq or inferred_freq attributes of the index. If neither of those
attributes exist, a ValueError is thrown

pandas.DataFrame.tz_convert

DataFrame.tz_convert(tz, axis=0, level=None, copy=True)

Convert tz-aware axis to target time zone.
Parameters tz : string or pytz.timezone object
axis : the axis to convert
level : int, str, default None
If axis ia a MultiIndex, convert a specific level. Otherwise must be None
copy : boolean, default True
Also make a copy of the underlying data
Raises TypeError
If the axis is tz-naive.

pandas.DataFrame.tz_localize

DataFrame.tz_localize(tz, axis=0, level=None, copy=True, ambiguous=’raise’)

Localize tz-naive TimeSeries to target time zone.
Parameters tz : string or pytz.timezone object
axis : the axis to localize
level : int, str, default None
If axis ia a MultiIndex, localize a specific level. Otherwise must be None
copy : boolean, default True
Also make a copy of the underlying data
ambiguous : ‘infer’, bool-ndarray, ‘NaT’, default ‘raise’
• ‘infer’ will attempt to infer fall dst-transition hours based on order
• bool-ndarray where True signifies a DST time, False designates a non-DST time (note
that this flag is only applicable for ambiguous times)
• ‘NaT’ will return NaT where there are ambiguous times
• ‘raise’ will raise an AmbiguousTimeError if there are ambiguous times

34.4. DataFrame 1609

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

infer_dst : boolean, default False

Deprecated since version 0.15.0: Attempt to infer fall dst-transition hours based
on order
Raises TypeError
If the TimeSeries is tz-aware and tz is not None.

pandas.DataFrame.unstack

DataFrame.unstack(level=-1, fill_value=None)
Pivot a level of the (necessarily hierarchical) index labels, returning a DataFrame having a new level of
column labels whose inner-most level consists of the pivoted index labels. If the index is not a MultiIndex,
the output will be a Series (the analogue of stack when the columns are not a MultiIndex). The level
involved will automatically get sorted.
Parameters level : int, string, or list of these, default -1 (last level)
Level(s) of index to unstack, can pass level name
fill_value : replace NaN with this value if the unstack produces
missing values
Returns unstacked : DataFrame or Series
See also:

DataFrame.pivot Pivot a table based on column values.

DataFrame.stack Pivot a level of the column labels (inverse operation from unstack).

Examples

>>> index = pd.MultiIndex.from_tuples([('one', 'a'), ('one', 'b'),

... ('two', 'a'), ('two', 'b')])
>>> s = pd.Series(np.arange(1.0, 5.0), index=index)
>>> s
one a 1.0
b 2.0
two a 3.0
b 4.0
dtype: float64

>>> s.unstack(level=-1)
a b
one 1.0 2.0
two 3.0 4.0

>>> s.unstack(level=0)
one two
a 1.0 3.0
b 2.0 4.0

1610 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

>>> df = s.unstack(level=0)
>>> df.unstack()
one a 1.0
b 2.0
two a 3.0
b 4.0
dtype: float64

pandas.DataFrame.update

DataFrame.update(other, join=’left’, overwrite=True, filter_func=None, raise_conflict=False)

Modify DataFrame in place using non-NA values from passed DataFrame. Aligns on indices
Parameters other : DataFrame, or object coercible into a DataFrame
join : {‘left’}, default ‘left’
overwrite : boolean, default True
If True then overwrite values for common keys in the calling frame
filter_func : callable(1d-array) -> 1d-array<boolean>, default None
Can choose to replace values other than NA. Return True for values that should
be updated
raise_conflict : boolean
If True, will raise an error if the DataFrame and other both contain data in the
same place.

Examples

>>> df = pd.DataFrame({'A': [1, 2, 3],

... 'B': [400, 500, 600]})
>>> new_df = pd.DataFrame({'B': [4, 5, 6],
... 'C': [7, 8, 9]})
>>> df.update(new_df)
>>> df
A B
0 1 4
1 2 5
2 3 6

>>> df = pd.DataFrame({'A': ['a', 'b', 'c'],

... 'B': ['x', 'y', 'z']})
>>> new_df = pd.DataFrame({'B': ['d', 'e', 'f', 'g', 'h', 'i']})
>>> df.update(new_df)
>>> df
A B
0 a d
1 b e
2 c f

>>> df = pd.DataFrame({'A': ['a', 'b', 'c'],

... 'B': ['x', 'y', 'z']})

34.4. DataFrame 1611

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

>>> new_column = pd.Series(['d', 'e'], name='B', index=[0, 2])

>>> df.update(new_column)
>>> df
A B
0 a d
1 b y
2 c e
>>> df = pd.DataFrame({'A': ['a', 'b', 'c'],
... 'B': ['x', 'y', 'z']})
>>> new_df = pd.DataFrame({'B': ['d', 'e']}, index=[1, 2])
>>> df.update(new_df)
>>> df
A B
0 a x
1 b d
2 c e

If other contains NaNs the corresponding values are not updated in the original dataframe.

>>> df = pd.DataFrame({'A': [1, 2, 3],

... 'B': [400, 500, 600]})
>>> new_df = pd.DataFrame({'B': [4, np.nan, 6]})
>>> df.update(new_df)
>>> df
A B
0 1 4.0
1 2 500.0
2 3 6.0

pandas.DataFrame.var

DataFrame.var(axis=None, skipna=None, level=None, ddof=1, numeric_only=None, **kwargs)

Return unbiased variance over requested axis.
Normalized by N-1 by default. This can be changed using the ddof argument
Parameters axis : {index (0), columns (1)}
skipna : boolean, default True
Exclude NA/null values. If an entire row/column is NA, the result will be NA
level : int or level name, default None
If the axis is a MultiIndex (hierarchical), count along a particular level, collapsing
into a Series
ddof : int, default 1
degrees of freedom
numeric_only : boolean, default None
Include only float, int, boolean columns. If None, will attempt to use everything,
then use only numeric data. Not implemented for Series.
Returns var : Series or DataFrame (if level specified)

1612 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

pandas.DataFrame.where

DataFrame.where(cond, other=nan, inplace=False, axis=None, level=None, errors=’raise’,

try_cast=False, raise_on_error=None)
Return an object of same shape as self and whose corresponding entries are from self where cond is True
and otherwise are from other.
Parameters cond : boolean NDFrame, array-like, or callable
Where cond is True, keep the original value. Where False, replace with corre-
sponding value from other. If cond is callable, it is computed on the NDFrame
and should return boolean NDFrame or array. The callable must not change input
NDFrame (though pandas doesn’t check it).
New in version 0.18.1: A callable can be used as cond.
other : scalar, NDFrame, or callable
Entries where cond is False are replaced with corresponding value from other.
If other is callable, it is computed on the NDFrame and should return scalar or
NDFrame. The callable must not change input NDFrame (though pandas doesn’t
check it).
New in version 0.18.1: A callable can be used as other.
inplace : boolean, default False
Whether to perform the operation in place on the data
axis : alignment axis if needed, default None
level : alignment level if needed, default None
errors : str, {‘raise’, ‘ignore’}, default ‘raise’
• raise : allow exceptions to be raised
• ignore : suppress exceptions. On error return original object
Note that currently this parameter won’t affect the results and will always coerce
to a suitable dtype.
try_cast : boolean, default False
try to cast the result back to the input type (if possible),
raise_on_error : boolean, default True
Whether to raise on invalid data types (e.g. trying to where on strings)
Deprecated since version 0.21.0.
Returns wh : same type as caller
See also:
DataFrame.mask()

Notes

The where method is an application of the if-then idiom. For each element in the calling DataFrame, if
cond is True the element is used; otherwise the corresponding element from the DataFrame other is
used.

34.4. DataFrame 1613

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

The signature for DataFrame.where() differs from numpy.where(). Roughly df1.where(m,

df2) is equivalent to np.where(m, df1, df2).
For further details and examples see the where documentation in indexing.

Examples

>>> s = pd.Series(range(5))
>>> s.where(s > 0)
0 NaN
1 1.0
2 2.0
3 3.0
4 4.0

>>> s.mask(s > 0)

0 0.0
1 NaN
2 NaN
3 NaN
4 NaN

>>> s.where(s > 1, 10)

0 10.0
1 10.0
2 2.0
3 3.0
4 4.0

>>> df = pd.DataFrame(np.arange(10).reshape(-1, 2), columns=['A', 'B'])

>>> m = df % 3 == 0
>>> df.where(m, -df)
A B
0 0 -1
1 -2 3
2 -4 -5
3 6 -7
4 -8 9
>>> df.where(m, -df) == np.where(m, df, -df)
A B
0 True True
1 True True
2 True True
3 True True
4 True True
>>> df.where(m, -df) == df.mask(~m, -df)
A B
0 True True
1 True True
2 True True
3 True True
4 True True

1614 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

pandas.DataFrame.xs

DataFrame.xs(key, axis=0, level=None, drop_level=True)

Returns a cross-section (row(s) or column(s)) from the Series/DataFrame. Defaults to cross-section on
the rows (axis=0).
Parameters key : object
Some label contained in the index, or partially in a MultiIndex
axis : int, default 0
Axis to retrieve cross-section on
level : object, defaults to first n levels (n=1 or len(key))
In case of a key partially contained in a MultiIndex, indicate which levels are
used. Levels can be referred by label or position.
drop_level : boolean, default True
If False, returns object with same levels as self.
Returns xs : Series or DataFrame

Notes

xs is only for getting, not setting values.

MultiIndex Slicers is a generic way to get/set values on any level or levels. It is a superset of xs function-
ality, see MultiIndex Slicers

Examples

>>> df
A B C
a 4 5 2
b 4 0 9
c 9 7 3
>>> df.xs('a')
A 4
B 5
C 2
Name: a
>>> df.xs('C', axis=1)
a 2
b 9
c 3
Name: C

>>> df
A B C D
first second third
bar one 1 4 1 8 9
two 1 7 5 5 0
baz one 1 6 6 8 0
three 2 5 3 5 3
>>> df.xs(('baz', 'three'))

34.4. DataFrame 1615

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

A B C D
third
2 5 3 5 3
>>> df.xs('one', level=1)
A B C D
first third
bar 1 4 1 8 9
baz 1 6 6 8 0
>>> df.xs(('baz', 2), level=[0, 'third'])
A B C D
second
three 5 3 5 3

34.4.2 Attributes and underlying data

Axes
• index: row labels
• columns: column labels

DataFrame.as_matrix([columns]) Convert the frame to its Numpy-array representation.

DataFrame.dtypes Return the dtypes in this object.
DataFrame.ftypes Return the ftypes (indication of sparse/dense and dtype) in
this object.
DataFrame.get_dtype_counts() Return the counts of dtypes in this object.
DataFrame.get_ftype_counts() Return the counts of ftypes in this object.
DataFrame.select_dtypes([include, exclude]) Return a subset of a DataFrame including/excluding
columns based on their dtype.
DataFrame.values Numpy representation of NDFrame
DataFrame.axes Return a list with the row axis labels and column axis labels
as the only members.
DataFrame.ndim Number of axes / array dimensions
DataFrame.size number of elements in the NDFrame
DataFrame.shape Return a tuple representing the dimensionality of the
DataFrame.
DataFrame.memory_usage([index, deep]) Memory usage of DataFrame columns.

34.4.3 Conversion

DataFrame.astype(dtype[, copy, errors]) Cast a pandas object to a specified dtype dtype.

DataFrame.convert_objects([convert_dates, ...]) Deprecated.
DataFrame.infer_objects() Attempt to infer better dtypes for object columns.
DataFrame.copy([deep]) Make a copy of this objects data.
DataFrame.isna() Return a boolean same-sized object indicating if the values
are NA.
DataFrame.notna() Return a boolean same-sized object indicating if the values
are not NA.

34.4.4 Indexing, iteration

1616 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

DataFrame.head([n]) Return the first n rows.

DataFrame.at Fast label-based scalar accessor
DataFrame.iat Fast integer location scalar accessor.
DataFrame.loc Purely label-location based indexer for selection by label.
DataFrame.iloc Purely integer-location based indexing for selection by po-
sition.
DataFrame.insert(loc, column, value[, ...]) Insert column into DataFrame at specified location.
DataFrame.__iter__() Iterate over infor axis
DataFrame.iteritems() Iterator over (column name, Series) pairs.
DataFrame.iterrows() Iterate over DataFrame rows as (index, Series) pairs.
DataFrame.itertuples([index, name]) Iterate over DataFrame rows as namedtuples, with index
value as first element of the tuple.
DataFrame.lookup(row_labels, col_labels) Label-based “fancy indexing” function for DataFrame.
DataFrame.pop(item) Return item and drop from frame.
DataFrame.tail([n]) Return the last n rows.
DataFrame.xs(key[, axis, level, drop_level]) Returns a cross-section (row(s) or column(s)) from the Se-
ries/DataFrame.
DataFrame.isin(values) Return boolean DataFrame showing whether each element
in the DataFrame is contained in values.
DataFrame.where(cond[, other, inplace, ...]) Return an object of same shape as self and whose corre-
sponding entries are from self where cond is True and oth-
erwise are from other.
DataFrame.mask(cond[, other, inplace, axis, ...]) Return an object of same shape as self and whose corre-
sponding entries are from self where cond is False and oth-
erwise are from other.
DataFrame.query(expr[, inplace]) Query the columns of a frame with a boolean expression.

34.4.4.1 pandas.DataFrame.__iter__

DataFrame.__iter__()
Iterate over infor axis
For more information on .at, .iat, .loc, and .iloc, see the indexing documentation.

34.4.5 Binary operator functions

DataFrame.add(other[, axis, level, fill_value]) Addition of dataframe and other, element-wise (binary op-
erator add).
DataFrame.sub(other[, axis, level, fill_value]) Subtraction of dataframe and other, element-wise (binary
operator sub).
DataFrame.mul(other[, axis, level, fill_value]) Multiplication of dataframe and other, element-wise (bi-
nary operator mul).
DataFrame.div(other[, axis, level, fill_value]) Floating division of dataframe and other, element-wise (bi-
nary operator truediv).
DataFrame.truediv(other[, axis, level, ...]) Floating division of dataframe and other, element-wise (bi-
nary operator truediv).
DataFrame.floordiv(other[, axis, level, ...]) Integer division of dataframe and other, element-wise (bi-
nary operator floordiv).
DataFrame.mod(other[, axis, level, fill_value]) Modulo of dataframe and other, element-wise (binary op-
erator mod).
Continued on next page

34.4. DataFrame 1617

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Table 34.59 – continued from previous page

DataFrame.pow(other[, axis, level, fill_value]) Exponential power of dataframe and other, element-wise
(binary operator pow).
DataFrame.radd(other[, axis, level, fill_value]) Addition of dataframe and other, element-wise (binary op-
erator radd).
DataFrame.rsub(other[, axis, level, fill_value]) Subtraction of dataframe and other, element-wise (binary
operator rsub).
DataFrame.rmul(other[, axis, level, fill_value]) Multiplication of dataframe and other, element-wise (bi-
nary operator rmul).
DataFrame.rdiv(other[, axis, level, fill_value]) Floating division of dataframe and other, element-wise (bi-
nary operator rtruediv).
DataFrame.rtruediv(other[, axis, level, ...]) Floating division of dataframe and other, element-wise (bi-
nary operator rtruediv).
DataFrame.rfloordiv(other[, axis, level, ...]) Integer division of dataframe and other, element-wise (bi-
nary operator rfloordiv).
DataFrame.rmod(other[, axis, level, fill_value]) Modulo of dataframe and other, element-wise (binary op-
erator rmod).
DataFrame.rpow(other[, axis, level, fill_value]) Exponential power of dataframe and other, element-wise
(binary operator rpow).
DataFrame.lt(other[, axis, level]) Wrapper for flexible comparison methods lt
DataFrame.gt(other[, axis, level]) Wrapper for flexible comparison methods gt
DataFrame.le(other[, axis, level]) Wrapper for flexible comparison methods le
DataFrame.ge(other[, axis, level]) Wrapper for flexible comparison methods ge
DataFrame.ne(other[, axis, level]) Wrapper for flexible comparison methods ne
DataFrame.eq(other[, axis, level]) Wrapper for flexible comparison methods eq
DataFrame.combine(other, func[, fill_value, ...]) Add two DataFrame objects and do not propagate NaN val-
ues, so if for a
DataFrame.combine_first(other) Combine two DataFrame objects and default to non-null
values in frame calling the method.

34.4.6 Function application, GroupBy & Window

DataFrame.apply(func[, axis, broadcast, ...]) Applies function along input axis of DataFrame.
DataFrame.applymap(func) Apply a function to a DataFrame that is intended to operate
elementwise, i.e.
DataFrame.aggregate(func[, axis]) Aggregate using callable, string, dict, or list of
string/callables
DataFrame.transform(func, *args, **kwargs) Call function producing a like-indexed NDFrame
DataFrame.groupby([by, axis, level, ...]) Group series using mapper (dict or key function, apply
given function to group, return result as series) or by a se-
ries of columns.
DataFrame.rolling(window[, min_periods, ...]) Provides rolling window calculations.
DataFrame.expanding([min_periods, freq, ...]) Provides expanding transformations.
DataFrame.ewm([com, span, halflife, alpha, ...]) Provides exponential weighted functions

34.4.7 Computations / Descriptive Stats

DataFrame.abs() Return an object with absolute value taken–only applicable

to objects that are all numeric.
Continued on next page

1618 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Table 34.61 – continued from previous page

DataFrame.all([axis, bool_only, skipna, level]) Return whether all elements are True over requested axis
DataFrame.any([axis, bool_only, skipna, level]) Return whether any element is True over requested axis
DataFrame.clip([lower, upper, axis, inplace]) Trim values at input threshold(s).
DataFrame.clip_lower(threshold[, axis, inplace]) Return copy of the input with values below given value(s)
truncated.
DataFrame.clip_upper(threshold[, axis, inplace]) Return copy of input with values above given value(s) trun-
cated.
DataFrame.corr([method, min_periods]) Compute pairwise correlation of columns, excluding
NA/null values
DataFrame.corrwith(other[, axis, drop]) Compute pairwise correlation between rows or columns of
two DataFrame objects.
DataFrame.count([axis, level, numeric_only]) Return Series with number of non-NA/null observations
over requested axis.
DataFrame.cov([min_periods]) Compute pairwise covariance of columns, excluding
NA/null values
DataFrame.cummax([axis, skipna]) Return cumulative max over requested axis.
DataFrame.cummin([axis, skipna]) Return cumulative minimum over requested axis.
DataFrame.cumprod([axis, skipna]) Return cumulative product over requested axis.
DataFrame.cumsum([axis, skipna]) Return cumulative sum over requested axis.
DataFrame.describe([percentiles, include, ...]) Generates descriptive statistics that summarize the central
tendency, dispersion and shape of a dataset’s distribution,
excluding NaN values.
DataFrame.diff([periods, axis]) 1st discrete difference of object
DataFrame.eval(expr[, inplace]) Evaluate an expression in the context of the calling
DataFrame instance.
DataFrame.kurt([axis, skipna, level, ...]) Return unbiased kurtosis over requested axis using Fisher’s
definition of kurtosis (kurtosis of normal == 0.0).
DataFrame.mad([axis, skipna, level]) Return the mean absolute deviation of the values for the
requested axis
DataFrame.max([axis, skipna, level, ...]) This method returns the maximum of the values in the ob-
ject.
DataFrame.mean([axis, skipna, level, ...]) Return the mean of the values for the requested axis
DataFrame.median([axis, skipna, level, ...]) Return the median of the values for the requested axis
DataFrame.min([axis, skipna, level, ...]) This method returns the minimum of the values in the ob-
ject.
DataFrame.mode([axis, numeric_only]) Gets the mode(s) of each element along the axis selected.
DataFrame.pct_change([periods, fill_method, ...]) Percent change over given number of periods.
DataFrame.prod([axis, skipna, level, ...]) Return the product of the values for the requested axis
DataFrame.quantile([q, axis, numeric_only, ...]) Return values at the given quantile over requested axis, a la
numpy.percentile.
DataFrame.rank([axis, method, numeric_only, ...]) Compute numerical data ranks (1 through n) along axis.
DataFrame.round([decimals]) Round a DataFrame to a variable number of decimal places.
DataFrame.sem([axis, skipna, level, ddof, ...]) Return unbiased standard error of the mean over requested
axis.
DataFrame.skew([axis, skipna, level, ...]) Return unbiased skew over requested axis
DataFrame.sum([axis, skipna, level, ...]) Return the sum of the values for the requested axis
DataFrame.std([axis, skipna, level, ddof, ...]) Return sample standard deviation over requested axis.
DataFrame.var([axis, skipna, level, ddof, ...]) Return unbiased variance over requested axis.

34.4.8 Reindexing / Selection / Label manipulation

34.4. DataFrame 1619

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

DataFrame.add_prefix(prefix) Concatenate prefix string with panel items names.

DataFrame.add_suffix(suffix) Concatenate suffix string with panel items names.
DataFrame.align(other[, join, axis, level, ...]) Align two objects on their axes with the
DataFrame.drop([labels, axis, index, ...]) Return new object with labels in requested axis removed.
DataFrame.drop_duplicates([subset, keep, ...]) Return DataFrame with duplicate rows removed, optionally
only
DataFrame.duplicated([subset, keep]) Return boolean Series denoting duplicate rows, optionally
only
DataFrame.equals(other) Determines if two NDFrame objects contain the same ele-
ments.
DataFrame.filter([items, like, regex, axis]) Subset rows or columns of dataframe according to labels in
the specified index.
DataFrame.first(offset) Convenience method for subsetting initial periods of time
series data based on a date offset.
DataFrame.head([n]) Return the first n rows.
DataFrame.idxmax([axis, skipna]) Return index of first occurrence of maximum over re-
quested axis.
DataFrame.idxmin([axis, skipna]) Return index of first occurrence of minimum over re-
quested axis.
DataFrame.last(offset) Convenience method for subsetting final periods of time
series data based on a date offset.
DataFrame.reindex([labels, index, columns, ...]) Conform DataFrame to new index with optional filling
logic, placing NA/NaN in locations having no value in the
previous index.
DataFrame.reindex_axis(labels[, axis, ...]) Conform input object to new index with optional filling
logic, placing NA/NaN in locations having no value in the
previous index.
DataFrame.reindex_like(other[, method, ...]) Return an object with matching indices to myself.
DataFrame.rename([mapper, index, columns, ...]) Alter axes labels.
DataFrame.rename_axis(mapper[, axis, copy, ...]) Alter the name of the index or columns.
DataFrame.reset_index([level, drop, ...]) For DataFrame with multi-level index, return new
DataFrame with labeling information in the columns under
the index names, defaulting to ‘level_0’, ‘level_1’, etc.
DataFrame.sample([n, frac, replace, ...]) Returns a random sample of items from an axis of object.
DataFrame.select(crit[, axis]) Return data corresponding to axis labels matching criteria
DataFrame.set_index(keys[, drop, append, ...]) Set the DataFrame index (row labels) using one or more
existing columns.
DataFrame.tail([n]) Return the last n rows.
DataFrame.take(indices[, axis, convert, is_copy]) Return the elements in the given positional indices along
an axis.
DataFrame.truncate([before, after, axis, copy]) Truncates a sorted DataFrame/Series before and/or after
some particular index value.

34.4.9 Missing data handling

DataFrame.dropna([axis, how, thresh, ...]) Return object with labels on given axis omitted where al-
ternately any
DataFrame.fillna([value, method, axis, ...]) Fill NA/NaN values using the specified method
DataFrame.replace([to_replace, value, ...]) Replace values given in ‘to_replace’ with ‘value’.

1620 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

34.4.10 Reshaping, sorting, transposing

DataFrame.pivot([index, columns, values]) Reshape data (produce a “pivot” table) based on column
values.
DataFrame.reorder_levels(order[, axis]) Rearrange index levels using input order.
DataFrame.sort_values(by[, axis, ascending, ...]) Sort by the values along either axis
DataFrame.sort_index([axis, level, ...]) Sort object by labels (along an axis)
DataFrame.nlargest(n, columns[, keep]) Get the rows of a DataFrame sorted by the n largest values
of columns.
DataFrame.nsmallest(n, columns[, keep]) Get the rows of a DataFrame sorted by the n smallest values
of columns.
DataFrame.swaplevel([i, j, axis]) Swap levels i and j in a MultiIndex on a particular axis
DataFrame.stack([level, dropna]) Pivot a level of the (possibly hierarchical) column labels,
returning a DataFrame (or Series in the case of an object
with a single level of column labels) having a hierarchical
index with a new inner-most level of row labels.
DataFrame.unstack([level, fill_value]) Pivot a level of the (necessarily hierarchical) index labels,
returning a DataFrame having a new level of column labels
whose inner-most level consists of the pivoted index labels.
DataFrame.melt([id_vars, value_vars, ...]) “Unpivots” a DataFrame from wide format to long format,
optionally
DataFrame.T Transpose index and columns
DataFrame.to_panel() Transform long (stacked) format (DataFrame) into wide
(3D, Panel) format.
DataFrame.to_xarray() Return an xarray object from the pandas object.
DataFrame.transpose(*args, **kwargs) Transpose index and columns

34.4.11 Combining / joining / merging

DataFrame.append(other[, ignore_index, ...]) Append rows of other to the end of this frame, returning a
new object.
DataFrame.assign(**kwargs) Assign new columns to a DataFrame, returning a new ob-
ject (a copy) with all the original columns in addition to the
new ones.
DataFrame.join(other[, on, how, lsuffix, ...]) Join columns with other DataFrame either on index or on a
key column.
DataFrame.merge(right[, how, on, left_on, ...]) Merge DataFrame objects by performing a database-style
join operation by columns or indexes.
DataFrame.update(other[, join, overwrite, ...]) Modify DataFrame in place using non-NA values from
passed DataFrame.

34.4.12 Time series-related

DataFrame.asfreq(freq[, method, how, ...]) Convert TimeSeries to specified frequency.

DataFrame.asof(where[, subset]) The last row without any NaN is taken (or the last row with-
out
DataFrame.shift([periods, freq, axis]) Shift index by desired number of periods with an optional
time freq
Continued on next page

34.4. DataFrame 1621

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Table 34.66 – continued from previous page

DataFrame.first_valid_index() Return index for first non-NA/null value.
DataFrame.last_valid_index() Return index for first non-NA/null value.
DataFrame.resample(rule[, how, axis, ...]) Convenience method for frequency conversion and resam-
pling of time series.
DataFrame.to_period([freq, axis, copy]) Convert DataFrame from DatetimeIndex to PeriodIndex
with desired
DataFrame.to_timestamp([freq, how, axis, copy]) Cast to DatetimeIndex of timestamps, at beginning of pe-
riod
DataFrame.tz_convert(tz[, axis, level, copy]) Convert tz-aware axis to target time zone.
DataFrame.tz_localize(tz[, axis, level, ...]) Localize tz-naive TimeSeries to target time zone.

34.4.13 Plotting

DataFrame.plot is both a callable method and a namespace attribute for specific plotting methods of the form
DataFrame.plot.<kind>.

DataFrame.plot([x, y, kind, ax, ....]) DataFrame plotting accessor and method

DataFrame.plot.area([x, y]) Area plot

DataFrame.plot.bar([x, y]) Vertical bar plot
DataFrame.plot.barh([x, y]) Horizontal bar plot
DataFrame.plot.box([by]) Boxplot
DataFrame.plot.density(**kwds) Kernel Density Estimate plot
DataFrame.plot.hexbin(x, y[, C, ...]) Hexbin plot
DataFrame.plot.hist([by, bins]) Histogram
DataFrame.plot.kde(**kwds) Kernel Density Estimate plot
DataFrame.plot.line([x, y]) Line plot
DataFrame.plot.pie([y]) Pie chart
DataFrame.plot.scatter(x, y[, s, c]) Scatter plot

34.4.13.1 pandas.DataFrame.plot.area

DataFrame.plot.area(x=None, y=None, **kwds)

Area plot
New in version 0.17.0.
Parameters x, y : label or position, optional
Coordinates for each point.
**kwds : optional
Keyword arguments to pass on to pandas.DataFrame.plot().
Returns axes : matplotlib.AxesSubplot or np.array of them

34.4.13.2 pandas.DataFrame.plot.bar

DataFrame.plot.bar(x=None, y=None, **kwds)

Vertical bar plot

1622 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

New in version 0.17.0.

Parameters x, y : label or position, optional
Coordinates for each point.
**kwds : optional
Keyword arguments to pass on to pandas.DataFrame.plot().
Returns axes : matplotlib.AxesSubplot or np.array of them

34.4.13.3 pandas.DataFrame.plot.barh

DataFrame.plot.barh(x=None, y=None, **kwds)

Horizontal bar plot
New in version 0.17.0.
Parameters x, y : label or position, optional
Coordinates for each point.
**kwds : optional
Keyword arguments to pass on to pandas.DataFrame.plot().
Returns axes : matplotlib.AxesSubplot or np.array of them

34.4.13.4 pandas.DataFrame.plot.box

DataFrame.plot.box(by=None, **kwds)
Boxplot
New in version 0.17.0.
Parameters by : string or sequence
Column in the DataFrame to group by.
**kwds : optional
Keyword arguments to pass on to pandas.DataFrame.plot().
Returns axes : matplotlib.AxesSubplot or np.array of them

34.4.13.5 pandas.DataFrame.plot.density

DataFrame.plot.density(**kwds)
Kernel Density Estimate plot
New in version 0.17.0.
Parameters **kwds : optional
Keyword arguments to pass on to pandas.DataFrame.plot().
Returns axes : matplotlib.AxesSubplot or np.array of them

34.4. DataFrame 1623

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

34.4.13.6 pandas.DataFrame.plot.hexbin

DataFrame.plot.hexbin(x, y, C=None, reduce_C_function=None, gridsize=None, **kwds)

Hexbin plot
New in version 0.17.0.
Parameters x, y : label or position, optional
Coordinates for each point.
C : label or position, optional
The value at each (x, y) point.
reduce_C_function : callable, optional
Function of one argument that reduces all the values in a bin to a single number (e.g.
mean, max, sum, std).
gridsize : int, optional
Number of bins.
**kwds : optional
Keyword arguments to pass on to pandas.DataFrame.plot().
Returns axes : matplotlib.AxesSubplot or np.array of them

34.4.13.7 pandas.DataFrame.plot.hist

DataFrame.plot.hist(by=None, bins=10, **kwds)

Histogram
New in version 0.17.0.
Parameters by : string or sequence
Column in the DataFrame to group by.
bins: integer, default 10
Number of histogram bins to be used
**kwds : optional
Keyword arguments to pass on to pandas.DataFrame.plot().
Returns axes : matplotlib.AxesSubplot or np.array of them

34.4.13.8 pandas.DataFrame.plot.kde

DataFrame.plot.kde(**kwds)
Kernel Density Estimate plot
New in version 0.17.0.
Parameters **kwds : optional
Keyword arguments to pass on to pandas.DataFrame.plot().
Returns axes : matplotlib.AxesSubplot or np.array of them

1624 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

34.4.13.9 pandas.DataFrame.plot.line

DataFrame.plot.line(x=None, y=None, **kwds)

Line plot
New in version 0.17.0.
Parameters x, y : label or position, optional
Coordinates for each point.
**kwds : optional
Keyword arguments to pass on to pandas.DataFrame.plot().
Returns axes : matplotlib.AxesSubplot or np.array of them

34.4.13.10 pandas.DataFrame.plot.pie

DataFrame.plot.pie(y=None, **kwds)
Pie chart
New in version 0.17.0.
Parameters y : label or position, optional
Column to plot.
**kwds : optional
Keyword arguments to pass on to pandas.DataFrame.plot().
Returns axes : matplotlib.AxesSubplot or np.array of them

34.4.13.11 pandas.DataFrame.plot.scatter

DataFrame.plot.scatter(x, y, s=None, c=None, **kwds)

Scatter plot
New in version 0.17.0.
Parameters x, y : label or position, optional
Coordinates for each point.
s : scalar or array_like, optional
Size of each point.
c : label or position, optional
Color of each point.
**kwds : optional
Keyword arguments to pass on to pandas.DataFrame.plot().
Returns axes : matplotlib.AxesSubplot or np.array of them

DataFrame.boxplot([column, by, ax, ...]) Make a box plot from DataFrame column optionally
grouped by some columns or
DataFrame.hist(data[, column, by, grid, ...]) Draw histogram of the DataFrame’s series using matplotlib
/ pylab.

34.4. DataFrame 1625

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

34.4.14 Serialization / IO / Conversion

DataFrame.from_csv(path[, header, sep, ...]) Read CSV file (DEPRECATED, please use pandas.
read_csv() instead).
DataFrame.from_dict(data[, orient, dtype]) Construct DataFrame from dict of array-like or dicts
DataFrame.from_items(items[, columns, orient]) Convert (key, value) pairs to DataFrame.
DataFrame.from_records(data[, index, ...]) Convert structured or record ndarray to DataFrame
DataFrame.info([verbose, buf, max_cols, ...]) Concise summary of a DataFrame.
DataFrame.to_pickle(path[, compression, ...]) Pickle (serialize) object to input file path.
DataFrame.to_csv([path_or_buf, sep, na_rep, ...]) Write DataFrame to a comma-separated values (csv) file
DataFrame.to_hdf(path_or_buf, key, **kwargs) Write the contained data to an HDF5 file using HDFStore.
DataFrame.to_sql(name, con[, flavor, ...]) Write records stored in a DataFrame to a SQL database.
DataFrame.to_dict([orient, into]) Convert DataFrame to dictionary.
DataFrame.to_excel(excel_writer[, ...]) Write DataFrame to an excel sheet
DataFrame.to_json([path_or_buf, orient, ...]) Convert the object to a JSON string.
DataFrame.to_html([buf, columns, col_space, ...]) Render a DataFrame as an HTML table.
DataFrame.to_feather(fname) write out the binary feather-format for DataFrames
DataFrame.to_latex([buf, columns, ...]) Render an object to a tabular environment table.
DataFrame.to_stata(fname[, convert_dates, ...]) A class for writing Stata binary dta files from array-like
objects
DataFrame.to_msgpack([path_or_buf, encoding]) msgpack (serialize) object to input file path
DataFrame.to_gbq(destination_table, project_id) Write a DataFrame to a Google BigQuery table.
DataFrame.to_records([index, con- Convert DataFrame to record array.
vert_datetime64])
DataFrame.to_sparse([fill_value, kind]) Convert to SparseDataFrame
DataFrame.to_dense() Return dense representation of NDFrame (as opposed to
sparse)
DataFrame.to_string([buf, columns, ...]) Render a DataFrame to a console-friendly tabular output.
DataFrame.to_clipboard([excel, sep]) Attempt to write text representation of object to the system
clipboard This can be pasted into Excel, for example.

34.4.15 Sparse

SparseDataFrame.to_coo() Return the contents of the frame as a sparse SciPy COO

matrix.

34.4.15.1 pandas.SparseDataFrame.to_coo

SparseDataFrame.to_coo()
Return the contents of the frame as a sparse SciPy COO matrix.
New in version 0.20.0.
Returns coo_matrix : scipy.sparse.spmatrix
If the caller is heterogeneous and contains booleans or objects, the result will be of
dtype=object. See Notes.

1626 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Notes

The dtype will be the lowest-common-denominator type (implicit upcasting); that is to say if the dtypes (even
of numeric types) are mixed, the one that accommodates all will be chosen.
e.g. If the dtypes are float16 and float32, dtype will be upcast to float32. By numpy.find_common_type conven-
tion, mixing int64 and and uint64 will result in a float64 dtype.

34.5 Panel

34.5.1 Constructor

Panel([data, items, major_axis, minor_axis, ...]) Represents wide format panel data, stored as 3-dimensional
array

34.5.1.1 pandas.Panel

class pandas.Panel(data=None, items=None, major_axis=None, minor_axis=None, copy=False,

dtype=None)
Represents wide format panel data, stored as 3-dimensional array
Parameters data : ndarray (items x major x minor), or dict of DataFrames
items : Index or array-like
axis=0
major_axis : Index or array-like
axis=1
minor_axis : Index or array-like
axis=2
dtype : dtype, default None
Data type to force, otherwise infer
copy : boolean, default False
Copy data from inputs. Only affects DataFrame / 2d ndarray input

Attributes

at Fast label-based scalar accessor

axes Return index label(s) of the internal NDFrame
blocks Internal property, property synonym for as_blocks()
dtypes Return the dtypes in this object.
empty True if NDFrame is entirely empty [no items], meaning
any of the axes are of length 0.
ftypes Return the ftypes (indication of sparse/dense and dtype)
in this object.
Continued on next page

34.5. Panel 1627

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Table 34.73 – continued from previous page

iat Fast integer location scalar accessor.
iloc Purely integer-location based indexing for selection by
position.
is_copy
ix A primarily label-location based indexer, with integer
position fallback.
loc Purely label-location based indexer for selection by la-
bel.
ndim Number of axes / array dimensions
shape Return a tuple of axis dimensions
size number of elements in the NDFrame
values Numpy representation of NDFrame

pandas.Panel.at

Panel.at
Fast label-based scalar accessor
Similarly to loc, at provides label based scalar lookups. You can also set using these indexers.

pandas.Panel.axes

Panel.axes
Return index label(s) of the internal NDFrame

pandas.Panel.blocks

Panel.blocks
Internal property, property synonym for as_blocks()
Deprecated since version 0.21.0.

pandas.Panel.dtypes

Panel.dtypes
Return the dtypes in this object.

pandas.Panel.empty

Panel.empty
True if NDFrame is entirely empty [no items], meaning any of the axes are of length 0.
See also:
pandas.Series.dropna, pandas.DataFrame.dropna

Notes

If NDFrame contains only NaNs, it is still not considered empty. See the example below.

1628 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Examples

An example of an actual empty DataFrame. Notice the index is empty:

>>> df_empty = pd.DataFrame({'A' : []})

>>> df_empty
Empty DataFrame
Columns: [A]
Index: []
>>> df_empty.empty
True

If we only have NaNs in our DataFrame, it is not considered empty! We will need to drop the NaNs to
make the DataFrame empty:

>>> df = pd.DataFrame({'A' : [np.nan]})

>>> df
A
0 NaN
>>> df.empty
False
>>> df.dropna().empty
True

pandas.Panel.ftypes

Panel.ftypes
Return the ftypes (indication of sparse/dense and dtype) in this object.

pandas.Panel.iat

Panel.iat
Fast integer location scalar accessor.
Similarly to iloc, iat provides integer based lookups. You can also set using these indexers.

pandas.Panel.iloc

Panel.iloc
Purely integer-location based indexing for selection by position.
.iloc[] is primarily integer position based (from 0 to length-1 of the axis), but may also be used
with a boolean array.
Allowed inputs are:
• An integer, e.g. 5.
• A list or array of integers, e.g. [4, 3, 0].
• A slice object with ints, e.g. 1:7.
• A boolean array.
• A callable function with one argument (the calling Series, DataFrame or Panel) and that returns
valid output for indexing (one of the above)

34.5. Panel 1629

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

.iloc will raise IndexError if a requested indexer is out-of-bounds, except slice indexers which
allow out-of-bounds indexing (this conforms with python/numpy slice semantics).
See more at Selection by Position

pandas.Panel.is_copy

Panel.is_copy = None

pandas.Panel.ix

Panel.ix
A primarily label-location based indexer, with integer position fallback.
.ix[] supports mixed integer and label based access. It is primarily label based, but will fall back to
integer positional access unless the corresponding axis is of integer type.
.ix is the most general indexer and will support any of the inputs in .loc and .iloc. .ix also
supports floating point label schemes. .ix is exceptionally useful when dealing with mixed positional
and label based hierachical indexes.
However, when an axis is integer based, ONLY label based access and not positional access is supported.
Thus, in such cases, it’s usually better to be explicit and use .iloc or .loc.
See more at Advanced Indexing.

pandas.Panel.loc

Panel.loc
Purely label-location based indexer for selection by label.
.loc[] is primarily label based, but may also be used with a boolean array.
Allowed inputs are:
• A single label, e.g. 5 or 'a', (note that 5 is interpreted as a label of the index, and never as an
integer position along the index).
• A list or array of labels, e.g. ['a', 'b', 'c'].
• A slice object with labels, e.g. 'a':'f' (note that contrary to usual python slices, both the start
and the stop are included!).
• A boolean array.
• A callable function with one argument (the calling Series, DataFrame or Panel) and that returns
valid output for indexing (one of the above)
.loc will raise a KeyError when the items are not found.
See more at Selection by Label

pandas.Panel.ndim

Panel.ndim
Number of axes / array dimensions

1630 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

pandas.Panel.shape

Panel.shape
Return a tuple of axis dimensions

pandas.Panel.size

Panel.size
number of elements in the NDFrame

pandas.Panel.values

Panel.values
Numpy representation of NDFrame

Notes

The dtype will be a lower-common-denominator dtype (implicit upcasting); that is to say if the dtypes
(even of numeric types) are mixed, the one that accommodates all will be chosen. Use this with care if
you are not dealing with the blocks.
e.g. If the dtypes are float16 and float32, dtype will be upcast to float32. If dtypes are int32 and uint8,
dtype will be upcast to int32. By numpy.find_common_type convention, mixing int64 and uint64 will
result in a flot64 dtype.

Methods

abs() Return an object with absolute value taken–only appli-

cable to objects that are all numeric.
add(other[, axis]) Addition of series and other, element-wise (binary oper-
ator add).
add_prefix(prefix) Concatenate prefix string with panel items names.
add_suffix(suffix) Concatenate suffix string with panel items names.
agg(func, *args, **kwargs)
aggregate(func, *args, **kwargs)
align(other, **kwargs)
all([axis, bool_only, skipna, level]) Return whether all elements are True over requested
axis
any([axis, bool_only, skipna, level]) Return whether any element is True over requested axis
apply(func[, axis]) Applies function along axis (or axes) of the Panel
as_blocks([copy]) Convert the frame to a dict of dtype -> Constructor
Types that each has a homogeneous dtype.
as_matrix()
asfreq(freq[, method, how, normalize, ...]) Convert TimeSeries to specified frequency.
asof(where[, subset]) The last row without any NaN is taken (or the last row
without
astype(dtype[, copy, errors]) Cast a pandas object to a specified dtype dtype.
at_time(time[, asof]) Select values at particular time of day (e.g.
Continued on next page

34.5. Panel 1631

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Table 34.74 – continued from previous page

between_time(start_time, end_time[, ...]) Select values between particular times of the day (e.g.,
9:00-9:30 AM).
bfill([axis, inplace, limit, downcast]) Synonym for DataFrame.
fillna(method='bfill')
bool() Return the bool of a single element PandasObject.
clip([lower, upper, axis, inplace]) Trim values at input threshold(s).
clip_lower(threshold[, axis, inplace]) Return copy of the input with values below given
value(s) truncated.
clip_upper(threshold[, axis, inplace]) Return copy of input with values above given value(s)
truncated.
compound([axis, skipna, level]) Return the compound percentage of the values for the
requested axis
conform(frame[, axis]) Conform input DataFrame to align with chosen axis
pair.
consolidate([inplace]) DEPRECATED: consolidate will be an internal imple-
mentation only.
convert_objects([convert_dates, ...]) Deprecated.
copy([deep]) Make a copy of this objects data.
count([axis]) Return number of observations over requested axis.
cummax([axis, skipna]) Return cumulative max over requested axis.
cummin([axis, skipna]) Return cumulative minimum over requested axis.
cumprod([axis, skipna]) Return cumulative product over requested axis.
cumsum([axis, skipna]) Return cumulative sum over requested axis.
describe([percentiles, include, exclude]) Generates descriptive statistics that summarize the cen-
tral tendency, dispersion and shape of a dataset’s distri-
bution, excluding NaN values.
div(other[, axis]) Floating division of series and other, element-wise (bi-
nary operator truediv).
divide(other[, axis]) Floating division of series and other, element-wise (bi-
nary operator truediv).
drop([labels, axis, index, columns, level, ...]) Return new object with labels in requested axis re-
moved.
dropna([axis, how, inplace]) Drop 2D from panel, holding passed axis constant
eq(other[, axis]) Wrapper for comparison method eq
equals(other) Determines if two NDFrame objects contain the same
elements.
ffill([axis, inplace, limit, downcast]) Synonym for DataFrame.
fillna(method='ffill')
fillna([value, method, axis, inplace, ...]) Fill NA/NaN values using the specified method
filter([items, like, regex, axis]) Subset rows or columns of dataframe according to labels
in the specified index.
first(offset) Convenience method for subsetting initial periods of
time series data based on a date offset.
floordiv(other[, axis]) Integer division of series and other, element-wise (bi-
nary operator floordiv).
fromDict(data[, intersect, orient, dtype]) Construct Panel from dict of DataFrame objects
from_dict(data[, intersect, orient, dtype]) Construct Panel from dict of DataFrame objects
ge(other[, axis]) Wrapper for comparison method ge
get(key[, default]) Get item from object for given key (DataFrame column,
Panel slice, etc.).
get_dtype_counts() Return the counts of dtypes in this object.
Continued on next page

1632 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Table 34.74 – continued from previous page

get_ftype_counts() Return the counts of ftypes in this object.
get_value(*args, **kwargs) Quickly retrieve single value at (item, major, minor) lo-
cation
get_values() same as values (but handles sparseness conversions)
groupby(function[, axis]) Group data on given axis, returning GroupBy object
gt(other[, axis]) Wrapper for comparison method gt
head([n])
infer_objects() Attempt to infer better dtypes for object columns.
interpolate([method, axis, limit, inplace, ...]) Interpolate values according to different methods.
isna() Return a boolean same-sized object indicating if the val-
ues are NA.
isnull() Return a boolean same-sized object indicating if the val-
ues are NA.
iteritems() Iterate over (label, values) on info axis
join(other[, how, lsuffix, rsuffix]) Join items with other Panel either on major and minor
axes column
keys() Get the ‘info axis’ (see Indexing for more)
kurt([axis, skipna, level, numeric_only]) Return unbiased kurtosis over requested axis using
Fisher’s definition of kurtosis (kurtosis of normal ==
0.0).
kurtosis([axis, skipna, level, numeric_only]) Return unbiased kurtosis over requested axis using
Fisher’s definition of kurtosis (kurtosis of normal ==
0.0).
last(offset) Convenience method for subsetting final periods of time
series data based on a date offset.
le(other[, axis]) Wrapper for comparison method le
lt(other[, axis]) Wrapper for comparison method lt
mad([axis, skipna, level]) Return the mean absolute deviation of the values for the
requested axis
major_xs(key) Return slice of panel along major axis
mask(cond[, other, inplace, axis, level, ...]) Return an object of same shape as self and whose corre-
sponding entries are from self where cond is False and
otherwise are from other.
max([axis, skipna, level, numeric_only]) This method returns the maximum of the values in the
object.
mean([axis, skipna, level, numeric_only]) Return the mean of the values for the requested axis
median([axis, skipna, level, numeric_only]) Return the median of the values for the requested axis
min([axis, skipna, level, numeric_only]) This method returns the minimum of the values in the
object.
minor_xs(key) Return slice of panel along minor axis
mod(other[, axis]) Modulo of series and other, element-wise (binary oper-
ator mod).
mul(other[, axis]) Multiplication of series and other, element-wise (binary
operator mul).
multiply(other[, axis]) Multiplication of series and other, element-wise (binary
operator mul).
ne(other[, axis]) Wrapper for comparison method ne
notna() Return a boolean same-sized object indicating if the val-
ues are not NA.
notnull() Return a boolean same-sized object indicating if the val-
ues are not NA.
Continued on next page

34.5. Panel 1633

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Table 34.74 – continued from previous page

pct_change([periods, fill_method, limit, freq]) Percent change over given number of periods.
pipe(func, *args, **kwargs) Apply func(self, *args, **kwargs)
pop(item) Return item and drop from frame.
pow(other[, axis]) Exponential power of series and other, element-wise
(binary operator pow).
prod([axis, skipna, level, numeric_only]) Return the product of the values for the requested axis
product([axis, skipna, level, numeric_only]) Return the product of the values for the requested axis
radd(other[, axis]) Addition of series and other, element-wise (binary oper-
ator radd).
rank([axis, method, numeric_only, ...]) Compute numerical data ranks (1 through n) along axis.
rdiv(other[, axis]) Floating division of series and other, element-wise (bi-
nary operator rtruediv).
reindex(*args, **kwargs) Conform Panel to new index with optional filling logic,
placing NA/NaN in locations having no value in the pre-
vious index.
reindex_axis(labels[, axis, method, level, ...]) Conform input object to new index with optional filling
logic, placing NA/NaN in locations having no value in
the previous index.
reindex_like(other[, method, copy, limit, ...]) Return an object with matching indices to myself.
rename([items, major_axis, minor_axis]) Alter axes input function or functions.
rename_axis(mapper[, axis, copy, inplace]) Alter the name of the index or columns.
replace([to_replace, value, inplace, limit, ...]) Replace values given in ‘to_replace’ with ‘value’.
resample(rule[, how, axis, fill_method, ...]) Convenience method for frequency conversion and re-
sampling of time series.
rfloordiv(other[, axis]) Integer division of series and other, element-wise (bi-
nary operator rfloordiv).
rmod(other[, axis]) Modulo of series and other, element-wise (binary oper-
ator rmod).
rmul(other[, axis]) Multiplication of series and other, element-wise (binary
operator rmul).
round([decimals]) Round each value in Panel to a specified number of dec-
imal places.
rpow(other[, axis]) Exponential power of series and other, element-wise
(binary operator rpow).
rsub(other[, axis]) Subtraction of series and other, element-wise (binary
operator rsub).
rtruediv(other[, axis]) Floating division of series and other, element-wise (bi-
nary operator rtruediv).
sample([n, frac, replace, weights, ...]) Returns a random sample of items from an axis of ob-
ject.
select(crit[, axis]) Return data corresponding to axis labels matching crite-
ria
sem([axis, skipna, level, ddof, numeric_only]) Return unbiased standard error of the mean over re-
quested axis.
set_axis(labels[, axis, inplace]) Assign desired index to given axis
set_value(*args, **kwargs) Quickly set single value at (item, major, minor) location
shift([periods, freq, axis]) Shift index by desired number of periods with an op-
tional time freq.
skew([axis, skipna, level, numeric_only]) Return unbiased skew over requested axis
slice_shift([periods, axis]) Equivalent to shift without copying data.
sort_index([axis, level, ascending, ...]) Sort object by labels (along an axis)
Continued on next page

1634 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Table 34.74 – continued from previous page

sort_values([by, axis, ascending, inplace, ...]) NOT IMPLEMENTED: do not call this method, as sort-
ing values is not supported for Panel objects and will
raise an error.
squeeze([axis]) Squeeze length 1 dimensions.
std([axis, skipna, level, ddof, numeric_only]) Return sample standard deviation over requested axis.
sub(other[, axis]) Subtraction of series and other, element-wise (binary
operator sub).
subtract(other[, axis]) Subtraction of series and other, element-wise (binary
operator sub).
sum([axis, skipna, level, numeric_only]) Return the sum of the values for the requested axis
swapaxes(axis1, axis2[, copy]) Interchange axes and swap values axes appropriately
swaplevel([i, j, axis]) Swap levels i and j in a MultiIndex on a particular axis
tail([n])
take(indices[, axis, convert, is_copy]) Return the elements in the given positional indices
along an axis.
toLong(*args, **kwargs)
to_clipboard([excel, sep]) Attempt to write text representation of object to the sys-
tem clipboard This can be pasted into Excel, for exam-
ple.
to_dense() Return dense representation of NDFrame (as opposed to
sparse)
to_excel(path[, na_rep, engine]) Write each DataFrame in Panel to a separate excel sheet
to_frame([filter_observations]) Transform wide format into long (stacked) format as
DataFrame whose columns are the Panel’s items and
whose index is a MultiIndex formed of the Panel’s ma-
jor and minor axes.
to_hdf(path_or_buf, key, **kwargs) Write the contained data to an HDF5 file using HDFS-
tore.
to_json([path_or_buf, orient, date_format, ...]) Convert the object to a JSON string.
to_latex([buf, columns, col_space, header, ...]) Render an object to a tabular environment table.
to_long(*args, **kwargs)
to_msgpack([path_or_buf, encoding]) msgpack (serialize) object to input file path
to_pickle(path[, compression, protocol]) Pickle (serialize) object to input file path.
to_sparse(*args, **kwargs) NOT IMPLEMENTED: do not call this method, as spar-
sifying is not supported for Panel objects and will raise
an error.
to_sql(name, con[, flavor, schema, ...]) Write records stored in a DataFrame to a SQL database.
to_xarray() Return an xarray object from the pandas object.
transpose(*args, **kwargs) Permute the dimensions of the Panel
truediv(other[, axis]) Floating division of series and other, element-wise (bi-
nary operator truediv).
truncate([before, after, axis, copy]) Truncates a sorted DataFrame/Series before and/or after
some particular index value.
tshift([periods, freq, axis])
tz_convert(tz[, axis, level, copy]) Convert tz-aware axis to target time zone.
tz_localize(tz[, axis, level, copy, ambiguous]) Localize tz-naive TimeSeries to target time zone.
update(other[, join, overwrite, ...]) Modify Panel in place using non-NA values from passed
Panel, or object coercible to Panel.
var([axis, skipna, level, ddof, numeric_only]) Return unbiased variance over requested axis.
Continued on next page

34.5. Panel 1635

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Table 34.74 – continued from previous page

where(cond[, other, inplace, axis, level, ...]) Return an object of same shape as self and whose cor-
responding entries are from self where cond is True and
otherwise are from other.
xs(key[, axis]) Return slice of panel along selected axis

pandas.Panel.abs

Panel.abs()
Return an object with absolute value taken–only applicable to objects that are all numeric.
Returns abs: type of caller

pandas.Panel.add

Panel.add(other, axis=0)
Addition of series and other, element-wise (binary operator add). Equivalent to panel + other.
Parameters other : DataFrame or Panel
axis : {items, major_axis, minor_axis}
Axis to broadcast over
Returns Panel
See also:
Panel.radd

pandas.Panel.add_prefix

Panel.add_prefix(prefix)
Concatenate prefix string with panel items names.
Parameters prefix : string
Returns with_prefix : type of caller

pandas.Panel.add_suffix

Panel.add_suffix(suffix)
Concatenate suffix string with panel items names.
Parameters suffix : string
Returns with_suffix : type of caller

pandas.Panel.agg

Panel.agg(func, *args, **kwargs)

1636 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

pandas.Panel.aggregate

Panel.aggregate(func, *args, **kwargs)

pandas.Panel.align

Panel.align(other, **kwargs)

pandas.Panel.all

Panel.all(axis=None, bool_only=None, skipna=None, level=None, **kwargs)

Return whether all elements are True over requested axis
Parameters axis : {items (0), major_axis (1), minor_axis (2)}
skipna : boolean, default True
Exclude NA/null values. If an entire row/column is NA, the result will be NA
level : int or level name, default None
If the axis is a MultiIndex (hierarchical), count along a particular level, collapsing
into a DataFrame
bool_only : boolean, default None
Include only boolean columns. If None, will attempt to use everything, then use
only boolean data. Not implemented for Series.
Returns all : DataFrame or Panel (if level specified)

pandas.Panel.any

Panel.any(axis=None, bool_only=None, skipna=None, level=None, **kwargs)

Return whether any element is True over requested axis
Parameters axis : {items (0), major_axis (1), minor_axis (2)}
skipna : boolean, default True
Exclude NA/null values. If an entire row/column is NA, the result will be NA
level : int or level name, default None
If the axis is a MultiIndex (hierarchical), count along a particular level, collapsing
into a DataFrame
bool_only : boolean, default None
Include only boolean columns. If None, will attempt to use everything, then use
only boolean data. Not implemented for Series.
Returns any : DataFrame or Panel (if level specified)

34.5. Panel 1637

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

pandas.Panel.apply

Panel.apply(func, axis=’major’, **kwargs)

Applies function along axis (or axes) of the Panel
Parameters func : function
Function to apply to each combination of ‘other’ axes e.g. if axis = ‘items’, the
combination of major_axis/minor_axis will each be passed as a Series; if axis =
(‘items’, ‘major’), DataFrames of items & major axis will be passed
axis : {‘items’, ‘minor’, ‘major’}, or {0, 1, 2}, or a tuple with two
axes
Additional keyword arguments will be passed as keywords to the function
Returns result : Panel, DataFrame, or Series

Examples

Returns a Panel with the square root of each element

>>> p = pd.Panel(np.random.rand(4,3,2))
>>> p.apply(np.sqrt)

Equivalent to p.sum(1), returning a DataFrame

>>> p.apply(lambda x: x.sum(), axis=1)

Equivalent to previous:

>>> p.apply(lambda x: x.sum(), axis='minor')

Return the shapes of each DataFrame over axis 2 (i.e the shapes of items x major), as a Series

>>> p.apply(lambda x: x.shape, axis=(0,1))

pandas.Panel.as_blocks

Panel.as_blocks(copy=True)
Convert the frame to a dict of dtype -> Constructor Types that each has a homogeneous dtype.
Deprecated since version 0.21.0.
NOTE: the dtypes of the blocks WILL BE PRESERVED HERE (unlike in as_matrix)

Parameters copy : boolean, default True

Returns values : a dict of dtype -> Constructor Types

pandas.Panel.as_matrix

Panel.as_matrix()

1638 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

pandas.Panel.asfreq

Panel.asfreq(freq, method=None, how=None, normalize=False, fill_value=None)

Convert TimeSeries to specified frequency.
Optionally provide filling method to pad/backfill missing values.
Returns the original data conformed to a new index with the specified frequency. resample is more
appropriate if an operation, such as summarization, is necessary to represent the data at the new frequency.
Parameters freq : DateOffset object, or string
method : {‘backfill’/’bfill’, ‘pad’/’ffill’}, default None
Method to use for filling holes in reindexed Series (note this does not fill NaNs
that already were present):
• ‘pad’ / ‘ffill’: propagate last valid observation forward to next valid
• ‘backfill’ / ‘bfill’: use NEXT valid observation to fill
how : {‘start’, ‘end’}, default end
For PeriodIndex only, see PeriodIndex.asfreq
normalize : bool, default False
Whether to reset output index to midnight
fill_value: scalar, optional
Value to use for missing values, applied during upsampling (note this does not fill
NaNs that already were present).
New in version 0.20.0.
Returns converted : type of caller
See also:
reindex

Notes

To learn more about the frequency strings, please see this link.

Examples

Start by creating a series with 4 one minute timestamps.

>>> index = pd.date_range('1/1/2000', periods=4, freq='T')

>>> series = pd.Series([0.0, None, 2.0, 3.0], index=index)
>>> df = pd.DataFrame({'s':series})
>>> df
s
2000-01-01 00:00:00 0.0
2000-01-01 00:01:00 NaN
2000-01-01 00:02:00 2.0
2000-01-01 00:03:00 3.0

Upsample the series into 30 second bins.

34.5. Panel 1639

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

>>> df.asfreq(freq='30S')
s
2000-01-01 00:00:00 0.0
2000-01-01 00:00:30 NaN
2000-01-01 00:01:00 NaN
2000-01-01 00:01:30 NaN
2000-01-01 00:02:00 2.0
2000-01-01 00:02:30 NaN
2000-01-01 00:03:00 3.0

Upsample again, providing a fill value.

>>> df.asfreq(freq='30S', fill_value=9.0)

s
2000-01-01 00:00:00 0.0
2000-01-01 00:00:30 9.0
2000-01-01 00:01:00 NaN
2000-01-01 00:01:30 9.0
2000-01-01 00:02:00 2.0
2000-01-01 00:02:30 9.0
2000-01-01 00:03:00 3.0

Upsample again, providing a method.

>>> df.asfreq(freq='30S', method='bfill')

s
2000-01-01 00:00:00 0.0
2000-01-01 00:00:30 NaN
2000-01-01 00:01:00 NaN
2000-01-01 00:01:30 2.0
2000-01-01 00:02:00 2.0
2000-01-01 00:02:30 3.0
2000-01-01 00:03:00 3.0

pandas.Panel.asof

Panel.asof(where, subset=None)
The last row without any NaN is taken (or the last row without NaN considering only the subset of
columns in the case of a DataFrame)
New in version 0.19.0: For DataFrame
If there is no good value, NaN is returned for a Series a Series of NaN values for a DataFrame
Parameters where : date or array of dates
subset : string or list of strings, default None
if not None use these columns for NaN propagation
Returns where is scalar
• value or NaN if input is Series
• Series if input is DataFrame
where is Index: same shape object as input
See also:

1640 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

merge_asof

Notes

Dates are assumed to be sorted Raises if this is not the case

pandas.Panel.astype

Panel.astype(dtype, copy=True, errors=’raise’, **kwargs)

Cast a pandas object to a specified dtype dtype.
Parameters dtype : data type, or dict of column name -> data type
Use a numpy.dtype or Python type to cast entire pandas object to the same type.
Alternatively, use {col: dtype, ...}, where col is a column label and dtype is a
numpy.dtype or Python type to cast one or more of the DataFrame’s columns to
column-specific types.
copy : bool, default True.
Return a copy when copy=True (be very careful setting copy=False as
changes to values then may propagate to other pandas objects).
errors : {‘raise’, ‘ignore’}, default ‘raise’.
Control raising of exceptions on invalid data for provided dtype.
• raise : allow exceptions to be raised
• ignore : suppress exceptions. On error return original object
New in version 0.20.0.
raise_on_error : raise on invalid input
Deprecated since version 0.20.0: Use errors instead
kwargs : keyword arguments to pass on to the constructor
Returns casted : type of caller
See also:

pandas.to_datetime Convert argument to datetime.

pandas.to_timedelta Convert argument to timedelta.
pandas.to_numeric Convert argument to a numeric type.
numpy.ndarray.astype Cast a numpy array to a specified type.

Examples

>>> ser = pd.Series([1, 2], dtype='int32')

>>> ser
0 1
1 2
dtype: int32
>>> ser.astype('int64')

34.5. Panel 1641

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

0 1
1 2
dtype: int64

Convert to categorical type:

>>> ser.astype('category')
0 1
1 2
dtype: category
Categories (2, int64): [1, 2]

Convert to ordered categorical type with custom ordering:

>>> ser.astype('category', ordered=True, categories=[2, 1])

0 1
1 2
dtype: category
Categories (2, int64): [2 < 1]

Note that using copy=False and changing data on a new pandas object may propagate changes:

>>> s1 = pd.Series([1,2])
>>> s2 = s1.astype('int', copy=False)
>>> s2[0] = 10
>>> s1 # note that s1[0] has changed too
0 10
1 2
dtype: int64

pandas.Panel.at_time

Panel.at_time(time, asof=False)
Select values at particular time of day (e.g. 9:30AM).
Parameters time : datetime.time or string
Returns values_at_time : type of caller

pandas.Panel.between_time

Panel.between_time(start_time, end_time, include_start=True, include_end=True)

Select values between particular times of the day (e.g., 9:00-9:30 AM).
Parameters start_time : datetime.time or string
end_time : datetime.time or string
include_start : boolean, default True
include_end : boolean, default True
Returns values_between_time : type of caller

1642 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

pandas.Panel.bfill

Panel.bfill(axis=None, inplace=False, limit=None, downcast=None)

Synonym for DataFrame.fillna(method='bfill')

pandas.Panel.bool

Panel.bool()
Return the bool of a single element PandasObject.
This must be a boolean scalar value, either True or False. Raise a ValueError if the PandasObject does not
have exactly 1 element, or that element is not boolean

pandas.Panel.clip

Panel.clip(lower=None, upper=None, axis=None, inplace=False, *args, **kwargs)

Trim values at input threshold(s).
Parameters lower : float or array_like, default None
upper : float or array_like, default None
axis : int or string axis name, optional
Align object with lower and upper along the given axis.
inplace : boolean, default False
Whether to perform the operation in place on the data New in version
0.21.0.
Returns clipped : Series

Examples

>>> df
0 1
0 0.335232 -1.256177
1 -1.367855 0.746646
2 0.027753 -1.176076
3 0.230930 -0.679613
4 1.261967 0.570967

>>> df.clip(-1.0, 0.5)

0 1
0 0.335232 -1.000000
1 -1.000000 0.500000
2 0.027753 -1.000000
3 0.230930 -0.679613
4 0.500000 0.500000

>>> t
0 -0.3
1 -0.2
2 -0.1

34.5. Panel 1643

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

3 0.0
4 0.1
dtype: float64

>>> df.clip(t, t + 1, axis=0)

0 1
0 0.335232 -0.300000
1 -0.200000 0.746646
2 0.027753 -0.100000
3 0.230930 0.000000
4 1.100000 0.570967

pandas.Panel.clip_lower

Panel.clip_lower(threshold, axis=None, inplace=False)

Return copy of the input with values below given value(s) truncated.
Parameters threshold : float or array_like
axis : int or string axis name, optional
Align object with threshold along the given axis.
inplace : boolean, default False
Whether to perform the operation in place on the data New in version
0.21.0.
Returns clipped : same type as input
See also:
clip

pandas.Panel.clip_upper

Panel.clip_upper(threshold, axis=None, inplace=False)

Return copy of input with values above given value(s) truncated.
Parameters threshold : float or array_like
axis : int or string axis name, optional
Align object with threshold along the given axis.
inplace : boolean, default False
Whether to perform the operation in place on the data New in version
0.21.0.
Returns clipped : same type as input
See also:
clip

1644 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

pandas.Panel.compound

Panel.compound(axis=None, skipna=None, level=None)

Return the compound percentage of the values for the requested axis
Parameters axis : {items (0), major_axis (1), minor_axis (2)}
skipna : boolean, default True
Exclude NA/null values. If an entire row/column is NA or empty, the result will
be NA
level : int or level name, default None
If the axis is a MultiIndex (hierarchical), count along a particular level, collapsing
into a DataFrame
numeric_only : boolean, default None
Include only float, int, boolean columns. If None, will attempt to use everything,
then use only numeric data. Not implemented for Series.
Returns compounded : DataFrame or Panel (if level specified)

pandas.Panel.conform

Panel.conform(frame, axis=’items’)
Conform input DataFrame to align with chosen axis pair.
Parameters frame : DataFrame
axis : {‘items’, ‘major’, ‘minor’}
Axis the input corresponds to. E.g., if axis=’major’, then the frame’s columns
would be items, and the index would be values of the minor axis
Returns DataFrame

pandas.Panel.consolidate

Panel.consolidate(inplace=False)
DEPRECATED: consolidate will be an internal implementation only.

pandas.Panel.convert_objects

Panel.convert_objects(convert_dates=True, convert_numeric=False, con-

vert_timedeltas=True, copy=True)
Deprecated. Attempt to infer better dtype for object columns
Parameters convert_dates : boolean, default True
If True, convert to date where possible. If ‘coerce’, force conversion, with uncon-
vertible values becoming NaT.
convert_numeric : boolean, default False
If True, attempt to coerce to numbers (including strings), with unconvertible val-
ues becoming NaN.

34.5. Panel 1645

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

convert_timedeltas : boolean, default True

If True, convert to timedelta where possible. If ‘coerce’, force conversion, with
unconvertible values becoming NaT.
copy : boolean, default True
If True, return a copy even if no copy is necessary (e.g. no conversion was done).
Note: This is meant for internal use, and should not be confused with inplace.
Returns converted : same as input object
See also:

pandas.to_datetime Convert argument to datetime.

pandas.to_timedelta Convert argument to timedelta.
pandas.to_numeric Return a fixed frequency timedelta index, with day as the default.

pandas.Panel.copy

Panel.copy(deep=True)
Make a copy of this objects data.
Parameters deep : boolean or string, default True
Make a deep copy, including a copy of the data and the indices. With
deep=False neither the indices or the data are copied.
Note that when deep=True data is copied, actual python objects will not be
copied recursively, only the reference to the object. This is in contrast to copy.
deepcopy in the Standard Library, which recursively copies object data.
Returns copy : type of caller

pandas.Panel.count

Panel.count(axis=’major’)
Return number of observations over requested axis.
Parameters axis : {‘items’, ‘major’, ‘minor’} or {0, 1, 2}
Returns count : DataFrame

pandas.Panel.cummax

Panel.cummax(axis=None, skipna=True, *args, **kwargs)

Return cumulative max over requested axis.
Parameters axis : {items (0), major_axis (1), minor_axis (2)}
skipna : boolean, default True
Exclude NA/null values. If an entire row/column is NA, the result will be NA
Returns cummax : DataFrame
See also:

1646 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

pandas.core.window.Expanding.max Similar functionality but ignores NaN values.

pandas.Panel.cummin

Panel.cummin(axis=None, skipna=True, *args, **kwargs)

Return cumulative minimum over requested axis.
Parameters axis : {items (0), major_axis (1), minor_axis (2)}
skipna : boolean, default True
Exclude NA/null values. If an entire row/column is NA, the result will be NA
Returns cummin : DataFrame
See also:

pandas.core.window.Expanding.min Similar functionality but ignores NaN values.

pandas.Panel.cumprod

Panel.cumprod(axis=None, skipna=True, *args, **kwargs)

Return cumulative product over requested axis.
Parameters axis : {items (0), major_axis (1), minor_axis (2)}
skipna : boolean, default True
Exclude NA/null values. If an entire row/column is NA, the result will be NA
Returns cumprod : DataFrame
See also:

pandas.core.window.Expanding.prod Similar functionality but ignores NaN values.

pandas.Panel.cumsum

Panel.cumsum(axis=None, skipna=True, *args, **kwargs)

Return cumulative sum over requested axis.
Parameters axis : {items (0), major_axis (1), minor_axis (2)}
skipna : boolean, default True
Exclude NA/null values. If an entire row/column is NA, the result will be NA
Returns cumsum : DataFrame
See also:

pandas.core.window.Expanding.sum Similar functionality but ignores NaN values.

34.5. Panel 1647

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

pandas.Panel.describe

Panel.describe(percentiles=None, include=None, exclude=None)

Generates descriptive statistics that summarize the central tendency, dispersion and shape of a dataset’s
distribution, excluding NaN values.
Analyzes both numeric and object series, as well as DataFrame column sets of mixed data types. The
output will vary depending on what is provided. Refer to the notes below for more detail.
Parameters percentiles : list-like of numbers, optional
The percentiles to include in the output. All should fall between 0 and 1. The de-
fault is [.25, .5, .75], which returns the 25th, 50th, and 75th percentiles.
include : ‘all’, list-like of dtypes or None (default), optional
A white list of data types to include in the result. Ignored for Series. Here are
the options:
• ‘all’ : All columns of the input will be included in the output.
• A list-like of dtypes : Limits the results to the provided data types. To limit the
result to numeric types submit numpy.number. To limit it instead to object
columns submit the numpy.object data type. Strings can also be used in
the style of select_dtypes (e.g. df.describe(include=['O'])).
To select pandas categorical columns, use 'category'
• None (default) : The result will include all numeric columns.
exclude : list-like of dtypes or None (default), optional,
A black list of data types to omit from the result. Ignored for Series. Here are
the options:
• A list-like of dtypes : Excludes the provided data types from the result. To
exclude numeric types submit numpy.number. To exclude object columns
submit the data type numpy.object. Strings can also be used in the style of
select_dtypes (e.g. df.describe(include=['O'])). To exclude
pandas categorical columns, use 'category'
• None (default) : The result will exclude nothing.
Returns summary: Series/DataFrame of summary statistics
See also:
DataFrame.count, DataFrame.max, DataFrame.min, DataFrame.mean, DataFrame.
std, DataFrame.select_dtypes

Notes

For numeric data, the result’s index will include count, mean, std, min, max as well as lower, 50 and
upper percentiles. By default the lower percentile is 25 and the upper percentile is 75. The 50 percentile
is the same as the median.
For object data (e.g. strings or timestamps), the result’s index will include count, unique, top, and
freq. The top is the most common value. The freq is the most common value’s frequency. Times-
tamps also include the first and last items.
If multiple object values have the highest count, then the count and top results will be arbitrarily chosen
from among those with the highest count.

1648 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

For mixed data types provided via a DataFrame, the default is to return only an analysis of numeric
columns. If the dataframe consists only of object and categorical data without any numeric columns,
the default is to return an analysis of both the object and categorical columns. If include='all' is
provided as an option, the result will include a union of attributes of each type.
The include and exclude parameters can be used to limit which columns in a DataFrame are analyzed
for the output. The parameters are ignored when analyzing a Series.

Examples

Describing a numeric Series.

>>> s = pd.Series([1, 2, 3])

>>> s.describe()
count 3.0
mean 2.0
std 1.0
min 1.0
25% 1.5
50% 2.0
75% 2.5
max 3.0

Describing a categorical Series.

>>> s = pd.Series(['a', 'a', 'b', 'c'])

>>> s.describe()
count 4
unique 3
top a
freq 2
dtype: object

Describing a timestamp Series.

>>> s = pd.Series([
... np.datetime64("2000-01-01"),
... np.datetime64("2010-01-01"),
... np.datetime64("2010-01-01")
... ])
>>> s.describe()
count 3
unique 2
top 2010-01-01 00:00:00
freq 2
first 2000-01-01 00:00:00
last 2010-01-01 00:00:00
dtype: object

Describing a DataFrame. By default only numeric fields are returned.

>>> df = pd.DataFrame({ 'object': ['a', 'b', 'c'],

... 'numeric': [1, 2, 3],
... 'categorical': pd.Categorical(['d','e','f'])
... })
>>> df.describe()
numeric

34.5. Panel 1649

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

count 3.0
mean 2.0
std 1.0
min 1.0
25% 1.5
50% 2.0
75% 2.5
max 3.0

Describing all columns of a DataFrame regardless of data type.

>>> df.describe(include='all')
categorical numeric object
count 3 3.0 3
unique 3 NaN 3
top f NaN c
freq 1 NaN 1
mean NaN 2.0 NaN
std NaN 1.0 NaN
min NaN 1.0 NaN
25% NaN 1.5 NaN
50% NaN 2.0 NaN
75% NaN 2.5 NaN
max NaN 3.0 NaN

Describing a column from a DataFrame by accessing it as an attribute.

>>> df.numeric.describe()
count 3.0
mean 2.0
std 1.0
min 1.0
25% 1.5
50% 2.0
75% 2.5
max 3.0
Name: numeric, dtype: float64

Including only numeric columns in a DataFrame description.

>>> df.describe(include=[np.number])
numeric
count 3.0
mean 2.0
std 1.0
min 1.0
25% 1.5
50% 2.0
75% 2.5
max 3.0

Including only string columns in a DataFrame description.

>>> df.describe(include=[np.object])
object
count 3
unique 3

1650 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

top c
freq 1

Including only categorical columns from a DataFrame description.

>>> df.describe(include=['category'])
categorical
count 3
unique 3
top f
freq 1

Excluding numeric columns from a DataFrame description.

>>> df.describe(exclude=[np.number])
categorical object
count 3 3
unique 3 3
top f c
freq 1 1

Excluding object columns from a DataFrame description.

>>> df.describe(exclude=[np.object])
categorical numeric
count 3 3.0
unique 3 NaN
top f NaN
freq 1 NaN
mean NaN 2.0
std NaN 1.0
min NaN 1.0
25% NaN 1.5
50% NaN 2.0
75% NaN 2.5
max NaN 3.0

pandas.Panel.div

Panel.div(other, axis=0)
Floating division of series and other, element-wise (binary operator truediv). Equivalent to panel /
other.
Parameters other : DataFrame or Panel
axis : {items, major_axis, minor_axis}
Axis to broadcast over
Returns Panel
See also:
Panel.rtruediv

34.5. Panel 1651

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

pandas.Panel.divide

Panel.divide(other, axis=0)
Floating division of series and other, element-wise (binary operator truediv). Equivalent to panel /
other.
Parameters other : DataFrame or Panel
axis : {items, major_axis, minor_axis}
Axis to broadcast over
Returns Panel
See also:
Panel.rtruediv

pandas.Panel.drop

Panel.drop(labels=None, axis=0, index=None, columns=None, level=None, inplace=False, er-

rors=’raise’)
Return new object with labels in requested axis removed.
Parameters labels : single label or list-like
Index or column labels to drop.
axis : int or axis name
Whether to drop labels from the index (0 / ‘index’) or columns (1 / ‘columns’).
index, columns : single label or list-like
Alternative to specifying axis (labels, axis=1 is equivalent to
columns=labels).
New in version 0.21.0.
level : int or level name, default None
For MultiIndex
inplace : bool, default False
If True, do operation inplace and return None.
errors : {‘ignore’, ‘raise’}, default ‘raise’
If ‘ignore’, suppress error and existing labels are dropped.
Returns dropped : type of caller

Notes

Specifying both labels and index or columns will raise a ValueError.

1652 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Examples

>>> df = pd.DataFrame(np.arange(12).reshape(3,4),
columns=['A', 'B', 'C', 'D'])
>>> df
A B C D
0 0 1 2 3
1 4 5 6 7
2 8 9 10 11

Drop columns

>>> df.drop(['B', 'C'], axis=1)

A D
0 0 3
1 4 7
2 8 11

>>> df.drop(columns=['B', 'C'])

A D
0 0 3
1 4 7
2 8 11

Drop a row by index

>>> df.drop([0, 1])

A B C D
2 8 9 10 11

pandas.Panel.dropna

Panel.dropna(axis=0, how=’any’, inplace=False)

Drop 2D from panel, holding passed axis constant
Parameters axis : int, default 0
Axis to hold constant. E.g. axis=1 will drop major_axis entries having a certain
amount of NA data
how : {‘all’, ‘any’}, default ‘any’
‘any’: one or more values are NA in the DataFrame along the axis. For ‘all’ they
all must be.
inplace : bool, default False
If True, do operation inplace and return None.
Returns dropped : Panel

pandas.Panel.eq

Panel.eq(other, axis=None)
Wrapper for comparison method eq

34.5. Panel 1653

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

pandas.Panel.equals

Panel.equals(other)
Determines if two NDFrame objects contain the same elements. NaNs in the same location are considered
equal.

pandas.Panel.ffill

Panel.ffill(axis=None, inplace=False, limit=None, downcast=None)

Synonym for DataFrame.fillna(method='ffill')

pandas.Panel.fillna

Panel.fillna(value=None, method=None, axis=None, inplace=False, limit=None, down-

cast=None, **kwargs)
Fill NA/NaN values using the specified method
Parameters value : scalar, dict, Series, or DataFrame
Value to use to fill holes (e.g. 0), alternately a dict/Series/DataFrame of val-
ues specifying which value to use for each index (for a Series) or column (for
a DataFrame). (values not in the dict/Series/DataFrame will not be filled). This
value cannot be a list.
method : {‘backfill’, ‘bfill’, ‘pad’, ‘ffill’, None}, default None
Method to use for filling holes in reindexed Series pad / ffill: propagate last valid
observation forward to next valid backfill / bfill: use NEXT valid observation to
fill gap
axis : {0, 1, 2, ‘items’, ‘major_axis’, ‘minor_axis’}
inplace : boolean, default False
If True, fill in place. Note: this will modify any other views on this object, (e.g. a
no-copy slice for a column in a DataFrame).
limit : int, default None
If method is specified, this is the maximum number of consecutive NaN values to
forward/backward fill. In other words, if there is a gap with more than this number
of consecutive NaNs, it will only be partially filled. If method is not specified,
this is the maximum number of entries along the entire axis where NaNs will be
filled. Must be greater than 0 if not None.
downcast : dict, default is None
a dict of item->dtype of what to downcast if possible, or the string ‘infer’ which
will try to downcast to an appropriate equal type (e.g. float64 to int64 if possible)
Returns filled : Panel
See also:
reindex, asfreq

1654 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Examples

>>> df = pd.DataFrame([[np.nan, 2, np.nan, 0],

... [3, 4, np.nan, 1],
... [np.nan, np.nan, np.nan, 5],
... [np.nan, 3, np.nan, 4]],
... columns=list('ABCD'))
>>> df
A B C D
0 NaN 2.0 NaN 0
1 3.0 4.0 NaN 1
2 NaN NaN NaN 5
3 NaN 3.0 NaN 4

Replace all NaN elements with 0s.

>>> df.fillna(0)
A B C D
0 0.0 2.0 0.0 0
1 3.0 4.0 0.0 1
2 0.0 0.0 0.0 5
3 0.0 3.0 0.0 4

We can also propagate non-null values forward or backward.

>>> df.fillna(method='ffill')
A B C D
0 NaN 2.0 NaN 0
1 3.0 4.0 NaN 1
2 3.0 4.0 NaN 5
3 3.0 3.0 NaN 4

Replace all NaN elements in column ‘A’, ‘B’, ‘C’, and ‘D’, with 0, 1, 2, and 3 respectively.

>>> values = {'A': 0, 'B': 1, 'C': 2, 'D': 3}

>>> df.fillna(value=values)
A B C D
0 0.0 2.0 2.0 0
1 3.0 4.0 2.0 1
2 0.0 1.0 2.0 5
3 0.0 3.0 2.0 4

Only replace the first NaN element.

>>> df.fillna(value=values, limit=1)

A B C D
0 0.0 2.0 2.0 0
1 3.0 4.0 NaN 1
2 NaN 1.0 NaN 5
3 NaN 3.0 NaN 4

pandas.Panel.filter

Panel.filter(items=None, like=None, regex=None, axis=None)

Subset rows or columns of dataframe according to labels in the specified index.

34.5. Panel 1655

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Note that this routine does not filter a dataframe on its contents. The filter is applied to the labels of the
index.
Parameters items : list-like
List of info axis to restrict to (must not all be present)
like : string
Keep info axis where “arg in col == True”
regex : string (regular expression)
Keep info axis with re.search(regex, col) == True
axis : int or string axis name
The axis to filter on. By default this is the info axis, ‘index’ for Series, ‘columns’
for DataFrame
Returns same type as input object
See also:
pandas.DataFrame.loc

Notes

The items, like, and regex parameters are enforced to be mutually exclusive.
axis defaults to the info axis that is used when indexing with [].

Examples

>>> df
one two three
mouse 1 2 3
rabbit 4 5 6

>>> # select columns by name

>>> df.filter(items=['one', 'three'])
one three
mouse 1 3
rabbit 4 6

>>> # select columns by regular expression

>>> df.filter(regex='e$', axis=1)
one three
mouse 1 3
rabbit 4 6

>>> # select rows containing 'bbi'

>>> df.filter(like='bbi', axis=0)
one two three
rabbit 4 5 6

1656 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

pandas.Panel.first

Panel.first(offset)
Convenience method for subsetting initial periods of time series data based on a date offset.
Parameters offset : string, DateOffset, dateutil.relativedelta
Returns subset : type of caller

Examples

ts.first(‘10D’) -> First 10 days

pandas.Panel.floordiv

Panel.floordiv(other, axis=0)
Integer division of series and other, element-wise (binary operator floordiv). Equivalent to panel //
other.
Parameters other : DataFrame or Panel
axis : {items, major_axis, minor_axis}
Axis to broadcast over
Returns Panel
See also:
Panel.rfloordiv

pandas.Panel.fromDict

classmethod Panel.fromDict(data, intersect=False, orient=’items’, dtype=None)

Construct Panel from dict of DataFrame objects
Parameters data : dict
{field : DataFrame}
intersect : boolean
Intersect indexes of input DataFrames
orient : {‘items’, ‘minor’}, default ‘items’
The “orientation” of the data. If the keys of the passed dict should be the items of
the result panel, pass ‘items’ (default). Otherwise if the columns of the values of
the passed DataFrame objects should be the items (which in the case of mixed-
dtype data you should do), instead pass ‘minor’
dtype : dtype, default None
Data type to force, otherwise infer
Returns Panel

34.5. Panel 1657

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

pandas.Panel.from_dict

classmethod Panel.from_dict(data, intersect=False, orient=’items’, dtype=None)

Construct Panel from dict of DataFrame objects
Parameters data : dict
{field : DataFrame}
intersect : boolean
Intersect indexes of input DataFrames
orient : {‘items’, ‘minor’}, default ‘items’
The “orientation” of the data. If the keys of the passed dict should be the items of
the result panel, pass ‘items’ (default). Otherwise if the columns of the values of
the passed DataFrame objects should be the items (which in the case of mixed-
dtype data you should do), instead pass ‘minor’
dtype : dtype, default None
Data type to force, otherwise infer
Returns Panel

pandas.Panel.ge

Panel.ge(other, axis=None)
Wrapper for comparison method ge

pandas.Panel.get

Panel.get(key, default=None)
Get item from object for given key (DataFrame column, Panel slice, etc.). Returns default value if not
found.
Parameters key : object
Returns value : type of items contained in object

pandas.Panel.get_dtype_counts

Panel.get_dtype_counts()
Return the counts of dtypes in this object.

pandas.Panel.get_ftype_counts

Panel.get_ftype_counts()
Return the counts of ftypes in this object.

1658 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

pandas.Panel.get_value

Panel.get_value(*args, **kwargs)
Quickly retrieve single value at (item, major, minor) location
Deprecated since version 0.21.0.
Please use .at[] or .iat[] accessors.
Parameters item : item label (panel item)
major : major axis label (panel item row)
minor : minor axis label (panel item column)
takeable : interpret the passed labels as indexers, default False
Returns value : scalar value

pandas.Panel.get_values

Panel.get_values()
same as values (but handles sparseness conversions)

pandas.Panel.groupby

Panel.groupby(function, axis=’major’)
Group data on given axis, returning GroupBy object
Parameters function : callable
Mapping function for chosen access
axis : {‘major’, ‘minor’, ‘items’}, default ‘major’
Returns grouped : PanelGroupBy

pandas.Panel.gt

Panel.gt(other, axis=None)
Wrapper for comparison method gt

pandas.Panel.head

Panel.head(n=5)

pandas.Panel.infer_objects

Panel.infer_objects()
Attempt to infer better dtypes for object columns.
Attempts soft conversion of object-dtyped columns, leaving non-object and unconvertible columns un-
changed. The inference rules are the same as during normal Series/DataFrame construction.
New in version 0.21.0.

34.5. Panel 1659

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Returns converted : same type as input object

See also:

pandas.to_datetime Convert argument to datetime.

pandas.to_timedelta Convert argument to timedelta.
pandas.to_numeric Convert argument to numeric typeR

Examples

>>> df = pd.DataFrame({"A": ["a", 1, 2, 3]})

>>> df = df.iloc[1:]
>>> df
A
1 1
2 2
3 3

>>> df.dtypes
A object
dtype: object

>>> df.infer_objects().dtypes
A int64
dtype: object

pandas.Panel.interpolate

Panel.interpolate(method=’linear’, axis=0, limit=None, inplace=False,

limit_direction=’forward’, downcast=None, **kwargs)
Interpolate values according to different methods.
Please note that only method='linear' is supported for DataFrames/Series with a MultiIndex.
Parameters method : {‘linear’, ‘time’, ‘index’, ‘values’, ‘nearest’, ‘zero’,
‘slinear’, ‘quadratic’, ‘cubic’, ‘barycentric’, ‘krogh’, ‘polynomial’, ‘spline’,
‘piecewise_polynomial’, ‘from_derivatives’, ‘pchip’, ‘akima’}

• ‘linear’: ignore the index and treat the values as equally spaced. This is the
only method supported on MultiIndexes. default
• ‘time’: interpolation works on daily and higher resolution data to interpolate
given length of interval
• ‘index’, ‘values’: use the actual numerical values of the index
• ‘nearest’, ‘zero’, ‘slinear’, ‘quadratic’, ‘cubic’, ‘barycentric’, ‘polyno-
mial’ is passed to scipy.interpolate.interp1d. Both ‘poly-
nomial’ and ‘spline’ require that you also specify an order (int), e.g.
df.interpolate(method=’polynomial’, order=4). These use the actual numeri-
cal values of the index.

1660 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• ‘krogh’, ‘piecewise_polynomial’, ‘spline’, ‘pchip’ and ‘akima’ are all wrap-

pers around the scipy interpolation methods of similar names. These use the
actual numerical values of the index. For more information on their behavior,
see the scipy documentation and tutorial documentation
• ‘from_derivatives’ refers to BPoly.from_derivatives which replaces ‘piece-
wise_polynomial’ interpolation method in scipy 0.18

New in version 0.18.1: Added support for the ‘akima’ method Added interpolate
method ‘from_derivatives’ which replaces ‘piecewise_polynomial’ in scipy 0.18;
backwards-compatible with scipy < 0.18
axis : {0, 1}, default 0
• 0: fill column-by-column
• 1: fill row-by-row
limit : int, default None.
Maximum number of consecutive NaNs to fill. Must be greater than 0.
limit_direction : {‘forward’, ‘backward’, ‘both’}, default ‘forward’
If limit is specified, consecutive NaNs will be filled in this direction.
New in version 0.17.0.
inplace : bool, default False
Update the NDFrame in place if possible.
downcast : optional, ‘infer’ or None, defaults to None
Downcast dtypes if possible.
kwargs : keyword arguments to pass on to the interpolating function.
Returns Series or DataFrame of same shape interpolated at the NaNs
See also:
reindex, replace, fillna

Examples

Filling in NaNs

>>> s = pd.Series([0, 1, np.nan, 3])

>>> s.interpolate()
0 0
1 1
2 2
3 3
dtype: float64

pandas.Panel.isna

Panel.isna()
Return a boolean same-sized object indicating if the values are NA.

34.5. Panel 1661

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

See also:

NDFrame.notna boolean inverse of isna

NDFrame.isnull alias of isna
isna top-level isna

pandas.Panel.isnull

Panel.isnull()
Return a boolean same-sized object indicating if the values are NA.
See also:

NDFrame.notna boolean inverse of isna

NDFrame.isnull alias of isna
isna top-level isna

pandas.Panel.iteritems

Panel.iteritems()
Iterate over (label, values) on info axis
This is index for Series, columns for DataFrame, major_axis for Panel, and so on.

pandas.Panel.join

Panel.join(other, how=’left’, lsuffix=’‘, rsuffix=’‘)

Join items with other Panel either on major and minor axes column
Parameters other : Panel or list of Panels
Index should be similar to one of the columns in this one
how : {‘left’, ‘right’, ‘outer’, ‘inner’}
How to handle indexes of the two objects. Default: ‘left’ for joining on index,
None otherwise * left: use calling frame’s index * right: use input frame’s index
* outer: form union of indexes * inner: use intersection of indexes
lsuffix : string
Suffix to use from left frame’s overlapping columns
rsuffix : string
Suffix to use from right frame’s overlapping columns
Returns joined : Panel

1662 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

pandas.Panel.keys

Panel.keys()
Get the ‘info axis’ (see Indexing for more)
This is index for Series, columns for DataFrame and major_axis for Panel.

pandas.Panel.kurt

Panel.kurt(axis=None, skipna=None, level=None, numeric_only=None, **kwargs)

Return unbiased kurtosis over requested axis using Fisher’s definition of kurtosis (kurtosis of normal ==
0.0). Normalized by N-1
Parameters axis : {items (0), major_axis (1), minor_axis (2)}
skipna : boolean, default True
Exclude NA/null values. If an entire row/column is NA or empty, the result will
be NA
level : int or level name, default None
If the axis is a MultiIndex (hierarchical), count along a particular level, collapsing
into a DataFrame
numeric_only : boolean, default None
Include only float, int, boolean columns. If None, will attempt to use everything,
then use only numeric data. Not implemented for Series.
Returns kurt : DataFrame or Panel (if level specified)

pandas.Panel.kurtosis

Panel.kurtosis(axis=None, skipna=None, level=None, numeric_only=None, **kwargs)

Return unbiased kurtosis over requested axis using Fisher’s definition of kurtosis (kurtosis of normal ==
0.0). Normalized by N-1
Parameters axis : {items (0), major_axis (1), minor_axis (2)}
skipna : boolean, default True
Exclude NA/null values. If an entire row/column is NA or empty, the result will
be NA
level : int or level name, default None
If the axis is a MultiIndex (hierarchical), count along a particular level, collapsing
into a DataFrame
numeric_only : boolean, default None
Include only float, int, boolean columns. If None, will attempt to use everything,
then use only numeric data. Not implemented for Series.
Returns kurt : DataFrame or Panel (if level specified)

34.5. Panel 1663

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

pandas.Panel.last

Panel.last(offset)
Convenience method for subsetting final periods of time series data based on a date offset.
Parameters offset : string, DateOffset, dateutil.relativedelta
Returns subset : type of caller

Examples

ts.last(‘5M’) -> Last 5 months

pandas.Panel.le

Panel.le(other, axis=None)
Wrapper for comparison method le

pandas.Panel.lt

Panel.lt(other, axis=None)
Wrapper for comparison method lt

pandas.Panel.mad

Panel.mad(axis=None, skipna=None, level=None)

Return the mean absolute deviation of the values for the requested axis
Parameters axis : {items (0), major_axis (1), minor_axis (2)}
skipna : boolean, default True
Exclude NA/null values. If an entire row/column is NA or empty, the result will
be NA
level : int or level name, default None
If the axis is a MultiIndex (hierarchical), count along a particular level, collapsing
into a DataFrame
numeric_only : boolean, default None
Include only float, int, boolean columns. If None, will attempt to use everything,
then use only numeric data. Not implemented for Series.
Returns mad : DataFrame or Panel (if level specified)

pandas.Panel.major_xs

Panel.major_xs(key)
Return slice of panel along major axis
Parameters key : object
Major axis label

1664 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Returns y : DataFrame
index -> minor axis, columns -> items

Notes

major_xs is only for getting, not setting values.

MultiIndex Slicers is a generic way to get/set values on any level or levels and is a superset of major_xs
functionality, see MultiIndex Slicers

pandas.Panel.mask

Panel.mask(cond, other=nan, inplace=False, axis=None, level=None, errors=’raise’,

try_cast=False, raise_on_error=None)
Return an object of same shape as self and whose corresponding entries are from self where cond is False
and otherwise are from other.
Parameters cond : boolean NDFrame, array-like, or callable
Where cond is False, keep the original value. Where True, replace with corre-
sponding value from other. If cond is callable, it is computed on the NDFrame
and should return boolean NDFrame or array. The callable must not change input
NDFrame (though pandas doesn’t check it).
New in version 0.18.1: A callable can be used as cond.
other : scalar, NDFrame, or callable
Entries where cond is True are replaced with corresponding value from other.
If other is callable, it is computed on the NDFrame and should return scalar or
NDFrame. The callable must not change input NDFrame (though pandas doesn’t
check it).
New in version 0.18.1: A callable can be used as other.
inplace : boolean, default False
Whether to perform the operation in place on the data
axis : alignment axis if needed, default None
level : alignment level if needed, default None
errors : str, {‘raise’, ‘ignore’}, default ‘raise’
• raise : allow exceptions to be raised
• ignore : suppress exceptions. On error return original object
Note that currently this parameter won’t affect the results and will always coerce
to a suitable dtype.
try_cast : boolean, default False
try to cast the result back to the input type (if possible),
raise_on_error : boolean, default True
Whether to raise on invalid data types (e.g. trying to where on strings)
Deprecated since version 0.21.0.

34.5. Panel 1665

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Returns wh : same type as caller

See also:
DataFrame.where()

Notes

The mask method is an application of the if-then idiom. For each element in the calling DataFrame, if
cond is False the element is used; otherwise the corresponding element from the DataFrame other
is used.
The signature for DataFrame.where() differs from numpy.where(). Roughly df1.where(m,
df2) is equivalent to np.where(m, df1, df2).
For further details and examples see the mask documentation in indexing.

Examples

>>> s = pd.Series(range(5))
>>> s.where(s > 0)
0 NaN
1 1.0
2 2.0
3 3.0
4 4.0

>>> s.mask(s > 0)

0 0.0
1 NaN
2 NaN
3 NaN
4 NaN

>>> s.where(s > 1, 10)

0 10.0
1 10.0
2 2.0
3 3.0
4 4.0

>>> df = pd.DataFrame(np.arange(10).reshape(-1, 2), columns=['A', 'B'])

>>> m = df % 3 == 0
>>> df.where(m, -df)
A B
0 0 -1
1 -2 3
2 -4 -5
3 6 -7
4 -8 9
>>> df.where(m, -df) == np.where(m, df, -df)
A B
0 True True
1 True True
2 True True

1666 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

3 True True
4 True True
>>> df.where(m, -df) == df.mask(~m, -df)
A B
0 True True
1 True True
2 True True
3 True True
4 True True

pandas.Panel.max

Panel.max(axis=None, skipna=None, level=None, numeric_only=None, **kwargs)

This method returns the maximum of the values in the object. If you want the index of the maximum,
use idxmax. This is the equivalent of the numpy.ndarray method argmax.

Parameters axis : {items (0), major_axis (1), minor_axis (2)}

skipna : boolean, default True
Exclude NA/null values. If an entire row/column is NA or empty, the result will
be NA
level : int or level name, default None
If the axis is a MultiIndex (hierarchical), count along a particular level, collapsing
into a DataFrame
numeric_only : boolean, default None
Include only float, int, boolean columns. If None, will attempt to use everything,
then use only numeric data. Not implemented for Series.
Returns max : DataFrame or Panel (if level specified)

pandas.Panel.mean

Panel.mean(axis=None, skipna=None, level=None, numeric_only=None, **kwargs)

Return the mean of the values for the requested axis
Parameters axis : {items (0), major_axis (1), minor_axis (2)}
skipna : boolean, default True
Exclude NA/null values. If an entire row/column is NA or empty, the result will
be NA
level : int or level name, default None
If the axis is a MultiIndex (hierarchical), count along a particular level, collapsing
into a DataFrame
numeric_only : boolean, default None
Include only float, int, boolean columns. If None, will attempt to use everything,
then use only numeric data. Not implemented for Series.
Returns mean : DataFrame or Panel (if level specified)

34.5. Panel 1667

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

pandas.Panel.median

Panel.median(axis=None, skipna=None, level=None, numeric_only=None, **kwargs)

Return the median of the values for the requested axis
Parameters axis : {items (0), major_axis (1), minor_axis (2)}
skipna : boolean, default True
Exclude NA/null values. If an entire row/column is NA or empty, the result will
be NA
level : int or level name, default None
If the axis is a MultiIndex (hierarchical), count along a particular level, collapsing
into a DataFrame
numeric_only : boolean, default None
Include only float, int, boolean columns. If None, will attempt to use everything,
then use only numeric data. Not implemented for Series.
Returns median : DataFrame or Panel (if level specified)

pandas.Panel.min

Panel.min(axis=None, skipna=None, level=None, numeric_only=None, **kwargs)

This method returns the minimum of the values in the object. If you want the index of the minimum,
use idxmin. This is the equivalent of the numpy.ndarray method argmin.

Parameters axis : {items (0), major_axis (1), minor_axis (2)}

skipna : boolean, default True
Exclude NA/null values. If an entire row/column is NA or empty, the result will
be NA
level : int or level name, default None
If the axis is a MultiIndex (hierarchical), count along a particular level, collapsing
into a DataFrame
numeric_only : boolean, default None
Include only float, int, boolean columns. If None, will attempt to use everything,
then use only numeric data. Not implemented for Series.
Returns min : DataFrame or Panel (if level specified)

pandas.Panel.minor_xs

Panel.minor_xs(key)
Return slice of panel along minor axis
Parameters key : object
Minor axis label
Returns y : DataFrame
index -> major axis, columns -> items

1668 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Notes

minor_xs is only for getting, not setting values.

MultiIndex Slicers is a generic way to get/set values on any level or levels and is a superset of minor_xs
functionality, see MultiIndex Slicers

pandas.Panel.mod

Panel.mod(other, axis=0)
Modulo of series and other, element-wise (binary operator mod). Equivalent to panel % other.
Parameters other : DataFrame or Panel
axis : {items, major_axis, minor_axis}
Axis to broadcast over
Returns Panel
See also:
Panel.rmod

pandas.Panel.mul

Panel.mul(other, axis=0)
Multiplication of series and other, element-wise (binary operator mul). Equivalent to panel * other.
Parameters other : DataFrame or Panel
axis : {items, major_axis, minor_axis}
Axis to broadcast over
Returns Panel
See also:
Panel.rmul

pandas.Panel.multiply

Panel.multiply(other, axis=0)
Multiplication of series and other, element-wise (binary operator mul). Equivalent to panel * other.
Parameters other : DataFrame or Panel
axis : {items, major_axis, minor_axis}
Axis to broadcast over
Returns Panel
See also:
Panel.rmul

34.5. Panel 1669

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

pandas.Panel.ne

Panel.ne(other, axis=None)
Wrapper for comparison method ne

pandas.Panel.notna

Panel.notna()
Return a boolean same-sized object indicating if the values are not NA.
See also:

NDFrame.isna boolean inverse of notna

NDFrame.notnull alias of notna
notna top-level notna

pandas.Panel.notnull

Panel.notnull()
Return a boolean same-sized object indicating if the values are not NA.
See also:

NDFrame.isna boolean inverse of notna

NDFrame.notnull alias of notna
notna top-level notna

pandas.Panel.pct_change

Panel.pct_change(periods=1, fill_method=’pad’, limit=None, freq=None, **kwargs)

Percent change over given number of periods.
Parameters periods : int, default 1
Periods to shift for forming percent change
fill_method : str, default ‘pad’
How to handle NAs before computing percent changes
limit : int, default None
The number of consecutive NAs to fill before stopping
freq : DateOffset, timedelta, or offset alias string, optional
Increment to use from time series API (e.g. ‘M’ or BDay())
Returns chg : NDFrame

1670 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Notes

By default, the percentage change is calculated along the stat axis: 0, or Index, for DataFrame and 1,
or minor for Panel. You can change this with the axis keyword argument.

pandas.Panel.pipe

Panel.pipe(func, *args, **kwargs)

Apply func(self, *args, **kwargs)
Parameters func : function
function to apply to the NDFrame. args, and kwargs are passed
into func. Alternatively a (callable, data_keyword) tuple where
data_keyword is a string indicating the keyword of callable that expects
the NDFrame.
args : iterable, optional
positional arguments passed into func.
kwargs : mapping, optional
a dictionary of keyword arguments passed into func.
Returns object : the return type of func.
See also:
pandas.DataFrame.apply, pandas.DataFrame.applymap, pandas.Series.map

Notes

Use .pipe when chaining together functions that expect Series, DataFrames or GroupBy objects. Instead
of writing

>>> f(g(h(df), arg1=a), arg2=b, arg3=c)

You can write

>>> (df.pipe(h)
... .pipe(g, arg1=a)
... .pipe(f, arg2=b, arg3=c)
... )

If you have a function that takes the data as (say) the second argument, pass a tuple indicating which
keyword expects the data. For example, suppose f takes its data as arg2:

>>> (df.pipe(h)
... .pipe(g, arg1=a)
... .pipe((f, 'arg2'), arg1=a, arg3=c)
... )

34.5. Panel 1671

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

pandas.Panel.pop

Panel.pop(item)
Return item and drop from frame. Raise KeyError if not found.
Parameters item : str
Column label to be popped
Returns popped : Series

Examples

>>> df = pd.DataFrame([('falcon', 'bird', 389.0),

... ('parrot', 'bird', 24.0),
... ('lion', 'mammal', 80.5),
... ('monkey', 'mammal', np.nan)],
... columns=('name', 'class', 'max_speed'))
>>> df
name class max_speed
0 falcon bird 389.0
1 parrot bird 24.0
2 lion mammal 80.5
3 monkey mammal NaN

>>> df.pop('class')
0 bird
1 bird
2 mammal
3 mammal
Name: class, dtype: object

>>> df
name max_speed
0 falcon 389.0
1 parrot 24.0
2 lion 80.5
3 monkey NaN

pandas.Panel.pow

Panel.pow(other, axis=0)
Exponential power of series and other, element-wise (binary operator pow). Equivalent to panel **
other.
Parameters other : DataFrame or Panel
axis : {items, major_axis, minor_axis}
Axis to broadcast over
Returns Panel
See also:
Panel.rpow

1672 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

pandas.Panel.prod

Panel.prod(axis=None, skipna=None, level=None, numeric_only=None, **kwargs)

Return the product of the values for the requested axis
Parameters axis : {items (0), major_axis (1), minor_axis (2)}
skipna : boolean, default True
Exclude NA/null values. If an entire row/column is NA or empty, the result will
be NA
level : int or level name, default None
If the axis is a MultiIndex (hierarchical), count along a particular level, collapsing
into a DataFrame
numeric_only : boolean, default None
Include only float, int, boolean columns. If None, will attempt to use everything,
then use only numeric data. Not implemented for Series.
Returns prod : DataFrame or Panel (if level specified)

pandas.Panel.product

Panel.product(axis=None, skipna=None, level=None, numeric_only=None, **kwargs)

Return the product of the values for the requested axis
Parameters axis : {items (0), major_axis (1), minor_axis (2)}
skipna : boolean, default True
Exclude NA/null values. If an entire row/column is NA or empty, the result will
be NA
level : int or level name, default None
If the axis is a MultiIndex (hierarchical), count along a particular level, collapsing
into a DataFrame
numeric_only : boolean, default None
Include only float, int, boolean columns. If None, will attempt to use everything,
then use only numeric data. Not implemented for Series.
Returns prod : DataFrame or Panel (if level specified)

pandas.Panel.radd

Panel.radd(other, axis=0)
Addition of series and other, element-wise (binary operator radd). Equivalent to other + panel.
Parameters other : DataFrame or Panel
axis : {items, major_axis, minor_axis}
Axis to broadcast over
Returns Panel

34.5. Panel 1673

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

See also:
Panel.add

pandas.Panel.rank

Panel.rank(axis=0, method=’average’, numeric_only=None, na_option=’keep’, ascending=True,

pct=False)
Compute numerical data ranks (1 through n) along axis. Equal values are assigned a rank that is the
average of the ranks of those values
Parameters axis : {0 or ‘index’, 1 or ‘columns’}, default 0
index to direct ranking
method : {‘average’, ‘min’, ‘max’, ‘first’, ‘dense’}
• average: average rank of group
• min: lowest rank in group
• max: highest rank in group
• first: ranks assigned in order they appear in the array
• dense: like ‘min’, but rank always increases by 1 between groups
numeric_only : boolean, default None
Include only float, int, boolean data. Valid only for DataFrame or Panel objects
na_option : {‘keep’, ‘top’, ‘bottom’}
• keep: leave NA values where they are
• top: smallest rank if ascending
• bottom: smallest rank if descending
ascending : boolean, default True
False for ranks by high (1) to low (N)
pct : boolean, default False
Computes percentage rank of data
Returns ranks : same type as caller

pandas.Panel.rdiv

Panel.rdiv(other, axis=0)
Floating division of series and other, element-wise (binary operator rtruediv). Equivalent to other /
panel.
Parameters other : DataFrame or Panel
axis : {items, major_axis, minor_axis}
Axis to broadcast over
Returns Panel

1674 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

See also:
Panel.truediv

pandas.Panel.reindex

Panel.reindex(*args, **kwargs)
Conform Panel to new index with optional filling logic, placing NA/NaN in locations having no value in
the previous index. A new object is produced unless the new index is equivalent to the current one and
copy=False
Parameters items, major_axis, minor_axis : array-like, optional (should be specified using
keywords)
New labels / index to conform to. Preferably an Index object to avoid duplicating
data
method : {None, ‘backfill’/’bfill’, ‘pad’/’ffill’, ‘nearest’}, optional
method to use for filling holes in reindexed DataFrame. Please note: this is only
applicable to DataFrames/Series with a monotonically increasing/decreasing in-
dex.
• default: don’t fill gaps
• pad / ffill: propagate last valid observation forward to next valid
• backfill / bfill: use next valid observation to fill gap
• nearest: use nearest valid observations to fill gap
copy : boolean, default True
Return a new object, even if the passed indexes are the same
level : int or name
Broadcast across a level, matching Index values on the passed MultiIndex level
fill_value : scalar, default np.NaN
Value to use for missing values. Defaults to NaN, but can be any “compatible”
value
limit : int, default None
Maximum number of consecutive elements to forward or backward fill
tolerance : optional
Maximum distance between original and new labels for inexact matches.
The values of the index at the matching locations most satisfy the equation
abs(index[indexer] - target) <= tolerance.
Tolerance may be a scalar value, which applies the same tolerance to all values,
or list-like, which applies variable tolerance per element. List-like includes list,
tuple, array, Series, and must be the same size as the index and its dtype must
exactly match the index’s type.
New in version 0.17.0.
New in version 0.21.0: (list-like tolerance)
Returns reindexed : Panel

34.5. Panel 1675

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Examples

DataFrame.reindex supports two calling conventions

• (index=index_labels, columns=column_labels, ...)
• (labels, axis={'index', 'columns'}, ...)
We highly recommend using keyword arguments to clarify your intent.
Create a dataframe with some fictional data.
>>> index = ['Firefox', 'Chrome', 'Safari', 'IE10', 'Konqueror']
>>> df = pd.DataFrame({
... 'http_status': [200,200,404,404,301],
... 'response_time': [0.04, 0.02, 0.07, 0.08, 1.0]},
... index=index)
>>> df
http_status response_time
Firefox 200 0.04
Chrome 200 0.02
Safari 404 0.07
IE10 404 0.08
Konqueror 301 1.00

Create a new index and reindex the dataframe. By default values in the new index that do not have
corresponding records in the dataframe are assigned NaN.
>>> new_index= ['Safari', 'Iceweasel', 'Comodo Dragon', 'IE10',
... 'Chrome']
>>> df.reindex(new_index)
http_status response_time
Safari 404.0 0.07
Iceweasel NaN NaN
Comodo Dragon NaN NaN
IE10 404.0 0.08
Chrome 200.0 0.02

We can fill in the missing values by passing a value to the keyword fill_value. Because the index is
not monotonically increasing or decreasing, we cannot use arguments to the keyword method to fill the
NaN values.
>>> df.reindex(new_index, fill_value=0)
http_status response_time
Safari 404 0.07
Iceweasel 0 0.00
Comodo Dragon 0 0.00
IE10 404 0.08
Chrome 200 0.02

>>> df.reindex(new_index, fill_value='missing')

http_status response_time
Safari 404 0.07
Iceweasel missing missing
Comodo Dragon missing missing
IE10 404 0.08
Chrome 200 0.02

We can also reindex the columns.

1676 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

>>> df.reindex(columns=['http_status', 'user_agent'])

http_status user_agent
Firefox 200 NaN
Chrome 200 NaN
Safari 404 NaN
IE10 404 NaN
Konqueror 301 NaN

Or we can use “axis-style” keyword arguments

>>> df.reindex(['http_status', 'user_agent'], axis="columns")
http_status user_agent
Firefox 200 NaN
Chrome 200 NaN
Safari 404 NaN
IE10 404 NaN
Konqueror 301 NaN

To further illustrate the filling functionality in reindex, we will create a dataframe with a monotonically
increasing index (for example, a sequence of dates).
>>> date_index = pd.date_range('1/1/2010', periods=6, freq='D')
>>> df2 = pd.DataFrame({"prices": [100, 101, np.nan, 100, 89, 88]},
... index=date_index)
>>> df2
prices
2010-01-01 100
2010-01-02 101
2010-01-03 NaN
2010-01-04 100
2010-01-05 89
2010-01-06 88

Suppose we decide to expand the dataframe to cover a wider date range.

>>> date_index2 = pd.date_range('12/29/2009', periods=10, freq='D')
>>> df2.reindex(date_index2)
prices
2009-12-29 NaN
2009-12-30 NaN
2009-12-31 NaN
2010-01-01 100
2010-01-02 101
2010-01-03 NaN
2010-01-04 100
2010-01-05 89
2010-01-06 88
2010-01-07 NaN

The index entries that did not have a value in the original data frame (for example, ‘2009-12-29’) are by
default filled with NaN. If desired, we can fill in the missing values using one of several options.
For example, to backpropagate the last valid value to fill the NaN values, pass bfill as an argument to
the method keyword.
>>> df2.reindex(date_index2, method='bfill')
prices
2009-12-29 100

34.5. Panel 1677

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

2009-12-30 100
2009-12-31 100
2010-01-01 100
2010-01-02 101
2010-01-03 NaN
2010-01-04 100
2010-01-05 89
2010-01-06 88
2010-01-07 NaN

Please note that the NaN value present in the original dataframe (at index value 2010-01-03) will not be
filled by any of the value propagation schemes. This is because filling while reindexing does not look at
dataframe values, but only compares the original and desired indexes. If you do want to fill in the NaN
values present in the original dataframe, use the fillna() method.
See the user guide for more.

pandas.Panel.reindex_axis

Panel.reindex_axis(labels, axis=0, method=None, level=None, copy=True, limit=None,

fill_value=nan)
Conform input object to new index with optional filling logic, placing NA/NaN in locations having no
value in the previous index. A new object is produced unless the new index is equivalent to the current
one and copy=False
Parameters labels : array-like
New labels / index to conform to. Preferably an Index object to avoid duplicating
data
axis : {0, 1, 2, ‘items’, ‘major_axis’, ‘minor_axis’}
method : {None, ‘backfill’/’bfill’, ‘pad’/’ffill’, ‘nearest’}, optional
Method to use for filling holes in reindexed DataFrame:
• default: don’t fill gaps
• pad / ffill: propagate last valid observation forward to next valid
• backfill / bfill: use next valid observation to fill gap
• nearest: use nearest valid observations to fill gap
copy : boolean, default True
Return a new object, even if the passed indexes are the same
level : int or name
Broadcast across a level, matching Index values on the passed MultiIndex level
limit : int, default None
Maximum number of consecutive elements to forward or backward fill
tolerance : optional
Maximum distance between original and new labels for inexact matches.
The values of the index at the matching locations most satisfy the equation
abs(index[indexer] - target) <= tolerance.

1678 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Tolerance may be a scalar value, which applies the same tolerance to all values,
or list-like, which applies variable tolerance per element. List-like includes list,
tuple, array, Series, and must be the same size as the index and its dtype must
exactly match the index’s type.
New in version 0.17.0.
New in version 0.21.0: (list-like tolerance)
Returns reindexed : Panel
See also:
reindex, reindex_like

Examples

>>> df.reindex_axis(['A', 'B', 'C'], axis=1)

pandas.Panel.reindex_like

Panel.reindex_like(other, method=None, copy=True, limit=None, tolerance=None)

Return an object with matching indices to myself.
Parameters other : Object
method : string or None
copy : boolean, default True
limit : int, default None
Maximum number of consecutive labels to fill for inexact matches.
tolerance : optional
Maximum distance between labels of the other object and this object for inexact
matches. Can be list-like.
New in version 0.17.0.
New in version 0.21.0: (list-like tolerance)
Returns reindexed : same as input

Notes

Like calling s.reindex(index=other.index, columns=other.columns, method=...)

pandas.Panel.rename

Panel.rename(items=None, major_axis=None, minor_axis=None, **kwargs)

Alter axes input function or functions. Function / dict values must be unique (1-to-1). Labels not contained
in a dict / Series will be left as-is. Extra labels listed don’t throw an error. Alternatively, change Series.
name with a scalar value (Series only).
Parameters items, major_axis, minor_axis : scalar, list-like, dict-like or function, optional

34.5. Panel 1679

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Scalar or list-like will alter the Series.name attribute, and raise on DataFrame
or Panel. dict-like or functions are transformations to apply to that axis’ values
copy : boolean, default True
Also copy underlying data
inplace : boolean, default False
Whether to return a new Panel. If True then value of copy is ignored.
level : int or level name, default None
In case of a MultiIndex, only rename labels in the specified level.
Returns renamed : Panel (new object)
See also:
pandas.NDFrame.rename_axis

Examples

>>> s = pd.Series([1, 2, 3])

>>> s
0 1
1 2
2 3
dtype: int64
>>> s.rename("my_name") # scalar, changes Series.name
0 1
1 2
2 3
Name: my_name, dtype: int64
>>> s.rename(lambda x: x ** 2) # function, changes labels
0 1
1 2
4 3
dtype: int64
>>> s.rename({1: 3, 2: 5}) # mapping, changes labels
0 1
3 2
5 3
dtype: int64

Since DataFrame doesn’t have a .name attribute, only mapping-type arguments are allowed.

>>> df = pd.DataFrame({"A": [1, 2, 3], "B": [4, 5, 6]})

>>> df.rename(2)
Traceback (most recent call last):
...
TypeError: 'int' object is not callable

DataFrame.rename supports two calling conventions

• (index=index_mapper, columns=columns_mapper, ...)
• (mapper, axis={'index', 'columns'}, ...)
We highly recommend using keyword arguments to clarify your intent.

1680 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

>>> df.rename(index=str, columns={"A": "a", "B": "c"})

a c
0 1 4
1 2 5
2 3 6

>>> df.rename(index=str, columns={"A": "a", "C": "c"})

a B
0 1 4
1 2 5
2 3 6

Using axis-style parameters

>>> df.rename(str.lower, axis='columns')

a b
0 1 4
1 2 5
2 3 6

>>> df.rename({1: 2, 2: 4}, axis='index')

A B
0 1 4
2 2 5
4 3 6

See the user guide for more.

pandas.Panel.rename_axis

Panel.rename_axis(mapper, axis=0, copy=True, inplace=False)

Alter the name of the index or columns.
Parameters mapper : scalar, list-like, optional
Value to set the axis name attribute.
axis : int or string, default 0
copy : boolean, default True
Also copy underlying data
inplace : boolean, default False
Returns renamed : type of caller or None if inplace=True
See also:
pandas.Series.rename, pandas.DataFrame.rename, pandas.Index.rename

Notes

Prior to version 0.21.0, rename_axis could also be used to change the axis labels by passing a mapping
or scalar. This behavior is deprecated and will be removed in a future version. Use rename instead.

34.5. Panel 1681

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Examples

>>> df = pd.DataFrame({"A": [1, 2, 3], "B": [4, 5, 6]})

>>> df.rename_axis("foo")
A B
foo
0 1 4
1 2 5
2 3 6

>>> df.rename_axis("bar", axis="columns")

bar A B
0 1 4
1 2 5
2 3 6

pandas.Panel.replace

Panel.replace(to_replace=None, value=None, inplace=False, limit=None, regex=False,

method=’pad’, axis=None)
Replace values given in ‘to_replace’ with ‘value’.
Parameters to_replace : str, regex, list, dict, Series, numeric, or None
• str or regex:
– str: string exactly matching to_replace will be replaced with value
– regex: regexs matching to_replace will be replaced with value
• list of str, regex, or numeric:
– First, if to_replace and value are both lists, they must be the same length.
– Second, if regex=True then all of the strings in both lists will be in-
terpreted as regexs otherwise they will match directly. This doesn’t matter
much for value since there are only a few possible substitution regexes you
can use.
– str and regex rules apply as above.
• dict:
– Nested dictionaries, e.g., {‘a’: {‘b’: nan}}, are read as follows: look in
column ‘a’ for the value ‘b’ and replace it with nan. You can nest regular
expressions as well. Note that column names (the top-level dictionary keys
in a nested dictionary) cannot be regular expressions.
– Keys map to column names and values map to substitution values. You can
treat this as a special case of passing two lists except that you are specifying
the column to search in.
• None:
– This means that the regex argument must be a string, compiled regular
expression, or list, dict, ndarray or Series of such elements. If value is also
None then this must be a nested dictionary or Series.
See the examples section for examples of each of these.

1682 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

value : scalar, dict, list, str, regex, default None

Value to use to fill holes (e.g. 0), alternately a dict of values specifying which
value to use for each column (columns not in the dict will not be filled). Regular
expressions, strings and lists or dicts of such objects are also allowed.
inplace : boolean, default False
If True, in place. Note: this will modify any other views on this object (e.g. a
column from a DataFrame). Returns the caller if this is True.
limit : int, default None
Maximum size gap to forward or backward fill
regex : bool or same types as to_replace, default False
Whether to interpret to_replace and/or value as regular expressions. If this is
True then to_replace must be a string. Otherwise, to_replace must be None
because this parameter will be interpreted as a regular expression or a list, dict, or
array of regular expressions.
method : string, optional, {‘pad’, ‘ffill’, ‘bfill’}
The method to use when for replacement, when to_replace is a list.
Returns filled : NDFrame
Raises AssertionError
• If regex is not a bool and to_replace is not None.
TypeError
• If to_replace is a dict and value is not a list, dict, ndarray, or Series
• If to_replace is None and regex is not compilable into a regular expression or is a list,
dict, ndarray, or Series.
ValueError
• If to_replace and value are list s or ndarray s, but they are not the same length.
See also:
NDFrame.reindex, NDFrame.asfreq, NDFrame.fillna

Notes

• Regex substitution is performed under the hood with re.sub. The rules for substitution for re.
sub are the same.
• Regular expressions will only substitute on strings, meaning you cannot provide, for example, a
regular expression matching floating point numbers and expect the columns in your frame that have
a numeric dtype to be matched. However, if those floating point numbers are strings, then you can
do this.
• This method has a lot of options. You are encouraged to experiment and play with this method to
gain intuition about how it works.

34.5. Panel 1683

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

pandas.Panel.resample

Panel.resample(rule, how=None, axis=0, fill_method=None, closed=None, label=None, con-

vention=’start’, kind=None, loffset=None, limit=None, base=0, on=None,
level=None)
Convenience method for frequency conversion and resampling of time series. Object must have a
datetime-like index (DatetimeIndex, PeriodIndex, or TimedeltaIndex), or pass datetime-like values to
the on or level keyword.
Parameters rule : string
the offset string or object representing target conversion
axis : int, optional, default 0
closed : {‘right’, ‘left’}
Which side of bin interval is closed. The default is ‘left’ for all frequency offsets
except for ‘M’, ‘A’, ‘Q’, ‘BM’, ‘BA’, ‘BQ’, and ‘W’ which all have a default of
‘right’.
label : {‘right’, ‘left’}
Which bin edge label to label bucket with. The default is ‘left’ for all frequency
offsets except for ‘M’, ‘A’, ‘Q’, ‘BM’, ‘BA’, ‘BQ’, and ‘W’ which all have a
default of ‘right’.
convention : {‘start’, ‘end’, ‘s’, ‘e’}
For PeriodIndex only, controls whether to use the start or end of rule
loffset : timedelta
Adjust the resampled time labels
base : int, default 0
For frequencies that evenly subdivide 1 day, the “origin” of the aggregated in-
tervals. For example, for ‘5min’ frequency, base could range from 0 through 4.
Defaults to 0
on : string, optional
For a DataFrame, column to use instead of index for resampling. Column must
be datetime-like.
New in version 0.19.0.
level : string or int, optional
For a MultiIndex, level (name or number) to use for resampling. Level must be
datetime-like.
New in version 0.19.0.

Notes

To learn more about the offset strings, please see this link.

1684 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Examples

Start by creating a series with 9 one minute timestamps.

>>> index = pd.date_range('1/1/2000', periods=9, freq='T')

>>> series = pd.Series(range(9), index=index)
>>> series
2000-01-01 00:00:00 0
2000-01-01 00:01:00 1
2000-01-01 00:02:00 2
2000-01-01 00:03:00 3
2000-01-01 00:04:00 4
2000-01-01 00:05:00 5
2000-01-01 00:06:00 6
2000-01-01 00:07:00 7
2000-01-01 00:08:00 8
Freq: T, dtype: int64

Downsample the series into 3 minute bins and sum the values of the timestamps falling into a bin.

>>> series.resample('3T').sum()
2000-01-01 00:00:00 3
2000-01-01 00:03:00 12
2000-01-01 00:06:00 21
Freq: 3T, dtype: int64

Downsample the series into 3 minute bins as above, but label each bin using the right edge instead of the
left. Please note that the value in the bucket used as the label is not included in the bucket, which it labels.
For example, in the original series the bucket 2000-01-01 00:03:00 contains the value 3, but the
summed value in the resampled bucket with the label 2000-01-01 00:03:00 does not include 3 (if
it did, the summed value would be 6, not 3). To include this value close the right side of the bin interval
as illustrated in the example below this one.

>>> series.resample('3T', label='right').sum()

2000-01-01 00:03:00 3
2000-01-01 00:06:00 12
2000-01-01 00:09:00 21
Freq: 3T, dtype: int64

Downsample the series into 3 minute bins as above, but close the right side of the bin interval.

>>> series.resample('3T', label='right', closed='right').sum()

2000-01-01 00:00:00 0
2000-01-01 00:03:00 6
2000-01-01 00:06:00 15
2000-01-01 00:09:00 15
Freq: 3T, dtype: int64

Upsample the series into 30 second bins.

>>> series.resample('30S').asfreq()[0:5] #select first 5 rows

2000-01-01 00:00:00 0.0
2000-01-01 00:00:30 NaN
2000-01-01 00:01:00 1.0
2000-01-01 00:01:30 NaN
2000-01-01 00:02:00 2.0
Freq: 30S, dtype: float64

34.5. Panel 1685

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Upsample the series into 30 second bins and fill the NaN values using the pad method.
>>> series.resample('30S').pad()[0:5]
2000-01-01 00:00:00 0
2000-01-01 00:00:30 0
2000-01-01 00:01:00 1
2000-01-01 00:01:30 1
2000-01-01 00:02:00 2
Freq: 30S, dtype: int64

Upsample the series into 30 second bins and fill the NaN values using the bfill method.
>>> series.resample('30S').bfill()[0:5]
2000-01-01 00:00:00 0
2000-01-01 00:00:30 1
2000-01-01 00:01:00 1
2000-01-01 00:01:30 2
2000-01-01 00:02:00 2
Freq: 30S, dtype: int64

Pass a custom function via apply

>>> def custom_resampler(array_like):
... return np.sum(array_like)+5

>>> series.resample('3T').apply(custom_resampler)
2000-01-01 00:00:00 8
2000-01-01 00:03:00 17
2000-01-01 00:06:00 26
Freq: 3T, dtype: int64

For a Series with a PeriodIndex, the keyword convention can be used to control whether to use the start or
end of rule.
>>> s = pd.Series([1, 2], index=pd.period_range('2012-01-01',
freq='A',
periods=2))
>>> s
2012 1
2013 2
Freq: A-DEC, dtype: int64

Resample by month using ‘start’ convention. Values are assigned to the first month of the period.
>>> s.resample('M', convention='start').asfreq().head()
2012-01 1.0
2012-02 NaN
2012-03 NaN
2012-04 NaN
2012-05 NaN
Freq: M, dtype: float64

Resample by month using ‘end’ convention. Values are assigned to the last month of the period.
>>> s.resample('M', convention='end').asfreq()
2012-12 1.0
2013-01 NaN
2013-02 NaN

1686 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

2013-03 NaN
2013-04 NaN
2013-05 NaN
2013-06 NaN
2013-07 NaN
2013-08 NaN
2013-09 NaN
2013-10 NaN
2013-11 NaN
2013-12 2.0
Freq: M, dtype: float64

For DataFrame objects, the keyword on can be used to specify the column instead of the index for resam-
pling.

>>> df = pd.DataFrame(data=9*[range(4)], columns=['a', 'b', 'c', 'd'])

>>> df['time'] = pd.date_range('1/1/2000', periods=9, freq='T')
>>> df.resample('3T', on='time').sum()
a b c d
time
2000-01-01 00:00:00 0 3 6 9
2000-01-01 00:03:00 0 3 6 9
2000-01-01 00:06:00 0 3 6 9

For a DataFrame with MultiIndex, the keyword level can be used to specify on level the resampling
needs to take place.

>>> time = pd.date_range('1/1/2000', periods=5, freq='T')

>>> df2 = pd.DataFrame(data=10*[range(4)],
columns=['a', 'b', 'c', 'd'],
index=pd.MultiIndex.from_product([time, [1, 2]])
)
>>> df2.resample('3T', level=0).sum()
a b c d
2000-01-01 00:00:00 0 6 12 18
2000-01-01 00:03:00 0 4 8 12

pandas.Panel.rfloordiv

Panel.rfloordiv(other, axis=0)
Integer division of series and other, element-wise (binary operator rfloordiv). Equivalent to other //
panel.
Parameters other : DataFrame or Panel
axis : {items, major_axis, minor_axis}
Axis to broadcast over
Returns Panel
See also:
Panel.floordiv

34.5. Panel 1687

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

pandas.Panel.rmod

Panel.rmod(other, axis=0)
Modulo of series and other, element-wise (binary operator rmod). Equivalent to other % panel.
Parameters other : DataFrame or Panel
axis : {items, major_axis, minor_axis}
Axis to broadcast over
Returns Panel
See also:
Panel.mod

pandas.Panel.rmul

Panel.rmul(other, axis=0)
Multiplication of series and other, element-wise (binary operator rmul). Equivalent to other * panel.
Parameters other : DataFrame or Panel
axis : {items, major_axis, minor_axis}
Axis to broadcast over
Returns Panel
See also:
Panel.mul

pandas.Panel.round

Panel.round(decimals=0, *args, **kwargs)

Round each value in Panel to a specified number of decimal places.
New in version 0.18.0.
Parameters decimals : int
Number of decimal places to round to (default: 0). If decimals is negative, it
specifies the number of positions to the left of the decimal point.
Returns Panel object
See also:
numpy.around

pandas.Panel.rpow

Panel.rpow(other, axis=0)
Exponential power of series and other, element-wise (binary operator rpow). Equivalent to other **
panel.
Parameters other : DataFrame or Panel
axis : {items, major_axis, minor_axis}

1688 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Axis to broadcast over

Returns Panel
See also:
Panel.pow

pandas.Panel.rsub

Panel.rsub(other, axis=0)
Subtraction of series and other, element-wise (binary operator rsub). Equivalent to other - panel.
Parameters other : DataFrame or Panel
axis : {items, major_axis, minor_axis}
Axis to broadcast over
Returns Panel
See also:
Panel.sub

pandas.Panel.rtruediv

Panel.rtruediv(other, axis=0)
Floating division of series and other, element-wise (binary operator rtruediv). Equivalent to other /
panel.
Parameters other : DataFrame or Panel
axis : {items, major_axis, minor_axis}
Axis to broadcast over
Returns Panel
See also:
Panel.truediv

pandas.Panel.sample

Panel.sample(n=None, frac=None, replace=False, weights=None, random_state=None,

axis=None)
Returns a random sample of items from an axis of object.
Parameters n : int, optional
Number of items from axis to return. Cannot be used with frac. Default = 1 if
frac = None.
frac : float, optional
Fraction of axis items to return. Cannot be used with n.
replace : boolean, optional
Sample with or without replacement. Default = False.

34.5. Panel 1689

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

weights : str or ndarray-like, optional

Default ‘None’ results in equal probability weighting. If passed a Series, will
align with target object on index. Index values in weights not found in sampled
object will be ignored and index values in sampled object not in weights will be
assigned weights of zero. If called on a DataFrame, will accept the name of a
column when axis = 0. Unless weights are a Series, weights must be same length
as axis being sampled. If weights do not sum to 1, they will be normalized to sum
to 1. Missing values in the weights column will be treated as zero. inf and -inf
values not allowed.
random_state : int or numpy.random.RandomState, optional
Seed for the random number generator (if int), or numpy RandomState object.
axis : int or string, optional
Axis to sample. Accepts axis number or name. Default is stat axis for given data
type (0 for Series and DataFrames, 1 for Panels).
Returns A new object of same type as caller.

Examples

Generate an example Series and DataFrame:

>>> s = pd.Series(np.random.randn(50))
>>> s.head()
0 -0.038497
1 1.820773
2 -0.972766
3 -1.598270
4 -1.095526
dtype: float64
>>> df = pd.DataFrame(np.random.randn(50, 4), columns=list('ABCD'))
>>> df.head()
A B C D
0 0.016443 -2.318952 -0.566372 -1.028078
1 -1.051921 0.438836 0.658280 -0.175797
2 -1.243569 -0.364626 -0.215065 0.057736
3 1.768216 0.404512 -0.385604 -1.457834
4 1.072446 -1.137172 0.314194 -0.046661

Next extract a random sample from both of these objects...

3 random elements from the Series:

>>> s.sample(n=3)
27 -0.994689
55 -1.049016
67 -0.224565
dtype: float64

And a random 10% of the DataFrame with replacement:

>>> df.sample(frac=0.1, replace=True)

A B C D
35 1.981780 0.142106 1.817165 -0.290805
49 -1.336199 -0.448634 -0.789640 0.217116

1690 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

40 0.823173 -0.078816 1.009536 1.015108

15 1.421154 -0.055301 -1.922594 -0.019696
6 -0.148339 0.832938 1.787600 -1.383767

pandas.Panel.select

Panel.select(crit, axis=0)
Return data corresponding to axis labels matching criteria
DEPRECATED: use df.loc[df.index.map(crit)] to select via labels
Parameters crit : function
To be called on each index (label). Should return True or False
axis : int
Returns selection : type of caller

pandas.Panel.sem

Panel.sem(axis=None, skipna=None, level=None, ddof=1, numeric_only=None, **kwargs)

Return unbiased standard error of the mean over requested axis.
Normalized by N-1 by default. This can be changed using the ddof argument
Parameters axis : {items (0), major_axis (1), minor_axis (2)}
skipna : boolean, default True
Exclude NA/null values. If an entire row/column is NA, the result will be NA
level : int or level name, default None
If the axis is a MultiIndex (hierarchical), count along a particular level, collapsing
into a DataFrame
ddof : int, default 1
degrees of freedom
numeric_only : boolean, default None
Include only float, int, boolean columns. If None, will attempt to use everything,
then use only numeric data. Not implemented for Series.
Returns sem : DataFrame or Panel (if level specified)

pandas.Panel.set_axis

Panel.set_axis(labels, axis=0, inplace=None)

Assign desired index to given axis
Parameters labels: list-like or Index
The values for the new index
axis : int or string, default 0
inplace : boolean, default None

34.5. Panel 1691

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Whether to return a new NDFrame instance.

WARNING: inplace=None currently falls back to to True, but in a future ver-
sion, will default to False. Use inplace=True explicitly rather than relying on the
default.
.. versionadded:: 0.21.0
The signature is make consistent to the rest of the API. Previously, the “axis” and
“labels” arguments were respectively the first and second positional arguments.
Returns renamed : NDFrame or None
An object of same type as caller if inplace=False, None otherwise.
See also:
pandas.NDFrame.rename

Examples

>>> s = pd.Series([1, 2, 3])

>>> s
0 1
1 2
2 3
dtype: int64
>>> s.set_axis(['a', 'b', 'c'], axis=0, inplace=False)
a 1
b 2
c 3
dtype: int64
>>> df = pd.DataFrame({"A": [1, 2, 3], "B": [4, 5, 6]})
>>> df.set_axis(['a', 'b', 'c'], axis=0, inplace=False)
A B
a 1 4
b 2 5
c 3 6
>>> df.set_axis(['I', 'II'], axis=1, inplace=False)
I II
0 1 4
1 2 5
2 3 6
>>> df.set_axis(['i', 'ii'], axis=1, inplace=True)
>>> df
i ii
0 1 4
1 2 5
2 3 6

pandas.Panel.set_value

Panel.set_value(*args, **kwargs)
Quickly set single value at (item, major, minor) location
Deprecated since version 0.21.0.
Please use .at[] or .iat[] accessors.

1692 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Parameters item : item label (panel item)

major : major axis label (panel item row)
minor : minor axis label (panel item column)
value : scalar
takeable : interpret the passed labels as indexers, default False
Returns panel : Panel
If label combo is contained, will be reference to calling Panel, otherwise a new
object

pandas.Panel.shift

Panel.shift(periods=1, freq=None, axis=’major’)

Shift index by desired number of periods with an optional time freq. The shifted data will not include the
dropped periods and the shifted axis will be smaller than the original. This is different from the behavior
of DataFrame.shift()
Parameters periods : int
Number of periods to move, can be positive or negative
freq : DateOffset, timedelta, or time rule string, optional
axis : {‘items’, ‘major’, ‘minor’} or {0, 1, 2}
Returns shifted : Panel

pandas.Panel.skew

Panel.skew(axis=None, skipna=None, level=None, numeric_only=None, **kwargs)

Return unbiased skew over requested axis Normalized by N-1
Parameters axis : {items (0), major_axis (1), minor_axis (2)}
skipna : boolean, default True
Exclude NA/null values. If an entire row/column is NA or empty, the result will
be NA
level : int or level name, default None
If the axis is a MultiIndex (hierarchical), count along a particular level, collapsing
into a DataFrame
numeric_only : boolean, default None
Include only float, int, boolean columns. If None, will attempt to use everything,
then use only numeric data. Not implemented for Series.
Returns skew : DataFrame or Panel (if level specified)

pandas.Panel.slice_shift

Panel.slice_shift(periods=1, axis=0)
Equivalent to shift without copying data. The shifted data will not include the dropped periods and the
shifted axis will be smaller than the original.

34.5. Panel 1693

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Parameters periods : int

Number of periods to move, can be positive or negative
Returns shifted : same type as caller

Notes

While the slice_shift is faster than shift, you may pay for it later during alignment.

pandas.Panel.sort_index

Panel.sort_index(axis=0, level=None, ascending=True, inplace=False, kind=’quicksort’,

na_position=’last’, sort_remaining=True)
Sort object by labels (along an axis)
Parameters axis : axes to direct sorting
level : int or level name or list of ints or list of level names
if not None, sort on values in specified index level(s)
ascending : boolean, default True
Sort ascending vs. descending
inplace : bool, default False
if True, perform operation in-place
kind : {‘quicksort’, ‘mergesort’, ‘heapsort’}, default ‘quicksort’
Choice of sorting algorithm. See also ndarray.np.sort for more information.
mergesort is the only stable algorithm. For DataFrames, this option is only ap-
plied when sorting on a single column or label.
na_position : {‘first’, ‘last’}, default ‘last’
first puts NaNs at the beginning, last puts NaNs at the end. Not implemented for
MultiIndex.
sort_remaining : bool, default True
if true and sorting by level and index is multilevel, sort by other levels too (in
order) after sorting by specified level
Returns sorted_obj : NDFrame

pandas.Panel.sort_values

Panel.sort_values(by=None, axis=0, ascending=True, inplace=False, kind=’quicksort’,

na_position=’last’)
NOT IMPLEMENTED: do not call this method, as sorting values is not supported for Panel objects and
will raise an error.

1694 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

pandas.Panel.squeeze

Panel.squeeze(axis=None)
Squeeze length 1 dimensions.
Parameters axis : None, integer or string axis name, optional
The axis to squeeze if 1-sized.
New in version 0.20.0.
Returns scalar if 1-sized, else original object

pandas.Panel.std

Panel.std(axis=None, skipna=None, level=None, ddof=1, numeric_only=None, **kwargs)

Return sample standard deviation over requested axis.
Normalized by N-1 by default. This can be changed using the ddof argument
Parameters axis : {items (0), major_axis (1), minor_axis (2)}
skipna : boolean, default True
Exclude NA/null values. If an entire row/column is NA, the result will be NA
level : int or level name, default None
If the axis is a MultiIndex (hierarchical), count along a particular level, collapsing
into a DataFrame
ddof : int, default 1
degrees of freedom
numeric_only : boolean, default None
Include only float, int, boolean columns. If None, will attempt to use everything,
then use only numeric data. Not implemented for Series.
Returns std : DataFrame or Panel (if level specified)

pandas.Panel.sub

Panel.sub(other, axis=0)
Subtraction of series and other, element-wise (binary operator sub). Equivalent to panel - other.
Parameters other : DataFrame or Panel
axis : {items, major_axis, minor_axis}
Axis to broadcast over
Returns Panel
See also:
Panel.rsub

34.5. Panel 1695

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

pandas.Panel.subtract

Panel.subtract(other, axis=0)
Subtraction of series and other, element-wise (binary operator sub). Equivalent to panel - other.
Parameters other : DataFrame or Panel
axis : {items, major_axis, minor_axis}
Axis to broadcast over
Returns Panel
See also:
Panel.rsub

pandas.Panel.sum

Panel.sum(axis=None, skipna=None, level=None, numeric_only=None, **kwargs)

Return the sum of the values for the requested axis
Parameters axis : {items (0), major_axis (1), minor_axis (2)}
skipna : boolean, default True
Exclude NA/null values. If an entire row/column is NA or empty, the result will
be NA
level : int or level name, default None
If the axis is a MultiIndex (hierarchical), count along a particular level, collapsing
into a DataFrame
numeric_only : boolean, default None
Include only float, int, boolean columns. If None, will attempt to use everything,
then use only numeric data. Not implemented for Series.
Returns sum : DataFrame or Panel (if level specified)

pandas.Panel.swapaxes

Panel.swapaxes(axis1, axis2, copy=True)

Interchange axes and swap values axes appropriately
Returns y : same as input

pandas.Panel.swaplevel

Panel.swaplevel(i=-2, j=-1, axis=0)

Swap levels i and j in a MultiIndex on a particular axis
Parameters i, j : int, string (can be mixed)
Level of index to be swapped. Can pass level name as string.

1696 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Returns swapped : type of caller (new object)

Changed in version 0.18.1: The indexes i and j are now optional, and default to the two
innermost levels of the index.

pandas.Panel.tail

Panel.tail(n=5)

pandas.Panel.take

Panel.take(indices, axis=0, convert=None, is_copy=True, **kwargs)

Return the elements in the given positional indices along an axis.
This means that we are not indexing according to actual values in the index attribute of the object. We are
indexing according to the actual position of the element in the object.
Parameters indices : array-like
An array of ints indicating which positions to take.
axis : int, default 0
The axis on which to select elements. “0” means that we are selecting rows, “1”
means that we are selecting columns, etc.
convert : bool, default True
Deprecated since version 0.21.0: In the future, negative indices will always be
converted.
Whether to convert negative indices into positive ones. For example, -1 would
map to the len(axis) - 1. The conversions are similar to the behavior of
indexing a regular Python list.
is_copy : bool, default True
Whether to return a copy of the original object or not.
Returns taken : type of caller
An array-like containing the elements taken from the object.
See also:
numpy.ndarray.take, numpy.take

Examples

>>> df = pd.DataFrame([('falcon', 'bird', 389.0),

('parrot', 'bird', 24.0),
('lion', 'mammal', 80.5),
('monkey', 'mammal', np.nan)],
columns=('name', 'class', 'max_speed'),
index=[0, 2, 3, 1])
>>> df
name class max_speed
0 falcon bird 389.0
2 parrot bird 24.0

34.5. Panel 1697

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

3 lion mammal 80.5

1 monkey mammal NaN

Take elements at positions 0 and 3 along the axis 0 (default).

Note how the actual indices selected (0 and 1) do not correspond to our selected indices 0 and 3. That’s
because we are selecting the 0th and 3rd rows, not rows whose indices equal 0 and 3.

>>> df.take([0, 3])

0 falcon bird 389.0
1 monkey mammal NaN

Take elements at indices 1 and 2 along the axis 1 (column selection).

>>> df.take([1, 2], axis=1)

class max_speed
0 bird 389.0
2 bird 24.0
3 mammal 80.5
1 mammal NaN

We may take elements using negative integers for positive indices, starting from the end of the object, just
like with Python lists.

>>> df.take([-1, -2])

name class max_speed
1 monkey mammal NaN
3 lion mammal 80.5

pandas.Panel.toLong

Panel.toLong(*args, **kwargs)

pandas.Panel.to_clipboard

Panel.to_clipboard(excel=None, sep=None, **kwargs)

Attempt to write text representation of object to the system clipboard This can be pasted into Excel, for
example.
Parameters excel : boolean, defaults to True
if True, use the provided separator, writing in a csv format for allowing easy past-
ing into excel. if False, write a string representation of the object to the clipboard
sep : optional, defaults to tab
other keywords are passed to to_csv

Notes

Requirements for your platform

• Linux: xclip, or xsel (with gtk or PyQt4 modules)
• Windows: none

1698 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• OS X: none

pandas.Panel.to_dense

Panel.to_dense()
Return dense representation of NDFrame (as opposed to sparse)

pandas.Panel.to_excel

Panel.to_excel(path, na_rep=’‘, engine=None, **kwargs)

Write each DataFrame in Panel to a separate excel sheet
Parameters path : string or ExcelWriter object
File path or existing ExcelWriter
na_rep : string, default ‘’
Missing data representation
engine : string, default None
write engine to use - you can also set this via the options io.excel.xlsx.
writer, io.excel.xls.writer, and io.excel.xlsm.writer.
Other Parameters float_format : string, default None
Format string for floating point numbers
cols : sequence, optional
Columns to write
header : boolean or list of string, default True
Write out column names. If a list of string is given it is assumed to be aliases for
the column names
index : boolean, default True
Write row names (index)
index_label : string or sequence, default None
Column label for index column(s) if desired. If None is given, and header and
index are True, then the index names are used. A sequence should be given if the
DataFrame uses MultiIndex.
startrow : upper left cell row to dump data frame
startcol : upper left cell column to dump data frame

Notes

Keyword arguments (and na_rep) are passed to the to_excel method for each DataFrame written.

34.5. Panel 1699

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

pandas.Panel.to_frame

Panel.to_frame(filter_observations=True)
Transform wide format into long (stacked) format as DataFrame whose columns are the Panel’s items and
whose index is a MultiIndex formed of the Panel’s major and minor axes.
Parameters filter_observations : boolean, default True
Drop (major, minor) pairs without a complete set of observations across all the
items
Returns y : DataFrame

pandas.Panel.to_hdf

Panel.to_hdf(path_or_buf, key, **kwargs)

Write the contained data to an HDF5 file using HDFStore.
Parameters path_or_buf : the path (string) or HDFStore object
key : string
identifier for the group in the store
mode : optional, {‘a’, ‘w’, ‘r+’}, default ‘a’
'w' Write; a new file is created (an existing file with the same name would be
deleted).
'a' Append; an existing file is opened for reading and writing, and if the file
does not exist it is created.
'r+' It is similar to 'a', but the file must already exist.
format : ‘fixed(f)|table(t)’, default is ‘fixed’
fixed(f) [Fixed format] Fast writing/reading. Not-appendable, nor searchable
table(t) [Table format] Write as a PyTables Table structure which may perform
worse but allow more flexible operations like searching / selecting subsets of
the data
append : boolean, default False
For Table formats, append the input data to the existing
data_columns : list of columns, or True, default None
List of columns to create as indexed data columns for on-disk queries, or True to
use all columns. By default only the axes of the object are indexed. See here.
Applicable only to format=’table’.
complevel : int, 0-9, default None
Specifies a compression level for data. A value of 0 disables compression.
complib : {‘zlib’, ‘lzo’, ‘bzip2’, ‘blosc’}, default ‘zlib’
Specifies the compression library to be used. As of v0.20.2 these addi-
tional compressors for Blosc are supported (default if no compressor speci-
fied: ‘blosc:blosclz’): {‘blosc:blosclz’, ‘blosc:lz4’, ‘blosc:lz4hc’, ‘blosc:snappy’,
‘blosc:zlib’, ‘blosc:zstd’}. Specifying a compression library which is not avail-
able issues a ValueError.

1700 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

fletcher32 : bool, default False

If applying compression use the fletcher32 checksum
dropna : boolean, default False.
If true, ALL nan rows will not be written to store.

pandas.Panel.to_json

Panel.to_json(path_or_buf=None, orient=None, date_format=None, double_precision=10,

force_ascii=True, date_unit=’ms’, default_handler=None, lines=False, compres-
sion=None)
Convert the object to a JSON string.
Note NaN’s and None will be converted to null and datetime objects will be converted to UNIX times-
tamps.
Parameters path_or_buf : the path or buffer to write the result string
if this is None, return the converted string
orient : string
• Series
– default is ‘index’
– allowed values are: {‘split’,’records’,’index’}
• DataFrame
– default is ‘columns’
– allowed values are: {‘split’,’records’,’index’,’columns’,’values’}
• The format of the JSON string
– split : dict like {index -> [index], columns -> [columns], data -> [values]}
– records : list like [{column -> value}, ... , {column -> value}]
– index : dict like {index -> {column -> value}}
– columns : dict like {column -> {index -> value}}
– values : just the values array
– table : dict like {‘schema’: {schema}, ‘data’: {data}} describing the data, and the
data component is like orient='records'.
Changed in version 0.20.0.
date_format : {None, ‘epoch’, ‘iso’}
Type of date conversion. epoch = epoch milliseconds, iso = ISO8601. The default
depends on the orient. For orient=’table’, the default is ‘iso’. For all other orients,
the default is ‘epoch’.
double_precision : The number of decimal places to use when encoding
floating point values, default 10.
force_ascii : force encoded string to be ASCII, default True.
date_unit : string, default ‘ms’ (milliseconds)

34.5. Panel 1701

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

The time unit to encode to, governs timestamp and ISO8601 precision. One of
‘s’, ‘ms’, ‘us’, ‘ns’ for second, millisecond, microsecond, and nanosecond re-
spectively.
default_handler : callable, default None
Handler to call if object cannot otherwise be converted to a suitable format for
JSON. Should receive a single argument which is the object to convert and return
a serialisable object.
lines : boolean, default False
If ‘orient’ is ‘records’ write out line delimited json format. Will throw ValueError
if incorrect ‘orient’ since others are not list like.
New in version 0.19.0.
compression : {None, ‘gzip’, ‘bz2’, ‘xz’}
A string representing the compression to use in the output file, only used when
the first argument is a filename
New in version 0.21.0.
Returns same type as input object with filtered info axis
See also:
pd.read_json

Examples

>>> df = pd.DataFrame([['a', 'b'], ['c', 'd']],

... index=['row 1', 'row 2'],
... columns=['col 1', 'col 2'])
>>> df.to_json(orient='split')
'{"columns":["col 1","col 2"],
"index":["row 1","row 2"],
"data":[["a","b"],["c","d"]]}'

Encoding/decoding a Dataframe using 'index' formatted JSON:

>>> df.to_json(orient='index')
'{"row 1":{"col 1":"a","col 2":"b"},"row 2":{"col 1":"c","col 2":"d"}}'

Encoding/decoding a Dataframe using 'records' formatted JSON. Note that index labels are not pre-
served with this encoding.

>>> df.to_json(orient='records')
'[{"col 1":"a","col 2":"b"},{"col 1":"c","col 2":"d"}]'

Encoding with Table Schema

>>> df.to_json(orient='table')
'{"schema": {"fields": [{"name": "index", "type": "string"},
{"name": "col 1", "type": "string"},
{"name": "col 2", "type": "string"}],
"primaryKey": "index",
"pandas_version": "0.20.0"},

1702 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

"data": [{"index": "row 1", "col 1": "a", "col 2": "b"},
{"index": "row 2", "col 1": "c", "col 2": "d"}]}'

pandas.Panel.to_latex

Panel.to_latex(buf=None, columns=None, col_space=None, header=True, index=True,

na_rep=’NaN’, formatters=None, float_format=None, sparsify=None, in-
dex_names=True, bold_rows=False, column_format=None, longtable=None,
escape=None, encoding=None, decimal=’.’, multicolumn=None, multicol-
umn_format=None, multirow=None)
Render an object to a tabular environment table. You can splice this into a LaTeX document. Requires
\usepackage{booktabs}.
Changed in version 0.20.2: Added to Series
to_latex-specific options:
bold_rows [boolean, default False] Make the row labels bold in the output
column_format [str, default None] The columns format as specified in LaTeX table format e.g ‘rcl’ for
3 columns
longtable [boolean, default will be read from the pandas config module] Default: False. Use a longtable
environment instead of tabular. Requires adding a \usepackage{longtable} to your LaTeX preamble.
escape [boolean, default will be read from the pandas config module] Default: True. When set to False
prevents from escaping latex special characters in column names.
encoding [str, default None] A string representing the encoding to use in the output file, defaults to ‘ascii’
on Python 2 and ‘utf-8’ on Python 3.
decimal [string, default ‘.’] Character recognized as decimal separator, e.g. ‘,’ in Europe.
New in version 0.18.0.
multicolumn [boolean, default True] Use multicolumn to enhance MultiIndex columns. The default will
be read from the config module.
New in version 0.20.0.
multicolumn_format [str, default ‘l’] The alignment for multicolumns, similar to column_format The
default will be read from the config module.
New in version 0.20.0.
multirow [boolean, default False] Use multirow to enhance MultiIndex rows. Requires adding a \usepa-
ckage{multirow} to your LaTeX preamble. Will print centered labels (instead of top-aligned) across
the contained rows, separating groups via clines. The default will be read from the pandas config
module.
New in version 0.20.0.

pandas.Panel.to_long

Panel.to_long(*args, **kwargs)

34.5. Panel 1703

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

pandas.Panel.to_msgpack

Panel.to_msgpack(path_or_buf=None, encoding=’utf-8’, **kwargs)

msgpack (serialize) object to input file path
THIS IS AN EXPERIMENTAL LIBRARY and the storage format may not be stable until a future release.
Parameters path : string File path, buffer-like, or None
if None, return generated string
append : boolean whether to append to an existing msgpack
(default is False)
compress : type of compressor (zlib or blosc), default to None (no
compression)

pandas.Panel.to_pickle

Panel.to_pickle(path, compression=’infer’, protocol=4)

Pickle (serialize) object to input file path.
Parameters path : string
File path
compression : {‘infer’, ‘gzip’, ‘bz2’, ‘xz’, None}, default ‘infer’
a string representing the compression to use in the output file
New in version 0.20.0.
protocol : int
Int which indicates which protocol should be used by the pickler, default HIGH-
EST_PROTOCOL (see [1], paragraph 12.1.2). The possible values for this pa-
rameter depend on the version of Python. For Python 2.x, possible values are
0, 1, 2. For Python>=3.0, 3 is a valid value. For Python >= 3.4, 4 is a valid
value.A negative value for the protocol parameter is equivalent to setting its value
to HIGHEST_PROTOCOL.
New in version 0.21.0.

pandas.Panel.to_sparse

Panel.to_sparse(*args, **kwargs)
NOT IMPLEMENTED: do not call this method, as sparsifying is not supported for Panel objects and will
raise an error.
Convert to SparsePanel

pandas.Panel.to_sql

Panel.to_sql(name, con, flavor=None, schema=None, if_exists=’fail’, index=True, in-

dex_label=None, chunksize=None, dtype=None)
Write records stored in a DataFrame to a SQL database.

1704 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Parameters name : string

Name of SQL table
con : SQLAlchemy engine or DBAPI2 connection (legacy mode)
Using SQLAlchemy makes it possible to use any DB supported by that library. If
a DBAPI2 object, only sqlite3 is supported.
flavor : ‘sqlite’, default None
Deprecated since version 0.19.0: ‘sqlite’ is the only supported option if
SQLAlchemy is not used.
schema : string, default None
Specify the schema (if database flavor supports this). If None, use default schema.
if_exists : {‘fail’, ‘replace’, ‘append’}, default ‘fail’
• fail: If table exists, do nothing.
• replace: If table exists, drop it, recreate it, and insert data.
• append: If table exists, insert data. Create if does not exist.
index : boolean, default True
Write DataFrame index as a column.
index_label : string or sequence, default None
Column label for index column(s). If None is given (default) and index is True,
then the index names are used. A sequence should be given if the DataFrame uses
MultiIndex.
chunksize : int, default None
If not None, then rows will be written in batches of this size at a time. If None,
all rows will be written at once.
dtype : dict of column name to SQL type, default None
Optional specifying the datatype for columns. The SQL type should be a
SQLAlchemy type, or a string for sqlite3 fallback connection.

pandas.Panel.to_xarray

Panel.to_xarray()
Return an xarray object from the pandas object.
Returns a DataArray for a Series
a Dataset for a DataFrame
a DataArray for higher dims

Notes

See the xarray docs

34.5. Panel 1705

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Examples

>>> df = pd.DataFrame({'A' : [1, 1, 2],

'B' : ['foo', 'bar', 'foo'],
'C' : np.arange(4.,7)})
>>> df
A B C
0 1 foo 4.0
1 1 bar 5.0
2 2 foo 6.0

>>> df.to_xarray()
<xarray.Dataset>
Dimensions: (index: 3)
Coordinates:
* index (index) int64 0 1 2
Data variables:
A (index) int64 1 1 2
B (index) object 'foo' 'bar' 'foo'
C (index) float64 4.0 5.0 6.0

>>> df = pd.DataFrame({'A' : [1, 1, 2],

'B' : ['foo', 'bar', 'foo'],
'C' : np.arange(4.,7)}
).set_index(['B','A'])
>>> df
C
B A
foo 1 4.0
bar 1 5.0
foo 2 6.0

>>> df.to_xarray()
<xarray.Dataset>
Dimensions: (A: 2, B: 2)
Coordinates:
* B (B) object 'bar' 'foo'
* A (A) int64 1 2
Data variables:
C (B, A) float64 5.0 nan 4.0 6.0

>>> p = pd.Panel(np.arange(24).reshape(4,3,2),
items=list('ABCD'),
major_axis=pd.date_range('20130101', periods=3),
minor_axis=['first', 'second'])
>>> p
<class 'pandas.core.panel.Panel'>
Dimensions: 4 (items) x 3 (major_axis) x 2 (minor_axis)
Items axis: A to D
Major_axis axis: 2013-01-01 00:00:00 to 2013-01-03 00:00:00
Minor_axis axis: first to second

>>> p.to_xarray()
<xarray.DataArray (items: 4, major_axis: 3, minor_axis: 2)>
array([[[ 0, 1],
[ 2, 3],

1706 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

[ 4, 5]],
[[ 6, 7],
[ 8, 9],
[10, 11]],
[[12, 13],
[14, 15],
[16, 17]],
[[18, 19],
[20, 21],
[22, 23]]])
Coordinates:
* items (items) object 'A' 'B' 'C' 'D'
* major_axis (major_axis) datetime64[ns] 2013-01-01 2013-01-02 2013-01-03
˓→ # noqa

* minor_axis (minor_axis) object 'first' 'second'

pandas.Panel.transpose

Panel.transpose(*args, **kwargs)
Permute the dimensions of the Panel

Parameters args : three positional arguments: each oneof

{0, 1, 2, ‘items’, ‘major_axis’, ‘minor_axis’}
copy [boolean, default False] Make a copy of the underlying data. Mixed-dtype
data will always result in a copy
Returns y : same as input

Examples

>>> p.transpose(2, 0, 1)
>>> p.transpose(2, 0, 1, copy=True)

pandas.Panel.truediv

Panel.truediv(other, axis=0)
Floating division of series and other, element-wise (binary operator truediv). Equivalent to panel /
other.
Parameters other : DataFrame or Panel
axis : {items, major_axis, minor_axis}
Axis to broadcast over
Returns Panel
See also:
Panel.rtruediv

34.5. Panel 1707

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

pandas.Panel.truncate

Panel.truncate(before=None, after=None, axis=None, copy=True)

Truncates a sorted DataFrame/Series before and/or after some particular index value. If the axis contains
only datetime values, before/after parameters are converted to datetime values.
Parameters before : date, string, int
Truncate all rows before this index value
after : date, string, int
Truncate all rows after this index value
axis : {0 or ‘index’, 1 or ‘columns’}
• 0 or ‘index’: apply truncation to rows
• 1 or ‘columns’: apply truncation to columns
Default is stat axis for given data type (0 for Series and DataFrames, 1 for Panels)
copy : boolean, default is True,
return a copy of the truncated section
Returns truncated : type of caller

Examples

>>> df = pd.DataFrame({'A': ['a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'e'],

... 'B': ['f', 'g', 'h', 'i', 'j'],
... 'C': ['k', 'l', 'm', 'n', 'o']},
... index=[1, 2, 3, 4, 5])
>>> df.truncate(before=2, after=4)
A B C
2 b g l
3 c h m
4 d i n
>>> df = pd.DataFrame({'A': [1, 2, 3, 4, 5],
... 'B': [6, 7, 8, 9, 10],
... 'C': [11, 12, 13, 14, 15]},
... index=['a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'e'])
>>> df.truncate(before='b', after='d')
A B C
b 2 7 12
c 3 8 13
d 4 9 14

The index values in truncate can be datetimes or string dates. Note that truncate assumes a 0
value for any unspecified date component in a DatetimeIndex in contrast to slicing which returns any
partially matching dates.

>>> dates = pd.date_range('2016-01-01', '2016-02-01', freq='s')

>>> df = pd.DataFrame(index=dates, data={'A': 1})
>>> df.truncate('2016-01-05', '2016-01-10').tail()
A
2016-01-09 23:59:56 1
2016-01-09 23:59:57 1
2016-01-09 23:59:58 1

1708 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

2016-01-09 23:59:59 1
2016-01-10 00:00:00 1
>>> df.loc['2016-01-05':'2016-01-10', :].tail()
A
2016-01-10 23:59:55 1
2016-01-10 23:59:56 1
2016-01-10 23:59:57 1
2016-01-10 23:59:58 1
2016-01-10 23:59:59 1

pandas.Panel.tshift

Panel.tshift(periods=1, freq=None, axis=’major’)

pandas.Panel.tz_convert

Panel.tz_convert(tz, axis=0, level=None, copy=True)

Convert tz-aware axis to target time zone.
Parameters tz : string or pytz.timezone object
axis : the axis to convert
level : int, str, default None
If axis ia a MultiIndex, convert a specific level. Otherwise must be None
copy : boolean, default True
Also make a copy of the underlying data
Raises TypeError
If the axis is tz-naive.

pandas.Panel.tz_localize

Panel.tz_localize(tz, axis=0, level=None, copy=True, ambiguous=’raise’)

Localize tz-naive TimeSeries to target time zone.
Parameters tz : string or pytz.timezone object
axis : the axis to localize
level : int, str, default None
If axis ia a MultiIndex, localize a specific level. Otherwise must be None
copy : boolean, default True
Also make a copy of the underlying data
ambiguous : ‘infer’, bool-ndarray, ‘NaT’, default ‘raise’
• ‘infer’ will attempt to infer fall dst-transition hours based on order
• bool-ndarray where True signifies a DST time, False designates a non-DST time (note
that this flag is only applicable for ambiguous times)
• ‘NaT’ will return NaT where there are ambiguous times

34.5. Panel 1709

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• ‘raise’ will raise an AmbiguousTimeError if there are ambiguous times

infer_dst : boolean, default False
Deprecated since version 0.15.0: Attempt to infer fall dst-transition hours based
on order
Raises TypeError
If the TimeSeries is tz-aware and tz is not None.

pandas.Panel.update

Panel.update(other, join=’left’, overwrite=True, filter_func=None, raise_conflict=False)

Modify Panel in place using non-NA values from passed Panel, or object coercible to Panel. Aligns on
items
Parameters other : Panel, or object coercible to Panel
join : How to join individual DataFrames
{‘left’, ‘right’, ‘outer’, ‘inner’}, default ‘left’
overwrite : boolean, default True
If True then overwrite values for common keys in the calling panel
filter_func : callable(1d-array) -> 1d-array<boolean>, default None
Can choose to replace values other than NA. Return True for values that should
be updated
raise_conflict : bool
If True, will raise an error if a DataFrame and other both contain data in the same
place.

pandas.Panel.var

Panel.var(axis=None, skipna=None, level=None, ddof=1, numeric_only=None, **kwargs)

Return unbiased variance over requested axis.
Normalized by N-1 by default. This can be changed using the ddof argument
Parameters axis : {items (0), major_axis (1), minor_axis (2)}
skipna : boolean, default True
Exclude NA/null values. If an entire row/column is NA, the result will be NA
level : int or level name, default None
If the axis is a MultiIndex (hierarchical), count along a particular level, collapsing
into a DataFrame
ddof : int, default 1
degrees of freedom
numeric_only : boolean, default None
Include only float, int, boolean columns. If None, will attempt to use everything,
then use only numeric data. Not implemented for Series.

1710 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Returns var : DataFrame or Panel (if level specified)

pandas.Panel.where

Panel.where(cond, other=nan, inplace=False, axis=None, level=None, errors=’raise’,

try_cast=False, raise_on_error=None)
Return an object of same shape as self and whose corresponding entries are from self where cond is True
and otherwise are from other.
Parameters cond : boolean NDFrame, array-like, or callable
Where cond is True, keep the original value. Where False, replace with corre-
sponding value from other. If cond is callable, it is computed on the NDFrame
and should return boolean NDFrame or array. The callable must not change input
NDFrame (though pandas doesn’t check it).
New in version 0.18.1: A callable can be used as cond.
other : scalar, NDFrame, or callable
Entries where cond is False are replaced with corresponding value from other.
If other is callable, it is computed on the NDFrame and should return scalar or
NDFrame. The callable must not change input NDFrame (though pandas doesn’t
check it).
New in version 0.18.1: A callable can be used as other.
inplace : boolean, default False
Whether to perform the operation in place on the data
axis : alignment axis if needed, default None
level : alignment level if needed, default None
errors : str, {‘raise’, ‘ignore’}, default ‘raise’
• raise : allow exceptions to be raised
• ignore : suppress exceptions. On error return original object
Note that currently this parameter won’t affect the results and will always coerce
to a suitable dtype.
try_cast : boolean, default False
try to cast the result back to the input type (if possible),
raise_on_error : boolean, default True
Whether to raise on invalid data types (e.g. trying to where on strings)
Deprecated since version 0.21.0.
Returns wh : same type as caller
See also:
DataFrame.mask()

34.5. Panel 1711

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Notes

The where method is an application of the if-then idiom. For each element in the calling DataFrame, if
cond is True the element is used; otherwise the corresponding element from the DataFrame other is
used.
The signature for DataFrame.where() differs from numpy.where(). Roughly df1.where(m,
df2) is equivalent to np.where(m, df1, df2).
For further details and examples see the where documentation in indexing.

Examples

>>> s = pd.Series(range(5))
>>> s.where(s > 0)
0 NaN
1 1.0
2 2.0
3 3.0
4 4.0

>>> s.mask(s > 0)

0 0.0
1 NaN
2 NaN
3 NaN
4 NaN

>>> s.where(s > 1, 10)

0 10.0
1 10.0
2 2.0
3 3.0
4 4.0

>>> df = pd.DataFrame(np.arange(10).reshape(-1, 2), columns=['A', 'B'])

>>> m = df % 3 == 0
>>> df.where(m, -df)
A B
0 0 -1
1 -2 3
2 -4 -5
3 6 -7
4 -8 9
>>> df.where(m, -df) == np.where(m, df, -df)
A B
0 True True
1 True True
2 True True
3 True True
4 True True
>>> df.where(m, -df) == df.mask(~m, -df)
A B
0 True True
1 True True
2 True True

1712 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

3 True True
4 True True

pandas.Panel.xs

Panel.xs(key, axis=1)
Return slice of panel along selected axis
Parameters key : object
Label
axis : {‘items’, ‘major’, ‘minor}, default 1/’major’
Returns y : ndim(self)-1

Notes

xs is only for getting, not setting values.

MultiIndex Slicers is a generic way to get/set values on any level or levels and is a superset of xs func-
tionality, see MultiIndex Slicers

34.5.2 Attributes and underlying data

Axes
• items: axis 0; each item corresponds to a DataFrame contained inside
• major_axis: axis 1; the index (rows) of each of the DataFrames
• minor_axis: axis 2; the columns of each of the DataFrames

Panel.values Numpy representation of NDFrame

Panel.axes Return index label(s) of the internal NDFrame
Panel.ndim Number of axes / array dimensions
Panel.size number of elements in the NDFrame
Panel.shape Return a tuple of axis dimensions
Panel.dtypes Return the dtypes in this object.
Panel.ftypes Return the ftypes (indication of sparse/dense and dtype) in
this object.
Panel.get_dtype_counts() Return the counts of dtypes in this object.
Panel.get_ftype_counts() Return the counts of ftypes in this object.

34.5.3 Conversion

Panel.astype(dtype[, copy, errors]) Cast a pandas object to a specified dtype dtype.

Panel.copy([deep]) Make a copy of this objects data.
Panel.isna() Return a boolean same-sized object indicating if the values
are NA.
Continued on next page

34.5. Panel 1713

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Table 34.76 – continued from previous page

Panel.notna() Return a boolean same-sized object indicating if the values
are not NA.

34.5.4 Getting and setting

Panel.get_value(*args, **kwargs) Quickly retrieve single value at (item, major, minor) loca-
tion
Panel.set_value(*args, **kwargs) Quickly set single value at (item, major, minor) location

34.5.5 Indexing, iteration, slicing

Panel.at Fast label-based scalar accessor

Panel.iat Fast integer location scalar accessor.
Panel.loc Purely label-location based indexer for selection by label.
Panel.iloc Purely integer-location based indexing for selection by po-
sition.
Panel.__iter__() Iterate over infor axis
Panel.iteritems() Iterate over (label, values) on info axis
Panel.pop(item) Return item and drop from frame.
Panel.xs(key[, axis]) Return slice of panel along selected axis
Panel.major_xs(key) Return slice of panel along major axis
Panel.minor_xs(key) Return slice of panel along minor axis

34.5.5.1 pandas.Panel.__iter__

Panel.__iter__()
Iterate over infor axis
For more information on .at, .iat, .loc, and .iloc, see the indexing documentation.

34.5.6 Binary operator functions

Panel.add(other[, axis]) Addition of series and other, element-wise (binary operator

add).
Panel.sub(other[, axis]) Subtraction of series and other, element-wise (binary oper-
ator sub).
Panel.mul(other[, axis]) Multiplication of series and other, element-wise (binary op-
erator mul).
Panel.div(other[, axis]) Floating division of series and other, element-wise (binary
operator truediv).
Panel.truediv(other[, axis]) Floating division of series and other, element-wise (binary
operator truediv).
Panel.floordiv(other[, axis]) Integer division of series and other, element-wise (binary
operator floordiv).
Panel.mod(other[, axis]) Modulo of series and other, element-wise (binary operator
mod).
Continued on next page

1714 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Table 34.79 – continued from previous page

Panel.pow(other[, axis]) Exponential power of series and other, element-wise (bi-
nary operator pow).
Panel.radd(other[, axis]) Addition of series and other, element-wise (binary operator
radd).
Panel.rsub(other[, axis]) Subtraction of series and other, element-wise (binary oper-
ator rsub).
Panel.rmul(other[, axis]) Multiplication of series and other, element-wise (binary op-
erator rmul).
Panel.rdiv(other[, axis]) Floating division of series and other, element-wise (binary
operator rtruediv).
Panel.rtruediv(other[, axis]) Floating division of series and other, element-wise (binary
operator rtruediv).
Panel.rfloordiv(other[, axis]) Integer division of series and other, element-wise (binary
operator rfloordiv).
Panel.rmod(other[, axis]) Modulo of series and other, element-wise (binary operator
rmod).
Panel.rpow(other[, axis]) Exponential power of series and other, element-wise (bi-
nary operator rpow).
Panel.lt(other[, axis]) Wrapper for comparison method lt
Panel.gt(other[, axis]) Wrapper for comparison method gt
Panel.le(other[, axis]) Wrapper for comparison method le
Panel.ge(other[, axis]) Wrapper for comparison method ge
Panel.ne(other[, axis]) Wrapper for comparison method ne
Panel.eq(other[, axis]) Wrapper for comparison method eq

34.5.7 Function application, GroupBy

Panel.apply(func[, axis]) Applies function along axis (or axes) of the Panel
Panel.groupby(function[, axis]) Group data on given axis, returning GroupBy object

34.5.8 Computations / Descriptive Stats

Panel.abs() Return an object with absolute value taken–only applicable

to objects that are all numeric.
Panel.clip([lower, upper, axis, inplace]) Trim values at input threshold(s).
Panel.clip_lower(threshold[, axis, inplace]) Return copy of the input with values below given value(s)
truncated.
Panel.clip_upper(threshold[, axis, inplace]) Return copy of input with values above given value(s) trun-
cated.
Panel.count([axis]) Return number of observations over requested axis.
Panel.cummax([axis, skipna]) Return cumulative max over requested axis.
Panel.cummin([axis, skipna]) Return cumulative minimum over requested axis.
Panel.cumprod([axis, skipna]) Return cumulative product over requested axis.
Panel.cumsum([axis, skipna]) Return cumulative sum over requested axis.
Panel.max([axis, skipna, level, numeric_only]) This method returns the maximum of the values in the ob-
ject.
Panel.mean([axis, skipna, level, numeric_only]) Return the mean of the values for the requested axis
Panel.median([axis, skipna, level, numeric_only]) Return the median of the values for the requested axis
Continued on next page

34.5. Panel 1715

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Table 34.81 – continued from previous page

Panel.min([axis, skipna, level, numeric_only]) This method returns the minimum of the values in the ob-
ject.
Panel.pct_change([periods, fill_method, ...]) Percent change over given number of periods.
Panel.prod([axis, skipna, level, numeric_only]) Return the product of the values for the requested axis
Panel.sem([axis, skipna, level, ddof, ...]) Return unbiased standard error of the mean over requested
axis.
Panel.skew([axis, skipna, level, numeric_only]) Return unbiased skew over requested axis
Panel.sum([axis, skipna, level, numeric_only]) Return the sum of the values for the requested axis
Panel.std([axis, skipna, level, ddof, ...]) Return sample standard deviation over requested axis.
Panel.var([axis, skipna, level, ddof, ...]) Return unbiased variance over requested axis.

34.5.9 Reindexing / Selection / Label manipulation

Panel.add_prefix(prefix) Concatenate prefix string with panel items names.

Panel.add_suffix(suffix) Concatenate suffix string with panel items names.
Panel.drop([labels, axis, index, columns, ...]) Return new object with labels in requested axis removed.
Panel.equals(other) Determines if two NDFrame objects contain the same ele-
ments.
Panel.filter([items, like, regex, axis]) Subset rows or columns of dataframe according to labels in
the specified index.
Panel.first(offset) Convenience method for subsetting initial periods of time
series data based on a date offset.
Panel.last(offset) Convenience method for subsetting final periods of time
series data based on a date offset.
Panel.reindex(*args, **kwargs) Conform Panel to new index with optional filling logic,
placing NA/NaN in locations having no value in the pre-
vious index.
Panel.reindex_axis(labels[, axis, method, ...]) Conform input object to new index with optional filling
logic, placing NA/NaN in locations having no value in the
previous index.
Panel.reindex_like(other[, method, copy, ...]) Return an object with matching indices to myself.
Panel.rename([items, major_axis, minor_axis]) Alter axes input function or functions.
Panel.sample([n, frac, replace, weights, ...]) Returns a random sample of items from an axis of object.
Panel.select(crit[, axis]) Return data corresponding to axis labels matching criteria
Panel.take(indices[, axis, convert, is_copy]) Return the elements in the given positional indices along
an axis.
Panel.truncate([before, after, axis, copy]) Truncates a sorted DataFrame/Series before and/or after
some particular index value.

34.5.10 Missing data handling

Panel.dropna([axis, how, inplace]) Drop 2D from panel, holding passed axis constant
Panel.fillna([value, method, axis, inplace, ...]) Fill NA/NaN values using the specified method

34.5.11 Reshaping, sorting, transposing

Panel.sort_index([axis, level, ascending, ...]) Sort object by labels (along an axis)

Continued on next page

1716 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Table 34.84 – continued from previous page

Panel.swaplevel([i, j, axis]) Swap levels i and j in a MultiIndex on a particular axis
Panel.transpose(*args, **kwargs) Permute the dimensions of the Panel
Panel.swapaxes(axis1, axis2[, copy]) Interchange axes and swap values axes appropriately
Panel.conform(frame[, axis]) Conform input DataFrame to align with chosen axis pair.

34.5.12 Combining / joining / merging

Panel.join(other[, how, lsuffix, rsuffix]) Join items with other Panel either on major and minor axes
column
Panel.update(other[, join, overwrite, ...]) Modify Panel in place using non-NA values from passed
Panel, or object coercible to Panel.

34.5.13 Time series-related

Panel.asfreq(freq[, method, how, normalize, ...]) Convert TimeSeries to specified frequency.

Panel.shift([periods, freq, axis]) Shift index by desired number of periods with an optional
time freq.
Panel.resample(rule[, how, axis, ...]) Convenience method for frequency conversion and resam-
pling of time series.
Panel.tz_convert(tz[, axis, level, copy]) Convert tz-aware axis to target time zone.
Panel.tz_localize(tz[, axis, level, copy, ...]) Localize tz-naive TimeSeries to target time zone.

34.5.14 Serialization / IO / Conversion

Panel.from_dict(data[, intersect, orient, dtype]) Construct Panel from dict of DataFrame objects
Panel.to_pickle(path[, compression, protocol]) Pickle (serialize) object to input file path.
Panel.to_excel(path[, na_rep, engine]) Write each DataFrame in Panel to a separate excel sheet
Panel.to_hdf(path_or_buf, key, **kwargs) Write the contained data to an HDF5 file using HDFStore.
Panel.to_sparse(*args, **kwargs) NOT IMPLEMENTED: do not call this method, as sparsi-
fying is not supported for Panel objects and will raise an
error.
Panel.to_frame([filter_observations]) Transform wide format into long (stacked) format as
DataFrame whose columns are the Panel’s items and whose
index is a MultiIndex formed of the Panel’s major and mi-
nor axes.
Panel.to_xarray() Return an xarray object from the pandas object.
Panel.to_clipboard([excel, sep]) Attempt to write text representation of object to the system
clipboard This can be pasted into Excel, for example.

34.6 Index

Many of these methods or variants thereof are available on the objects that contain an index (Series/DataFrame)
and those should most likely be used before calling these methods directly.

Index Immutable ndarray implementing an ordered, sliceable set.

34.6. Index 1717

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

34.6.1 pandas.Index

class pandas.Index
Immutable ndarray implementing an ordered, sliceable set. The basic object storing axis labels for all pandas
objects
Parameters data : array-like (1-dimensional)
dtype : NumPy dtype (default: object)
copy : bool
Make a copy of input ndarray
name : object
Name to be stored in the index
tupleize_cols : bool (default: True)
When True, attempt to create a MultiIndex if possible
See also:

RangeIndex Index implementing a monotonic integer range

CategoricalIndex Index of Categorical s.
MultiIndex A multi-level, or hierarchical, Index
IntervalIndex an Index of Interval s.

DatetimeIndex, TimedeltaIndex, PeriodIndex, Int64Index, UInt64Index,

Float64Index

Notes

An Index instance can only contain hashable objects

Examples

>>> pd.Index([1, 2, 3])

Int64Index([1, 2, 3], dtype='int64')

>>> pd.Index(list('abc'))
Index(['a', 'b', 'c'], dtype='object')

Attributes

T return the transpose, which is by definition self

asi8
base return the base object if the memory of the underlying
data is
data return the data pointer of the underlying data
Continued on next page

1718 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Table 34.89 – continued from previous page

dtype
dtype_str
empty
flags
has_duplicates
hasnans
inferred_type
is_all_dates
is_monotonic alias for is_monotonic_increasing (deprecated)
is_monotonic_decreasing return if the index is monotonic decreasing (only equal
or
is_monotonic_increasing return if the index is monotonic increasing (only equal
or
is_unique
itemsize return the size of the dtype of the item of the underlying
data
name
names
nbytes return the number of bytes in the underlying data
ndim return the number of dimensions of the underlying data,
nlevels
shape return a tuple of the shape of the underlying data
size return the number of elements in the underlying data
strides return the strides of the underlying data
values return the underlying data as an ndarray

34.6.1.1 pandas.Index.T

Index.T
return the transpose, which is by definition self

34.6.1.2 pandas.Index.asi8

Index.asi8 = None

34.6.1.3 pandas.Index.base

Index.base
return the base object if the memory of the underlying data is shared

34.6.1.4 pandas.Index.data

Index.data
return the data pointer of the underlying data

34.6.1.5 pandas.Index.dtype

Index.dtype = None

34.6. Index 1719

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

34.6.1.6 pandas.Index.dtype_str

Index.dtype_str = None

34.6.1.7 pandas.Index.empty

Index.empty

34.6.1.8 pandas.Index.flags

Index.flags

34.6.1.9 pandas.Index.has_duplicates

Index.has_duplicates

34.6.1.10 pandas.Index.hasnans

Index.hasnans = None

34.6.1.11 pandas.Index.inferred_type

Index.inferred_type = None

34.6.1.12 pandas.Index.is_all_dates

Index.is_all_dates = None

34.6.1.13 pandas.Index.is_monotonic

Index.is_monotonic
alias for is_monotonic_increasing (deprecated)

34.6.1.14 pandas.Index.is_monotonic_decreasing

Index.is_monotonic_decreasing
return if the index is monotonic decreasing (only equal or decreasing) values.

Examples

>>> Index([3, 2, 1]).is_monotonic_decreasing

True
>>> Index([3, 2, 2]).is_monotonic_decreasing
True
>>> Index([3, 1, 2]).is_monotonic_decreasing
False

1720 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

34.6.1.15 pandas.Index.is_monotonic_increasing

Index.is_monotonic_increasing
return if the index is monotonic increasing (only equal or increasing) values.

Examples

>>> Index([1, 2, 3]).is_monotonic_increasing

True
>>> Index([1, 2, 2]).is_monotonic_increasing
True
>>> Index([1, 3, 2]).is_monotonic_increasing
False

34.6.1.16 pandas.Index.is_unique

Index.is_unique = None

34.6.1.17 pandas.Index.itemsize

Index.itemsize
return the size of the dtype of the item of the underlying data

34.6.1.18 pandas.Index.name

Index.name = None

34.6.1.19 pandas.Index.names

Index.names

34.6.1.20 pandas.Index.nbytes

Index.nbytes
return the number of bytes in the underlying data

34.6.1.21 pandas.Index.ndim

Index.ndim
return the number of dimensions of the underlying data, by definition 1

34.6.1.22 pandas.Index.nlevels

Index.nlevels

34.6. Index 1721

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

34.6.1.23 pandas.Index.shape

Index.shape
return a tuple of the shape of the underlying data

34.6.1.24 pandas.Index.size

Index.size
return the number of elements in the underlying data

34.6.1.25 pandas.Index.strides

Index.strides
return the strides of the underlying data

34.6.1.26 pandas.Index.values

Index.values
return the underlying data as an ndarray

Methods

all(*args, **kwargs) Return whether all elements are True

any(*args, **kwargs) Return whether any element is True
append(other) Append a collection of Index options together
argmax([axis]) return a ndarray of the maximum argument indexer
argmin([axis]) return a ndarray of the minimum argument indexer
argsort(*args, **kwargs) Returns the indices that would sort the index and its un-
derlying data.
asof(label) For a sorted index, return the most recent label up to and
including the passed label.
asof_locs(where, mask) where : array of timestamps
astype(dtype[, copy]) Create an Index with values cast to dtypes.
contains(key) return a boolean if this key is IN the index
copy([name, deep, dtype]) Make a copy of this object.
delete(loc) Make new Index with passed location(-s) deleted
difference(other) Return a new Index with elements from the index that
are not in other.
drop(labels[, errors]) Make new Index with passed list of labels deleted
drop_duplicates([keep]) Return Index with duplicate values removed
dropna([how]) Return Index without NA/NaN values
duplicated([keep]) Return boolean np.ndarray denoting duplicate values
equals(other) Determines if two Index objects contain the same ele-
ments.
factorize([sort, na_sentinel]) Encode the object as an enumerated type or categorical
variable
fillna([value, downcast]) Fill NA/NaN values with the specified value
format([name, formatter]) Render a string representation of the Index
Continued on next page

1722 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Table 34.90 – continued from previous page

get_duplicates()
get_indexer(target[, method, limit, tolerance]) Compute indexer and mask for new index given the cur-
rent index.
get_indexer_for(target, **kwargs) guaranteed return of an indexer even when non-unique
get_indexer_non_unique(target) Compute indexer and mask for new index given the cur-
rent index.
get_level_values(level) Return an Index of values for requested level, equal to
the length of the index.
get_loc(key[, method, tolerance]) Get integer location, slice or boolean mask for requested
label.
get_slice_bound(label, side, kind) Calculate slice bound that corresponds to given label.
get_value(series, key) Fast lookup of value from 1-dimensional ndarray.
get_values() return the underlying data as an ndarray
groupby(values) Group the index labels by a given array of values.
holds_integer()
identical(other) Similar to equals, but check that other comparable at-
tributes are
insert(loc, item) Make new Index inserting new item at location.
intersection(other) Form the intersection of two Index objects.
is_(other) More flexible, faster check like is but that works
through views
is_boolean()
is_categorical()
is_floating()
is_integer()
is_interval()
is_lexsorted_for_tuple(tup)
is_mixed()
is_numeric()
is_object()
is_type_compatible(kind)
isin(values[, level]) Compute boolean array of whether each index value is
found in the passed set of values.
isna() Detect missing values
isnull() Detect missing values
item() return the first element of the underlying data as a
python
join(other[, how, level, return_indexers, sort]) this is an internal non-public method
map(mapper) Apply mapper function to an index.
max() The maximum value of the object
memory_usage([deep]) Memory usage of my values
min() The minimum value of the object
notna() Inverse of isna
notnull() Inverse of isna
nunique([dropna]) Return number of unique elements in the object.
putmask(mask, value) return a new Index of the values set with the mask
ravel([order]) return an ndarray of the flattened values of the underly-
ing data
reindex(target[, method, level, limit, ...]) Create index with target’s values (move/add/delete val-
ues as necessary)
Continued on next page

34.6. Index 1723

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Table 34.90 – continued from previous page

rename(name[, inplace]) Set new names on index.
repeat(repeats, *args, **kwargs) Repeat elements of an Index.
reshape(*args, **kwargs) NOT IMPLEMENTED: do not call this method, as re-
shaping is not supported for Index objects and will raise
an error.
searchsorted(value[, side, sorter]) Find indices where elements should be inserted to main-
tain order.
set_names(names[, level, inplace]) Set new names on index.
set_value(arr, key, value) Fast lookup of value from 1-dimensional ndarray.
shift([periods, freq]) Shift Index containing datetime objects by input number
of periods and
slice_indexer([start, end, step, kind]) For an ordered Index, compute the slice indexer for in-
put labels and
slice_locs([start, end, step, kind]) Compute slice locations for input labels.
sort(*args, **kwargs)
sort_values([return_indexer, ascending]) Return sorted copy of Index
sortlevel([level, ascending, sort_remaining]) For internal compatibility with with the Index API
str alias of StringMethods
summary([name])
symmetric_difference(other[, result_name]) Compute the symmetric difference of two Index objects.
take(indices[, axis, allow_fill, fill_value]) return a new Index of the values selected by the indices
to_datetime([dayfirst]) DEPRECATED: use pandas.to_datetime() in-
stead.
to_frame([index]) Create a DataFrame with a column containing the Index.
to_native_types([slicer]) Format specified values of self and return them.
to_series(**kwargs) Create a Series with both index and values equal to the
index keys
tolist() Return a list of the values.
transpose(*args, **kwargs) return the transpose, which is by definition self
union(other) Form the union of two Index objects and sorts if possi-
ble.
unique() Return unique values in the object.
value_counts([normalize, sort, ascending, ...]) Returns object containing counts of unique values.
view([cls])
where(cond[, other]) New in version 0.19.0.

34.6.1.27 pandas.Index.all

Index.all(*args, **kwargs)
Return whether all elements are True
Parameters All arguments to numpy.all are accepted.
Returns all : bool or array_like (if axis is specified)
A single element array_like may be converted to bool.

34.6.1.28 pandas.Index.any

Index.any(*args, **kwargs)
Return whether any element is True

1724 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Parameters All arguments to numpy.any are accepted.

Returns any : bool or array_like (if axis is specified)
A single element array_like may be converted to bool.

34.6.1.29 pandas.Index.append

Index.append(other)
Append a collection of Index options together
Parameters other : Index or list/tuple of indices
Returns appended : Index

34.6.1.30 pandas.Index.argmax

Index.argmax(axis=None)
return a ndarray of the maximum argument indexer
See also:
numpy.ndarray.argmax

34.6.1.31 pandas.Index.argmin

Index.argmin(axis=None)
return a ndarray of the minimum argument indexer
See also:
numpy.ndarray.argmin

34.6.1.32 pandas.Index.argsort

Index.argsort(*args, **kwargs)
Returns the indices that would sort the index and its underlying data.
Returns argsorted : numpy array
See also:
numpy.ndarray.argsort

34.6.1.33 pandas.Index.asof

Index.asof(label)
For a sorted index, return the most recent label up to and including the passed label. Return NaN if not
found.
See also:

get_loc asof is a thin wrapper around get_loc with method=’pad’

34.6. Index 1725

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

34.6.1.34 pandas.Index.asof_locs

Index.asof_locs(where, mask)
where : array of timestamps mask : array of booleans where data is not NA

34.6.1.35 pandas.Index.astype

Index.astype(dtype, copy=True)
Create an Index with values cast to dtypes. The class of a new Index is determined by dtype. When
conversion is impossible, a ValueError exception is raised.
Parameters dtype : numpy dtype or pandas type
copy : bool, default True
By default, astype always returns a newly allocated object. If copy is set to False
and internal requirements on dtype are satisfied, the original data is used to create
a new Index or the original Index is returned.
New in version 0.19.0.

34.6.1.36 pandas.Index.contains

Index.contains(key)
return a boolean if this key is IN the index
Parameters key : object
Returns boolean

34.6.1.37 pandas.Index.copy

Index.copy(name=None, deep=False, dtype=None, **kwargs)

Make a copy of this object. Name and dtype sets those attributes on the new object.
Parameters name : string, optional
deep : boolean, default False
dtype : numpy dtype or pandas type
Returns copy : Index

Notes

In most cases, there should be no functional difference from using deep, but if deep is passed it will
attempt to deepcopy.

34.6.1.38 pandas.Index.delete

Index.delete(loc)
Make new Index with passed location(-s) deleted
Returns new_index : Index

1726 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

34.6.1.39 pandas.Index.difference

Index.difference(other)
Return a new Index with elements from the index that are not in other.
This is the set difference of two Index objects. It’s sorted if sorting is possible.
Parameters other : Index or array-like
Returns difference : Index

Examples

>>> idx1 = pd.Index([1, 2, 3, 4])

>>> idx2 = pd.Index([3, 4, 5, 6])
>>> idx1.difference(idx2)
Int64Index([1, 2], dtype='int64')

34.6.1.40 pandas.Index.drop

Index.drop(labels, errors=’raise’)
Make new Index with passed list of labels deleted
Parameters labels : array-like
errors : {‘ignore’, ‘raise’}, default ‘raise’
If ‘ignore’, suppress error and existing labels are dropped.
Returns dropped : Index

34.6.1.41 pandas.Index.drop_duplicates

Index.drop_duplicates(keep=’first’)
Return Index with duplicate values removed
Parameters keep : {‘first’, ‘last’, False}, default ‘first’
• first : Drop duplicates except for the first occurrence.
• last : Drop duplicates except for the last occurrence.
• False : Drop all duplicates.
Returns deduplicated : Index

34.6.1.42 pandas.Index.dropna

Index.dropna(how=’any’)
Return Index without NA/NaN values
Parameters how : {‘any’, ‘all’}, default ‘any’
If the Index is a MultiIndex, drop the value when any or all levels are NaN.
Returns valid : Index

34.6. Index 1727

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

34.6.1.43 pandas.Index.duplicated

Index.duplicated(keep=’first’)
Return boolean np.ndarray denoting duplicate values
Parameters keep : {‘first’, ‘last’, False}, default ‘first’
• first : Mark duplicates as True except for the first occurrence.
• last : Mark duplicates as True except for the last occurrence.
• False : Mark all duplicates as True.
Returns duplicated : np.ndarray

34.6.1.44 pandas.Index.equals

Index.equals(other)
Determines if two Index objects contain the same elements.

34.6.1.45 pandas.Index.factorize

Index.factorize(sort=False, na_sentinel=-1)
Encode the object as an enumerated type or categorical variable
Parameters sort : boolean, default False
Sort by values
na_sentinel: int, default -1
Value to mark “not found”
Returns labels : the indexer to the original array
uniques : the unique Index

34.6.1.46 pandas.Index.fillna

Index.fillna(value=None, downcast=None)
Fill NA/NaN values with the specified value
Parameters value : scalar
Scalar value to use to fill holes (e.g. 0). This value cannot be a list-likes.
downcast : dict, default is None
a dict of item->dtype of what to downcast if possible, or the string ‘infer’ which
will try to downcast to an appropriate equal type (e.g. float64 to int64 if possible)
Returns filled : %(klass)s

34.6.1.47 pandas.Index.format

Index.format(name=False, formatter=None, **kwargs)

Render a string representation of the Index

1728 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

34.6.1.48 pandas.Index.get_duplicates

Index.get_duplicates()

34.6.1.49 pandas.Index.get_indexer

Index.get_indexer(target, method=None, limit=None, tolerance=None)

Compute indexer and mask for new index given the current index. The indexer should be then used as an
input to ndarray.take to align the current data to the new index.
Parameters target : Index
method : {None, ‘pad’/’ffill’, ‘backfill’/’bfill’, ‘nearest’}, optional
• default: exact matches only.
• pad / ffill: find the PREVIOUS index value if no exact match.
• backfill / bfill: use NEXT index value if no exact match
• nearest: use the NEAREST index value if no exact match. Tied distances are broken
by preferring the larger index value.
limit : int, optional
Maximum number of consecutive labels in target to match for inexact
matches.
tolerance : optional
Maximum distance between original and new labels for inexact matches.
The values of the index at the matching locations most satisfy the equation
abs(index[indexer] - target) <= tolerance.
Tolerance may be a scalar value, which applies the same tolerance to all values,
or list-like, which applies variable tolerance per element. List-like includes list,
tuple, array, Series, and must be the same size as the index and its dtype must
exactly match the index’s type.
New in version 0.17.0.
New in version 0.21.0: (list-like tolerance)
Returns indexer : ndarray of int
Integers from 0 to n - 1 indicating that the index at these positions matches the
corresponding target values. Missing values in the target are marked by -1.

Examples

>>> indexer = index.get_indexer(new_index)

>>> new_values = cur_values.take(indexer)

34.6.1.50 pandas.Index.get_indexer_for

Index.get_indexer_for(target, **kwargs)
guaranteed return of an indexer even when non-unique This dispatches to get_indexer or
get_indexer_nonunique as appropriate

34.6. Index 1729

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

34.6.1.51 pandas.Index.get_indexer_non_unique

Index.get_indexer_non_unique(target)
Compute indexer and mask for new index given the current index. The indexer should be then used as an
input to ndarray.take to align the current data to the new index.
Parameters target : Index
Returns indexer : ndarray of int
Integers from 0 to n - 1 indicating that the index at these positions matches the
corresponding target values. Missing values in the target are marked by -1.
missing : ndarray of int
An indexer into the target of the values not found. These correspond to the -1 in
the indexer array

34.6.1.52 pandas.Index.get_level_values

Index.get_level_values(level)
Return an Index of values for requested level, equal to the length of the index.
Parameters level : int or str
level is either the integer position of the level in the MultiIndex, or the name
of the level.
Returns values : Index
self, as there is only one level in the Index.
See also:

pandas.MultiIndex.get_level_values get values for a level of a MultiIndex

34.6.1.53 pandas.Index.get_loc

Index.get_loc(key, method=None, tolerance=None)

Get integer location, slice or boolean mask for requested label.
Parameters key : label
method : {None, ‘pad’/’ffill’, ‘backfill’/’bfill’, ‘nearest’}, optional
• default: exact matches only.
• pad / ffill: find the PREVIOUS index value if no exact match.
• backfill / bfill: use NEXT index value if no exact match
• nearest: use the NEAREST index value if no exact match. Tied distances are broken
by preferring the larger index value.
tolerance : optional
Maximum distance from index value for inexact matches. The value of the index
at the matching location most satisfy the equation abs(index[loc] - key)
<= tolerance.
Tolerance may be a scalar value, which applies the same tolerance to all values,
or list-like, which applies variable tolerance per element. List-like includes list,

1730 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

tuple, array, Series, and must be the same size as the index and its dtype must
exactly match the index’s type.
New in version 0.17.0.
New in version 0.21.0: (list-like tolerance)
Returns loc : int if unique index, slice if monotonic index, else mask

Examples

>>> unique_index = pd.Index(list('abc'))

>>> unique_index.get_loc('b')
1

>>> monotonic_index = pd.Index(list('abbc'))

>>> monotonic_index.get_loc('b')
slice(1, 3, None)

>>> non_monotonic_index = pd.Index(list('abcb'))

>>> non_monotonic_index.get_loc('b')
array([False, True, False, True], dtype=bool)

34.6.1.54 pandas.Index.get_slice_bound

Index.get_slice_bound(label, side, kind)

Calculate slice bound that corresponds to given label.
Returns leftmost (one-past-the-rightmost if side=='right') position of given label.
Parameters label : object
side : {‘left’, ‘right’}
kind : {‘ix’, ‘loc’, ‘getitem’}

34.6.1.55 pandas.Index.get_value

Index.get_value(series, key)
Fast lookup of value from 1-dimensional ndarray. Only use this if you know what you’re doing

34.6.1.56 pandas.Index.get_values

Index.get_values()
return the underlying data as an ndarray

34.6.1.57 pandas.Index.groupby

Index.groupby(values)
Group the index labels by a given array of values.
Parameters values : array
Values used to determine the groups.

34.6. Index 1731

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Returns groups : dict

{group name -> group labels}

34.6.1.58 pandas.Index.holds_integer

Index.holds_integer()

34.6.1.59 pandas.Index.identical

Index.identical(other)
Similar to equals, but check that other comparable attributes are also equal

34.6.1.60 pandas.Index.insert

Index.insert(loc, item)
Make new Index inserting new item at location. Follows Python list.append semantics for negative values
Parameters loc : int
item : object
Returns new_index : Index

34.6.1.61 pandas.Index.intersection

Index.intersection(other)
Form the intersection of two Index objects.
This returns a new Index with elements common to the index and other, preserving the order of the calling
index.
Parameters other : Index or array-like
Returns intersection : Index

Examples

>>> idx1 = pd.Index([1, 2, 3, 4])

>>> idx2 = pd.Index([3, 4, 5, 6])
>>> idx1.intersection(idx2)
Int64Index([3, 4], dtype='int64')

34.6.1.62 pandas.Index.is_

Index.is_(other)
More flexible, faster check like is but that works through views
Note: this is not the same as Index.identical(), which checks that metadata is also the same.
Parameters other : object
other object to compare against.
Returns True if both have same underlying data, False otherwise : bool

1732 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

34.6.1.63 pandas.Index.is_boolean

Index.is_boolean()

34.6.1.64 pandas.Index.is_categorical

Index.is_categorical()

34.6.1.65 pandas.Index.is_floating

Index.is_floating()

34.6.1.66 pandas.Index.is_integer

Index.is_integer()

34.6.1.67 pandas.Index.is_interval

Index.is_interval()

34.6.1.68 pandas.Index.is_lexsorted_for_tuple

Index.is_lexsorted_for_tuple(tup)

34.6.1.69 pandas.Index.is_mixed

Index.is_mixed()

34.6.1.70 pandas.Index.is_numeric

Index.is_numeric()

34.6.1.71 pandas.Index.is_object

Index.is_object()

34.6.1.72 pandas.Index.is_type_compatible

Index.is_type_compatible(kind)

34.6. Index 1733

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

34.6.1.73 pandas.Index.isin

Index.isin(values, level=None)
Compute boolean array of whether each index value is found in the passed set of values.
Parameters values : set or list-like
Sought values.
New in version 0.18.1.
Support for values as a set
level : str or int, optional
Name or position of the index level to use (if the index is a MultiIndex).
Returns is_contained : ndarray (boolean dtype)

Notes

If level is specified:
• if it is the name of one and only one index level, use that level;
• otherwise it should be a number indicating level position.

34.6.1.74 pandas.Index.isna

Index.isna()
Detect missing values
New in version 0.20.0.
Returns a boolean array of whether my values are NA
See also:

isnull alias of isna

pandas.isna top-level isna

34.6.1.75 pandas.Index.isnull

Index.isnull()
Detect missing values
New in version 0.20.0.
Returns a boolean array of whether my values are NA
See also:

isnull alias of isna

pandas.isna top-level isna

1734 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

34.6.1.76 pandas.Index.item

Index.item()
return the first element of the underlying data as a python scalar

34.6.1.77 pandas.Index.join

Index.join(other, how=’left’, level=None, return_indexers=False, sort=False)

this is an internal non-public method
Compute join_index and indexers to conform data structures to the new index.
Parameters other : Index
how : {‘left’, ‘right’, ‘inner’, ‘outer’}
level : int or level name, default None
return_indexers : boolean, default False
sort : boolean, default False
Sort the join keys lexicographically in the result Index. If False, the order of the
join keys depends on the join type (how keyword)
New in version 0.20.0.
Returns join_index, (left_indexer, right_indexer)

34.6.1.78 pandas.Index.map

Index.map(mapper)
Apply mapper function to an index.
Parameters mapper : callable
Function to be applied.
Returns applied : Union[Index, MultiIndex], inferred
The output of the mapping function applied to the index. If the function returns a
tuple with more than one element a MultiIndex will be returned.

34.6.1.79 pandas.Index.max

Index.max()
The maximum value of the object

34.6.1.80 pandas.Index.memory_usage

Index.memory_usage(deep=False)
Memory usage of my values
Parameters deep : bool
Introspect the data deeply, interrogate object dtypes for system-level memory
consumption
Returns bytes used

34.6. Index 1735

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

See also:
numpy.ndarray.nbytes

Notes

Memory usage does not include memory consumed by elements that are not components of the array if
deep=False or if used on PyPy

34.6.1.81 pandas.Index.min

Index.min()
The minimum value of the object

34.6.1.82 pandas.Index.notna

Index.notna()
Inverse of isna
New in version 0.20.0.
Returns a boolean array of whether my values are not NA
See also:

notnull alias of notna

pandas.notna top-level notna

34.6.1.83 pandas.Index.notnull

Index.notnull()
Inverse of isna
New in version 0.20.0.
Returns a boolean array of whether my values are not NA
See also:

notnull alias of notna

pandas.notna top-level notna

34.6.1.84 pandas.Index.nunique

Index.nunique(dropna=True)
Return number of unique elements in the object.
Excludes NA values by default.
Parameters dropna : boolean, default True
Don’t include NaN in the count.
Returns nunique : int

1736 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

34.6.1.85 pandas.Index.putmask

Index.putmask(mask, value)
return a new Index of the values set with the mask
See also:
numpy.ndarray.putmask

34.6.1.86 pandas.Index.ravel

Index.ravel(order=’C’)
return an ndarray of the flattened values of the underlying data
See also:
numpy.ndarray.ravel

34.6.1.87 pandas.Index.reindex

Index.reindex(target, method=None, level=None, limit=None, tolerance=None)

Create index with target’s values (move/add/delete values as necessary)
Parameters target : an iterable
Returns new_index : pd.Index
Resulting index
indexer : np.ndarray or None
Indices of output values in original index

34.6.1.88 pandas.Index.rename

Index.rename(name, inplace=False)
Set new names on index. Defaults to returning new index.
Parameters name : str or list
name to set
inplace : bool
if True, mutates in place
Returns new index (of same type and class...etc) [if inplace, returns None]

34.6.1.89 pandas.Index.repeat

Index.repeat(repeats, *args, **kwargs)

Repeat elements of an Index. Refer to numpy.ndarray.repeat for more information about the repeats
argument.
See also:
numpy.ndarray.repeat

34.6. Index 1737

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

34.6.1.90 pandas.Index.reshape

Index.reshape(*args, **kwargs)
NOT IMPLEMENTED: do not call this method, as reshaping is not supported for Index objects and will
raise an error.
Reshape an Index.

34.6.1.91 pandas.Index.searchsorted

Index.searchsorted(value, side=’left’, sorter=None)

Find indices where elements should be inserted to maintain order.
Find the indices into a sorted IndexOpsMixin self such that, if the corresponding elements in value were
inserted before the indices, the order of self would be preserved.
Parameters value : array_like
Values to insert into self.
side : {‘left’, ‘right’}, optional
If ‘left’, the index of the first suitable location found is given. If ‘right’, return the
last such index. If there is no suitable index, return either 0 or N (where N is the
length of self ).
sorter : 1-D array_like, optional
Optional array of integer indices that sort self into ascending order. They are
typically the result of np.argsort.
Returns indices : array of ints
Array of insertion points with the same shape as value.
See also:
numpy.searchsorted

Notes

Binary search is used to find the required insertion points.

Examples

>>> x = pd.Series([1, 2, 3])

>>> x
0 1
1 2
2 3
dtype: int64

>>> x.searchsorted(4)
array([3])

>>> x.searchsorted([0, 4])

array([0, 3])

1738 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

>>> x.searchsorted([1, 3], side='left')

array([0, 2])

>>> x.searchsorted([1, 3], side='right')

array([1, 3])

>>> x = pd.Categorical(['apple', 'bread', 'bread', 'cheese', 'milk' ])

[apple, bread, bread, cheese, milk]
Categories (4, object): [apple < bread < cheese < milk]

>>> x.searchsorted('bread')
array([1]) # Note: an array, not a scalar

>>> x.searchsorted(['bread'])
array([1])

>>> x.searchsorted(['bread', 'eggs'])

array([1, 4])

>>> x.searchsorted(['bread', 'eggs'], side='right')

array([3, 4]) # eggs before milk

34.6.1.92 pandas.Index.set_names

Index.set_names(names, level=None, inplace=False)

Set new names on index. Defaults to returning new index.
Parameters names : str or sequence
name(s) to set
level : int, level name, or sequence of int/level names (default None)
If the index is a MultiIndex (hierarchical), level(s) to set (None for all levels).
Otherwise level must be None
inplace : bool
if True, mutates in place
Returns new index (of same type and class...etc) [if inplace, returns None]

Examples

>>> Index([1, 2, 3, 4]).set_names('foo')

Int64Index([1, 2, 3, 4], dtype='int64')
>>> Index([1, 2, 3, 4]).set_names(['foo'])
Int64Index([1, 2, 3, 4], dtype='int64')
>>> idx = MultiIndex.from_tuples([(1, u'one'), (1, u'two'),
(2, u'one'), (2, u'two')],
names=['foo', 'bar'])
>>> idx.set_names(['baz', 'quz'])
MultiIndex(levels=[[1, 2], [u'one', u'two']],
labels=[[0, 0, 1, 1], [0, 1, 0, 1]],

34.6. Index 1739

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

names=[u'baz', u'quz'])
>>> idx.set_names('baz', level=0)
MultiIndex(levels=[[1, 2], [u'one', u'two']],
labels=[[0, 0, 1, 1], [0, 1, 0, 1]],
names=[u'baz', u'bar'])

34.6.1.93 pandas.Index.set_value

Index.set_value(arr, key, value)

Fast lookup of value from 1-dimensional ndarray. Only use this if you know what you’re doing

34.6.1.94 pandas.Index.shift

Index.shift(periods=1, freq=None)
Shift Index containing datetime objects by input number of periods and DateOffset
Returns shifted : Index

34.6.1.95 pandas.Index.slice_indexer

Index.slice_indexer(start=None, end=None, step=None, kind=None)

For an ordered Index, compute the slice indexer for input labels and step
Parameters start : label, default None
If None, defaults to the beginning
end : label, default None
If None, defaults to the end
step : int, default None
kind : string, default None
Returns indexer : ndarray or slice

Notes

This function assumes that the data is sorted, so use at your own peril

34.6.1.96 pandas.Index.slice_locs

Index.slice_locs(start=None, end=None, step=None, kind=None)

Compute slice locations for input labels.
Parameters start : label, default None
If None, defaults to the beginning
end : label, default None
If None, defaults to the end
step : int, defaults None

1740 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

If None, defaults to 1
kind : {‘ix’, ‘loc’, ‘getitem’} or None
Returns start, end : int
See also:

Index.get_loc Get location for a single label

Notes

This method only works if the index is monotonic or unique.

Examples

>>> idx = pd.Index(list('abcd'))

>>> idx.slice_locs(start='b', end='c')
(1, 3)

34.6.1.97 pandas.Index.sort

Index.sort(*args, **kwargs)

34.6.1.98 pandas.Index.sort_values

Index.sort_values(return_indexer=False, ascending=True)
Return sorted copy of Index

34.6.1.99 pandas.Index.sortlevel

Index.sortlevel(level=None, ascending=True, sort_remaining=None)

For internal compatibility with with the Index API
Sort the Index. This is for compat with MultiIndex
Parameters ascending : boolean, default True
False to sort in descending order
level, sort_remaining are compat parameters
Returns sorted_index : Index

34.6.1.100 pandas.Index.str

Index.str()
Vectorized string functions for Series and Index. NAs stay NA unless handled otherwise by a particular
method. Patterned after Python’s string methods, with some inspiration from R’s stringr package.

34.6. Index 1741

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Examples

>>> s.str.split('_')
>>> s.str.replace('_', '')

34.6.1.101 pandas.Index.summary

Index.summary(name=None)

34.6.1.102 pandas.Index.symmetric_difference

Index.symmetric_difference(other, result_name=None)
Compute the symmetric difference of two Index objects. It’s sorted if sorting is possible.
Parameters other : Index or array-like
result_name : str
Returns symmetric_difference : Index

Notes

symmetric_difference contains elements that appear in either idx1 or idx2 but not both. Equiv-
alent to the Index created by idx1.difference(idx2) | idx2.difference(idx1) with du-
plicates dropped.

Examples

>>> idx1 = Index([1, 2, 3, 4])

>>> idx2 = Index([2, 3, 4, 5])
>>> idx1.symmetric_difference(idx2)
Int64Index([1, 5], dtype='int64')

You can also use the ^ operator:

>>> idx1 ^ idx2

Int64Index([1, 5], dtype='int64')

34.6.1.103 pandas.Index.take

Index.take(indices, axis=0, allow_fill=True, fill_value=None, **kwargs)

return a new Index of the values selected by the indices
For internal compatibility with numpy arrays.
Parameters indices : list
Indices to be taken
axis : int, optional
The axis over which to select values, always 0.

1742 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

allow_fill : bool, default True

fill_value : bool, default None
If allow_fill=True and fill_value is not None, indices specified by -1 is regarded
as NA. If Index doesn’t hold NA, raise ValueError
See also:
numpy.ndarray.take

34.6.1.104 pandas.Index.to_datetime

Index.to_datetime(dayfirst=False)
DEPRECATED: use pandas.to_datetime() instead.
For an Index containing strings or datetime.datetime objects, attempt conversion to DatetimeIndex

34.6.1.105 pandas.Index.to_frame

Index.to_frame(index=True)
Create a DataFrame with a column containing the Index.
New in version 0.21.0.
Parameters index : boolean, default True
Set the index of the returned DataFrame as the original Index.
Returns DataFrame : a DataFrame containing the original Index data.

34.6.1.106 pandas.Index.to_native_types

Index.to_native_types(slicer=None, **kwargs)
Format specified values of self and return them.
Parameters slicer : int, array-like
An indexer into self that specifies which values are used in the formatting process.
kwargs : dict
Options for specifying how the values should be formatted. These options include
the following:
1. na_rep [str] The value that serves as a placeholder for NULL values
2. quoting [bool or None] Whether or not there are quoted values in self
3. date_format [str] The format used to represent date-like values

34.6.1.107 pandas.Index.to_series

Index.to_series(**kwargs)
Create a Series with both index and values equal to the index keys useful with map for returning an indexer
based on an index
Returns Series : dtype will be based on the type of the Index values.

34.6. Index 1743

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

34.6.1.108 pandas.Index.tolist

Index.tolist()
Return a list of the values.
These are each a scalar type, which is a Python scalar (for str, int, float) or a pandas scalar (for Times-
tamp/Timedelta/Interval/Period)
See also:
numpy.ndarray.tolist

34.6.1.109 pandas.Index.transpose

Index.transpose(*args, **kwargs)
return the transpose, which is by definition self

34.6.1.110 pandas.Index.union

Index.union(other)
Form the union of two Index objects and sorts if possible.
Parameters other : Index or array-like
Returns union : Index

Examples

>>> idx1 = pd.Index([1, 2, 3, 4])

>>> idx2 = pd.Index([3, 4, 5, 6])
>>> idx1.union(idx2)
Int64Index([1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6], dtype='int64')

34.6.1.111 pandas.Index.unique

Index.unique()
Return unique values in the object. Uniques are returned in order of appearance, this does NOT sort. Hash
table-based unique.
Parameters values : 1d array-like
Returns unique values.
• If the input is an Index, the return is an Index
• If the input is a Categorical dtype, the return is a Categorical
• If the input is a Series/ndarray, the return will be an ndarray
See also:
unique, Index.unique, Series.unique

1744 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

34.6.1.112 pandas.Index.value_counts

Index.value_counts(normalize=False, sort=True, ascending=False, bins=None, dropna=True)

Returns object containing counts of unique values.
The resulting object will be in descending order so that the first element is the most frequently-occurring
element. Excludes NA values by default.
Parameters normalize : boolean, default False
If True then the object returned will contain the relative frequencies of the unique
values.
sort : boolean, default True
Sort by values
ascending : boolean, default False
Sort in ascending order
bins : integer, optional
Rather than count values, group them into half-open bins, a convenience for
pd.cut, only works with numeric data
dropna : boolean, default True
Don’t include counts of NaN.
Returns counts : Series

34.6.1.113 pandas.Index.view

Index.view(cls=None)

34.6.1.114 pandas.Index.where

Index.where(cond, other=None)
New in version 0.19.0.
Return an Index of same shape as self and whose corresponding entries are from self where cond is True
and otherwise are from other.
Parameters cond : boolean array-like with the same length as self
other : scalar, or array-like

34.6.2 Attributes

Index.values return the underlying data as an ndarray

Index.is_monotonic alias for is_monotonic_increasing (deprecated)
Index.is_monotonic_increasing return if the index is monotonic increasing (only equal or
Index.is_monotonic_decreasing return if the index is monotonic decreasing (only equal or
Index.is_unique
Index.has_duplicates
Index.dtype
Continued on next page

34.6. Index 1745

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Table 34.91 – continued from previous page

Index.inferred_type
Index.is_all_dates
Index.shape return a tuple of the shape of the underlying data
Index.nbytes return the number of bytes in the underlying data
Index.ndim return the number of dimensions of the underlying data,
Index.size return the number of elements in the underlying data
Index.empty
Index.strides return the strides of the underlying data
Index.itemsize return the size of the dtype of the item of the underlying
data
Index.base return the base object if the memory of the underlying data
is
Index.T return the transpose, which is by definition self
Index.memory_usage([deep]) Memory usage of my values

34.6.3 Modifying and Computations

Index.all(*args, **kwargs) Return whether all elements are True

Index.any(*args, **kwargs) Return whether any element is True
Index.argmin([axis]) return a ndarray of the minimum argument indexer
Index.argmax([axis]) return a ndarray of the maximum argument indexer
Index.copy([name, deep, dtype]) Make a copy of this object.
Index.delete(loc) Make new Index with passed location(-s) deleted
Index.drop(labels[, errors]) Make new Index with passed list of labels deleted
Index.drop_duplicates([keep]) Return Index with duplicate values removed
Index.duplicated([keep]) Return boolean np.ndarray denoting duplicate values
Index.equals(other) Determines if two Index objects contain the same elements.
Index.factorize([sort, na_sentinel]) Encode the object as an enumerated type or categorical
variable
Index.identical(other) Similar to equals, but check that other comparable at-
tributes are
Index.insert(loc, item) Make new Index inserting new item at location.
Index.min() The minimum value of the object
Index.max() The maximum value of the object
Index.reindex(target[, method, level, ...]) Create index with target’s values (move/add/delete values
as necessary)
Index.repeat(repeats, *args, **kwargs) Repeat elements of an Index.
Index.where(cond[, other]) New in version 0.19.0.

Index.take(indices[, axis, allow_fill, ...]) return a new Index of the values selected by the indices
Index.putmask(mask, value) return a new Index of the values set with the mask
Index.set_names(names[, level, inplace]) Set new names on index.
Index.unique() Return unique values in the object.
Index.nunique([dropna]) Return number of unique elements in the object.
Index.value_counts([normalize, sort, ...]) Returns object containing counts of unique values.

34.6.4 Missing Values

1746 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Index.fillna([value, downcast]) Fill NA/NaN values with the specified value

Index.dropna([how]) Return Index without NA/NaN values
Index.isna() Detect missing values
Index.notna() Inverse of isna

34.6.5 Conversion

Index.astype(dtype[, copy]) Create an Index with values cast to dtypes.

Index.tolist() Return a list of the values.
Index.to_datetime([dayfirst]) DEPRECATED: use pandas.to_datetime() in-
stead.
Index.to_series(**kwargs) Create a Series with both index and values equal to the in-
dex keys
Index.to_frame([index]) Create a DataFrame with a column containing the Index.

34.6.6 Sorting

Index.argsort(*args, **kwargs) Returns the indices that would sort the index and its under-
lying data.
Index.sort_values([return_indexer, ascending]) Return sorted copy of Index

34.6.7 Time-specific operations

Index.shift([periods, freq]) Shift Index containing datetime objects by input number of

periods and

34.6.8 Combining / joining / set operations

Index.append(other) Append a collection of Index options together

Index.join(other[, how, level, ...]) this is an internal non-public method
Index.intersection(other) Form the intersection of two Index objects.
Index.union(other) Form the union of two Index objects and sorts if possible.
Index.difference(other) Return a new Index with elements from the index that are
not in other.
Index.symmetric_difference(other[, re- Compute the symmetric difference of two Index objects.
sult_name])

34.6.9 Selecting

Index.get_indexer(target[, method, limit, ...]) Compute indexer and mask for new index given the current
index.
Index.get_indexer_non_unique(target) Compute indexer and mask for new index given the current
index.
Continued on next page

34.6. Index 1747

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Table 34.98 – continued from previous page

Index.get_level_values(level) Return an Index of values for requested level, equal to the
length of the index.
Index.get_loc(key[, method, tolerance]) Get integer location, slice or boolean mask for requested
label.
Index.get_value(series, key) Fast lookup of value from 1-dimensional ndarray.
Index.isin(values[, level]) Compute boolean array of whether each index value is
found in the passed set of values.
Index.slice_indexer([start, end, step, kind]) For an ordered Index, compute the slice indexer for input
labels and
Index.slice_locs([start, end, step, kind]) Compute slice locations for input labels.

34.7 Numeric Index

RangeIndex Immutable Index implementing a monotonic integer range.

Int64Index Immutable ndarray implementing an ordered, sliceable set.
UInt64Index Immutable ndarray implementing an ordered, sliceable set.
Float64Index Immutable ndarray implementing an ordered, sliceable set.

34.7.1 pandas.RangeIndex

class pandas.RangeIndex
Immutable Index implementing a monotonic integer range.
RangeIndex is a memory-saving special case of Int64Index limited to representing monotonic ranges. Using
RangeIndex may in some instances improve computing speed.
This is the default index type used by DataFrame and Series when no explicit index is provided by the user.
Parameters start : int (default: 0), or other RangeIndex instance.
If int and “stop” is not given, interpreted as “stop” instead.
stop : int (default: 0)
step : int (default: 1)
name : object, optional
Name to be stored in the index
copy : bool, default False
Unused, accepted for homogeneity with other index types.
See also:

Index The base pandas Index type

Int64Index Index of int64 data

34.7.2 pandas.Int64Index

class pandas.Int64Index
Immutable ndarray implementing an ordered, sliceable set. The basic object storing axis labels for all pandas
objects. Int64Index is a special case of Index with purely integer labels.

1748 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Parameters data : array-like (1-dimensional)

dtype : NumPy dtype (default: int64)
copy : bool
Make a copy of input ndarray
name : object
Name to be stored in the index
See also:

Index The base pandas Index type

Notes

An Index instance can only contain hashable objects.

34.7.3 pandas.UInt64Index

class pandas.UInt64Index
Immutable ndarray implementing an ordered, sliceable set. The basic object storing axis labels for all pandas
objects. UInt64Index is a special case of Index with purely unsigned integer labels.
Parameters data : array-like (1-dimensional)
dtype : NumPy dtype (default: uint64)
copy : bool
Make a copy of input ndarray
name : object
Name to be stored in the index
See also:

Index The base pandas Index type

Notes

An Index instance can only contain hashable objects.

34.7.4 pandas.Float64Index

class pandas.Float64Index
Immutable ndarray implementing an ordered, sliceable set. The basic object storing axis labels for all pandas
objects. Float64Index is a special case of Index with purely float labels.
Parameters data : array-like (1-dimensional)
dtype : NumPy dtype (default: float64)
copy : bool
Make a copy of input ndarray

34.7. Numeric Index 1749

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

name : object
Name to be stored in the index
See also:

Index The base pandas Index type

Notes

An Index instance can only contain hashable objects.

34.8 CategoricalIndex

CategoricalIndex Immutable Index implementing an ordered, sliceable set.

34.8.1 pandas.CategoricalIndex

class pandas.CategoricalIndex
Immutable Index implementing an ordered, sliceable set. CategoricalIndex represents a sparsely populated
Index with an underlying Categorical.
Parameters data : array-like or Categorical, (1-dimensional)
categories : optional, array-like
categories for the CategoricalIndex
ordered : boolean,
designating if the categories are ordered
copy : bool
Make a copy of input ndarray
name : object
Name to be stored in the index
See also:
Categorical, Index

34.8.2 Categorical Components

CategoricalIndex.codes
CategoricalIndex.categories
CategoricalIndex.ordered
CategoricalIndex.rename_categories(*args, Renames categories.
...)
CategoricalIndex.reorder_categories(*args, Reorders categories as specified in new_categories.
...)
Continued on next page

1750 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Table 34.101 – continued from previous page

CategoricalIndex.add_categories(*args, Add new categories.
**kwargs)
CategoricalIndex.remove_categories(*args, Removes the specified categories.
...)
CategoricalIndex.remove_unused_categories(...) Removes categories which are not used.
CategoricalIndex.set_categories(*args, Sets the categories to the specified new_categories.
**kwargs)
CategoricalIndex.as_ordered(*args, **kwargs) Sets the Categorical to be ordered
CategoricalIndex.as_unordered(*args, Sets the Categorical to be unordered
**kwargs)

34.8.2.1 pandas.CategoricalIndex.codes

CategoricalIndex.codes

34.8.2.2 pandas.CategoricalIndex.categories

CategoricalIndex.categories

34.8.2.3 pandas.CategoricalIndex.ordered

CategoricalIndex.ordered

34.8.2.4 pandas.CategoricalIndex.rename_categories

CategoricalIndex.rename_categories(*args, **kwargs)
Renames categories.
Parameters new_categories : list-like or dict-like
• list-like: all items must be unique and the number of items in the new categories
must match the existing number of categories.
• dict-like: specifies a mapping from old categories to new. Categories not con-
tained in the mapping are passed through and extra categories in the mapping
are ignored. New in version 0.21.0.

Warning: Currently, Series are considered list like. In a future version of pandas
they’ll be considered dict-like.

inplace : boolean (default: False)

Whether or not to rename the categories inplace or return a copy of this categorical
with renamed categories.
Returns cat : Categorical or None
With inplace=False, the new categorical is returned. With inplace=True,
there is no return value.
Raises ValueError

34.8. CategoricalIndex 1751

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

If new categories are list-like and do not have the same number of items than the
current categories or do not validate as categories
See also:
reorder_categories, add_categories, remove_categories,
remove_unused_categories, set_categories

Examples

>>> c = Categorical(['a', 'a', 'b'])

>>> c.rename_categories([0, 1])
[0, 0, 1]
Categories (2, int64): [0, 1]

For dict-like new_categories, extra keys are ignored and categories not in the dictionary are passed through

>>> c.rename_categories({'a': 'A', 'c': 'C'})

[A, A, b]
Categories (2, object): [A, b]

34.8.2.5 pandas.CategoricalIndex.reorder_categories

CategoricalIndex.reorder_categories(*args, **kwargs)
Reorders categories as specified in new_categories.
new_categories need to include all old categories and no new category items.
Parameters new_categories : Index-like
The categories in new order.
ordered : boolean, optional
Whether or not the categorical is treated as a ordered categorical. If not given, do
not change the ordered information.
inplace : boolean (default: False)
Whether or not to reorder the categories inplace or return a copy of this categorical
with reordered categories.
Returns cat : Categorical with reordered categories or None if inplace.
Raises ValueError
If the new categories do not contain all old category items or any new ones
See also:
rename_categories, add_categories, remove_categories,
remove_unused_categories, set_categories

34.8.2.6 pandas.CategoricalIndex.add_categories

CategoricalIndex.add_categories(*args, **kwargs)
Add new categories.

1752 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

new_categories will be included at the last/highest place in the categories and will be unused directly after this
call.
Parameters new_categories : category or list-like of category
The new categories to be included.
inplace : boolean (default: False)
Whether or not to add the categories inplace or return a copy of this categorical with
added categories.
Returns cat : Categorical with new categories added or None if inplace.
Raises ValueError
If the new categories include old categories or do not validate as categories
See also:
rename_categories, reorder_categories, remove_categories,
remove_unused_categories, set_categories

34.8.2.7 pandas.CategoricalIndex.remove_categories

CategoricalIndex.remove_categories(*args, **kwargs)
Removes the specified categories.
removals must be included in the old categories. Values which were in the removed categories will be set to
NaN
Parameters removals : category or list of categories
The categories which should be removed.
inplace : boolean (default: False)
Whether or not to remove the categories inplace or return a copy of this categorical
with removed categories.
Returns cat : Categorical with removed categories or None if inplace.
Raises ValueError
If the removals are not contained in the categories
See also:
rename_categories, reorder_categories, add_categories,
remove_unused_categories, set_categories

34.8.2.8 pandas.CategoricalIndex.remove_unused_categories

CategoricalIndex.remove_unused_categories(*args, **kwargs)
Removes categories which are not used.
Parameters inplace : boolean (default: False)
Whether or not to drop unused categories inplace or return a copy of this categorical
with unused categories dropped.
Returns cat : Categorical with unused categories dropped or None if inplace.

34.8. CategoricalIndex 1753

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

See also:
rename_categories, reorder_categories, add_categories, remove_categories,
set_categories

34.8.2.9 pandas.CategoricalIndex.set_categories

CategoricalIndex.set_categories(*args, **kwargs)
Sets the categories to the specified new_categories.
new_categories can include new categories (which will result in unused categories) or remove old categories
(which results in values set to NaN). If rename==True, the categories will simple be renamed (less or more
items than in old categories will result in values set to NaN or in unused categories respectively).
This method can be used to perform more than one action of adding, removing, and reordering simultaneously
and is therefore faster than performing the individual steps via the more specialised methods.
On the other hand this methods does not do checks (e.g., whether the old categories are included in the new
categories on a reorder), which can result in surprising changes, for example when using special string dtypes
on python3, which does not considers a S1 string equal to a single char python string.
Parameters new_categories : Index-like
The categories in new order.
ordered : boolean, (default: False)
Whether or not the categorical is treated as a ordered categorical. If not given, do
not change the ordered information.
rename : boolean (default: False)
Whether or not the new_categories should be considered as a rename of the old
categories or as reordered categories.
inplace : boolean (default: False)
Whether or not to reorder the categories inplace or return a copy of this categorical
with reordered categories.
Returns cat : Categorical with reordered categories or None if inplace.
Raises ValueError
If new_categories does not validate as categories
See also:
rename_categories, reorder_categories, add_categories, remove_categories,
remove_unused_categories

34.8.2.10 pandas.CategoricalIndex.as_ordered

CategoricalIndex.as_ordered(*args, **kwargs)
Sets the Categorical to be ordered
Parameters inplace : boolean (default: False)
Whether or not to set the ordered attribute inplace or return a copy of this categorical
with ordered set to True

1754 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

34.8.2.11 pandas.CategoricalIndex.as_unordered

CategoricalIndex.as_unordered(*args, **kwargs)
Sets the Categorical to be unordered
Parameters inplace : boolean (default: False)
Whether or not to set the ordered attribute inplace or return a copy of this categorical
with ordered set to False

34.9 IntervalIndex

IntervalIndex Immutable Index implementing an ordered, sliceable set.

34.9.1 pandas.IntervalIndex

class pandas.IntervalIndex
Immutable Index implementing an ordered, sliceable set. IntervalIndex represents an Index of intervals that are
all closed on the same side.
New in version 0.20.0.

Warning: The indexing behaviors are provisional and may change in a future version of pandas.

See also:

Index The base pandas Index type

Interval A bounded slice-like interval
interval_range Function to create a fixed frequency

IntervalIndex, IntervalIndex.from_arrays, IntervalIndex.from_breaks,

IntervalIndex.from_intervals, IntervalIndex.from_tuples, cut, qcut

Notes

See the user guide for more.

Examples

A new IntervalIndex is typically constructed using interval_range():

>>> pd.interval_range(start=0, end=5)

IntervalIndex([(0, 1], (1, 2], (2, 3], (3, 4], (4, 5]]
closed='right', dtype='interval[int64]')

It may also be constructed using one of the constructor methods IntervalIndex.

from_arrays(), IntervalIndex.from_breaks(), IntervalIndex.from_intervals()
and IntervalIndex.from_tuples().

34.9. IntervalIndex 1755

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

See further examples in the doc strings of interval_range and the mentioned constructor methods.

34.9.2 IntervalIndex Components

IntervalIndex.from_arrays(left, right[, ...]) Construct an IntervalIndex from a a left and right array
IntervalIndex.from_tuples(data[, closed, ...]) Construct an IntervalIndex from a list/array of tuples
IntervalIndex.from_breaks(breaks[, closed, ...]) Construct an IntervalIndex from an array of splits
IntervalIndex.from_intervals(data[, name, Construct an IntervalIndex from a 1d array of Interval ob-
copy]) jects

34.9.2.1 pandas.IntervalIndex.from_arrays

classmethod IntervalIndex.from_arrays(left, right, closed=’right’, name=None, copy=False)

Construct an IntervalIndex from a a left and right array
Parameters left : array-like (1-dimensional)
Left bounds for each interval.
right : array-like (1-dimensional)
Right bounds for each interval.
closed : {‘left’, ‘right’, ‘both’, ‘neither’}, optional
Whether the intervals are closed on the left-side, right-side, both or neither. Defaults
to ‘right’.
name : object, optional
Name to be stored in the index.
copy : boolean, default False
copy the data
See also:

interval_range Function to create a fixed frequency IntervalIndex

IntervalIndex.from_breaks Construct an IntervalIndex from an array of splits
IntervalIndex.from_intervals Construct an IntervalIndex from an array of Interval objects
IntervalIndex.from_tuples Construct an IntervalIndex from a list/array of tuples

Examples

>>> pd.IntervalIndex.from_arrays([0, 1, 2], [1, 2, 3])

IntervalIndex([(0, 1], (1, 2], (2, 3]]
closed='right',
dtype='interval[int64]')

1756 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

34.9.2.2 pandas.IntervalIndex.from_tuples

classmethod IntervalIndex.from_tuples(data, closed=’right’, name=None, copy=False)

Construct an IntervalIndex from a list/array of tuples
Parameters data : array-like (1-dimensional)
Array of tuples
closed : {‘left’, ‘right’, ‘both’, ‘neither’}, optional
Whether the intervals are closed on the left-side, right-side, both or neither. Defaults
to ‘right’.
name : object, optional
Name to be stored in the index.
copy : boolean, default False
by-default copy the data, this is compat only and ignored
See also:

interval_range Function to create a fixed frequency IntervalIndex

IntervalIndex.from_arrays Construct an IntervalIndex from a left and right array
IntervalIndex.from_breaks Construct an IntervalIndex from an array of splits
IntervalIndex.from_intervals Construct an IntervalIndex from an array of Interval objects

Examples

>>> pd.IntervalIndex.from_tuples([(0, 1), (1,2)])

IntervalIndex([(0, 1], (1, 2]],
closed='right', dtype='interval[int64]')

34.9.2.3 pandas.IntervalIndex.from_breaks

classmethod IntervalIndex.from_breaks(breaks, closed=’right’, name=None, copy=False)

Construct an IntervalIndex from an array of splits
Parameters breaks : array-like (1-dimensional)
Left and right bounds for each interval.
closed : {‘left’, ‘right’, ‘both’, ‘neither’}, optional
Whether the intervals are closed on the left-side, right-side, both or neither. Defaults
to ‘right’.
name : object, optional
Name to be stored in the index.
copy : boolean, default False
copy the data
See also:

34.9. IntervalIndex 1757

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

interval_range Function to create a fixed frequency IntervalIndex

IntervalIndex.from_arrays Construct an IntervalIndex from a left and right array
IntervalIndex.from_intervals Construct an IntervalIndex from an array of Interval objects
IntervalIndex.from_tuples Construct an IntervalIndex from a list/array of tuples

Examples

>>> pd.IntervalIndex.from_breaks([0, 1, 2, 3])

IntervalIndex([(0, 1], (1, 2], (2, 3]]
closed='right',
dtype='interval[int64]')

34.9.2.4 pandas.IntervalIndex.from_intervals

classmethod IntervalIndex.from_intervals(data, name=None, copy=False)

Construct an IntervalIndex from a 1d array of Interval objects
Parameters data : array-like (1-dimensional)
Array of Interval objects. All intervals must be closed on the same sides.
name : object, optional
Name to be stored in the index.
copy : boolean, default False
by-default copy the data, this is compat only and ignored
See also:

interval_range Function to create a fixed frequency IntervalIndex

IntervalIndex.from_arrays Construct an IntervalIndex from a left and right array
IntervalIndex.from_breaks Construct an IntervalIndex from an array of splits
IntervalIndex.from_tuples Construct an IntervalIndex from a list/array of tuples

Examples

>>> pd.IntervalIndex.from_intervals([pd.Interval(0, 1),

... pd.Interval(1, 2)])
IntervalIndex([(0, 1], (1, 2]]
closed='right', dtype='interval[int64]')

The generic Index constructor work identically when it infers an array of all intervals:

>>> pd.Index([pd.Interval(0, 1), pd.Interval(1, 2)])

IntervalIndex([(0, 1], (1, 2]]
closed='right', dtype='interval[int64]')

1758 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

34.10 MultiIndex

MultiIndex A multi-level, or hierarchical, index object for pandas ob-

jects
IndexSlice Create an object to more easily perform multi-index slicing

34.10.1 pandas.MultiIndex

class pandas.MultiIndex
A multi-level, or hierarchical, index object for pandas objects
Parameters levels : sequence of arrays
The unique labels for each level
labels : sequence of arrays
Integers for each level designating which label at each location
sortorder : optional int
Level of sortedness (must be lexicographically sorted by that level)
names : optional sequence of objects
Names for each of the index levels. (name is accepted for compat)
copy : boolean, default False
Copy the meta-data
verify_integrity : boolean, default True
Check that the levels/labels are consistent and valid
See also:

MultiIndex.from_arrays Convert list of arrays to MultiIndex

MultiIndex.from_product Create a MultiIndex from the cartesian product of iterables
MultiIndex.from_tuples Convert list of tuples to a MultiIndex
Index The base pandas Index type

Notes

See the user guide for more.

Examples

A new MultiIndex is typically constructed using one of the helper methods MultiIndex.
from_arrays(), MultiIndex.from_product() and MultiIndex.from_tuples(). For exam-
ple (using .from_arrays):

34.10. MultiIndex 1759

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

>>> arrays = [[1, 1, 2, 2], ['red', 'blue', 'red', 'blue']]

>>> pd.MultiIndex.from_arrays(arrays, names=('number', 'color'))
MultiIndex(levels=[[1, 2], ['blue', 'red']],
labels=[[0, 0, 1, 1], [1, 0, 1, 0]],
names=['number', 'color'])

See further examples for how to construct a MultiIndex in the doc strings of the mentioned helper methods.

Attributes

T return the transpose, which is by definition self

asi8
base return the base object if the memory of the underlying
data is
data return the data pointer of the underlying data
dtype
dtype_str
empty
flags
has_duplicates
hasnans
inferred_type
is_all_dates
is_monotonic
is_monotonic_decreasing
is_monotonic_increasing
is_unique
itemsize return the size of the dtype of the item of the underlying
data
labels
levels
levshape
lexsort_depth
name
names Names of levels in MultiIndex
nbytes
ndim return the number of dimensions of the underlying data,
nlevels
shape return a tuple of the shape of the underlying data
size return the number of elements in the underlying data
strides return the strides of the underlying data
values

34.10.1.1 pandas.MultiIndex.T

MultiIndex.T
return the transpose, which is by definition self

1760 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

34.10.1.2 pandas.MultiIndex.asi8

MultiIndex.asi8 = None

34.10.1.3 pandas.MultiIndex.base

MultiIndex.base
return the base object if the memory of the underlying data is shared

34.10.1.4 pandas.MultiIndex.data

MultiIndex.data
return the data pointer of the underlying data

34.10.1.5 pandas.MultiIndex.dtype

MultiIndex.dtype = None

34.10.1.6 pandas.MultiIndex.dtype_str

MultiIndex.dtype_str = None

34.10.1.7 pandas.MultiIndex.empty

MultiIndex.empty

34.10.1.8 pandas.MultiIndex.flags

MultiIndex.flags

34.10.1.9 pandas.MultiIndex.has_duplicates

MultiIndex.has_duplicates

34.10.1.10 pandas.MultiIndex.hasnans

MultiIndex.hasnans = None

34.10.1.11 pandas.MultiIndex.inferred_type

MultiIndex.inferred_type = None

34.10.1.12 pandas.MultiIndex.is_all_dates

MultiIndex.is_all_dates

34.10. MultiIndex 1761

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

34.10.1.13 pandas.MultiIndex.is_monotonic

MultiIndex.is_monotonic = None

34.10.1.14 pandas.MultiIndex.is_monotonic_decreasing

MultiIndex.is_monotonic_decreasing = None

34.10.1.15 pandas.MultiIndex.is_monotonic_increasing

MultiIndex.is_monotonic_increasing = None

34.10.1.16 pandas.MultiIndex.is_unique

MultiIndex.is_unique = None

34.10.1.17 pandas.MultiIndex.itemsize

MultiIndex.itemsize
return the size of the dtype of the item of the underlying data

34.10.1.18 pandas.MultiIndex.labels

MultiIndex.labels

34.10.1.19 pandas.MultiIndex.levels

MultiIndex.levels

34.10.1.20 pandas.MultiIndex.levshape

MultiIndex.levshape

34.10.1.21 pandas.MultiIndex.lexsort_depth

MultiIndex.lexsort_depth = None

34.10.1.22 pandas.MultiIndex.name

MultiIndex.name = None

34.10.1.23 pandas.MultiIndex.names

MultiIndex.names
Names of levels in MultiIndex

1762 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

34.10.1.24 pandas.MultiIndex.nbytes

MultiIndex.nbytes = None

34.10.1.25 pandas.MultiIndex.ndim

MultiIndex.ndim
return the number of dimensions of the underlying data, by definition 1

34.10.1.26 pandas.MultiIndex.nlevels

MultiIndex.nlevels

34.10.1.27 pandas.MultiIndex.shape

MultiIndex.shape
return a tuple of the shape of the underlying data

34.10.1.28 pandas.MultiIndex.size

MultiIndex.size
return the number of elements in the underlying data

34.10.1.29 pandas.MultiIndex.strides

MultiIndex.strides
return the strides of the underlying data

34.10.1.30 pandas.MultiIndex.values

MultiIndex.values

Methods

all([other])
any([other])
append(other) Append a collection of Index options together
argmax([axis]) return a ndarray of the maximum argument indexer
argmin([axis]) return a ndarray of the minimum argument indexer
argsort(*args, **kwargs)
asof(label) For a sorted index, return the most recent label up to and
including the passed label.
asof_locs(where, mask) where : array of timestamps
astype(dtype[, copy]) Create an Index with values cast to dtypes.
contains(key) return a boolean if this key is IN the index
copy([names, dtype, levels, labels, deep, ...]) Make a copy of this object.
Continued on next page

34.10. MultiIndex 1763

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Table 34.106 – continued from previous page

delete(loc) Make new index with passed location deleted
difference(other) Compute sorted set difference of two MultiIndex objects
drop(labels[, level, errors]) Make new MultiIndex with passed list of labels deleted
drop_duplicates([keep]) Return Index with duplicate values removed
droplevel([level]) Return Index with requested level removed.
dropna([how]) Return Index without NA/NaN values
duplicated([keep]) Return boolean np.ndarray denoting duplicate values
equal_levels(other) Return True if the levels of both MultiIndex objects are
the same
equals(other) Determines if two MultiIndex objects have the same la-
beling information
factorize([sort, na_sentinel]) Encode the object as an enumerated type or categorical
variable
fillna([value, downcast]) Fill NA/NaN values with the specified value
format([space, sparsify, adjoin, names, ...])
from_arrays(arrays[, sortorder, names]) Convert arrays to MultiIndex
from_product(iterables[, sortorder, names]) Make a MultiIndex from the cartesian product of multi-
ple iterables
from_tuples(tuples[, sortorder, names]) Convert list of tuples to MultiIndex
get_duplicates()
get_indexer(target[, method, limit, tolerance]) Compute indexer and mask for new index given the cur-
rent index.
get_indexer_for(target, **kwargs) guaranteed return of an indexer even when non-unique
get_indexer_non_unique(target) Compute indexer and mask for new index given the cur-
rent index.
get_level_values(level) Return vector of label values for requested level, equal
to the length of the index.
get_loc(key[, method]) Get location for a label or a tuple of labels as an integer,
slice or boolean mask.
get_loc_level(key[, level, drop_level]) Get both the location for the requested label(s) and the
resulting sliced index.
get_locs(seq) Get location for a given label/slice/list/mask or a se-
quence of such as an array of integers.
get_major_bounds([start, end, step, kind]) For an ordered MultiIndex, compute the slice locations
for input labels.
get_slice_bound(label, side, kind)
get_value(series, key)
get_values() return the underlying data as an ndarray
groupby(values) Group the index labels by a given array of values.
holds_integer()
identical(other) Similar to equals, but check that other comparable at-
tributes are
insert(loc, item) Make new MultiIndex inserting new item at location
intersection(other) Form the intersection of two MultiIndex objects, sorting
if possible
is_(other) More flexible, faster check like is but that works
through views
is_boolean()
is_categorical()
is_floating()
Continued on next page

1764 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Table 34.106 – continued from previous page

is_integer()
is_interval()
is_lexsorted() Return True if the labels are lexicographically sorted
is_lexsorted_for_tuple(tup)
is_mixed()
is_numeric()
is_object()
is_type_compatible(kind)
isin(values[, level]) Compute boolean array of whether each index value is
found in the passed set of values.
isna() Detect missing values
isnull() Detect missing values
item() return the first element of the underlying data as a
python
join(other[, how, level, return_indexers, sort]) this is an internal non-public method
map(mapper) Apply mapper function to an index.
max() The maximum value of the object
memory_usage([deep]) Memory usage of my values
min() The minimum value of the object
notna() Inverse of isna
notnull() Inverse of isna
nunique([dropna]) Return number of unique elements in the object.
putmask(mask, value) return a new Index of the values set with the mask
ravel([order]) return an ndarray of the flattened values of the underly-
ing data
reindex(target[, method, level, limit, ...]) Create index with target’s values (move/add/delete val-
ues as necessary)
remove_unused_levels() create a new MultiIndex from the current that removing
rename(names[, level, inplace]) Set new names on index.
reorder_levels(order) Rearrange levels using input order.
repeat(repeats, *args, **kwargs)
reshape(*args, **kwargs) NOT IMPLEMENTED: do not call this method, as re-
shaping is not supported for Index objects and will raise
an error.
searchsorted(value[, side, sorter]) Find indices where elements should be inserted to main-
tain order.
set_labels(labels[, level, inplace, ...]) Set new labels on MultiIndex.
set_levels(levels[, level, inplace, ...]) Set new levels on MultiIndex.
set_names(names[, level, inplace]) Set new names on index.
set_value(arr, key, value) Fast lookup of value from 1-dimensional ndarray.
shift([periods, freq]) Shift Index containing datetime objects by input number
of periods and
slice_indexer([start, end, step, kind]) For an ordered Index, compute the slice indexer for in-
put labels and
slice_locs([start, end, step, kind]) For an ordered MultiIndex, compute the slice locations
for input labels.
sort(*args, **kwargs)
sort_values([return_indexer, ascending]) Return sorted copy of Index
sortlevel([level, ascending, sort_remaining]) Sort MultiIndex at the requested level.
str alias of StringMethods
Continued on next page

34.10. MultiIndex 1765

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Table 34.106 – continued from previous page

summary([name])
swaplevel([i, j]) Swap level i with level j.
symmetric_difference(other[, result_name]) Compute the symmetric difference of two Index objects.
take(indices[, axis, allow_fill, fill_value]) return a new MultiIndex of the values selected by the
indices
to_datetime([dayfirst]) DEPRECATED: use pandas.to_datetime() in-
stead.
to_frame([index]) Create a DataFrame with the levels of the MultiIndex as
columns.
to_hierarchical(n_repeat[, n_shuffle]) Return a MultiIndex reshaped to conform to the shapes
given by n_repeat and n_shuffle.
to_native_types([slicer]) Format specified values of self and return them.
to_series(**kwargs) Create a Series with both index and values equal to the
index keys
tolist() Return a list of the values.
transpose(*args, **kwargs) return the transpose, which is by definition self
truncate([before, after]) Slice index between two labels / tuples, return new Mul-
tiIndex
union(other) Form the union of two MultiIndex objects, sorting if
possible
unique() Return unique values in the object.
value_counts([normalize, sort, ascending, ...]) Returns object containing counts of unique values.
view([cls]) this is defined as a copy with the same identity
where(cond[, other])

34.10.1.31 pandas.MultiIndex.all

MultiIndex.all(other=None)

34.10.1.32 pandas.MultiIndex.any

MultiIndex.any(other=None)

34.10.1.33 pandas.MultiIndex.append

MultiIndex.append(other)
Append a collection of Index options together
Parameters other : Index or list/tuple of indices
Returns appended : Index

34.10.1.34 pandas.MultiIndex.argmax

MultiIndex.argmax(axis=None)
return a ndarray of the maximum argument indexer
See also:
numpy.ndarray.argmax

1766 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

34.10.1.35 pandas.MultiIndex.argmin

MultiIndex.argmin(axis=None)
return a ndarray of the minimum argument indexer
See also:
numpy.ndarray.argmin

34.10.1.36 pandas.MultiIndex.argsort

MultiIndex.argsort(*args, **kwargs)

34.10.1.37 pandas.MultiIndex.asof

MultiIndex.asof(label)
For a sorted index, return the most recent label up to and including the passed label. Return NaN if not
found.
See also:

get_loc asof is a thin wrapper around get_loc with method=’pad’

34.10.1.38 pandas.MultiIndex.asof_locs

MultiIndex.asof_locs(where, mask)
where : array of timestamps mask : array of booleans where data is not NA

34.10.1.39 pandas.MultiIndex.astype

MultiIndex.astype(dtype, copy=True)
Create an Index with values cast to dtypes. The class of a new Index is determined by dtype. When
conversion is impossible, a ValueError exception is raised.
Parameters dtype : numpy dtype or pandas type
copy : bool, default True
By default, astype always returns a newly allocated object. If copy is set to False
and internal requirements on dtype are satisfied, the original data is used to create
a new Index or the original Index is returned.
New in version 0.19.0.

34.10.1.40 pandas.MultiIndex.contains

MultiIndex.contains(key)
return a boolean if this key is IN the index
Parameters key : object
Returns boolean

34.10. MultiIndex 1767

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

34.10.1.41 pandas.MultiIndex.copy

MultiIndex.copy(names=None, dtype=None, levels=None, labels=None, deep=False,

_set_identity=False, **kwargs)
Make a copy of this object. Names, dtype, levels and labels can be passed and will be set on new copy.
Parameters names : sequence, optional
dtype : numpy dtype or pandas type, optional
levels : sequence, optional
labels : sequence, optional
Returns copy : MultiIndex

Notes

In most cases, there should be no functional difference from using deep, but if deep is passed it will
attempt to deepcopy. This could be potentially expensive on large MultiIndex objects.

34.10.1.42 pandas.MultiIndex.delete

MultiIndex.delete(loc)
Make new index with passed location deleted
Returns new_index : MultiIndex

34.10.1.43 pandas.MultiIndex.difference

MultiIndex.difference(other)
Compute sorted set difference of two MultiIndex objects
Returns diff : MultiIndex

34.10.1.44 pandas.MultiIndex.drop

MultiIndex.drop(labels, level=None, errors=’raise’)

Make new MultiIndex with passed list of labels deleted
Parameters labels : array-like
Must be a list of tuples
level : int or level name, default None
Returns dropped : MultiIndex

34.10.1.45 pandas.MultiIndex.drop_duplicates

MultiIndex.drop_duplicates(keep=’first’)
Return Index with duplicate values removed
Parameters keep : {‘first’, ‘last’, False}, default ‘first’
• first : Drop duplicates except for the first occurrence.

1768 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• last : Drop duplicates except for the last occurrence.

• False : Drop all duplicates.
Returns deduplicated : Index

34.10.1.46 pandas.MultiIndex.droplevel

MultiIndex.droplevel(level=0)
Return Index with requested level removed. If MultiIndex has only 2 levels, the result will be of Index
type not MultiIndex.
Parameters level : int/level name or list thereof
Returns index : Index or MultiIndex

Notes

Does not check if result index is unique or not

34.10.1.47 pandas.MultiIndex.dropna

MultiIndex.dropna(how=’any’)
Return Index without NA/NaN values
Parameters how : {‘any’, ‘all’}, default ‘any’
If the Index is a MultiIndex, drop the value when any or all levels are NaN.
Returns valid : Index

34.10.1.48 pandas.MultiIndex.duplicated

MultiIndex.duplicated(keep=’first’)
Return boolean np.ndarray denoting duplicate values
Parameters keep : {‘first’, ‘last’, False}, default ‘first’
• first : Mark duplicates as True except for the first occurrence.
• last : Mark duplicates as True except for the last occurrence.
• False : Mark all duplicates as True.
Returns duplicated : np.ndarray

34.10.1.49 pandas.MultiIndex.equal_levels

MultiIndex.equal_levels(other)
Return True if the levels of both MultiIndex objects are the same

34.10. MultiIndex 1769

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

34.10.1.50 pandas.MultiIndex.equals

MultiIndex.equals(other)
Determines if two MultiIndex objects have the same labeling information (the levels themselves do not
necessarily have to be the same)
See also:
equal_levels

34.10.1.51 pandas.MultiIndex.factorize

MultiIndex.factorize(sort=False, na_sentinel=-1)
Encode the object as an enumerated type or categorical variable
Parameters sort : boolean, default False
Sort by values
na_sentinel: int, default -1
Value to mark “not found”
Returns labels : the indexer to the original array
uniques : the unique Index

34.10.1.52 pandas.MultiIndex.fillna

MultiIndex.fillna(value=None, downcast=None)
Fill NA/NaN values with the specified value
Parameters value : scalar
Scalar value to use to fill holes (e.g. 0). This value cannot be a list-likes.
downcast : dict, default is None
a dict of item->dtype of what to downcast if possible, or the string ‘infer’ which
will try to downcast to an appropriate equal type (e.g. float64 to int64 if possible)
Returns filled : %(klass)s

34.10.1.53 pandas.MultiIndex.format

MultiIndex.format(space=2, sparsify=None, adjoin=True, names=False, na_rep=None, format-

ter=None)

34.10.1.54 pandas.MultiIndex.from_arrays

classmethod MultiIndex.from_arrays(arrays, sortorder=None, names=None)

Convert arrays to MultiIndex
Parameters arrays : list / sequence of array-likes
Each array-like gives one level’s value for each data point. len(arrays) is the
number of levels.
sortorder : int or None

1770 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Level of sortedness (must be lexicographically sorted by that level)

Returns index : MultiIndex
See also:

MultiIndex.from_tuples Convert list of tuples to MultiIndex

MultiIndex.from_product Make a MultiIndex from cartesian product of iterables

Examples

>>> arrays = [[1, 1, 2, 2], ['red', 'blue', 'red', 'blue']]

>>> MultiIndex.from_arrays(arrays, names=('number', 'color'))

34.10.1.55 pandas.MultiIndex.from_product

classmethod MultiIndex.from_product(iterables, sortorder=None, names=None)

Make a MultiIndex from the cartesian product of multiple iterables
Parameters iterables : list / sequence of iterables
Each iterable has unique labels for each level of the index.
sortorder : int or None
Level of sortedness (must be lexicographically sorted by that level).
names : list / sequence of strings or None
Names for the levels in the index.
Returns index : MultiIndex
See also:

MultiIndex.from_arrays Convert list of arrays to MultiIndex

MultiIndex.from_tuples Convert list of tuples to MultiIndex

Examples

>>> numbers = [0, 1, 2]

>>> colors = [u'green', u'purple']
>>> MultiIndex.from_product([numbers, colors],
names=['number', 'color'])
MultiIndex(levels=[[0, 1, 2], [u'green', u'purple']],
labels=[[0, 0, 1, 1, 2, 2], [0, 1, 0, 1, 0, 1]],
names=[u'number', u'color'])

34.10.1.56 pandas.MultiIndex.from_tuples

classmethod MultiIndex.from_tuples(tuples, sortorder=None, names=None)

Convert list of tuples to MultiIndex
Parameters tuples : list / sequence of tuple-likes

34.10. MultiIndex 1771

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Each tuple is the index of one row/column.

sortorder : int or None
Level of sortedness (must be lexicographically sorted by that level)
Returns index : MultiIndex
See also:

MultiIndex.from_arrays Convert list of arrays to MultiIndex

MultiIndex.from_product Make a MultiIndex from cartesian product of iterables

Examples

>>> tuples = [(1, u'red'), (1, u'blue'),

(2, u'red'), (2, u'blue')]
>>> MultiIndex.from_tuples(tuples, names=('number', 'color'))

34.10.1.57 pandas.MultiIndex.get_duplicates

MultiIndex.get_duplicates()

34.10.1.58 pandas.MultiIndex.get_indexer

MultiIndex.get_indexer(target, method=None, limit=None, tolerance=None)

Compute indexer and mask for new index given the current index. The indexer should be then used as an
input to ndarray.take to align the current data to the new index.
Parameters target : MultiIndex or list of tuples
method : {None, ‘pad’/’ffill’, ‘backfill’/’bfill’, ‘nearest’}, optional
• default: exact matches only.
• pad / ffill: find the PREVIOUS index value if no exact match.
• backfill / bfill: use NEXT index value if no exact match
• nearest: use the NEAREST index value if no exact match. Tied distances are broken
by preferring the larger index value.
limit : int, optional
Maximum number of consecutive labels in target to match for inexact
matches.
tolerance : optional
Maximum distance between original and new labels for inexact matches.
The values of the index at the matching locations most satisfy the equation
abs(index[indexer] - target) <= tolerance.
Tolerance may be a scalar value, which applies the same tolerance to all values,
or list-like, which applies variable tolerance per element. List-like includes list,
tuple, array, Series, and must be the same size as the index and its dtype must
exactly match the index’s type.

1772 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

New in version 0.17.0.

New in version 0.21.0: (list-like tolerance)
Returns indexer : ndarray of int
Integers from 0 to n - 1 indicating that the index at these positions matches the
corresponding target values. Missing values in the target are marked by -1.

Examples

>>> indexer = index.get_indexer(new_index)

>>> new_values = cur_values.take(indexer)

34.10.1.59 pandas.MultiIndex.get_indexer_for

MultiIndex.get_indexer_for(target, **kwargs)
guaranteed return of an indexer even when non-unique This dispatches to get_indexer or
get_indexer_nonunique as appropriate

34.10.1.60 pandas.MultiIndex.get_indexer_non_unique

MultiIndex.get_indexer_non_unique(target)
Compute indexer and mask for new index given the current index. The indexer should be then used as an
input to ndarray.take to align the current data to the new index.
Parameters target : MultiIndex or list of tuples
Returns indexer : ndarray of int
Integers from 0 to n - 1 indicating that the index at these positions matches the
corresponding target values. Missing values in the target are marked by -1.
missing : ndarray of int
An indexer into the target of the values not found. These correspond to the -1 in
the indexer array

34.10.1.61 pandas.MultiIndex.get_level_values

MultiIndex.get_level_values(level)
Return vector of label values for requested level, equal to the length of the index.
Parameters level : int or str
level is either the integer position of the level in the MultiIndex, or the name
of the level.
Returns values : Index
values is a level of this MultiIndex converted to a single Index (or subclass
thereof).

34.10. MultiIndex 1773

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Examples

Create a MultiIndex:

>>> mi = pd.MultiIndex.from_arrays((list('abc'), list('def')))

>>> mi.names = ['level_1', 'level_2']

Get level values by supplying level as either integer or name:

>>> mi.get_level_values(0)
Index(['a', 'b', 'c'], dtype='object', name='level_1')
>>> mi.get_level_values('level_2')
Index(['d', 'e', 'f'], dtype='object', name='level_2')

34.10.1.62 pandas.MultiIndex.get_loc

MultiIndex.get_loc(key, method=None)
Get location for a label or a tuple of labels as an integer, slice or boolean mask.
Parameters key : label or tuple of labels (one for each level)
method : None
Returns loc : int, slice object or boolean mask
If the key is past the lexsort depth, the return may be a boolean mask array, oth-
erwise it is always a slice or int.
See also:

Index.get_loc get_loc method for (single-level) index.

MultiIndex.slice_locs Get slice location given start label(s) and end label(s).
MultiIndex.get_locs Get location for a label/slice/list/mask or a sequence of such.

Notes

The key cannot be a slice, list of same-level labels, a boolean mask, or a sequence of such. If you want to
use those, use MultiIndex.get_locs() instead.

Examples

>>> mi = pd.MultiIndex.from_arrays([list('abb'), list('def')])

>>> mi.get_loc('b')
slice(1, 3, None)

>>> mi.get_loc(('b', 'e'))

1

1774 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

34.10.1.63 pandas.MultiIndex.get_loc_level

MultiIndex.get_loc_level(key, level=0, drop_level=True)

Get both the location for the requested label(s) and the resulting sliced index.
Parameters key : label or sequence of labels
level : int/level name or list thereof, optional
drop_level : bool, default True
if False, the resulting index will not drop any level.
Returns loc : A 2-tuple where the elements are:
Element 0: int, slice object or boolean array Element 1: The resulting sliced
multiindex/index. If the key contains all levels, this will be None.
See also:

MultiIndex.get_loc Get location for a label or a tuple of labels.

MultiIndex.get_locs Get location for a label/slice/list/mask or a sequence of such

Examples

>>> mi = pd.MultiIndex.from_arrays([list('abb'), list('def')],

... names=['A', 'B'])

>>> mi.get_loc_level('b')
(slice(1, 3, None), Index(['e', 'f'], dtype='object', name='B'))

>>> mi.get_loc_level('e', level='B')

(array([False, True, False], dtype=bool),
Index(['b'], dtype='object', name='A'))

>>> mi.get_loc_level(['b', 'e'])

(1, None)

34.10.1.64 pandas.MultiIndex.get_locs

MultiIndex.get_locs(seq)
Get location for a given label/slice/list/mask or a sequence of such as an array of integers.
Parameters seq : label/slice/list/mask or a sequence of such
You should use one of the above for each level. If a level should not be used, set
it to slice(None).
Returns locs : array of integers suitable for passing to iloc
See also:

MultiIndex.get_loc Get location for a label or a tuple of labels.

MultiIndex.slice_locs Get slice location given start label(s) and end label(s).

34.10. MultiIndex 1775

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Examples

>>> mi = pd.MultiIndex.from_arrays([list('abb'), list('def')])

>>> mi.get_locs('b')
array([1, 2], dtype=int64)

>>> mi.get_locs([slice(None), ['e', 'f']])

array([1, 2], dtype=int64)

>>> mi.get_locs([[True, False, True], slice('e', 'f')])

array([2], dtype=int64)

34.10.1.65 pandas.MultiIndex.get_major_bounds

MultiIndex.get_major_bounds(start=None, end=None, step=None, kind=None)

For an ordered MultiIndex, compute the slice locations for input labels.
The input labels can be tuples representing partial levels, e.g. for a MultiIndex with 3 levels, you can pass
a single value (corresponding to the first level), or a 1-, 2-, or 3-tuple.
Parameters start : label or tuple, default None
If None, defaults to the beginning
end : label or tuple
If None, defaults to the end
step : int or None
Slice step
kind : string, optional, defaults None
Returns (start, end) : (int, int)
See also:

MultiIndex.get_loc Get location for a label or a tuple of labels.

MultiIndex.get_locs Get location for a label/slice/list/mask or a sequence of such.

Notes

This method only works if the MultiIndex is properly lex-sorted. So, if only the first 2 levels of a 3-level
MultiIndex are lexsorted, you can only pass two levels to .slice_locs.

Examples

>>> mi = pd.MultiIndex.from_arrays([list('abbd'), list('deff')],

... names=['A', 'B'])

Get the slice locations from the beginning of ‘b’ in the first level until the end of the multiindex:

1776 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

>>> mi.slice_locs(start='b')
(1, 4)

Like above, but stop at the end of ‘b’ in the first level and ‘f’ in the second level:

>>> mi.slice_locs(start='b', end=('b', 'f'))

(1, 3)

34.10.1.66 pandas.MultiIndex.get_slice_bound

MultiIndex.get_slice_bound(label, side, kind)

34.10.1.67 pandas.MultiIndex.get_value

MultiIndex.get_value(series, key)

34.10.1.68 pandas.MultiIndex.get_values

MultiIndex.get_values()
return the underlying data as an ndarray

34.10.1.69 pandas.MultiIndex.groupby

MultiIndex.groupby(values)
Group the index labels by a given array of values.
Parameters values : array
Values used to determine the groups.
Returns groups : dict
{group name -> group labels}

34.10.1.70 pandas.MultiIndex.holds_integer

MultiIndex.holds_integer()

34.10.1.71 pandas.MultiIndex.identical

MultiIndex.identical(other)
Similar to equals, but check that other comparable attributes are also equal

34.10.1.72 pandas.MultiIndex.insert

MultiIndex.insert(loc, item)
Make new MultiIndex inserting new item at location
Parameters loc : int
item : tuple

34.10. MultiIndex 1777

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Must be same length as number of levels in the MultiIndex

Returns new_index : Index

34.10.1.73 pandas.MultiIndex.intersection

MultiIndex.intersection(other)
Form the intersection of two MultiIndex objects, sorting if possible
Parameters other : MultiIndex or array / Index of tuples
Returns Index

34.10.1.74 pandas.MultiIndex.is_

MultiIndex.is_(other)
More flexible, faster check like is but that works through views
Note: this is not the same as Index.identical(), which checks that metadata is also the same.
Parameters other : object
other object to compare against.
Returns True if both have same underlying data, False otherwise : bool

34.10.1.75 pandas.MultiIndex.is_boolean

MultiIndex.is_boolean()

34.10.1.76 pandas.MultiIndex.is_categorical

MultiIndex.is_categorical()

34.10.1.77 pandas.MultiIndex.is_floating

MultiIndex.is_floating()

34.10.1.78 pandas.MultiIndex.is_integer

MultiIndex.is_integer()

34.10.1.79 pandas.MultiIndex.is_interval

MultiIndex.is_interval()

34.10.1.80 pandas.MultiIndex.is_lexsorted

MultiIndex.is_lexsorted()
Return True if the labels are lexicographically sorted

1778 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

34.10.1.81 pandas.MultiIndex.is_lexsorted_for_tuple

MultiIndex.is_lexsorted_for_tuple(tup)

34.10.1.82 pandas.MultiIndex.is_mixed

MultiIndex.is_mixed()

34.10.1.83 pandas.MultiIndex.is_numeric

MultiIndex.is_numeric()

34.10.1.84 pandas.MultiIndex.is_object

MultiIndex.is_object()

34.10.1.85 pandas.MultiIndex.is_type_compatible

MultiIndex.is_type_compatible(kind)

34.10.1.86 pandas.MultiIndex.isin

MultiIndex.isin(values, level=None)
Compute boolean array of whether each index value is found in the passed set of values.
Parameters values : set or list-like
Sought values.
New in version 0.18.1.
Support for values as a set
level : str or int, optional
Name or position of the index level to use (if the index is a MultiIndex).
Returns is_contained : ndarray (boolean dtype)

Notes

If level is specified:
• if it is the name of one and only one index level, use that level;
• otherwise it should be a number indicating level position.

34.10. MultiIndex 1779

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

34.10.1.87 pandas.MultiIndex.isna

MultiIndex.isna()
Detect missing values
New in version 0.20.0.
Returns a boolean array of whether my values are NA
See also:

isnull alias of isna

pandas.isna top-level isna

34.10.1.88 pandas.MultiIndex.isnull

MultiIndex.isnull()
Detect missing values
New in version 0.20.0.
Returns a boolean array of whether my values are NA
See also:

isnull alias of isna

pandas.isna top-level isna

34.10.1.89 pandas.MultiIndex.item

MultiIndex.item()
return the first element of the underlying data as a python scalar

34.10.1.90 pandas.MultiIndex.join

MultiIndex.join(other, how=’left’, level=None, return_indexers=False, sort=False)

this is an internal non-public method
Compute join_index and indexers to conform data structures to the new index.
Parameters other : Index
how : {‘left’, ‘right’, ‘inner’, ‘outer’}
level : int or level name, default None
return_indexers : boolean, default False
sort : boolean, default False
Sort the join keys lexicographically in the result Index. If False, the order of the
join keys depends on the join type (how keyword)
New in version 0.20.0.
Returns join_index, (left_indexer, right_indexer)

1780 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

34.10.1.91 pandas.MultiIndex.map

MultiIndex.map(mapper)
Apply mapper function to an index.
Parameters mapper : callable
Function to be applied.
Returns applied : Union[Index, MultiIndex], inferred
The output of the mapping function applied to the index. If the function returns a
tuple with more than one element a MultiIndex will be returned.

34.10.1.92 pandas.MultiIndex.max

MultiIndex.max()
The maximum value of the object

34.10.1.93 pandas.MultiIndex.memory_usage

MultiIndex.memory_usage(deep=False)
Memory usage of my values
Parameters deep : bool
Introspect the data deeply, interrogate object dtypes for system-level memory
consumption
Returns bytes used
See also:
numpy.ndarray.nbytes

Notes

Memory usage does not include memory consumed by elements that are not components of the array if
deep=False or if used on PyPy

34.10.1.94 pandas.MultiIndex.min

MultiIndex.min()
The minimum value of the object

34.10.1.95 pandas.MultiIndex.notna

MultiIndex.notna()
Inverse of isna
New in version 0.20.0.
Returns a boolean array of whether my values are not NA
See also:

34.10. MultiIndex 1781

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

notnull alias of notna

pandas.notna top-level notna

34.10.1.96 pandas.MultiIndex.notnull

MultiIndex.notnull()
Inverse of isna
New in version 0.20.0.
Returns a boolean array of whether my values are not NA
See also:

notnull alias of notna

pandas.notna top-level notna

34.10.1.97 pandas.MultiIndex.nunique

MultiIndex.nunique(dropna=True)
Return number of unique elements in the object.
Excludes NA values by default.
Parameters dropna : boolean, default True
Don’t include NaN in the count.
Returns nunique : int

34.10.1.98 pandas.MultiIndex.putmask

MultiIndex.putmask(mask, value)
return a new Index of the values set with the mask
See also:
numpy.ndarray.putmask

34.10.1.99 pandas.MultiIndex.ravel

MultiIndex.ravel(order=’C’)
return an ndarray of the flattened values of the underlying data
See also:
numpy.ndarray.ravel

34.10.1.100 pandas.MultiIndex.reindex

MultiIndex.reindex(target, method=None, level=None, limit=None, tolerance=None)

Create index with target’s values (move/add/delete values as necessary)
Returns new_index : pd.MultiIndex
Resulting index

1782 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

indexer : np.ndarray or None

Indices of output values in original index

34.10.1.101 pandas.MultiIndex.remove_unused_levels

MultiIndex.remove_unused_levels()
create a new MultiIndex from the current that removing unused levels, meaning that they are not expressed
in the labels
The resulting MultiIndex will have the same outward appearance, meaning the same .values and ordering.
It will also be .equals() to the original.
New in version 0.20.0.
Returns MultiIndex

Examples

>>> i = pd.MultiIndex.from_product([range(2), list('ab')])

MultiIndex(levels=[[0, 1], ['a', 'b']],
labels=[[0, 0, 1, 1], [0, 1, 0, 1]])

>>> i[2:]
MultiIndex(levels=[[0, 1], ['a', 'b']],
labels=[[1, 1], [0, 1]])

The 0 from the first level is not represented and can be removed

>>> i[2:].remove_unused_levels()
MultiIndex(levels=[[1], ['a', 'b']],
labels=[[0, 0], [0, 1]])

34.10.1.102 pandas.MultiIndex.rename

MultiIndex.rename(names, level=None, inplace=False)

Set new names on index. Defaults to returning new index.
Parameters names : str or sequence
name(s) to set
level : int, level name, or sequence of int/level names (default None)
If the index is a MultiIndex (hierarchical), level(s) to set (None for all levels).
Otherwise level must be None
inplace : bool
if True, mutates in place
Returns new index (of same type and class...etc) [if inplace, returns None]

34.10. MultiIndex 1783

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Examples

>>> Index([1, 2, 3, 4]).set_names('foo')

Int64Index([1, 2, 3, 4], dtype='int64')
>>> Index([1, 2, 3, 4]).set_names(['foo'])
Int64Index([1, 2, 3, 4], dtype='int64')
>>> idx = MultiIndex.from_tuples([(1, u'one'), (1, u'two'),
(2, u'one'), (2, u'two')],
names=['foo', 'bar'])
>>> idx.set_names(['baz', 'quz'])
MultiIndex(levels=[[1, 2], [u'one', u'two']],
labels=[[0, 0, 1, 1], [0, 1, 0, 1]],
names=[u'baz', u'quz'])
>>> idx.set_names('baz', level=0)
MultiIndex(levels=[[1, 2], [u'one', u'two']],
labels=[[0, 0, 1, 1], [0, 1, 0, 1]],
names=[u'baz', u'bar'])

34.10.1.103 pandas.MultiIndex.reorder_levels

MultiIndex.reorder_levels(order)
Rearrange levels using input order. May not drop or duplicate levels

34.10.1.104 pandas.MultiIndex.repeat

MultiIndex.repeat(repeats, *args, **kwargs)

34.10.1.105 pandas.MultiIndex.reshape

MultiIndex.reshape(*args, **kwargs)
NOT IMPLEMENTED: do not call this method, as reshaping is not supported for Index objects and will
raise an error.
Reshape an Index.

34.10.1.106 pandas.MultiIndex.searchsorted

MultiIndex.searchsorted(value, side=’left’, sorter=None)

Find indices where elements should be inserted to maintain order.
Find the indices into a sorted IndexOpsMixin self such that, if the corresponding elements in value were
inserted before the indices, the order of self would be preserved.
Parameters value : array_like
Values to insert into self.
side : {‘left’, ‘right’}, optional
If ‘left’, the index of the first suitable location found is given. If ‘right’, return the
last such index. If there is no suitable index, return either 0 or N (where N is the
length of self ).
sorter : 1-D array_like, optional

1784 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Optional array of integer indices that sort self into ascending order. They are
typically the result of np.argsort.
Returns indices : array of ints
Array of insertion points with the same shape as value.
See also:
numpy.searchsorted

Notes

Binary search is used to find the required insertion points.

Examples

>>> x = pd.Series([1, 2, 3])

>>> x
0 1
1 2
2 3
dtype: int64

>>> x.searchsorted(4)
array([3])

>>> x.searchsorted([0, 4])

array([0, 3])

>>> x.searchsorted([1, 3], side='left')

array([0, 2])

>>> x.searchsorted([1, 3], side='right')

array([1, 3])

>>> x = pd.Categorical(['apple', 'bread', 'bread', 'cheese', 'milk' ])

[apple, bread, bread, cheese, milk]
Categories (4, object): [apple < bread < cheese < milk]

>>> x.searchsorted('bread')
array([1]) # Note: an array, not a scalar

>>> x.searchsorted(['bread'])
array([1])

>>> x.searchsorted(['bread', 'eggs'])

array([1, 4])

>>> x.searchsorted(['bread', 'eggs'], side='right')

array([3, 4]) # eggs before milk

34.10. MultiIndex 1785

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

34.10.1.107 pandas.MultiIndex.set_labels

MultiIndex.set_labels(labels, level=None, inplace=False, verify_integrity=True)

Set new labels on MultiIndex. Defaults to returning new index.
Parameters labels : sequence or list of sequence
new labels to apply
level : int, level name, or sequence of int/level names (default None)
level(s) to set (None for all levels)
inplace : bool
if True, mutates in place
verify_integrity : bool (default True)
if True, checks that levels and labels are compatible
Returns new index (of same type and class...etc)

Examples

>>> idx = MultiIndex.from_tuples([(1, u'one'), (1, u'two'),

(2, u'one'), (2, u'two')],
names=['foo', 'bar'])
>>> idx.set_labels([[1,0,1,0], [0,0,1,1]])
MultiIndex(levels=[[1, 2], [u'one', u'two']],
labels=[[1, 0, 1, 0], [0, 0, 1, 1]],
names=[u'foo', u'bar'])
>>> idx.set_labels([1,0,1,0], level=0)
MultiIndex(levels=[[1, 2], [u'one', u'two']],
labels=[[1, 0, 1, 0], [0, 1, 0, 1]],
names=[u'foo', u'bar'])
>>> idx.set_labels([0,0,1,1], level='bar')
MultiIndex(levels=[[1, 2], [u'one', u'two']],
labels=[[0, 0, 1, 1], [0, 0, 1, 1]],
names=[u'foo', u'bar'])
>>> idx.set_labels([[1,0,1,0], [0,0,1,1]], level=[0,1])
MultiIndex(levels=[[1, 2], [u'one', u'two']],
labels=[[1, 0, 1, 0], [0, 0, 1, 1]],
names=[u'foo', u'bar'])

34.10.1.108 pandas.MultiIndex.set_levels

MultiIndex.set_levels(levels, level=None, inplace=False, verify_integrity=True)

Set new levels on MultiIndex. Defaults to returning new index.
Parameters levels : sequence or list of sequence
new level(s) to apply
level : int, level name, or sequence of int/level names (default None)
level(s) to set (None for all levels)
inplace : bool

1786 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

if True, mutates in place

verify_integrity : bool (default True)
if True, checks that levels and labels are compatible
Returns new index (of same type and class...etc)

Examples

>>> idx = MultiIndex.from_tuples([(1, u'one'), (1, u'two'),

(2, u'one'), (2, u'two')],
names=['foo', 'bar'])
>>> idx.set_levels([['a','b'], [1,2]])
MultiIndex(levels=[[u'a', u'b'], [1, 2]],
labels=[[0, 0, 1, 1], [0, 1, 0, 1]],
names=[u'foo', u'bar'])
>>> idx.set_levels(['a','b'], level=0)
MultiIndex(levels=[[u'a', u'b'], [u'one', u'two']],
labels=[[0, 0, 1, 1], [0, 1, 0, 1]],
names=[u'foo', u'bar'])
>>> idx.set_levels(['a','b'], level='bar')
MultiIndex(levels=[[1, 2], [u'a', u'b']],
labels=[[0, 0, 1, 1], [0, 1, 0, 1]],
names=[u'foo', u'bar'])
>>> idx.set_levels([['a','b'], [1,2]], level=[0,1])
MultiIndex(levels=[[u'a', u'b'], [1, 2]],
labels=[[0, 0, 1, 1], [0, 1, 0, 1]],
names=[u'foo', u'bar'])

34.10.1.109 pandas.MultiIndex.set_names

MultiIndex.set_names(names, level=None, inplace=False)

Set new names on index. Defaults to returning new index.
Parameters names : str or sequence
name(s) to set
level : int, level name, or sequence of int/level names (default None)
If the index is a MultiIndex (hierarchical), level(s) to set (None for all levels).
Otherwise level must be None
inplace : bool
if True, mutates in place
Returns new index (of same type and class...etc) [if inplace, returns None]

Examples

>>> Index([1, 2, 3, 4]).set_names('foo')

Int64Index([1, 2, 3, 4], dtype='int64')
>>> Index([1, 2, 3, 4]).set_names(['foo'])
Int64Index([1, 2, 3, 4], dtype='int64')
>>> idx = MultiIndex.from_tuples([(1, u'one'), (1, u'two'),

34.10. MultiIndex 1787

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

(2, u'one'), (2, u'two')],

names=['foo', 'bar'])
>>> idx.set_names(['baz', 'quz'])
MultiIndex(levels=[[1, 2], [u'one', u'two']],
labels=[[0, 0, 1, 1], [0, 1, 0, 1]],
names=[u'baz', u'quz'])
>>> idx.set_names('baz', level=0)
MultiIndex(levels=[[1, 2], [u'one', u'two']],
labels=[[0, 0, 1, 1], [0, 1, 0, 1]],
names=[u'baz', u'bar'])

34.10.1.110 pandas.MultiIndex.set_value

MultiIndex.set_value(arr, key, value)

Fast lookup of value from 1-dimensional ndarray. Only use this if you know what you’re doing

34.10.1.111 pandas.MultiIndex.shift

MultiIndex.shift(periods=1, freq=None)
Shift Index containing datetime objects by input number of periods and DateOffset
Returns shifted : Index

34.10.1.112 pandas.MultiIndex.slice_indexer

MultiIndex.slice_indexer(start=None, end=None, step=None, kind=None)

For an ordered Index, compute the slice indexer for input labels and step
Parameters start : label, default None
If None, defaults to the beginning
end : label, default None
If None, defaults to the end
step : int, default None
kind : string, default None
Returns indexer : ndarray or slice

Notes

This function assumes that the data is sorted, so use at your own peril

34.10.1.113 pandas.MultiIndex.slice_locs

MultiIndex.slice_locs(start=None, end=None, step=None, kind=None)

For an ordered MultiIndex, compute the slice locations for input labels.
The input labels can be tuples representing partial levels, e.g. for a MultiIndex with 3 levels, you can pass
a single value (corresponding to the first level), or a 1-, 2-, or 3-tuple.
Parameters start : label or tuple, default None

1788 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

If None, defaults to the beginning

end : label or tuple
If None, defaults to the end
step : int or None
Slice step
kind : string, optional, defaults None
Returns (start, end) : (int, int)
See also:

MultiIndex.get_loc Get location for a label or a tuple of labels.

MultiIndex.get_locs Get location for a label/slice/list/mask or a sequence of such.

Notes

This method only works if the MultiIndex is properly lex-sorted. So, if only the first 2 levels of a 3-level
MultiIndex are lexsorted, you can only pass two levels to .slice_locs.

Examples

>>> mi = pd.MultiIndex.from_arrays([list('abbd'), list('deff')],

... names=['A', 'B'])

Get the slice locations from the beginning of ‘b’ in the first level until the end of the multiindex:

>>> mi.slice_locs(start='b')
(1, 4)

Like above, but stop at the end of ‘b’ in the first level and ‘f’ in the second level:

>>> mi.slice_locs(start='b', end=('b', 'f'))

(1, 3)

34.10.1.114 pandas.MultiIndex.sort

MultiIndex.sort(*args, **kwargs)

34.10.1.115 pandas.MultiIndex.sort_values

MultiIndex.sort_values(return_indexer=False, ascending=True)
Return sorted copy of Index

34.10.1.116 pandas.MultiIndex.sortlevel

MultiIndex.sortlevel(level=0, ascending=True, sort_remaining=True)

Sort MultiIndex at the requested level. The result will respect the original ordering of the associated factor
at that level.

34.10. MultiIndex 1789

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Parameters level : list-like, int or str, default 0

If a string is given, must be a name of the level If list-like must be names or ints
of levels.
ascending : boolean, default True
False to sort in descending order Can also be a list to specify a directed ordering
sort_remaining : sort by the remaining levels after level.
Returns sorted_index : pd.MultiIndex
Resulting index
indexer : np.ndarray
Indices of output values in original index

34.10.1.117 pandas.MultiIndex.str

MultiIndex.str()
Vectorized string functions for Series and Index. NAs stay NA unless handled otherwise by a particular
method. Patterned after Python’s string methods, with some inspiration from R’s stringr package.

Examples

>>> s.str.split('_')
>>> s.str.replace('_', '')

34.10.1.118 pandas.MultiIndex.summary

MultiIndex.summary(name=None)

34.10.1.119 pandas.MultiIndex.swaplevel

MultiIndex.swaplevel(i=-2, j=-1)
Swap level i with level j. Do not change the ordering of anything
Parameters i, j : int, string (can be mixed)
Level of index to be swapped. Can pass level name as string.
Returns swapped : MultiIndex
Changed in version 0.18.1: The indexes i and j are now optional, and default to the two
innermost levels of the index.

34.10.1.120 pandas.MultiIndex.symmetric_difference

MultiIndex.symmetric_difference(other, result_name=None)
Compute the symmetric difference of two Index objects. It’s sorted if sorting is possible.
Parameters other : Index or array-like
result_name : str

1790 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Returns symmetric_difference : Index

Notes

symmetric_difference contains elements that appear in either idx1 or idx2 but not both. Equiv-
alent to the Index created by idx1.difference(idx2) | idx2.difference(idx1) with du-
plicates dropped.

Examples

>>> idx1 = Index([1, 2, 3, 4])

>>> idx2 = Index([2, 3, 4, 5])
>>> idx1.symmetric_difference(idx2)
Int64Index([1, 5], dtype='int64')

You can also use the ^ operator:

>>> idx1 ^ idx2

Int64Index([1, 5], dtype='int64')

34.10.1.121 pandas.MultiIndex.take

MultiIndex.take(indices, axis=0, allow_fill=True, fill_value=None, **kwargs)

return a new MultiIndex of the values selected by the indices
For internal compatibility with numpy arrays.
Parameters indices : list
Indices to be taken
axis : int, optional
The axis over which to select values, always 0.
allow_fill : bool, default True
fill_value : bool, default None
If allow_fill=True and fill_value is not None, indices specified by -1 is regarded
as NA. If Index doesn’t hold NA, raise ValueError
See also:
numpy.ndarray.take

34.10.1.122 pandas.MultiIndex.to_datetime

MultiIndex.to_datetime(dayfirst=False)
DEPRECATED: use pandas.to_datetime() instead.
For an Index containing strings or datetime.datetime objects, attempt conversion to DatetimeIndex

34.10. MultiIndex 1791

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

34.10.1.123 pandas.MultiIndex.to_frame

MultiIndex.to_frame(index=True)
Create a DataFrame with the levels of the MultiIndex as columns.
New in version 0.20.0.
Parameters index : boolean, default True
Set the index of the returned DataFrame as the original MultiIndex.
Returns DataFrame : a DataFrame containing the original MultiIndex data.

34.10.1.124 pandas.MultiIndex.to_hierarchical

MultiIndex.to_hierarchical(n_repeat, n_shuffle=1)
Return a MultiIndex reshaped to conform to the shapes given by n_repeat and n_shuffle.
Useful to replicate and rearrange a MultiIndex for combination with another Index with n_repeat items.
Parameters n_repeat : int
Number of times to repeat the labels on self
n_shuffle : int
Controls the reordering of the labels. If the result is going to be an inner level in
a MultiIndex, n_shuffle will need to be greater than one. The size of each label
must divisible by n_shuffle.
Returns MultiIndex

Examples

>>> idx = MultiIndex.from_tuples([(1, u'one'), (1, u'two'),

(2, u'one'), (2, u'two')])
>>> idx.to_hierarchical(3)
MultiIndex(levels=[[1, 2], [u'one', u'two']],
labels=[[0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1],
[0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 1]])

34.10.1.125 pandas.MultiIndex.to_native_types

MultiIndex.to_native_types(slicer=None, **kwargs)
Format specified values of self and return them.
Parameters slicer : int, array-like
An indexer into self that specifies which values are used in the formatting process.
kwargs : dict
Options for specifying how the values should be formatted. These options include
the following:
1. na_rep [str] The value that serves as a placeholder for NULL values
2. quoting [bool or None] Whether or not there are quoted values in self
3. date_format [str] The format used to represent date-like values

1792 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

34.10.1.126 pandas.MultiIndex.to_series

MultiIndex.to_series(**kwargs)
Create a Series with both index and values equal to the index keys useful with map for returning an indexer
based on an index
Returns Series : dtype will be based on the type of the Index values.

34.10.1.127 pandas.MultiIndex.tolist

MultiIndex.tolist()
Return a list of the values.
These are each a scalar type, which is a Python scalar (for str, int, float) or a pandas scalar (for Times-
tamp/Timedelta/Interval/Period)
See also:
numpy.ndarray.tolist

34.10.1.128 pandas.MultiIndex.transpose

MultiIndex.transpose(*args, **kwargs)
return the transpose, which is by definition self

34.10.1.129 pandas.MultiIndex.truncate

MultiIndex.truncate(before=None, after=None)
Slice index between two labels / tuples, return new MultiIndex
Parameters before : label or tuple, can be partial. Default None
None defaults to start
after : label or tuple, can be partial. Default None
None defaults to end
Returns truncated : MultiIndex

34.10.1.130 pandas.MultiIndex.union

MultiIndex.union(other)
Form the union of two MultiIndex objects, sorting if possible
Parameters other : MultiIndex or array / Index of tuples
Returns Index

>>> index.union(index2)

34.10. MultiIndex 1793

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

34.10.1.131 pandas.MultiIndex.unique

MultiIndex.unique()
Return unique values in the object. Uniques are returned in order of appearance, this does NOT sort. Hash
table-based unique.
Parameters values : 1d array-like
Returns unique values.
• If the input is an Index, the return is an Index
• If the input is a Categorical dtype, the return is a Categorical
• If the input is a Series/ndarray, the return will be an ndarray
See also:
unique, Index.unique, Series.unique

34.10.1.132 pandas.MultiIndex.value_counts

MultiIndex.value_counts(normalize=False, sort=True, ascending=False, bins=None,

dropna=True)
Returns object containing counts of unique values.
The resulting object will be in descending order so that the first element is the most frequently-occurring
element. Excludes NA values by default.
Parameters normalize : boolean, default False
If True then the object returned will contain the relative frequencies of the unique
values.
sort : boolean, default True
Sort by values
ascending : boolean, default False
Sort in ascending order
bins : integer, optional
Rather than count values, group them into half-open bins, a convenience for
pd.cut, only works with numeric data
dropna : boolean, default True
Don’t include counts of NaN.
Returns counts : Series

34.10.1.133 pandas.MultiIndex.view

MultiIndex.view(cls=None)
this is defined as a copy with the same identity

34.10.1.134 pandas.MultiIndex.where

MultiIndex.where(cond, other=None)

1794 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

34.10.2 pandas.IndexSlice

pandas.IndexSlice = <pandas.core.indexing._IndexSlice object>

Create an object to more easily perform multi-index slicing

Examples

>>> midx = pd.MultiIndex.from_product([['A0','A1'], ['B0','B1','B2','B3']])

>>> columns = ['foo', 'bar']
>>> dfmi = pd.DataFrame(np.arange(16).reshape((len(midx), len(columns))),
index=midx, columns=columns)

Using the default slice command:

>>> dfmi.loc[(slice(None), slice('B0', 'B1')), :]

foo bar
A0 B0 0 1
B1 2 3
A1 B0 8 9
B1 10 11

Using the IndexSlice class for a more intuitive command:

>>> idx = pd.IndexSlice

>>> dfmi.loc[idx[:, 'B0':'B1'], :]
foo bar
A0 B0 0 1
B1 2 3
A1 B0 8 9
B1 10 11

34.10.3 MultiIndex Components

MultiIndex.from_arrays(arrays[, sortorder, ...]) Convert arrays to MultiIndex

MultiIndex.from_tuples(tuples[, sortorder, ...]) Convert list of tuples to MultiIndex
MultiIndex.from_product(iterables[, ...]) Make a MultiIndex from the cartesian product of multiple
iterables
MultiIndex.set_levels(levels[, level, ...]) Set new levels on MultiIndex.
MultiIndex.set_labels(labels[, level, ...]) Set new labels on MultiIndex.
MultiIndex.to_hierarchical(n_repeat[, Return a MultiIndex reshaped to conform to the shapes
n_shuffle]) given by n_repeat and n_shuffle.
MultiIndex.to_frame([index]) Create a DataFrame with the levels of the MultiIndex as
columns.
MultiIndex.is_lexsorted() Return True if the labels are lexicographically sorted
MultiIndex.droplevel([level]) Return Index with requested level removed.
MultiIndex.swaplevel([i, j]) Swap level i with level j.
MultiIndex.reorder_levels(order) Rearrange levels using input order.
MultiIndex.remove_unused_levels() create a new MultiIndex from the current that removing

34.11 DatetimeIndex

34.11. DatetimeIndex 1795

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

DatetimeIndex Immutable ndarray of datetime64 data, represented inter-

nally as int64, and which can be boxed to Timestamp ob-
jects that are subclasses of datetime and carry metadata
such as frequency information.

34.11.1 pandas.DatetimeIndex

class pandas.DatetimeIndex
Immutable ndarray of datetime64 data, represented internally as int64, and which can be boxed to Timestamp
objects that are subclasses of datetime and carry metadata such as frequency information.
Parameters data : array-like (1-dimensional), optional
Optional datetime-like data to construct index with
copy : bool
Make a copy of input ndarray
freq : string or pandas offset object, optional
One of pandas date offset strings or corresponding objects
start : starting value, datetime-like, optional
If data is None, start is used as the start point in generating regular timestamp data.
periods : int, optional, > 0
Number of periods to generate, if generating index. Takes precedence over end
argument
end : end time, datetime-like, optional
If periods is none, generated index will extend to first conforming time on or just
past end argument
closed : string or None, default None
Make the interval closed with respect to the given frequency to the ‘left’, ‘right’, or
both sides (None)
tz : pytz.timezone or dateutil.tz.tzfile
ambiguous : ‘infer’, bool-ndarray, ‘NaT’, default ‘raise’
• ‘infer’ will attempt to infer fall dst-transition hours based on order
• bool-ndarray where True signifies a DST time, False signifies a non-DST time (note that
this flag is only applicable for ambiguous times)
• ‘NaT’ will return NaT where there are ambiguous times
• ‘raise’ will raise an AmbiguousTimeError if there are ambiguous times
infer_dst : boolean, default False
Deprecated since version 0.15.0: Attempt to infer fall dst-transition hours based on
order
name : object
Name to be stored in the index
See also:

1796 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Index The base pandas Index type

TimedeltaIndex Index of timedelta64 data
PeriodIndex Index of Period data

Notes

To learn more about the frequency strings, please see this link.

Attributes

T return the transpose, which is by definition self

asi8
asobject return object Index which contains boxed values
base return the base object if the memory of the underlying
data is
data return the data pointer of the underlying data
date Returns numpy array of python datetime.date objects
(namely, the date part of Timestamps without timezone
information).
day The days of the datetime
dayofweek The day of the week with Monday=0, Sunday=6
dayofyear The ordinal day of the year
days_in_month The number of days in the month
daysinmonth The number of days in the month
dtype
dtype_str
empty
flags
freq get/set the frequency of the Index
freqstr Return the frequency object as a string if its set, other-
wise None
has_duplicates
hasnans
hour The hours of the datetime
inferred_freq
inferred_type
is_all_dates
is_leap_year Logical indicating if the date belongs to a leap year
is_monotonic alias for is_monotonic_increasing (deprecated)
is_monotonic_decreasing return if the index is monotonic decreasing (only equal
or
is_monotonic_increasing return if the index is monotonic increasing (only equal
or
is_month_end Logical indicating if last day of month (defined by fre-
quency)
is_month_start Logical indicating if first day of month (defined by fre-
quency)
is_normalized
Continued on next page

34.11. DatetimeIndex 1797

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Table 34.109 – continued from previous page

is_quarter_end Logical indicating if last day of quarter (defined by fre-
quency)
is_quarter_start Logical indicating if first day of quarter (defined by fre-
quency)
is_unique
is_year_end Logical indicating if last day of year (defined by fre-
quency)
is_year_start Logical indicating if first day of year (defined by fre-
quency)
itemsize return the size of the dtype of the item of the underlying
data
microsecond The microseconds of the datetime
minute The minutes of the datetime
month The month as January=1, December=12
name
names
nanosecond The nanoseconds of the datetime
nbytes return the number of bytes in the underlying data
ndim return the number of dimensions of the underlying data,
nlevels
offset
quarter The quarter of the date
resolution
second The seconds of the datetime
shape return a tuple of the shape of the underlying data
size return the number of elements in the underlying data
strides return the strides of the underlying data
time Returns numpy array of datetime.time.
tz
tzinfo Alias for tz attribute
values return the underlying data as an ndarray
week The week ordinal of the year
weekday The day of the week with Monday=0, Sunday=6
weekday_name The name of day in a week (ex: Friday)
weekofyear The week ordinal of the year
year The year of the datetime

34.11.1.1 pandas.DatetimeIndex.T

DatetimeIndex.T
return the transpose, which is by definition self

34.11.1.2 pandas.DatetimeIndex.asi8

DatetimeIndex.asi8

34.11.1.3 pandas.DatetimeIndex.asobject

DatetimeIndex.asobject
return object Index which contains boxed values

1798 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

this is an internal non-public method

34.11.1.4 pandas.DatetimeIndex.base

DatetimeIndex.base
return the base object if the memory of the underlying data is shared

34.11.1.5 pandas.DatetimeIndex.data

DatetimeIndex.data
return the data pointer of the underlying data

34.11.1.6 pandas.DatetimeIndex.date

DatetimeIndex.date
Returns numpy array of python datetime.date objects (namely, the date part of Timestamps without time-
zone information).

34.11.1.7 pandas.DatetimeIndex.day

DatetimeIndex.day
The days of the datetime

34.11.1.8 pandas.DatetimeIndex.dayofweek

DatetimeIndex.dayofweek
The day of the week with Monday=0, Sunday=6

34.11.1.9 pandas.DatetimeIndex.dayofyear

DatetimeIndex.dayofyear
The ordinal day of the year

34.11.1.10 pandas.DatetimeIndex.days_in_month

DatetimeIndex.days_in_month
The number of days in the month

34.11.1.11 pandas.DatetimeIndex.daysinmonth

DatetimeIndex.daysinmonth
The number of days in the month

34.11.1.12 pandas.DatetimeIndex.dtype

DatetimeIndex.dtype = None

34.11. DatetimeIndex 1799

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

34.11.1.13 pandas.DatetimeIndex.dtype_str

DatetimeIndex.dtype_str = None

34.11.1.14 pandas.DatetimeIndex.empty

DatetimeIndex.empty

34.11.1.15 pandas.DatetimeIndex.flags

DatetimeIndex.flags

34.11.1.16 pandas.DatetimeIndex.freq

DatetimeIndex.freq
get/set the frequency of the Index

34.11.1.17 pandas.DatetimeIndex.freqstr

DatetimeIndex.freqstr
Return the frequency object as a string if its set, otherwise None

34.11.1.18 pandas.DatetimeIndex.has_duplicates

DatetimeIndex.has_duplicates

34.11.1.19 pandas.DatetimeIndex.hasnans

DatetimeIndex.hasnans = None

34.11.1.20 pandas.DatetimeIndex.hour

DatetimeIndex.hour
The hours of the datetime

34.11.1.21 pandas.DatetimeIndex.inferred_freq

DatetimeIndex.inferred_freq = None

34.11.1.22 pandas.DatetimeIndex.inferred_type

DatetimeIndex.inferred_type

34.11.1.23 pandas.DatetimeIndex.is_all_dates

DatetimeIndex.is_all_dates

1800 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

34.11.1.24 pandas.DatetimeIndex.is_leap_year

DatetimeIndex.is_leap_year
Logical indicating if the date belongs to a leap year

34.11.1.25 pandas.DatetimeIndex.is_monotonic

DatetimeIndex.is_monotonic
alias for is_monotonic_increasing (deprecated)

34.11.1.26 pandas.DatetimeIndex.is_monotonic_decreasing

DatetimeIndex.is_monotonic_decreasing
return if the index is monotonic decreasing (only equal or decreasing) values.

Examples

>>> Index([3, 2, 1]).is_monotonic_decreasing

True
>>> Index([3, 2, 2]).is_monotonic_decreasing
True
>>> Index([3, 1, 2]).is_monotonic_decreasing
False

34.11.1.27 pandas.DatetimeIndex.is_monotonic_increasing

DatetimeIndex.is_monotonic_increasing
return if the index is monotonic increasing (only equal or increasing) values.

Examples

>>> Index([1, 2, 3]).is_monotonic_increasing

True
>>> Index([1, 2, 2]).is_monotonic_increasing
True
>>> Index([1, 3, 2]).is_monotonic_increasing
False

34.11.1.28 pandas.DatetimeIndex.is_month_end

DatetimeIndex.is_month_end
Logical indicating if last day of month (defined by frequency)

34.11.1.29 pandas.DatetimeIndex.is_month_start

DatetimeIndex.is_month_start
Logical indicating if first day of month (defined by frequency)

34.11. DatetimeIndex 1801

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

34.11.1.30 pandas.DatetimeIndex.is_normalized

DatetimeIndex.is_normalized = None

34.11.1.31 pandas.DatetimeIndex.is_quarter_end

DatetimeIndex.is_quarter_end
Logical indicating if last day of quarter (defined by frequency)

34.11.1.32 pandas.DatetimeIndex.is_quarter_start

DatetimeIndex.is_quarter_start
Logical indicating if first day of quarter (defined by frequency)

34.11.1.33 pandas.DatetimeIndex.is_unique

DatetimeIndex.is_unique = None

34.11.1.34 pandas.DatetimeIndex.is_year_end

DatetimeIndex.is_year_end
Logical indicating if last day of year (defined by frequency)

34.11.1.35 pandas.DatetimeIndex.is_year_start

DatetimeIndex.is_year_start
Logical indicating if first day of year (defined by frequency)

34.11.1.36 pandas.DatetimeIndex.itemsize

DatetimeIndex.itemsize
return the size of the dtype of the item of the underlying data

34.11.1.37 pandas.DatetimeIndex.microsecond

DatetimeIndex.microsecond
The microseconds of the datetime

34.11.1.38 pandas.DatetimeIndex.minute

DatetimeIndex.minute
The minutes of the datetime

34.11.1.39 pandas.DatetimeIndex.month

DatetimeIndex.month
The month as January=1, December=12

1802 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

34.11.1.40 pandas.DatetimeIndex.name

DatetimeIndex.name = None

34.11.1.41 pandas.DatetimeIndex.names

DatetimeIndex.names

34.11.1.42 pandas.DatetimeIndex.nanosecond

DatetimeIndex.nanosecond
The nanoseconds of the datetime

34.11.1.43 pandas.DatetimeIndex.nbytes

DatetimeIndex.nbytes
return the number of bytes in the underlying data

34.11.1.44 pandas.DatetimeIndex.ndim

DatetimeIndex.ndim
return the number of dimensions of the underlying data, by definition 1

34.11.1.45 pandas.DatetimeIndex.nlevels

DatetimeIndex.nlevels

34.11.1.46 pandas.DatetimeIndex.offset

DatetimeIndex.offset = None

34.11.1.47 pandas.DatetimeIndex.quarter

DatetimeIndex.quarter
The quarter of the date

34.11.1.48 pandas.DatetimeIndex.resolution

DatetimeIndex.resolution = None

34.11.1.49 pandas.DatetimeIndex.second

DatetimeIndex.second
The seconds of the datetime

34.11. DatetimeIndex 1803

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

34.11.1.50 pandas.DatetimeIndex.shape

DatetimeIndex.shape
return a tuple of the shape of the underlying data

34.11.1.51 pandas.DatetimeIndex.size

DatetimeIndex.size
return the number of elements in the underlying data

34.11.1.52 pandas.DatetimeIndex.strides

DatetimeIndex.strides
return the strides of the underlying data

34.11.1.53 pandas.DatetimeIndex.time

DatetimeIndex.time
Returns numpy array of datetime.time. The time part of the Timestamps.

34.11.1.54 pandas.DatetimeIndex.tz

DatetimeIndex.tz = None

34.11.1.55 pandas.DatetimeIndex.tzinfo

DatetimeIndex.tzinfo
Alias for tz attribute

34.11.1.56 pandas.DatetimeIndex.values

DatetimeIndex.values
return the underlying data as an ndarray

34.11.1.57 pandas.DatetimeIndex.week

DatetimeIndex.week
The week ordinal of the year

34.11.1.58 pandas.DatetimeIndex.weekday

DatetimeIndex.weekday
The day of the week with Monday=0, Sunday=6

1804 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

34.11.1.59 pandas.DatetimeIndex.weekday_name

DatetimeIndex.weekday_name
The name of day in a week (ex: Friday)
New in version 0.18.1.

34.11.1.60 pandas.DatetimeIndex.weekofyear

DatetimeIndex.weekofyear
The week ordinal of the year

34.11.1.61 pandas.DatetimeIndex.year

DatetimeIndex.year
The year of the datetime

Methods

all([other])
any([other])
append(other) Append a collection of Index options together
argmax([axis]) Returns the indices of the maximum values along an
axis.
argmin([axis]) Returns the indices of the minimum values along an
axis.
argsort(*args, **kwargs) Returns the indices that would sort the index and its un-
derlying data.
asof(label) For a sorted index, return the most recent label up to and
including the passed label.
asof_locs(where, mask) where : array of timestamps
astype(dtype[, copy]) Create an Index with values cast to dtypes.
ceil(freq) ceil the index to the specified freq
contains(key) return a boolean if this key is IN the index
copy([name, deep, dtype]) Make a copy of this object.
delete(loc) Make a new DatetimeIndex with passed location(s)
deleted.
difference(other) Return a new Index with elements from the index that
are not in other.
drop(labels[, errors]) Make new Index with passed list of labels deleted
drop_duplicates([keep]) Return Index with duplicate values removed
dropna([how]) Return Index without NA/NaN values
duplicated([keep]) Return boolean np.ndarray denoting duplicate values
equals(other) Determines if two Index objects contain the same ele-
ments.
factorize([sort, na_sentinel]) Encode the object as an enumerated type or categorical
variable
fillna([value, downcast]) Fill NA/NaN values with the specified value
floor(freq) floor the index to the specified freq
Continued on next page

34.11. DatetimeIndex 1805

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Table 34.110 – continued from previous page

format([name, formatter]) Render a string representation of the Index
get_duplicates()
get_indexer(target[, method, limit, tolerance]) Compute indexer and mask for new index given the cur-
rent index.
get_indexer_for(target, **kwargs) guaranteed return of an indexer even when non-unique
get_indexer_non_unique(target) Compute indexer and mask for new index given the cur-
rent index.
get_level_values(level) Return an Index of values for requested level, equal to
the length of the index.
get_loc(key[, method, tolerance]) Get integer location for requested label
get_slice_bound(label, side, kind) Calculate slice bound that corresponds to given label.
get_value(series, key) Fast lookup of value from 1-dimensional ndarray.
get_value_maybe_box(series, key)
get_values() return the underlying data as an ndarray
groupby(values) Group the index labels by a given array of values.
holds_integer()
identical(other) Similar to equals, but check that other comparable at-
tributes are
indexer_at_time(time[, asof]) Select values at particular time of day (e.g.
indexer_between_time(start_time, end_time[, Select values between particular times of day (e.g.,
...]) 9:00-9:30AM).
insert(loc, item) Make new Index inserting new item at location
intersection(other) Specialized intersection for DatetimeIndex objects.
is_(other) More flexible, faster check like is but that works
through views
is_boolean()
is_categorical()
is_floating()
is_integer()
is_interval()
is_lexsorted_for_tuple(tup)
is_mixed()
is_numeric()
is_object()
is_type_compatible(typ)
isin(values) Compute boolean array of whether each index value is
found in the
isna() Detect missing values
isnull() Detect missing values
item() return the first element of the underlying data as a
python
join(other[, how, level, return_indexers, sort]) See Index.join
map(f)
max([axis]) Return the maximum value of the Index or maximum
along an axis.
memory_usage([deep]) Memory usage of my values
min([axis]) Return the minimum value of the Index or minimum
along an axis.
normalize() Return DatetimeIndex with times to midnight.
notna() Inverse of isna
Continued on next page

1806 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Table 34.110 – continued from previous page

notnull() Inverse of isna
nunique([dropna]) Return number of unique elements in the object.
putmask(mask, value) return a new Index of the values set with the mask
ravel([order]) return an ndarray of the flattened values of the underly-
ing data
reindex(target[, method, level, limit, ...]) Create index with target’s values (move/add/delete val-
ues as necessary)
rename(name[, inplace]) Set new names on index.
repeat(repeats, *args, **kwargs) Analogous to ndarray.repeat
reshape(*args, **kwargs) NOT IMPLEMENTED: do not call this method, as re-
shaping is not supported for Index objects and will raise
an error.
round(freq, *args, **kwargs) round the index to the specified freq
searchsorted(value[, side, sorter]) Find indices where elements should be inserted to main-
tain order.
set_names(names[, level, inplace]) Set new names on index.
set_value(arr, key, value) Fast lookup of value from 1-dimensional ndarray.
shift(n[, freq]) Specialized shift which produces a DatetimeIndex
slice_indexer([start, end, step, kind]) Return indexer for specified label slice.
slice_locs([start, end, step, kind]) Compute slice locations for input labels.
snap([freq]) Snap time stamps to nearest occurring frequency
sort(*args, **kwargs)
sort_values([return_indexer, ascending]) Return sorted copy of Index
sortlevel([level, ascending, sort_remaining]) For internal compatibility with with the Index API
str alias of StringMethods
strftime(date_format) Return an array of formatted strings specified by
date_format, which supports the same string format as
the python standard library.
summary([name]) return a summarized representation
symmetric_difference(other[, result_name]) Compute the symmetric difference of two Index objects.
take(indices[, axis, allow_fill, fill_value]) return a new Index of the values selected by the indices
to_datetime([dayfirst])
to_frame([index]) Create a DataFrame with a column containing the Index.
to_julian_date() Convert DatetimeIndex to Float64Index of Julian Dates.
to_native_types([slicer]) Format specified values of self and return them.
to_period([freq]) Cast to PeriodIndex at a particular frequency
to_perioddelta(freq) Calcuates TimedeltaIndex of difference between index
values and index converted to PeriodIndex at specified
freq.
to_pydatetime() Return DatetimeIndex as object ndarray of date-
time.datetime objects
to_series([keep_tz]) Create a Series with both index and values equal to the
index keys
tolist() return a list of the underlying data
transpose(*args, **kwargs) return the transpose, which is by definition self
tz_convert(tz) Convert tz-aware DatetimeIndex from one time zone to
another (using
tz_localize(tz[, ambiguous, errors]) Localize tz-naive DatetimeIndex to given time zone (us-
ing
union(other) Specialized union for DatetimeIndex objects.
Continued on next page

34.11. DatetimeIndex 1807

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Table 34.110 – continued from previous page

union_many(others) A bit of a hack to accelerate unioning a collection of
indexes
unique() Return unique values in the object.
value_counts([normalize, sort, ascending, ...]) Returns object containing counts of unique values.
view([cls])
where(cond[, other]) New in version 0.19.0.

34.11.1.62 pandas.DatetimeIndex.all

DatetimeIndex.all(other=None)

34.11.1.63 pandas.DatetimeIndex.any

DatetimeIndex.any(other=None)

34.11.1.64 pandas.DatetimeIndex.append

DatetimeIndex.append(other)
Append a collection of Index options together
Parameters other : Index or list/tuple of indices
Returns appended : Index

34.11.1.65 pandas.DatetimeIndex.argmax

DatetimeIndex.argmax(axis=None, *args, **kwargs)

Returns the indices of the maximum values along an axis. See numpy.ndarray.argmax for more informa-
tion on the axis parameter.
See also:
numpy.ndarray.argmax

34.11.1.66 pandas.DatetimeIndex.argmin

DatetimeIndex.argmin(axis=None, *args, **kwargs)

Returns the indices of the minimum values along an axis. See numpy.ndarray.argmin for more information
on the axis parameter.
See also:
numpy.ndarray.argmin

34.11.1.67 pandas.DatetimeIndex.argsort

DatetimeIndex.argsort(*args, **kwargs)
Returns the indices that would sort the index and its underlying data.
Returns argsorted : numpy array

1808 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

See also:
numpy.ndarray.argsort

34.11.1.68 pandas.DatetimeIndex.asof

DatetimeIndex.asof(label)
For a sorted index, return the most recent label up to and including the passed label. Return NaN if not
found.
See also:

get_loc asof is a thin wrapper around get_loc with method=’pad’

34.11.1.69 pandas.DatetimeIndex.asof_locs

DatetimeIndex.asof_locs(where, mask)
where : array of timestamps mask : array of booleans where data is not NA

34.11.1.70 pandas.DatetimeIndex.astype

DatetimeIndex.astype(dtype, copy=True)
Create an Index with values cast to dtypes. The class of a new Index is determined by dtype. When
conversion is impossible, a ValueError exception is raised.
Parameters dtype : numpy dtype or pandas type
copy : bool, default True
By default, astype always returns a newly allocated object. If copy is set to False
and internal requirements on dtype are satisfied, the original data is used to create
a new Index or the original Index is returned.
New in version 0.19.0.

34.11.1.71 pandas.DatetimeIndex.ceil

DatetimeIndex.ceil(freq)
ceil the index to the specified freq
Parameters freq : freq string/object
Returns index of same type
Raises ValueError if the freq cannot be converted

34.11.1.72 pandas.DatetimeIndex.contains

DatetimeIndex.contains(key)
return a boolean if this key is IN the index
Parameters key : object
Returns boolean

34.11. DatetimeIndex 1809

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

34.11.1.73 pandas.DatetimeIndex.copy

DatetimeIndex.copy(name=None, deep=False, dtype=None, **kwargs)

Make a copy of this object. Name and dtype sets those attributes on the new object.
Parameters name : string, optional
deep : boolean, default False
dtype : numpy dtype or pandas type
Returns copy : Index

Notes

In most cases, there should be no functional difference from using deep, but if deep is passed it will
attempt to deepcopy.

34.11.1.74 pandas.DatetimeIndex.delete

DatetimeIndex.delete(loc)
Make a new DatetimeIndex with passed location(s) deleted.
Parameters loc: int, slice or array of ints
Indicate which sub-arrays to remove.
Returns new_index : DatetimeIndex

34.11.1.75 pandas.DatetimeIndex.difference

DatetimeIndex.difference(other)
Return a new Index with elements from the index that are not in other.
This is the set difference of two Index objects. It’s sorted if sorting is possible.
Parameters other : Index or array-like
Returns difference : Index

Examples

>>> idx1 = pd.Index([1, 2, 3, 4])

>>> idx2 = pd.Index([3, 4, 5, 6])
>>> idx1.difference(idx2)
Int64Index([1, 2], dtype='int64')

34.11.1.76 pandas.DatetimeIndex.drop

DatetimeIndex.drop(labels, errors=’raise’)
Make new Index with passed list of labels deleted
Parameters labels : array-like
errors : {‘ignore’, ‘raise’}, default ‘raise’

1810 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

If ‘ignore’, suppress error and existing labels are dropped.

Returns dropped : Index

34.11.1.77 pandas.DatetimeIndex.drop_duplicates

DatetimeIndex.drop_duplicates(keep=’first’)
Return Index with duplicate values removed
Parameters keep : {‘first’, ‘last’, False}, default ‘first’
• first : Drop duplicates except for the first occurrence.
• last : Drop duplicates except for the last occurrence.
• False : Drop all duplicates.
Returns deduplicated : Index

34.11.1.78 pandas.DatetimeIndex.dropna

DatetimeIndex.dropna(how=’any’)
Return Index without NA/NaN values
Parameters how : {‘any’, ‘all’}, default ‘any’
If the Index is a MultiIndex, drop the value when any or all levels are NaN.
Returns valid : Index

34.11.1.79 pandas.DatetimeIndex.duplicated

DatetimeIndex.duplicated(keep=’first’)
Return boolean np.ndarray denoting duplicate values
Parameters keep : {‘first’, ‘last’, False}, default ‘first’
• first : Mark duplicates as True except for the first occurrence.
• last : Mark duplicates as True except for the last occurrence.
• False : Mark all duplicates as True.
Returns duplicated : np.ndarray

34.11.1.80 pandas.DatetimeIndex.equals

DatetimeIndex.equals(other)
Determines if two Index objects contain the same elements.

34.11.1.81 pandas.DatetimeIndex.factorize

DatetimeIndex.factorize(sort=False, na_sentinel=-1)
Encode the object as an enumerated type or categorical variable
Parameters sort : boolean, default False
Sort by values

34.11. DatetimeIndex 1811

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

na_sentinel: int, default -1

Value to mark “not found”
Returns labels : the indexer to the original array
uniques : the unique Index

34.11.1.82 pandas.DatetimeIndex.fillna

DatetimeIndex.fillna(value=None, downcast=None)
Fill NA/NaN values with the specified value
Parameters value : scalar
Scalar value to use to fill holes (e.g. 0). This value cannot be a list-likes.
downcast : dict, default is None
a dict of item->dtype of what to downcast if possible, or the string ‘infer’ which
will try to downcast to an appropriate equal type (e.g. float64 to int64 if possible)
Returns filled : %(klass)s

34.11.1.83 pandas.DatetimeIndex.floor

DatetimeIndex.floor(freq)
floor the index to the specified freq
Parameters freq : freq string/object
Returns index of same type
Raises ValueError if the freq cannot be converted

34.11.1.84 pandas.DatetimeIndex.format

DatetimeIndex.format(name=False, formatter=None, **kwargs)

Render a string representation of the Index

34.11.1.85 pandas.DatetimeIndex.get_duplicates

DatetimeIndex.get_duplicates()

34.11.1.86 pandas.DatetimeIndex.get_indexer

DatetimeIndex.get_indexer(target, method=None, limit=None, tolerance=None)

Compute indexer and mask for new index given the current index. The indexer should be then used as an
input to ndarray.take to align the current data to the new index.
Parameters target : Index
method : {None, ‘pad’/’ffill’, ‘backfill’/’bfill’, ‘nearest’}, optional
• default: exact matches only.
• pad / ffill: find the PREVIOUS index value if no exact match.

1812 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• backfill / bfill: use NEXT index value if no exact match

• nearest: use the NEAREST index value if no exact match. Tied distances are broken
by preferring the larger index value.
limit : int, optional
Maximum number of consecutive labels in target to match for inexact
matches.
tolerance : optional
Maximum distance between original and new labels for inexact matches.
The values of the index at the matching locations most satisfy the equation
abs(index[indexer] - target) <= tolerance.
Tolerance may be a scalar value, which applies the same tolerance to all values,
or list-like, which applies variable tolerance per element. List-like includes list,
tuple, array, Series, and must be the same size as the index and its dtype must
exactly match the index’s type.
New in version 0.17.0.
New in version 0.21.0: (list-like tolerance)
Returns indexer : ndarray of int
Integers from 0 to n - 1 indicating that the index at these positions matches the
corresponding target values. Missing values in the target are marked by -1.

Examples

>>> indexer = index.get_indexer(new_index)

>>> new_values = cur_values.take(indexer)

34.11.1.87 pandas.DatetimeIndex.get_indexer_for

DatetimeIndex.get_indexer_for(target, **kwargs)
guaranteed return of an indexer even when non-unique This dispatches to get_indexer or
get_indexer_nonunique as appropriate

34.11.1.88 pandas.DatetimeIndex.get_indexer_non_unique

DatetimeIndex.get_indexer_non_unique(target)
Compute indexer and mask for new index given the current index. The indexer should be then used as an
input to ndarray.take to align the current data to the new index.
Parameters target : Index
Returns indexer : ndarray of int
Integers from 0 to n - 1 indicating that the index at these positions matches the
corresponding target values. Missing values in the target are marked by -1.
missing : ndarray of int
An indexer into the target of the values not found. These correspond to the -1 in
the indexer array

34.11. DatetimeIndex 1813

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

34.11.1.89 pandas.DatetimeIndex.get_level_values

DatetimeIndex.get_level_values(level)
Return an Index of values for requested level, equal to the length of the index.
Parameters level : int or str
level is either the integer position of the level in the MultiIndex, or the name
of the level.
Returns values : Index
self, as there is only one level in the Index.
See also:

pandas.MultiIndex.get_level_values get values for a level of a MultiIndex

34.11.1.90 pandas.DatetimeIndex.get_loc

DatetimeIndex.get_loc(key, method=None, tolerance=None)

Get integer location for requested label
Returns loc : int

34.11.1.91 pandas.DatetimeIndex.get_slice_bound

DatetimeIndex.get_slice_bound(label, side, kind)

Calculate slice bound that corresponds to given label.
Returns leftmost (one-past-the-rightmost if side=='right') position of given label.
Parameters label : object
side : {‘left’, ‘right’}
kind : {‘ix’, ‘loc’, ‘getitem’}

34.11.1.92 pandas.DatetimeIndex.get_value

DatetimeIndex.get_value(series, key)
Fast lookup of value from 1-dimensional ndarray. Only use this if you know what you’re doing

34.11.1.93 pandas.DatetimeIndex.get_value_maybe_box

DatetimeIndex.get_value_maybe_box(series, key)

34.11.1.94 pandas.DatetimeIndex.get_values

DatetimeIndex.get_values()
return the underlying data as an ndarray

1814 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

34.11.1.95 pandas.DatetimeIndex.groupby

DatetimeIndex.groupby(values)
Group the index labels by a given array of values.
Parameters values : array
Values used to determine the groups.
Returns groups : dict
{group name -> group labels}

34.11.1.96 pandas.DatetimeIndex.holds_integer

DatetimeIndex.holds_integer()

34.11.1.97 pandas.DatetimeIndex.identical

DatetimeIndex.identical(other)
Similar to equals, but check that other comparable attributes are also equal

34.11.1.98 pandas.DatetimeIndex.indexer_at_time

DatetimeIndex.indexer_at_time(time, asof=False)
Select values at particular time of day (e.g. 9:30AM)
Parameters time : datetime.time or string
Returns values_at_time : TimeSeries

34.11.1.99 pandas.DatetimeIndex.indexer_between_time

DatetimeIndex.indexer_between_time(start_time, end_time, include_start=True, in-

clude_end=True)
Select values between particular times of day (e.g., 9:00-9:30AM).
Return values of the index between two times. If start_time or end_time are strings then
tseries.tools.to_time is used to convert to a time object.
Parameters start_time, end_time : datetime.time, str
datetime.time or string in appropriate format (“%H:%M”, “%H%M”,
“%I:%M%p”, “%I%M%p”, “%H:%M:%S”, “%H%M%S”, “%I:%M:%S%p”,
“%I%M%S%p”)
include_start : boolean, default True
include_end : boolean, default True
Returns values_between_time : TimeSeries

34.11. DatetimeIndex 1815

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

34.11.1.100 pandas.DatetimeIndex.insert

DatetimeIndex.insert(loc, item)
Make new Index inserting new item at location
Parameters loc : int
item : object
if not either a Python datetime or a numpy integer-like, returned Index dtype will
be object rather than datetime.
Returns new_index : Index

34.11.1.101 pandas.DatetimeIndex.intersection

DatetimeIndex.intersection(other)
Specialized intersection for DatetimeIndex objects. May be much faster than Index.intersection
Parameters other : DatetimeIndex or array-like
Returns y : Index or DatetimeIndex

34.11.1.102 pandas.DatetimeIndex.is_

DatetimeIndex.is_(other)
More flexible, faster check like is but that works through views
Note: this is not the same as Index.identical(), which checks that metadata is also the same.
Parameters other : object
other object to compare against.
Returns True if both have same underlying data, False otherwise : bool

34.11.1.103 pandas.DatetimeIndex.is_boolean

DatetimeIndex.is_boolean()

34.11.1.104 pandas.DatetimeIndex.is_categorical

DatetimeIndex.is_categorical()

34.11.1.105 pandas.DatetimeIndex.is_floating

DatetimeIndex.is_floating()

34.11.1.106 pandas.DatetimeIndex.is_integer

DatetimeIndex.is_integer()

1816 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

34.11.1.107 pandas.DatetimeIndex.is_interval

DatetimeIndex.is_interval()

34.11.1.108 pandas.DatetimeIndex.is_lexsorted_for_tuple

DatetimeIndex.is_lexsorted_for_tuple(tup)

34.11.1.109 pandas.DatetimeIndex.is_mixed

DatetimeIndex.is_mixed()

34.11.1.110 pandas.DatetimeIndex.is_numeric

DatetimeIndex.is_numeric()

34.11.1.111 pandas.DatetimeIndex.is_object

DatetimeIndex.is_object()

34.11.1.112 pandas.DatetimeIndex.is_type_compatible

DatetimeIndex.is_type_compatible(typ)

34.11.1.113 pandas.DatetimeIndex.isin

DatetimeIndex.isin(values)
Compute boolean array of whether each index value is found in the passed set of values
Parameters values : set or sequence of values
Returns is_contained : ndarray (boolean dtype)

34.11.1.114 pandas.DatetimeIndex.isna

DatetimeIndex.isna()
Detect missing values
New in version 0.20.0.
Returns a boolean array of whether my values are NA
See also:

isnull alias of isna

pandas.isna top-level isna

34.11. DatetimeIndex 1817

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

34.11.1.115 pandas.DatetimeIndex.isnull

DatetimeIndex.isnull()
Detect missing values
New in version 0.20.0.
Returns a boolean array of whether my values are NA
See also:

isnull alias of isna

pandas.isna top-level isna

34.11.1.116 pandas.DatetimeIndex.item

DatetimeIndex.item()
return the first element of the underlying data as a python scalar

34.11.1.117 pandas.DatetimeIndex.join

DatetimeIndex.join(other, how=’left’, level=None, return_indexers=False, sort=False)

See Index.join

34.11.1.118 pandas.DatetimeIndex.map

DatetimeIndex.map(f )

34.11.1.119 pandas.DatetimeIndex.max

DatetimeIndex.max(axis=None, *args, **kwargs)

Return the maximum value of the Index or maximum along an axis.
See also:
numpy.ndarray.max

34.11.1.120 pandas.DatetimeIndex.memory_usage

DatetimeIndex.memory_usage(deep=False)
Memory usage of my values
Parameters deep : bool
Introspect the data deeply, interrogate object dtypes for system-level memory
consumption
Returns bytes used
See also:
numpy.ndarray.nbytes

1818 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Notes

Memory usage does not include memory consumed by elements that are not components of the array if
deep=False or if used on PyPy

34.11.1.121 pandas.DatetimeIndex.min

DatetimeIndex.min(axis=None, *args, **kwargs)

Return the minimum value of the Index or minimum along an axis.
See also:
numpy.ndarray.min

34.11.1.122 pandas.DatetimeIndex.normalize

DatetimeIndex.normalize()
Return DatetimeIndex with times to midnight. Length is unaltered
Returns normalized : DatetimeIndex

34.11.1.123 pandas.DatetimeIndex.notna

DatetimeIndex.notna()
Inverse of isna
New in version 0.20.0.
Returns a boolean array of whether my values are not NA
See also:

notnull alias of notna

pandas.notna top-level notna

34.11.1.124 pandas.DatetimeIndex.notnull

DatetimeIndex.notnull()
Inverse of isna
New in version 0.20.0.
Returns a boolean array of whether my values are not NA
See also:

notnull alias of notna

pandas.notna top-level notna

34.11. DatetimeIndex 1819

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

34.11.1.125 pandas.DatetimeIndex.nunique

DatetimeIndex.nunique(dropna=True)
Return number of unique elements in the object.
Excludes NA values by default.
Parameters dropna : boolean, default True
Don’t include NaN in the count.
Returns nunique : int

34.11.1.126 pandas.DatetimeIndex.putmask

DatetimeIndex.putmask(mask, value)
return a new Index of the values set with the mask
See also:
numpy.ndarray.putmask

34.11.1.127 pandas.DatetimeIndex.ravel

DatetimeIndex.ravel(order=’C’)
return an ndarray of the flattened values of the underlying data
See also:
numpy.ndarray.ravel

34.11.1.128 pandas.DatetimeIndex.reindex

DatetimeIndex.reindex(target, method=None, level=None, limit=None, tolerance=None)

Create index with target’s values (move/add/delete values as necessary)
Parameters target : an iterable
Returns new_index : pd.Index
Resulting index
indexer : np.ndarray or None
Indices of output values in original index

34.11.1.129 pandas.DatetimeIndex.rename

DatetimeIndex.rename(name, inplace=False)
Set new names on index. Defaults to returning new index.
Parameters name : str or list
name to set
inplace : bool
if True, mutates in place
Returns new index (of same type and class...etc) [if inplace, returns None]

1820 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

34.11.1.130 pandas.DatetimeIndex.repeat

DatetimeIndex.repeat(repeats, *args, **kwargs)

Analogous to ndarray.repeat

34.11.1.131 pandas.DatetimeIndex.reshape

DatetimeIndex.reshape(*args, **kwargs)
NOT IMPLEMENTED: do not call this method, as reshaping is not supported for Index objects and will
raise an error.
Reshape an Index.

34.11.1.132 pandas.DatetimeIndex.round

DatetimeIndex.round(freq, *args, **kwargs)

round the index to the specified freq
Parameters freq : freq string/object
Returns index of same type
Raises ValueError if the freq cannot be converted

34.11.1.133 pandas.DatetimeIndex.searchsorted

DatetimeIndex.searchsorted(value, side=’left’, sorter=None)

Find indices where elements should be inserted to maintain order.
Find the indices into a sorted DatetimeIndex self such that, if the corresponding elements in value were
inserted before the indices, the order of self would be preserved.
Parameters value : array_like
Values to insert into self.
side : {‘left’, ‘right’}, optional
If ‘left’, the index of the first suitable location found is given. If ‘right’, return the
last such index. If there is no suitable index, return either 0 or N (where N is the
length of self ).
sorter : 1-D array_like, optional
Optional array of integer indices that sort self into ascending order. They are
typically the result of np.argsort.
Returns indices : array of ints
Array of insertion points with the same shape as value.
See also:
numpy.searchsorted

Notes

Binary search is used to find the required insertion points.

34.11. DatetimeIndex 1821

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Examples

>>> x = pd.Series([1, 2, 3])

>>> x
0 1
1 2
2 3
dtype: int64

>>> x.searchsorted(4)
array([3])

>>> x.searchsorted([0, 4])

array([0, 3])

>>> x.searchsorted([1, 3], side='left')

array([0, 2])

>>> x.searchsorted([1, 3], side='right')

array([1, 3])

>>> x = pd.Categorical(['apple', 'bread', 'bread', 'cheese', 'milk' ])

[apple, bread, bread, cheese, milk]
Categories (4, object): [apple < bread < cheese < milk]

>>> x.searchsorted('bread')
array([1]) # Note: an array, not a scalar

>>> x.searchsorted(['bread'])
array([1])

>>> x.searchsorted(['bread', 'eggs'])

array([1, 4])

>>> x.searchsorted(['bread', 'eggs'], side='right')

array([3, 4]) # eggs before milk

34.11.1.134 pandas.DatetimeIndex.set_names

DatetimeIndex.set_names(names, level=None, inplace=False)

Set new names on index. Defaults to returning new index.
Parameters names : str or sequence
name(s) to set
level : int, level name, or sequence of int/level names (default None)
If the index is a MultiIndex (hierarchical), level(s) to set (None for all levels).
Otherwise level must be None
inplace : bool
if True, mutates in place

1822 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Returns new index (of same type and class...etc) [if inplace, returns None]

Examples

>>> Index([1, 2, 3, 4]).set_names('foo')

Int64Index([1, 2, 3, 4], dtype='int64')
>>> Index([1, 2, 3, 4]).set_names(['foo'])
Int64Index([1, 2, 3, 4], dtype='int64')
>>> idx = MultiIndex.from_tuples([(1, u'one'), (1, u'two'),
(2, u'one'), (2, u'two')],
names=['foo', 'bar'])
>>> idx.set_names(['baz', 'quz'])
MultiIndex(levels=[[1, 2], [u'one', u'two']],
labels=[[0, 0, 1, 1], [0, 1, 0, 1]],
names=[u'baz', u'quz'])
>>> idx.set_names('baz', level=0)
MultiIndex(levels=[[1, 2], [u'one', u'two']],
labels=[[0, 0, 1, 1], [0, 1, 0, 1]],
names=[u'baz', u'bar'])

34.11.1.135 pandas.DatetimeIndex.set_value

DatetimeIndex.set_value(arr, key, value)

Fast lookup of value from 1-dimensional ndarray. Only use this if you know what you’re doing

34.11.1.136 pandas.DatetimeIndex.shift

DatetimeIndex.shift(n, freq=None)
Specialized shift which produces a DatetimeIndex
Parameters n : int
Periods to shift by
freq : DateOffset or timedelta-like, optional
Returns shifted : DatetimeIndex

34.11.1.137 pandas.DatetimeIndex.slice_indexer

DatetimeIndex.slice_indexer(start=None, end=None, step=None, kind=None)

Return indexer for specified label slice. Index.slice_indexer, customized to handle time slicing.
In addition to functionality provided by Index.slice_indexer, does the following:
• if both start and end are instances of datetime.time, it invokes indexer_between_time
• if start and end are both either string or None perform value-based selection in non-monotonic cases.

34.11.1.138 pandas.DatetimeIndex.slice_locs

DatetimeIndex.slice_locs(start=None, end=None, step=None, kind=None)

Compute slice locations for input labels.
Parameters start : label, default None

34.11. DatetimeIndex 1823

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

If None, defaults to the beginning

end : label, default None
If None, defaults to the end
step : int, defaults None
If None, defaults to 1
kind : {‘ix’, ‘loc’, ‘getitem’} or None
Returns start, end : int
See also:

Index.get_loc Get location for a single label

Notes

This method only works if the index is monotonic or unique.

Examples

>>> idx = pd.Index(list('abcd'))

>>> idx.slice_locs(start='b', end='c')
(1, 3)

34.11.1.139 pandas.DatetimeIndex.snap

DatetimeIndex.snap(freq=’S’)
Snap time stamps to nearest occurring frequency

34.11.1.140 pandas.DatetimeIndex.sort

DatetimeIndex.sort(*args, **kwargs)

34.11.1.141 pandas.DatetimeIndex.sort_values

DatetimeIndex.sort_values(return_indexer=False, ascending=True)
Return sorted copy of Index

34.11.1.142 pandas.DatetimeIndex.sortlevel

DatetimeIndex.sortlevel(level=None, ascending=True, sort_remaining=None)

For internal compatibility with with the Index API
Sort the Index. This is for compat with MultiIndex
Parameters ascending : boolean, default True
False to sort in descending order
level, sort_remaining are compat parameters

1824 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Returns sorted_index : Index

34.11.1.143 pandas.DatetimeIndex.str

DatetimeIndex.str()
Vectorized string functions for Series and Index. NAs stay NA unless handled otherwise by a particular
method. Patterned after Python’s string methods, with some inspiration from R’s stringr package.

Examples

>>> s.str.split('_')
>>> s.str.replace('_', '')

34.11.1.144 pandas.DatetimeIndex.strftime

DatetimeIndex.strftime(date_format)
Return an array of formatted strings specified by date_format, which supports the same string format as
the python standard library. Details of the string format can be found in python string format doc
New in version 0.17.0.
Parameters date_format : str
date format string (e.g. “%Y-%m-%d”)
Returns ndarray of formatted strings

34.11.1.145 pandas.DatetimeIndex.summary

DatetimeIndex.summary(name=None)
return a summarized representation

34.11.1.146 pandas.DatetimeIndex.symmetric_difference

DatetimeIndex.symmetric_difference(other, result_name=None)
Compute the symmetric difference of two Index objects. It’s sorted if sorting is possible.
Parameters other : Index or array-like
result_name : str
Returns symmetric_difference : Index

Notes

symmetric_difference contains elements that appear in either idx1 or idx2 but not both. Equiv-
alent to the Index created by idx1.difference(idx2) | idx2.difference(idx1) with du-
plicates dropped.

34.11. DatetimeIndex 1825

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Examples

>>> idx1 = Index([1, 2, 3, 4])

>>> idx2 = Index([2, 3, 4, 5])
>>> idx1.symmetric_difference(idx2)
Int64Index([1, 5], dtype='int64')

You can also use the ^ operator:

>>> idx1 ^ idx2

Int64Index([1, 5], dtype='int64')

34.11.1.147 pandas.DatetimeIndex.take

DatetimeIndex.take(indices, axis=0, allow_fill=True, fill_value=None, **kwargs)

return a new Index of the values selected by the indices
For internal compatibility with numpy arrays.
Parameters indices : list
Indices to be taken
axis : int, optional
The axis over which to select values, always 0.
allow_fill : bool, default True
fill_value : bool, default None
If allow_fill=True and fill_value is not None, indices specified by -1 is regarded
as NA. If Index doesn’t hold NA, raise ValueError
See also:
numpy.ndarray.take

34.11.1.148 pandas.DatetimeIndex.to_datetime

DatetimeIndex.to_datetime(dayfirst=False)

34.11.1.149 pandas.DatetimeIndex.to_frame

DatetimeIndex.to_frame(index=True)
Create a DataFrame with a column containing the Index.
New in version 0.21.0.
Parameters index : boolean, default True
Set the index of the returned DataFrame as the original Index.
Returns DataFrame : a DataFrame containing the original Index data.

1826 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

34.11.1.150 pandas.DatetimeIndex.to_julian_date

DatetimeIndex.to_julian_date()
Convert DatetimeIndex to Float64Index of Julian Dates. 0 Julian date is noon January 1, 4713 BC.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julian_day

34.11.1.151 pandas.DatetimeIndex.to_native_types

DatetimeIndex.to_native_types(slicer=None, **kwargs)
Format specified values of self and return them.
Parameters slicer : int, array-like
An indexer into self that specifies which values are used in the formatting process.
kwargs : dict
Options for specifying how the values should be formatted. These options include
the following:
1. na_rep [str] The value that serves as a placeholder for NULL values
2. quoting [bool or None] Whether or not there are quoted values in self
3. date_format [str] The format used to represent date-like values

34.11.1.152 pandas.DatetimeIndex.to_period

DatetimeIndex.to_period(freq=None)
Cast to PeriodIndex at a particular frequency

34.11.1.153 pandas.DatetimeIndex.to_perioddelta

DatetimeIndex.to_perioddelta(freq)
Calcuates TimedeltaIndex of difference between index values and index converted to PeriodIndex at spec-
ified freq. Used for vectorized offsets
New in version 0.17.0.
Parameters freq : Period frequency
Returns y : TimedeltaIndex

34.11.1.154 pandas.DatetimeIndex.to_pydatetime

DatetimeIndex.to_pydatetime()
Return DatetimeIndex as object ndarray of datetime.datetime objects
Returns datetimes : ndarray

34.11.1.155 pandas.DatetimeIndex.to_series

DatetimeIndex.to_series(keep_tz=False)
Create a Series with both index and values equal to the index keys useful with map for returning an indexer
based on an index

34.11. DatetimeIndex 1827

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Parameters keep_tz : optional, defaults False.

return the data keeping the timezone.
If keep_tz is True:
If the timezone is not set, the resulting Series will have a datetime64[ns]
dtype.
Otherwise the Series will have an datetime64[ns, tz] dtype; the tz will be
preserved.
If keep_tz is False:
Series will have a datetime64[ns] dtype. TZ aware objects will have the tz
removed.
Returns Series

34.11.1.156 pandas.DatetimeIndex.tolist

DatetimeIndex.tolist()
return a list of the underlying data

34.11.1.157 pandas.DatetimeIndex.transpose

DatetimeIndex.transpose(*args, **kwargs)
return the transpose, which is by definition self

34.11.1.158 pandas.DatetimeIndex.tz_convert

DatetimeIndex.tz_convert(tz)
Convert tz-aware DatetimeIndex from one time zone to another (using pytz/dateutil)
Parameters tz : string, pytz.timezone, dateutil.tz.tzfile or None
Time zone for time. Corresponding timestamps would be converted to time zone
of the TimeSeries. None will remove timezone holding UTC time.
Returns normalized : DatetimeIndex
Raises TypeError
If DatetimeIndex is tz-naive.

34.11.1.159 pandas.DatetimeIndex.tz_localize

DatetimeIndex.tz_localize(tz, ambiguous=’raise’, errors=’raise’)

Localize tz-naive DatetimeIndex to given time zone (using pytz/dateutil), or remove timezone from tz-
aware DatetimeIndex
Parameters tz : string, pytz.timezone, dateutil.tz.tzfile or None
Time zone for time. Corresponding timestamps would be converted to time zone
of the TimeSeries. None will remove timezone holding local time.
ambiguous : ‘infer’, bool-ndarray, ‘NaT’, default ‘raise’
• ‘infer’ will attempt to infer fall dst-transition hours based on order

1828 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• bool-ndarray where True signifies a DST time, False signifies a non-DST time (note
that this flag is only applicable for ambiguous times)
• ‘NaT’ will return NaT where there are ambiguous times
• ‘raise’ will raise an AmbiguousTimeError if there are ambiguous times
errors : ‘raise’, ‘coerce’, default ‘raise’
• ‘raise’ will raise a NonExistentTimeError if a timestamp is not valid in
the specified timezone (e.g. due to a transition from or to DST time)
• ‘coerce’ will return NaT if the timestamp can not be converted into the specified
timezone
New in version 0.19.0.
infer_dst : boolean, default False
Deprecated since version 0.15.0: Attempt to infer fall dst-transition hours based
on order
Returns localized : DatetimeIndex
Raises TypeError
If the DatetimeIndex is tz-aware and tz is not None.

34.11.1.160 pandas.DatetimeIndex.union

DatetimeIndex.union(other)
Specialized union for DatetimeIndex objects. If combine overlapping ranges with the same DateOffset,
will be much faster than Index.union
Parameters other : DatetimeIndex or array-like
Returns y : Index or DatetimeIndex

34.11.1.161 pandas.DatetimeIndex.union_many

DatetimeIndex.union_many(others)
A bit of a hack to accelerate unioning a collection of indexes

34.11.1.162 pandas.DatetimeIndex.unique

DatetimeIndex.unique()
Return unique values in the object. Uniques are returned in order of appearance, this does NOT sort. Hash
table-based unique.
Parameters values : 1d array-like
Returns unique values.
• If the input is an Index, the return is an Index
• If the input is a Categorical dtype, the return is a Categorical
• If the input is a Series/ndarray, the return will be an ndarray
See also:
unique, Index.unique, Series.unique

34.11. DatetimeIndex 1829

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

34.11.1.163 pandas.DatetimeIndex.value_counts

DatetimeIndex.value_counts(normalize=False, sort=True, ascending=False, bins=None,

dropna=True)
Returns object containing counts of unique values.
The resulting object will be in descending order so that the first element is the most frequently-occurring
element. Excludes NA values by default.
Parameters normalize : boolean, default False
If True then the object returned will contain the relative frequencies of the unique
values.
sort : boolean, default True
Sort by values
ascending : boolean, default False
Sort in ascending order
bins : integer, optional
Rather than count values, group them into half-open bins, a convenience for
pd.cut, only works with numeric data
dropna : boolean, default True
Don’t include counts of NaN.
Returns counts : Series

34.11.1.164 pandas.DatetimeIndex.view

DatetimeIndex.view(cls=None)

34.11.1.165 pandas.DatetimeIndex.where

DatetimeIndex.where(cond, other=None)
New in version 0.19.0.
Return an Index of same shape as self and whose corresponding entries are from self where cond is True
and otherwise are from other.
Parameters cond : boolean array-like with the same length as self
other : scalar, or array-like

34.11.2 Time/Date Components

DatetimeIndex.year The year of the datetime

DatetimeIndex.month The month as January=1, December=12
DatetimeIndex.day The days of the datetime
DatetimeIndex.hour The hours of the datetime
DatetimeIndex.minute The minutes of the datetime
DatetimeIndex.second The seconds of the datetime
Continued on next page

1830 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Table 34.111 – continued from previous page

DatetimeIndex.microsecond The microseconds of the datetime
DatetimeIndex.nanosecond The nanoseconds of the datetime
DatetimeIndex.date Returns numpy array of python datetime.date objects
(namely, the date part of Timestamps without timezone in-
formation).
DatetimeIndex.time Returns numpy array of datetime.time.
DatetimeIndex.dayofyear The ordinal day of the year
DatetimeIndex.weekofyear The week ordinal of the year
DatetimeIndex.week The week ordinal of the year
DatetimeIndex.dayofweek The day of the week with Monday=0, Sunday=6
DatetimeIndex.weekday The day of the week with Monday=0, Sunday=6
DatetimeIndex.weekday_name The name of day in a week (ex: Friday)
DatetimeIndex.quarter The quarter of the date
DatetimeIndex.tz
DatetimeIndex.freq get/set the frequency of the Index
DatetimeIndex.freqstr Return the frequency object as a string if its set, otherwise
None
DatetimeIndex.is_month_start Logical indicating if first day of month (defined by fre-
quency)
DatetimeIndex.is_month_end Logical indicating if last day of month (defined by fre-
quency)
DatetimeIndex.is_quarter_start Logical indicating if first day of quarter (defined by fre-
quency)
DatetimeIndex.is_quarter_end Logical indicating if last day of quarter (defined by fre-
quency)
DatetimeIndex.is_year_start Logical indicating if first day of year (defined by fre-
quency)
DatetimeIndex.is_year_end Logical indicating if last day of year (defined by frequency)
DatetimeIndex.is_leap_year Logical indicating if the date belongs to a leap year
DatetimeIndex.inferred_freq

34.11.3 Selecting

DatetimeIndex.indexer_at_time(time[, asof]) Select values at particular time of day (e.g.

DatetimeIndex.indexer_between_time(...[, Select values between particular times of day (e.g., 9:00-
...]) 9:30AM).

34.11.4 Time-specific operations

DatetimeIndex.normalize() Return DatetimeIndex with times to midnight.

DatetimeIndex.strftime(date_format) Return an array of formatted strings specified by
date_format, which supports the same string format as the
python standard library.
DatetimeIndex.snap([freq]) Snap time stamps to nearest occurring frequency
DatetimeIndex.tz_convert(tz) Convert tz-aware DatetimeIndex from one time zone to an-
other (using
DatetimeIndex.tz_localize(tz[, ambiguous, ...]) Localize tz-naive DatetimeIndex to given time zone (using
DatetimeIndex.round(freq, *args, **kwargs) round the index to the specified freq
Continued on next page

34.11. DatetimeIndex 1831

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Table 34.113 – continued from previous page

DatetimeIndex.floor(freq) floor the index to the specified freq
DatetimeIndex.ceil(freq) ceil the index to the specified freq

34.11.5 Conversion

DatetimeIndex.to_datetime([dayfirst])
DatetimeIndex.to_period([freq]) Cast to PeriodIndex at a particular frequency
DatetimeIndex.to_perioddelta(freq) Calcuates TimedeltaIndex of difference between index val-
ues and index converted to PeriodIndex at specified freq.
DatetimeIndex.to_pydatetime() Return DatetimeIndex as object ndarray of date-
time.datetime objects
DatetimeIndex.to_series([keep_tz]) Create a Series with both index and values equal to the in-
dex keys
DatetimeIndex.to_frame([index]) Create a DataFrame with a column containing the Index.

34.12 TimedeltaIndex

TimedeltaIndex Immutable ndarray of timedelta64 data, represented inter-

nally as int64, and

34.12.1 pandas.TimedeltaIndex

class pandas.TimedeltaIndex
Immutable ndarray of timedelta64 data, represented internally as int64, and which can be boxed to timedelta
objects
Parameters data : array-like (1-dimensional), optional
Optional timedelta-like data to construct index with
unit: unit of the arg (D,h,m,s,ms,us,ns) denote the unit, optional
which is an integer/float number
freq: a frequency for the index, optional
copy : bool
Make a copy of input ndarray
start : starting value, timedelta-like, optional
If data is None, start is used as the start point in generating regular timedelta data.
periods : int, optional, > 0
Number of periods to generate, if generating index. Takes precedence over end
argument
end : end time, timedelta-like, optional
If periods is none, generated index will extend to first conforming time on or just
past end argument
closed : string or None, default None

1832 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Make the interval closed with respect to the given frequency to the ‘left’, ‘right’, or
both sides (None)
name : object
Name to be stored in the index
See also:

Index The base pandas Index type

Timedelta Represents a duration between two dates or times.
DatetimeIndex Index of datetime64 data
PeriodIndex Index of Period data

Notes

To learn more about the frequency strings, please see this link.

Attributes

T return the transpose, which is by definition self

asi8
asobject return object Index which contains boxed values
base return the base object if the memory of the underlying
data is
components Return a dataframe of the components (days, hours,
minutes, seconds, milliseconds, microseconds,
nanoseconds) of the Timedeltas.
data return the data pointer of the underlying data
days Number of days for each element.
dtype
dtype_str
empty
flags
freq
freqstr Return the frequency object as a string if its set, other-
wise None
has_duplicates
hasnans
inferred_freq
inferred_type
is_all_dates
is_monotonic alias for is_monotonic_increasing (deprecated)
is_monotonic_decreasing return if the index is monotonic decreasing (only equal
or
is_monotonic_increasing return if the index is monotonic increasing (only equal
or
is_unique
Continued on next page

34.12. TimedeltaIndex 1833

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Table 34.116 – continued from previous page

itemsize return the size of the dtype of the item of the underlying
data
microseconds Number of microseconds (>= 0 and less than 1 second)
for each element.
name
names
nanoseconds Number of nanoseconds (>= 0 and less than 1 microsec-
ond) for each element.
nbytes return the number of bytes in the underlying data
ndim return the number of dimensions of the underlying data,
nlevels
resolution
seconds Number of seconds (>= 0 and less than 1 day) for each
element.
shape return a tuple of the shape of the underlying data
size return the number of elements in the underlying data
strides return the strides of the underlying data
values return the underlying data as an ndarray

34.12.1.1 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.T

TimedeltaIndex.T
return the transpose, which is by definition self

34.12.1.2 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.asi8

TimedeltaIndex.asi8

34.12.1.3 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.asobject

TimedeltaIndex.asobject
return object Index which contains boxed values
this is an internal non-public method

34.12.1.4 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.base

TimedeltaIndex.base
return the base object if the memory of the underlying data is shared

34.12.1.5 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.components

TimedeltaIndex.components
Return a dataframe of the components (days, hours, minutes, seconds, milliseconds, microseconds,
nanoseconds) of the Timedeltas.
Returns a DataFrame

1834 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

34.12.1.6 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.data

TimedeltaIndex.data
return the data pointer of the underlying data

34.12.1.7 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.days

TimedeltaIndex.days
Number of days for each element.

34.12.1.8 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.dtype

TimedeltaIndex.dtype

34.12.1.9 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.dtype_str

TimedeltaIndex.dtype_str = None

34.12.1.10 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.empty

TimedeltaIndex.empty

34.12.1.11 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.flags

TimedeltaIndex.flags

34.12.1.12 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.freq

TimedeltaIndex.freq = None

34.12.1.13 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.freqstr

TimedeltaIndex.freqstr
Return the frequency object as a string if its set, otherwise None

34.12.1.14 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.has_duplicates

TimedeltaIndex.has_duplicates

34.12.1.15 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.hasnans

TimedeltaIndex.hasnans = None

34.12.1.16 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.inferred_freq

TimedeltaIndex.inferred_freq = None

34.12. TimedeltaIndex 1835

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

34.12.1.17 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.inferred_type

TimedeltaIndex.inferred_type

34.12.1.18 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.is_all_dates

TimedeltaIndex.is_all_dates

34.12.1.19 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.is_monotonic

TimedeltaIndex.is_monotonic
alias for is_monotonic_increasing (deprecated)

34.12.1.20 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.is_monotonic_decreasing

TimedeltaIndex.is_monotonic_decreasing
return if the index is monotonic decreasing (only equal or decreasing) values.

Examples

>>> Index([3, 2, 1]).is_monotonic_decreasing

True
>>> Index([3, 2, 2]).is_monotonic_decreasing
True
>>> Index([3, 1, 2]).is_monotonic_decreasing
False

34.12.1.21 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.is_monotonic_increasing

TimedeltaIndex.is_monotonic_increasing
return if the index is monotonic increasing (only equal or increasing) values.

Examples

>>> Index([1, 2, 3]).is_monotonic_increasing

True
>>> Index([1, 2, 2]).is_monotonic_increasing
True
>>> Index([1, 3, 2]).is_monotonic_increasing
False

34.12.1.22 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.is_unique

TimedeltaIndex.is_unique = None

1836 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

34.12.1.23 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.itemsize

TimedeltaIndex.itemsize
return the size of the dtype of the item of the underlying data

34.12.1.24 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.microseconds

TimedeltaIndex.microseconds
Number of microseconds (>= 0 and less than 1 second) for each element.

34.12.1.25 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.name

TimedeltaIndex.name = None

34.12.1.26 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.names

TimedeltaIndex.names

34.12.1.27 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.nanoseconds

TimedeltaIndex.nanoseconds
Number of nanoseconds (>= 0 and less than 1 microsecond) for each element.

34.12.1.28 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.nbytes

TimedeltaIndex.nbytes
return the number of bytes in the underlying data

34.12.1.29 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.ndim

TimedeltaIndex.ndim
return the number of dimensions of the underlying data, by definition 1

34.12.1.30 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.nlevels

TimedeltaIndex.nlevels

34.12.1.31 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.resolution

TimedeltaIndex.resolution = None

34.12.1.32 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.seconds

TimedeltaIndex.seconds
Number of seconds (>= 0 and less than 1 day) for each element.

34.12. TimedeltaIndex 1837

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

34.12.1.33 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.shape

TimedeltaIndex.shape
return a tuple of the shape of the underlying data

34.12.1.34 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.size

TimedeltaIndex.size
return the number of elements in the underlying data

34.12.1.35 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.strides

TimedeltaIndex.strides
return the strides of the underlying data

34.12.1.36 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.values

TimedeltaIndex.values
return the underlying data as an ndarray

Methods

all([other])
any([other])
append(other) Append a collection of Index options together
argmax([axis]) Returns the indices of the maximum values along an
axis.
argmin([axis]) Returns the indices of the minimum values along an
axis.
argsort(*args, **kwargs) Returns the indices that would sort the index and its un-
derlying data.
asof(label) For a sorted index, return the most recent label up to and
including the passed label.
asof_locs(where, mask) where : array of timestamps
astype(dtype[, copy]) Create an Index with values cast to dtypes.
ceil(freq) ceil the index to the specified freq
contains(key) return a boolean if this key is IN the index
copy([name, deep, dtype]) Make a copy of this object.
delete(loc) Make a new DatetimeIndex with passed location(s)
deleted.
difference(other) Return a new Index with elements from the index that
are not in other.
drop(labels[, errors]) Make new Index with passed list of labels deleted
drop_duplicates([keep]) Return Index with duplicate values removed
dropna([how]) Return Index without NA/NaN values
duplicated([keep]) Return boolean np.ndarray denoting duplicate values
equals(other) Determines if two Index objects contain the same ele-
ments.
Continued on next page

1838 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Table 34.117 – continued from previous page

factorize([sort, na_sentinel]) Encode the object as an enumerated type or categorical
variable
fillna([value, downcast]) Fill NA/NaN values with the specified value
floor(freq) floor the index to the specified freq
format([name, formatter]) Render a string representation of the Index
get_duplicates()
get_indexer(target[, method, limit, tolerance]) Compute indexer and mask for new index given the cur-
rent index.
get_indexer_for(target, **kwargs) guaranteed return of an indexer even when non-unique
get_indexer_non_unique(target) Compute indexer and mask for new index given the cur-
rent index.
get_level_values(level) Return an Index of values for requested level, equal to
the length of the index.
get_loc(key[, method, tolerance]) Get integer location for requested label
get_slice_bound(label, side, kind) Calculate slice bound that corresponds to given label.
get_value(series, key) Fast lookup of value from 1-dimensional ndarray.
get_value_maybe_box(series, key)
get_values() return the underlying data as an ndarray
groupby(values) Group the index labels by a given array of values.
holds_integer()
identical(other) Similar to equals, but check that other comparable at-
tributes are
insert(loc, item) Make new Index inserting new item at location
intersection(other) Specialized intersection for TimedeltaIndex objects.
is_(other) More flexible, faster check like is but that works
through views
is_boolean()
is_categorical()
is_floating()
is_integer()
is_interval()
is_lexsorted_for_tuple(tup)
is_mixed()
is_numeric()
is_object()
is_type_compatible(typ)
isin(values) Compute boolean array of whether each index value is
found in the
isna() Detect missing values
isnull() Detect missing values
item() return the first element of the underlying data as a
python
join(other[, how, level, return_indexers, sort]) See Index.join
map(f)
max([axis]) Return the maximum value of the Index or maximum
along an axis.
memory_usage([deep]) Memory usage of my values
min([axis]) Return the minimum value of the Index or minimum
along an axis.
notna() Inverse of isna
Continued on next page

34.12. TimedeltaIndex 1839

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Table 34.117 – continued from previous page

notnull() Inverse of isna
nunique([dropna]) Return number of unique elements in the object.
putmask(mask, value) return a new Index of the values set with the mask
ravel([order]) return an ndarray of the flattened values of the underly-
ing data
reindex(target[, method, level, limit, ...]) Create index with target’s values (move/add/delete val-
ues as necessary)
rename(name[, inplace]) Set new names on index.
repeat(repeats, *args, **kwargs) Analogous to ndarray.repeat
reshape(*args, **kwargs) NOT IMPLEMENTED: do not call this method, as re-
shaping is not supported for Index objects and will raise
an error.
round(freq, *args, **kwargs) round the index to the specified freq
searchsorted(value[, side, sorter]) Find indices where elements should be inserted to main-
tain order.
set_names(names[, level, inplace]) Set new names on index.
set_value(arr, key, value) Fast lookup of value from 1-dimensional ndarray.
shift(n[, freq]) Specialized shift which produces a DatetimeIndex
slice_indexer([start, end, step, kind]) For an ordered Index, compute the slice indexer for in-
put labels and
slice_locs([start, end, step, kind]) Compute slice locations for input labels.
sort(*args, **kwargs)
sort_values([return_indexer, ascending]) Return sorted copy of Index
sortlevel([level, ascending, sort_remaining]) For internal compatibility with with the Index API
str alias of StringMethods
summary([name]) return a summarized representation
symmetric_difference(other[, result_name]) Compute the symmetric difference of two Index objects.
take(indices[, axis, allow_fill, fill_value]) return a new Index of the values selected by the indices
to_datetime([dayfirst]) DEPRECATED: use pandas.to_datetime() in-
stead.
to_frame([index]) Create a DataFrame with a column containing the Index.
to_native_types([slicer]) Format specified values of self and return them.
to_pytimedelta() Return TimedeltaIndex as object ndarray of date-
time.timedelta objects
to_series(**kwargs) Create a Series with both index and values equal to the
index keys
tolist() return a list of the underlying data
total_seconds() Total duration of each element expressed in seconds.
transpose(*args, **kwargs) return the transpose, which is by definition self
union(other) Specialized union for TimedeltaIndex objects.
unique() Return unique values in the object.
value_counts([normalize, sort, ascending, ...]) Returns object containing counts of unique values.
view([cls])
where(cond[, other]) New in version 0.19.0.

34.12.1.37 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.all

TimedeltaIndex.all(other=None)

1840 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

34.12.1.38 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.any

TimedeltaIndex.any(other=None)

34.12.1.39 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.append

TimedeltaIndex.append(other)
Append a collection of Index options together
Parameters other : Index or list/tuple of indices
Returns appended : Index

34.12.1.40 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.argmax

TimedeltaIndex.argmax(axis=None, *args, **kwargs)

Returns the indices of the maximum values along an axis. See numpy.ndarray.argmax for more informa-
tion on the axis parameter.
See also:
numpy.ndarray.argmax

34.12.1.41 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.argmin

TimedeltaIndex.argmin(axis=None, *args, **kwargs)

Returns the indices of the minimum values along an axis. See numpy.ndarray.argmin for more information
on the axis parameter.
See also:
numpy.ndarray.argmin

34.12.1.42 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.argsort

TimedeltaIndex.argsort(*args, **kwargs)
Returns the indices that would sort the index and its underlying data.
Returns argsorted : numpy array
See also:
numpy.ndarray.argsort

34.12.1.43 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.asof

TimedeltaIndex.asof(label)
For a sorted index, return the most recent label up to and including the passed label. Return NaN if not
found.
See also:

get_loc asof is a thin wrapper around get_loc with method=’pad’

34.12. TimedeltaIndex 1841

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

34.12.1.44 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.asof_locs

TimedeltaIndex.asof_locs(where, mask)
where : array of timestamps mask : array of booleans where data is not NA

34.12.1.45 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.astype

TimedeltaIndex.astype(dtype, copy=True)
Create an Index with values cast to dtypes. The class of a new Index is determined by dtype. When
conversion is impossible, a ValueError exception is raised.
Parameters dtype : numpy dtype or pandas type
copy : bool, default True
By default, astype always returns a newly allocated object. If copy is set to False
and internal requirements on dtype are satisfied, the original data is used to create
a new Index or the original Index is returned.
New in version 0.19.0.

34.12.1.46 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.ceil

TimedeltaIndex.ceil(freq)
ceil the index to the specified freq
Parameters freq : freq string/object
Returns index of same type
Raises ValueError if the freq cannot be converted

34.12.1.47 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.contains

TimedeltaIndex.contains(key)
return a boolean if this key is IN the index
Parameters key : object
Returns boolean

34.12.1.48 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.copy

TimedeltaIndex.copy(name=None, deep=False, dtype=None, **kwargs)

Make a copy of this object. Name and dtype sets those attributes on the new object.
Parameters name : string, optional
deep : boolean, default False
dtype : numpy dtype or pandas type
Returns copy : Index

1842 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Notes

In most cases, there should be no functional difference from using deep, but if deep is passed it will
attempt to deepcopy.

34.12.1.49 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.delete

TimedeltaIndex.delete(loc)
Make a new DatetimeIndex with passed location(s) deleted.
Parameters loc: int, slice or array of ints
Indicate which sub-arrays to remove.
Returns new_index : TimedeltaIndex

34.12.1.50 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.difference

TimedeltaIndex.difference(other)
Return a new Index with elements from the index that are not in other.
This is the set difference of two Index objects. It’s sorted if sorting is possible.
Parameters other : Index or array-like
Returns difference : Index

Examples

>>> idx1 = pd.Index([1, 2, 3, 4])

>>> idx2 = pd.Index([3, 4, 5, 6])
>>> idx1.difference(idx2)
Int64Index([1, 2], dtype='int64')

34.12.1.51 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.drop

TimedeltaIndex.drop(labels, errors=’raise’)
Make new Index with passed list of labels deleted
Parameters labels : array-like
errors : {‘ignore’, ‘raise’}, default ‘raise’
If ‘ignore’, suppress error and existing labels are dropped.
Returns dropped : Index

34.12.1.52 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.drop_duplicates

TimedeltaIndex.drop_duplicates(keep=’first’)
Return Index with duplicate values removed
Parameters keep : {‘first’, ‘last’, False}, default ‘first’
• first : Drop duplicates except for the first occurrence.

34.12. TimedeltaIndex 1843

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• last : Drop duplicates except for the last occurrence.

• False : Drop all duplicates.
Returns deduplicated : Index

34.12.1.53 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.dropna

TimedeltaIndex.dropna(how=’any’)
Return Index without NA/NaN values
Parameters how : {‘any’, ‘all’}, default ‘any’
If the Index is a MultiIndex, drop the value when any or all levels are NaN.
Returns valid : Index

34.12.1.54 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.duplicated

TimedeltaIndex.duplicated(keep=’first’)
Return boolean np.ndarray denoting duplicate values
Parameters keep : {‘first’, ‘last’, False}, default ‘first’
• first : Mark duplicates as True except for the first occurrence.
• last : Mark duplicates as True except for the last occurrence.
• False : Mark all duplicates as True.
Returns duplicated : np.ndarray

34.12.1.55 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.equals

TimedeltaIndex.equals(other)
Determines if two Index objects contain the same elements.

34.12.1.56 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.factorize

TimedeltaIndex.factorize(sort=False, na_sentinel=-1)
Encode the object as an enumerated type or categorical variable
Parameters sort : boolean, default False
Sort by values
na_sentinel: int, default -1
Value to mark “not found”
Returns labels : the indexer to the original array
uniques : the unique Index

1844 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

34.12.1.57 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.fillna

TimedeltaIndex.fillna(value=None, downcast=None)
Fill NA/NaN values with the specified value
Parameters value : scalar
Scalar value to use to fill holes (e.g. 0). This value cannot be a list-likes.
downcast : dict, default is None
a dict of item->dtype of what to downcast if possible, or the string ‘infer’ which
will try to downcast to an appropriate equal type (e.g. float64 to int64 if possible)
Returns filled : %(klass)s

34.12.1.58 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.floor

TimedeltaIndex.floor(freq)
floor the index to the specified freq
Parameters freq : freq string/object
Returns index of same type
Raises ValueError if the freq cannot be converted

34.12.1.59 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.format

TimedeltaIndex.format(name=False, formatter=None, **kwargs)

Render a string representation of the Index

34.12.1.60 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.get_duplicates

TimedeltaIndex.get_duplicates()

34.12.1.61 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.get_indexer

TimedeltaIndex.get_indexer(target, method=None, limit=None, tolerance=None)

Compute indexer and mask for new index given the current index. The indexer should be then used as an
input to ndarray.take to align the current data to the new index.
Parameters target : Index
method : {None, ‘pad’/’ffill’, ‘backfill’/’bfill’, ‘nearest’}, optional
• default: exact matches only.
• pad / ffill: find the PREVIOUS index value if no exact match.
• backfill / bfill: use NEXT index value if no exact match
• nearest: use the NEAREST index value if no exact match. Tied distances are broken
by preferring the larger index value.
limit : int, optional
Maximum number of consecutive labels in target to match for inexact
matches.

34.12. TimedeltaIndex 1845

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

tolerance : optional
Maximum distance between original and new labels for inexact matches.
The values of the index at the matching locations most satisfy the equation
abs(index[indexer] - target) <= tolerance.
Tolerance may be a scalar value, which applies the same tolerance to all values,
or list-like, which applies variable tolerance per element. List-like includes list,
tuple, array, Series, and must be the same size as the index and its dtype must
exactly match the index’s type.
New in version 0.17.0.
New in version 0.21.0: (list-like tolerance)
Returns indexer : ndarray of int
Integers from 0 to n - 1 indicating that the index at these positions matches the
corresponding target values. Missing values in the target are marked by -1.

Examples

>>> indexer = index.get_indexer(new_index)

>>> new_values = cur_values.take(indexer)

34.12.1.62 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.get_indexer_for

TimedeltaIndex.get_indexer_for(target, **kwargs)
guaranteed return of an indexer even when non-unique This dispatches to get_indexer or
get_indexer_nonunique as appropriate

34.12.1.63 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.get_indexer_non_unique

TimedeltaIndex.get_indexer_non_unique(target)
Compute indexer and mask for new index given the current index. The indexer should be then used as an
input to ndarray.take to align the current data to the new index.
Parameters target : Index
Returns indexer : ndarray of int
Integers from 0 to n - 1 indicating that the index at these positions matches the
corresponding target values. Missing values in the target are marked by -1.
missing : ndarray of int
An indexer into the target of the values not found. These correspond to the -1 in
the indexer array

34.12.1.64 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.get_level_values

TimedeltaIndex.get_level_values(level)
Return an Index of values for requested level, equal to the length of the index.
Parameters level : int or str

1846 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

level is either the integer position of the level in the MultiIndex, or the name
of the level.
Returns values : Index
self, as there is only one level in the Index.
See also:

pandas.MultiIndex.get_level_values get values for a level of a MultiIndex

34.12.1.65 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.get_loc

TimedeltaIndex.get_loc(key, method=None, tolerance=None)

Get integer location for requested label
Returns loc : int

34.12.1.66 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.get_slice_bound

TimedeltaIndex.get_slice_bound(label, side, kind)

Calculate slice bound that corresponds to given label.
Returns leftmost (one-past-the-rightmost if side=='right') position of given label.
Parameters label : object
side : {‘left’, ‘right’}
kind : {‘ix’, ‘loc’, ‘getitem’}

34.12.1.67 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.get_value

TimedeltaIndex.get_value(series, key)
Fast lookup of value from 1-dimensional ndarray. Only use this if you know what you’re doing

34.12.1.68 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.get_value_maybe_box

TimedeltaIndex.get_value_maybe_box(series, key)

34.12.1.69 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.get_values

TimedeltaIndex.get_values()
return the underlying data as an ndarray

34.12.1.70 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.groupby

TimedeltaIndex.groupby(values)
Group the index labels by a given array of values.
Parameters values : array
Values used to determine the groups.
Returns groups : dict

34.12. TimedeltaIndex 1847

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

{group name -> group labels}

34.12.1.71 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.holds_integer

TimedeltaIndex.holds_integer()

34.12.1.72 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.identical

TimedeltaIndex.identical(other)
Similar to equals, but check that other comparable attributes are also equal

34.12.1.73 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.insert

TimedeltaIndex.insert(loc, item)
Make new Index inserting new item at location
Parameters loc : int
item : object
if not either a Python datetime or a numpy integer-like, returned Index dtype will
be object rather than datetime.
Returns new_index : Index

34.12.1.74 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.intersection

TimedeltaIndex.intersection(other)
Specialized intersection for TimedeltaIndex objects. May be much faster than Index.intersection
Parameters other : TimedeltaIndex or array-like
Returns y : Index or TimedeltaIndex

34.12.1.75 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.is_

TimedeltaIndex.is_(other)
More flexible, faster check like is but that works through views
Note: this is not the same as Index.identical(), which checks that metadata is also the same.
Parameters other : object
other object to compare against.
Returns True if both have same underlying data, False otherwise : bool

34.12.1.76 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.is_boolean

TimedeltaIndex.is_boolean()

34.12.1.77 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.is_categorical

TimedeltaIndex.is_categorical()

1848 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

34.12.1.78 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.is_floating

TimedeltaIndex.is_floating()

34.12.1.79 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.is_integer

TimedeltaIndex.is_integer()

34.12.1.80 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.is_interval

TimedeltaIndex.is_interval()

34.12.1.81 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.is_lexsorted_for_tuple

TimedeltaIndex.is_lexsorted_for_tuple(tup)

34.12.1.82 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.is_mixed

TimedeltaIndex.is_mixed()

34.12.1.83 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.is_numeric

TimedeltaIndex.is_numeric()

34.12.1.84 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.is_object

TimedeltaIndex.is_object()

34.12.1.85 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.is_type_compatible

TimedeltaIndex.is_type_compatible(typ)

34.12.1.86 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.isin

TimedeltaIndex.isin(values)
Compute boolean array of whether each index value is found in the passed set of values
Parameters values : set or sequence of values
Returns is_contained : ndarray (boolean dtype)

34.12.1.87 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.isna

TimedeltaIndex.isna()
Detect missing values
New in version 0.20.0.
Returns a boolean array of whether my values are NA

34.12. TimedeltaIndex 1849

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

See also:

isnull alias of isna

pandas.isna top-level isna

34.12.1.88 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.isnull

TimedeltaIndex.isnull()
Detect missing values
New in version 0.20.0.
Returns a boolean array of whether my values are NA
See also:

isnull alias of isna

pandas.isna top-level isna

34.12.1.89 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.item

TimedeltaIndex.item()
return the first element of the underlying data as a python scalar

34.12.1.90 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.join

TimedeltaIndex.join(other, how=’left’, level=None, return_indexers=False, sort=False)

See Index.join

34.12.1.91 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.map

TimedeltaIndex.map(f )

34.12.1.92 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.max

TimedeltaIndex.max(axis=None, *args, **kwargs)

Return the maximum value of the Index or maximum along an axis.
See also:
numpy.ndarray.max

34.12.1.93 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.memory_usage

TimedeltaIndex.memory_usage(deep=False)
Memory usage of my values
Parameters deep : bool
Introspect the data deeply, interrogate object dtypes for system-level memory
consumption
Returns bytes used

1850 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

See also:
numpy.ndarray.nbytes

Notes

Memory usage does not include memory consumed by elements that are not components of the array if
deep=False or if used on PyPy

34.12.1.94 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.min

TimedeltaIndex.min(axis=None, *args, **kwargs)

Return the minimum value of the Index or minimum along an axis.
See also:
numpy.ndarray.min

34.12.1.95 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.notna

TimedeltaIndex.notna()
Inverse of isna
New in version 0.20.0.
Returns a boolean array of whether my values are not NA
See also:

notnull alias of notna

pandas.notna top-level notna

34.12.1.96 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.notnull

TimedeltaIndex.notnull()
Inverse of isna
New in version 0.20.0.
Returns a boolean array of whether my values are not NA
See also:

notnull alias of notna

pandas.notna top-level notna

34.12.1.97 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.nunique

TimedeltaIndex.nunique(dropna=True)
Return number of unique elements in the object.
Excludes NA values by default.
Parameters dropna : boolean, default True

34.12. TimedeltaIndex 1851

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Don’t include NaN in the count.

Returns nunique : int

34.12.1.98 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.putmask

TimedeltaIndex.putmask(mask, value)
return a new Index of the values set with the mask
See also:
numpy.ndarray.putmask

34.12.1.99 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.ravel

TimedeltaIndex.ravel(order=’C’)
return an ndarray of the flattened values of the underlying data
See also:
numpy.ndarray.ravel

34.12.1.100 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.reindex

TimedeltaIndex.reindex(target, method=None, level=None, limit=None, tolerance=None)

Create index with target’s values (move/add/delete values as necessary)
Parameters target : an iterable
Returns new_index : pd.Index
Resulting index
indexer : np.ndarray or None
Indices of output values in original index

34.12.1.101 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.rename

TimedeltaIndex.rename(name, inplace=False)
Set new names on index. Defaults to returning new index.
Parameters name : str or list
name to set
inplace : bool
if True, mutates in place
Returns new index (of same type and class...etc) [if inplace, returns None]

34.12.1.102 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.repeat

TimedeltaIndex.repeat(repeats, *args, **kwargs)

Analogous to ndarray.repeat

1852 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

34.12.1.103 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.reshape

TimedeltaIndex.reshape(*args, **kwargs)
NOT IMPLEMENTED: do not call this method, as reshaping is not supported for Index objects and will
raise an error.
Reshape an Index.

34.12.1.104 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.round

TimedeltaIndex.round(freq, *args, **kwargs)

round the index to the specified freq
Parameters freq : freq string/object
Returns index of same type
Raises ValueError if the freq cannot be converted

34.12.1.105 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.searchsorted

TimedeltaIndex.searchsorted(value, side=’left’, sorter=None)

Find indices where elements should be inserted to maintain order.
Find the indices into a sorted TimedeltaIndex self such that, if the corresponding elements in value were
inserted before the indices, the order of self would be preserved.
Parameters value : array_like
Values to insert into self.
side : {‘left’, ‘right’}, optional
If ‘left’, the index of the first suitable location found is given. If ‘right’, return the
last such index. If there is no suitable index, return either 0 or N (where N is the
length of self ).
sorter : 1-D array_like, optional
Optional array of integer indices that sort self into ascending order. They are
typically the result of np.argsort.
Returns indices : array of ints
Array of insertion points with the same shape as value.
See also:
numpy.searchsorted

Notes

Binary search is used to find the required insertion points.

Examples

34.12. TimedeltaIndex 1853

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

>>> x = pd.Series([1, 2, 3])

>>> x
0 1
1 2
2 3
dtype: int64

>>> x.searchsorted(4)
array([3])

>>> x.searchsorted([0, 4])

array([0, 3])

>>> x.searchsorted([1, 3], side='left')

array([0, 2])

>>> x.searchsorted([1, 3], side='right')

array([1, 3])

>>> x = pd.Categorical(['apple', 'bread', 'bread', 'cheese', 'milk' ])

[apple, bread, bread, cheese, milk]
Categories (4, object): [apple < bread < cheese < milk]

>>> x.searchsorted('bread')
array([1]) # Note: an array, not a scalar

>>> x.searchsorted(['bread'])
array([1])

>>> x.searchsorted(['bread', 'eggs'])

array([1, 4])

>>> x.searchsorted(['bread', 'eggs'], side='right')

array([3, 4]) # eggs before milk

34.12.1.106 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.set_names

TimedeltaIndex.set_names(names, level=None, inplace=False)

Set new names on index. Defaults to returning new index.
Parameters names : str or sequence
name(s) to set
level : int, level name, or sequence of int/level names (default None)
If the index is a MultiIndex (hierarchical), level(s) to set (None for all levels).
Otherwise level must be None
inplace : bool
if True, mutates in place
Returns new index (of same type and class...etc) [if inplace, returns None]

1854 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Examples

>>> Index([1, 2, 3, 4]).set_names('foo')

Int64Index([1, 2, 3, 4], dtype='int64')
>>> Index([1, 2, 3, 4]).set_names(['foo'])
Int64Index([1, 2, 3, 4], dtype='int64')
>>> idx = MultiIndex.from_tuples([(1, u'one'), (1, u'two'),
(2, u'one'), (2, u'two')],
names=['foo', 'bar'])
>>> idx.set_names(['baz', 'quz'])
MultiIndex(levels=[[1, 2], [u'one', u'two']],
labels=[[0, 0, 1, 1], [0, 1, 0, 1]],
names=[u'baz', u'quz'])
>>> idx.set_names('baz', level=0)
MultiIndex(levels=[[1, 2], [u'one', u'two']],
labels=[[0, 0, 1, 1], [0, 1, 0, 1]],
names=[u'baz', u'bar'])

34.12.1.107 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.set_value

TimedeltaIndex.set_value(arr, key, value)

Fast lookup of value from 1-dimensional ndarray. Only use this if you know what you’re doing

34.12.1.108 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.shift

TimedeltaIndex.shift(n, freq=None)
Specialized shift which produces a DatetimeIndex
Parameters n : int
Periods to shift by
freq : DateOffset or timedelta-like, optional
Returns shifted : DatetimeIndex

34.12.1.109 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.slice_indexer

TimedeltaIndex.slice_indexer(start=None, end=None, step=None, kind=None)

For an ordered Index, compute the slice indexer for input labels and step
Parameters start : label, default None
If None, defaults to the beginning
end : label, default None
If None, defaults to the end
step : int, default None
kind : string, default None
Returns indexer : ndarray or slice

34.12. TimedeltaIndex 1855

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Notes

This function assumes that the data is sorted, so use at your own peril

34.12.1.110 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.slice_locs

TimedeltaIndex.slice_locs(start=None, end=None, step=None, kind=None)

Compute slice locations for input labels.
Parameters start : label, default None
If None, defaults to the beginning
end : label, default None
If None, defaults to the end
step : int, defaults None
If None, defaults to 1
kind : {‘ix’, ‘loc’, ‘getitem’} or None
Returns start, end : int
See also:

Index.get_loc Get location for a single label

Notes

This method only works if the index is monotonic or unique.

Examples

>>> idx = pd.Index(list('abcd'))

>>> idx.slice_locs(start='b', end='c')
(1, 3)

34.12.1.111 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.sort

TimedeltaIndex.sort(*args, **kwargs)

34.12.1.112 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.sort_values

TimedeltaIndex.sort_values(return_indexer=False, ascending=True)
Return sorted copy of Index

1856 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

34.12.1.113 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.sortlevel

TimedeltaIndex.sortlevel(level=None, ascending=True, sort_remaining=None)

For internal compatibility with with the Index API
Sort the Index. This is for compat with MultiIndex
Parameters ascending : boolean, default True
False to sort in descending order
level, sort_remaining are compat parameters
Returns sorted_index : Index

34.12.1.114 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.str

TimedeltaIndex.str()
Vectorized string functions for Series and Index. NAs stay NA unless handled otherwise by a particular
method. Patterned after Python’s string methods, with some inspiration from R’s stringr package.

Examples

>>> s.str.split('_')
>>> s.str.replace('_', '')

34.12.1.115 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.summary

TimedeltaIndex.summary(name=None)
return a summarized representation

34.12.1.116 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.symmetric_difference

TimedeltaIndex.symmetric_difference(other, result_name=None)
Compute the symmetric difference of two Index objects. It’s sorted if sorting is possible.
Parameters other : Index or array-like
result_name : str
Returns symmetric_difference : Index

Notes

symmetric_difference contains elements that appear in either idx1 or idx2 but not both. Equiv-
alent to the Index created by idx1.difference(idx2) | idx2.difference(idx1) with du-
plicates dropped.

Examples

34.12. TimedeltaIndex 1857

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

>>> idx1 = Index([1, 2, 3, 4])

>>> idx2 = Index([2, 3, 4, 5])
>>> idx1.symmetric_difference(idx2)
Int64Index([1, 5], dtype='int64')

You can also use the ^ operator:

>>> idx1 ^ idx2

Int64Index([1, 5], dtype='int64')

34.12.1.117 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.take

TimedeltaIndex.take(indices, axis=0, allow_fill=True, fill_value=None, **kwargs)

return a new Index of the values selected by the indices
For internal compatibility with numpy arrays.
Parameters indices : list
Indices to be taken
axis : int, optional
The axis over which to select values, always 0.
allow_fill : bool, default True
fill_value : bool, default None
If allow_fill=True and fill_value is not None, indices specified by -1 is regarded
as NA. If Index doesn’t hold NA, raise ValueError
See also:
numpy.ndarray.take

34.12.1.118 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.to_datetime

TimedeltaIndex.to_datetime(dayfirst=False)
DEPRECATED: use pandas.to_datetime() instead.
For an Index containing strings or datetime.datetime objects, attempt conversion to DatetimeIndex

34.12.1.119 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.to_frame

TimedeltaIndex.to_frame(index=True)
Create a DataFrame with a column containing the Index.
New in version 0.21.0.
Parameters index : boolean, default True
Set the index of the returned DataFrame as the original Index.
Returns DataFrame : a DataFrame containing the original Index data.

1858 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

34.12.1.120 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.to_native_types

TimedeltaIndex.to_native_types(slicer=None, **kwargs)
Format specified values of self and return them.
Parameters slicer : int, array-like
An indexer into self that specifies which values are used in the formatting process.
kwargs : dict
Options for specifying how the values should be formatted. These options include
the following:
1. na_rep [str] The value that serves as a placeholder for NULL values
2. quoting [bool or None] Whether or not there are quoted values in self
3. date_format [str] The format used to represent date-like values

34.12.1.121 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.to_pytimedelta

TimedeltaIndex.to_pytimedelta()
Return TimedeltaIndex as object ndarray of datetime.timedelta objects
Returns datetimes : ndarray

34.12.1.122 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.to_series

TimedeltaIndex.to_series(**kwargs)
Create a Series with both index and values equal to the index keys useful with map for returning an indexer
based on an index
Returns Series : dtype will be based on the type of the Index values.

34.12.1.123 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.tolist

TimedeltaIndex.tolist()
return a list of the underlying data

34.12.1.124 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.total_seconds

TimedeltaIndex.total_seconds()
Total duration of each element expressed in seconds.
New in version 0.17.0.

34.12.1.125 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.transpose

TimedeltaIndex.transpose(*args, **kwargs)
return the transpose, which is by definition self

34.12. TimedeltaIndex 1859

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

34.12.1.126 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.union

TimedeltaIndex.union(other)
Specialized union for TimedeltaIndex objects. If combine overlapping ranges with the same DateOffset,
will be much faster than Index.union
Parameters other : TimedeltaIndex or array-like
Returns y : Index or TimedeltaIndex

34.12.1.127 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.unique

TimedeltaIndex.unique()
Return unique values in the object. Uniques are returned in order of appearance, this does NOT sort. Hash
table-based unique.
Parameters values : 1d array-like
Returns unique values.
• If the input is an Index, the return is an Index
• If the input is a Categorical dtype, the return is a Categorical
• If the input is a Series/ndarray, the return will be an ndarray
See also:
unique, Index.unique, Series.unique

34.12.1.128 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.value_counts

TimedeltaIndex.value_counts(normalize=False, sort=True, ascending=False, bins=None,

dropna=True)
Returns object containing counts of unique values.
The resulting object will be in descending order so that the first element is the most frequently-occurring
element. Excludes NA values by default.
Parameters normalize : boolean, default False
If True then the object returned will contain the relative frequencies of the unique
values.
sort : boolean, default True
Sort by values
ascending : boolean, default False
Sort in ascending order
bins : integer, optional
Rather than count values, group them into half-open bins, a convenience for
pd.cut, only works with numeric data
dropna : boolean, default True
Don’t include counts of NaN.
Returns counts : Series

1860 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

34.12.1.129 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.view

TimedeltaIndex.view(cls=None)

34.12.1.130 pandas.TimedeltaIndex.where

TimedeltaIndex.where(cond, other=None)
New in version 0.19.0.
Return an Index of same shape as self and whose corresponding entries are from self where cond is True
and otherwise are from other.
Parameters cond : boolean array-like with the same length as self
other : scalar, or array-like

34.12.2 Components

TimedeltaIndex.days Number of days for each element.

TimedeltaIndex.seconds Number of seconds (>= 0 and less than 1 day) for each
element.
TimedeltaIndex.microseconds Number of microseconds (>= 0 and less than 1 second) for
each element.
TimedeltaIndex.nanoseconds Number of nanoseconds (>= 0 and less than 1 microsec-
ond) for each element.
TimedeltaIndex.components Return a dataframe of the components (days, hours, min-
utes, seconds, milliseconds, microseconds, nanoseconds)
of the Timedeltas.
TimedeltaIndex.inferred_freq

34.12.3 Conversion

TimedeltaIndex.to_pytimedelta() Return TimedeltaIndex as object ndarray of date-

time.timedelta objects
TimedeltaIndex.to_series(**kwargs) Create a Series with both index and values equal to the in-
dex keys
TimedeltaIndex.round(freq, *args, **kwargs) round the index to the specified freq
TimedeltaIndex.floor(freq) floor the index to the specified freq
TimedeltaIndex.ceil(freq) ceil the index to the specified freq
TimedeltaIndex.to_frame([index]) Create a DataFrame with a column containing the Index.

34.13 PeriodIndex

PeriodIndex Immutable ndarray holding ordinal values indicating reg-

ular periods in time such as particular years, quarters,
months, etc.

34.13. PeriodIndex 1861

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

34.13.1 pandas.PeriodIndex

class pandas.PeriodIndex
Immutable ndarray holding ordinal values indicating regular periods in time such as particular years, quarters,
months, etc.
Index keys are boxed to Period objects which carries the metadata (eg, frequency information).
Parameters data : array-like (1-dimensional), optional
Optional period-like data to construct index with
copy : bool
Make a copy of input ndarray
freq : string or period object, optional
One of pandas period strings or corresponding objects
start : starting value, period-like, optional
If data is None, used as the start point in generating regular period data.
periods : int, optional, > 0
Number of periods to generate, if generating index. Takes precedence over end
argument
end : end value, period-like, optional
If periods is none, generated index will extend to first conforming period on or just
past end argument
year : int, array, or Series, default None
month : int, array, or Series, default None
quarter : int, array, or Series, default None
day : int, array, or Series, default None
hour : int, array, or Series, default None
minute : int, array, or Series, default None
second : int, array, or Series, default None
tz : object, default None
Timezone for converting datetime64 data to Periods
dtype : str or PeriodDtype, default None
See also:

Index The base pandas Index type

Period Represents a period of time
DatetimeIndex Index with datetime64 data
TimedeltaIndex Index of timedelta64 data

1862 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Examples

>>> idx = PeriodIndex(year=year_arr, quarter=q_arr)

>>> idx2 = PeriodIndex(start='2000', end='2010', freq='A')

34.13.2 Attributes

PeriodIndex.day The days of the period

PeriodIndex.dayofweek The day of the week with Monday=0, Sunday=6
PeriodIndex.dayofyear The ordinal day of the year
PeriodIndex.days_in_month The number of days in the month
PeriodIndex.daysinmonth The number of days in the month
PeriodIndex.end_time
PeriodIndex.freq
PeriodIndex.freqstr Return the frequency object as a string if its set, otherwise
None
PeriodIndex.hour The hour of the period
PeriodIndex.is_leap_year Logical indicating if the date belongs to a leap year
PeriodIndex.minute The minute of the period
PeriodIndex.month The month as January=1, December=12
PeriodIndex.quarter The quarter of the date
PeriodIndex.qyear
PeriodIndex.second The second of the period
PeriodIndex.start_time
PeriodIndex.week The week ordinal of the year
PeriodIndex.weekday The day of the week with Monday=0, Sunday=6
PeriodIndex.weekofyear The week ordinal of the year
PeriodIndex.year The year of the period

34.13.2.1 pandas.PeriodIndex.day

PeriodIndex.day
The days of the period

34.13.2.2 pandas.PeriodIndex.dayofweek

PeriodIndex.dayofweek
The day of the week with Monday=0, Sunday=6

34.13.2.3 pandas.PeriodIndex.dayofyear

PeriodIndex.dayofyear
The ordinal day of the year

34.13. PeriodIndex 1863

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

34.13.2.4 pandas.PeriodIndex.days_in_month

PeriodIndex.days_in_month
The number of days in the month

34.13.2.5 pandas.PeriodIndex.daysinmonth

PeriodIndex.daysinmonth
The number of days in the month

34.13.2.6 pandas.PeriodIndex.end_time

PeriodIndex.end_time

34.13.2.7 pandas.PeriodIndex.freq

PeriodIndex.freq = None

34.13.2.8 pandas.PeriodIndex.freqstr

PeriodIndex.freqstr
Return the frequency object as a string if its set, otherwise None

34.13.2.9 pandas.PeriodIndex.hour

PeriodIndex.hour
The hour of the period

34.13.2.10 pandas.PeriodIndex.is_leap_year

PeriodIndex.is_leap_year
Logical indicating if the date belongs to a leap year

34.13.2.11 pandas.PeriodIndex.minute

PeriodIndex.minute
The minute of the period

34.13.2.12 pandas.PeriodIndex.month

PeriodIndex.month
The month as January=1, December=12

34.13.2.13 pandas.PeriodIndex.quarter

PeriodIndex.quarter
The quarter of the date

1864 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

34.13.2.14 pandas.PeriodIndex.qyear

PeriodIndex.qyear

34.13.2.15 pandas.PeriodIndex.second

PeriodIndex.second
The second of the period

34.13.2.16 pandas.PeriodIndex.start_time

PeriodIndex.start_time

34.13.2.17 pandas.PeriodIndex.week

PeriodIndex.week
The week ordinal of the year

34.13.2.18 pandas.PeriodIndex.weekday

PeriodIndex.weekday
The day of the week with Monday=0, Sunday=6

34.13.2.19 pandas.PeriodIndex.weekofyear

PeriodIndex.weekofyear
The week ordinal of the year

34.13.2.20 pandas.PeriodIndex.year

PeriodIndex.year
The year of the period

34.13.3 Methods

PeriodIndex.asfreq([freq, how]) Convert the PeriodIndex to the specified frequency freq.

PeriodIndex.strftime(date_format) Return an array of formatted strings specified by
date_format, which supports the same string format as the
python standard library.
PeriodIndex.to_timestamp([freq, how]) Cast to DatetimeIndex
PeriodIndex.tz_convert(tz) Convert tz-aware DatetimeIndex from one time zone to an-
other (using
PeriodIndex.tz_localize(tz[, infer_dst]) Localize tz-naive DatetimeIndex to given time zone (using

34.13. PeriodIndex 1865

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

34.13.3.1 pandas.PeriodIndex.asfreq

PeriodIndex.asfreq(freq=None, how=’E’)
Convert the PeriodIndex to the specified frequency freq.
Parameters freq : str
a frequency
how : str {‘E’, ‘S’}
‘E’, ‘END’, or ‘FINISH’ for end, ‘S’, ‘START’, or ‘BEGIN’ for start. Whether the
elements should be aligned to the end or start within pa period. January 31st (‘END’)
vs. Janury 1st (‘START’) for example.
Returns new : PeriodIndex with the new frequency

Examples

>>> pidx = pd.period_range('2010-01-01', '2015-01-01', freq='A')

>>> pidx
<class 'pandas.core.indexes.period.PeriodIndex'>
[2010, ..., 2015]
Length: 6, Freq: A-DEC

>>> pidx.asfreq('M')
<class 'pandas.core.indexes.period.PeriodIndex'>
[2010-12, ..., 2015-12]
Length: 6, Freq: M

>>> pidx.asfreq('M', how='S')

<class 'pandas.core.indexes.period.PeriodIndex'>
[2010-01, ..., 2015-01]
Length: 6, Freq: M

34.13.3.2 pandas.PeriodIndex.strftime

PeriodIndex.strftime(date_format)
Return an array of formatted strings specified by date_format, which supports the same string format as the
python standard library. Details of the string format can be found in python string format doc
New in version 0.17.0.
Parameters date_format : str
date format string (e.g. “%Y-%m-%d”)
Returns ndarray of formatted strings

34.13.3.3 pandas.PeriodIndex.to_timestamp

PeriodIndex.to_timestamp(freq=None, how=’start’)
Cast to DatetimeIndex
Parameters freq : string or DateOffset, default ‘D’ for week or longer, ‘S’

1866 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

otherwise
Target frequency
how : {‘s’, ‘e’, ‘start’, ‘end’}
Returns DatetimeIndex

34.13.3.4 pandas.PeriodIndex.tz_convert

PeriodIndex.tz_convert(tz)
Convert tz-aware DatetimeIndex from one time zone to another (using pytz/dateutil)
Parameters tz : string, pytz.timezone, dateutil.tz.tzfile or None
Time zone for time. Corresponding timestamps would be converted to time zone of
the TimeSeries. None will remove timezone holding UTC time.
Returns normalized : DatetimeIndex

34.13.3.5 pandas.PeriodIndex.tz_localize

PeriodIndex.tz_localize(tz, infer_dst=False)
Localize tz-naive DatetimeIndex to given time zone (using pytz/dateutil), or remove timezone from tz-aware
DatetimeIndex
Parameters tz : string, pytz.timezone, dateutil.tz.tzfile or None
Time zone for time. Corresponding timestamps would be converted to time zone of
the TimeSeries. None will remove timezone holding local time.
infer_dst : boolean, default False
Attempt to infer fall dst-transition hours based on order
Returns localized : DatetimeIndex

34.14 Scalars

34.14.1 Period

Period Represents a period of time

34.14.1.1 pandas.Period

class pandas.Period
Represents a period of time
Parameters value : Period or compat.string_types, default None
The time period represented (e.g., ‘4Q2005’)
freq : str, default None
One of pandas period strings or corresponding objects
year : int, default None

34.14. Scalars 1867

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

month : int, default 1

quarter : int, default None
day : int, default 1
hour : int, default 0
minute : int, default 0
second : int, default 0

Attributes

day
dayofweek
dayofyear
days_in_month
daysinmonth
end_time
freq
freqstr
hour
is_leap_year
minute
month
ordinal
quarter
qyear
second
start_time
week
weekday
weekofyear
year

pandas.Period.day

Period.day

pandas.Period.dayofweek

Period.dayofweek

pandas.Period.dayofyear

Period.dayofyear

1868 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

pandas.Period.days_in_month

Period.days_in_month

pandas.Period.daysinmonth

Period.daysinmonth

pandas.Period.end_time

Period.end_time

pandas.Period.freq

Period.freq

pandas.Period.freqstr

Period.freqstr

pandas.Period.hour

Period.hour

pandas.Period.is_leap_year

Period.is_leap_year

pandas.Period.minute

Period.minute

pandas.Period.month

Period.month

pandas.Period.ordinal

Period.ordinal

pandas.Period.quarter

Period.quarter

34.14. Scalars 1869

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

pandas.Period.qyear

Period.qyear

pandas.Period.second

Period.second

pandas.Period.start_time

Period.start_time

pandas.Period.week

Period.week

pandas.Period.weekday

Period.weekday

pandas.Period.weekofyear

Period.weekofyear

pandas.Period.year

Period.year

Methods

asfreq Convert Period to desired frequency, either at the start

or end of the
now
strftime Returns the string representation of the Period, de-
pending on the selected format.
to_timestamp Return the Timestamp representation of the Period at the
target

pandas.Period.asfreq

Period.asfreq()
Convert Period to desired frequency, either at the start or end of the interval
Parameters freq : string
how : {‘E’, ‘S’, ‘end’, ‘start’}, default ‘end’

1870 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Start or end of the timespan

Returns resampled : Period

pandas.Period.now

Period.now()

pandas.Period.strftime

Period.strftime()
Returns the string representation of the Period, depending on the selected format. format must be
a string containing one or several directives. The method recognizes the same directives as the time.
strftime() function of the standard Python distribution, as well as the specific additional directives
%f, %F, %q. (formatting & docs originally from scikits.timeries)
Di- Meaning Notes
rec-
tive
%a Locale’s abbreviated weekday name.
%A Locale’s full weekday name.
%b Locale’s abbreviated month name.
%B Locale’s full month name.
%c Locale’s appropriate date and time representation.
%d Day of the month as a decimal number [01,31].
%f ‘Fiscal’ year without a century as a decimal number [00,99] (1)
%F ‘Fiscal’ year with a century as a decimal number (2)
%H Hour (24-hour clock) as a decimal number [00,23].
%I Hour (12-hour clock) as a decimal number [01,12].
%j Day of the year as a decimal number [001,366].
%m Month as a decimal number [01,12].
%M Minute as a decimal number [00,59].
%p Locale’s equivalent of either AM or PM. (3)
%q Quarter as a decimal number [01,04]
%S Second as a decimal number [00,61]. (4)
%U Week number of the year (Sunday as the first day of the week) as a decimal number (5)
[00,53]. All days in a new year preceding the first Sunday are considered to be in week
0.
%w Weekday as a decimal number [0(Sunday),6].
%W Week number of the year (Monday as the first day of the week) as a decimal number (5)
[00,53]. All days in a new year preceding the first Monday are considered to be in
week 0.
%x Locale’s appropriate date representation.
%X Locale’s appropriate time representation.
%y Year without century as a decimal number [00,99].
%Y Year with century as a decimal number.
%Z Time zone name (no characters if no time zone exists).
%% A literal '%' character.

34.14. Scalars 1871

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Notes

1. The %f directive is the same as %y if the frequency is not quarterly. Otherwise, it corresponds to the
‘fiscal’ year, as defined by the qyear attribute.
2. The %F directive is the same as %Y if the frequency is not quarterly. Otherwise, it corresponds to the
‘fiscal’ year, as defined by the qyear attribute.
3. The %p directive only affects the output hour field if the %I directive is used to parse the hour.
4. The range really is 0 to 61; this accounts for leap seconds and the (very rare) double leap seconds.
5. The %U and %W directives are only used in calculations when the day of the week and the year are
specified.

Examples

>>> a = Period(freq='Q@JUL', year=2006, quarter=1)

>>> a.strftime('%F-Q%q')
'2006-Q1'
>>> # Output the last month in the quarter of this date
>>> a.strftime('%b-%Y')
'Oct-2005'
>>>
>>> a = Period(freq='D', year=2001, month=1, day=1)
>>> a.strftime('%d-%b-%Y')
'01-Jan-2006'
>>> a.strftime('%b. %d, %Y was a %A')
'Jan. 01, 2001 was a Monday'

pandas.Period.to_timestamp

Period.to_timestamp()
Return the Timestamp representation of the Period at the target frequency at the specified end (how) of
the Period
Parameters freq : string or DateOffset
Target frequency. Default is ‘D’ if self.freq is week or longer and ‘S’ otherwise
how: str, default ‘S’ (start)
‘S’, ‘E’. Can be aliased as case insensitive ‘Start’, ‘Finish’, ‘Begin’, ‘End’
Returns Timestamp

34.14.2 Attributes

Period.day
Period.dayofweek
Period.dayofyear
Period.days_in_month
Period.daysinmonth
Continued on next page

1872 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Table 34.126 – continued from previous page

Period.end_time
Period.freq
Period.freqstr
Period.hour
Period.is_leap_year
Period.minute
Period.month
Period.ordinal
Period.quarter
Period.qyear
Period.second
Period.start_time
Period.week
Period.weekday
Period.weekofyear
Period.year

34.14.3 Methods

Period.asfreq Convert Period to desired frequency, either at the start or

end of the
Period.now
Period.strftime Returns the string representation of the Period, depend-
ing on the selected format.
Period.to_timestamp Return the Timestamp representation of the Period at the
target

34.14.4 Timestamp

Timestamp TimeStamp is the pandas equivalent of python’s Datetime

and is interchangable with it in most cases.

34.14.4.1 pandas.Timestamp

class pandas.Timestamp
TimeStamp is the pandas equivalent of python’s Datetime and is interchangable with it in most cases. It’s the
type used for the entries that make up a DatetimeIndex, and other timeseries oriented data structures in pandas.
There are essentially three calling conventions for the constructor. The primary form accepts four parameters.
They can be passed by position or keyword.
Parameters ts_input : datetime-like, str, int, float
Value to be converted to Timestamp
freq : str, DateOffset
Offset which Timestamp will have
tz : string, pytz.timezone, dateutil.tz.tzfile or None
Time zone for time which Timestamp will have.

34.14. Scalars 1873

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

unit : string
numpy unit used for conversion, if ts_input is int or float
offset : str, DateOffset
Deprecated, use freq
The other two forms mimic the parameters from ‘‘datetime.datetime‘‘. They
can be passed by either position or keyword, but not both mixed together.

Attributes

asm8
day
dayofweek
dayofyear
days_in_month
daysinmonth
fold
freq
freqstr
hour
is_leap_year
is_month_end
is_month_start
is_quarter_end
is_quarter_start
is_year_end
is_year_start
microsecond
minute
month
nanosecond
offset
quarter
second
tz Alias for tzinfo
tzinfo
value
week
weekday_name
weekofyear
year

pandas.Timestamp.asm8

Timestamp.asm8

1874 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

pandas.Timestamp.day

Timestamp.day

pandas.Timestamp.dayofweek

Timestamp.dayofweek

pandas.Timestamp.dayofyear

Timestamp.dayofyear

pandas.Timestamp.days_in_month

Timestamp.days_in_month

pandas.Timestamp.daysinmonth

Timestamp.daysinmonth

pandas.Timestamp.fold

Timestamp.fold

pandas.Timestamp.freq

Timestamp.freq

pandas.Timestamp.freqstr

Timestamp.freqstr

pandas.Timestamp.hour

Timestamp.hour

pandas.Timestamp.is_leap_year

Timestamp.is_leap_year

pandas.Timestamp.is_month_end

Timestamp.is_month_end

34.14. Scalars 1875

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

pandas.Timestamp.is_month_start

Timestamp.is_month_start

pandas.Timestamp.is_quarter_end

Timestamp.is_quarter_end

pandas.Timestamp.is_quarter_start

Timestamp.is_quarter_start

pandas.Timestamp.is_year_end

Timestamp.is_year_end

pandas.Timestamp.is_year_start

Timestamp.is_year_start

pandas.Timestamp.microsecond

Timestamp.microsecond

pandas.Timestamp.minute

Timestamp.minute

pandas.Timestamp.month

Timestamp.month

pandas.Timestamp.nanosecond

Timestamp.nanosecond

pandas.Timestamp.offset

Timestamp.offset

pandas.Timestamp.quarter

Timestamp.quarter

1876 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

pandas.Timestamp.second

Timestamp.second

pandas.Timestamp.tz

Timestamp.tz
Alias for tzinfo

pandas.Timestamp.tzinfo

Timestamp.tzinfo

pandas.Timestamp.value

Timestamp.value

pandas.Timestamp.week

Timestamp.week

pandas.Timestamp.weekday_name

Timestamp.weekday_name

pandas.Timestamp.weekofyear

Timestamp.weekofyear

pandas.Timestamp.year

Timestamp.year

Methods

astimezone Convert tz-aware Timestamp to another time zone.

ceil return a new Timestamp ceiled to this resolution
combine
ctime Return ctime() style string.
date Return date object with same year, month and day.
dst Return self.tzinfo.dst(self).
floor return a new Timestamp floored to this resolution
fromordinal passed an ordinal, translate and convert to a ts
fromtimestamp
Continued on next page

34.14. Scalars 1877

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Table 34.130 – continued from previous page

isocalendar Return a 3-tuple containing ISO year, week number, and
weekday.
isoformat
isoweekday Return the day of the week represented by the date.
normalize Normalize Timestamp to midnight, preserving tz infor-
mation.
now Return the current time in the local timezone.
replace implements datetime.replace, handles nanoseconds
round Round the Timestamp to the specified resolution
strftime format -> strftime() style string.
strptime string, format -> new datetime parsed from a string (like
time.strptime()).
time Return time object with same time but with tz-
info=None.
timestamp Return POSIX timestamp as float.
timetuple Return time tuple, compatible with time.localtime().
timetz Return time object with same time and tzinfo.
to_datetime DEPRECATED: use to_pydatetime() instead.
to_datetime64 Returns a numpy.datetime64 object with ‘ns’ precision
to_julian_date Convert TimeStamp to a Julian Date.
to_period Return an period of which this timestamp is an observa-
tion.
to_pydatetime Convert a Timestamp object to a native Python datetime
object.
today Return the current time in the local timezone.
toordinal Return proleptic Gregorian ordinal.
tz_convert Convert tz-aware Timestamp to another time zone.
tz_localize Convert naive Timestamp to local time zone, or remove
timezone from tz-aware Timestamp.
tzname Return self.tzinfo.tzname(self).
utcfromtimestamp
utcnow
utcoffset Return self.tzinfo.utcoffset(self).
utctimetuple Return UTC time tuple, compatible with
time.localtime().
weekday Return the day of the week represented by the date.

pandas.Timestamp.astimezone

Timestamp.astimezone()
Convert tz-aware Timestamp to another time zone.
Parameters tz : string, pytz.timezone, dateutil.tz.tzfile or None
Time zone for time which Timestamp will be converted to. None will remove
timezone holding UTC time.
Returns converted : Timestamp
Raises TypeError
If Timestamp is tz-naive.

1878 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

pandas.Timestamp.ceil

Timestamp.ceil()
return a new Timestamp ceiled to this resolution
Parameters freq : a freq string indicating the ceiling resolution

pandas.Timestamp.combine

classmethod Timestamp.combine()

pandas.Timestamp.ctime

Timestamp.ctime()
Return ctime() style string.

pandas.Timestamp.date

Timestamp.date()
Return date object with same year, month and day.

pandas.Timestamp.dst

Timestamp.dst()
Return self.tzinfo.dst(self).

pandas.Timestamp.floor

Timestamp.floor()
return a new Timestamp floored to this resolution
Parameters freq : a freq string indicating the flooring resolution

pandas.Timestamp.fromordinal

classmethod Timestamp.fromordinal()
passed an ordinal, translate and convert to a ts note: by definition there cannot be any tz info on the ordinal
itself
Parameters ordinal : int
date corresponding to a proleptic Gregorian ordinal
freq : str, DateOffset
Offset which Timestamp will have
tz : string, pytz.timezone, dateutil.tz.tzfile or None
Time zone for time which Timestamp will have.
offset : str, DateOffset

34.14. Scalars 1879

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Deprecated, use freq

pandas.Timestamp.fromtimestamp

classmethod Timestamp.fromtimestamp()

pandas.Timestamp.isocalendar

Timestamp.isocalendar()
Return a 3-tuple containing ISO year, week number, and weekday.

pandas.Timestamp.isoformat

Timestamp.isoformat()

pandas.Timestamp.isoweekday

Timestamp.isoweekday()
Return the day of the week represented by the date. Monday == 1 ... Sunday == 7

pandas.Timestamp.normalize

Timestamp.normalize()
Normalize Timestamp to midnight, preserving tz information.

pandas.Timestamp.now

classmethod Timestamp.now()
Return the current time in the local timezone. Equivalent to datetime.now([tz])
Parameters tz : string / timezone object, default None
Timezone to localize to

pandas.Timestamp.replace

Timestamp.replace()
implements datetime.replace, handles nanoseconds
Parameters year : int, optional
month : int, optional
day : int, optional
hour : int, optional
minute : int, optional
second : int, optional
microsecond : int, optional

1880 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

nanosecond: int, optional

tzinfo : tz-convertible, optional
fold : int, optional, default is 0
added in 3.6, NotImplemented
Returns Timestamp with fields replaced

pandas.Timestamp.round

Timestamp.round()
Round the Timestamp to the specified resolution
Parameters freq : a freq string indicating the rounding resolution
Returns a new Timestamp rounded to the given resolution of freq
Raises ValueError if the freq cannot be converted

pandas.Timestamp.strftime

Timestamp.strftime()
format -> strftime() style string.

pandas.Timestamp.strptime

Timestamp.strptime()
string, format -> new datetime parsed from a string (like time.strptime()).

pandas.Timestamp.time

Timestamp.time()
Return time object with same time but with tzinfo=None.

pandas.Timestamp.timestamp

Timestamp.timestamp()
Return POSIX timestamp as float.

pandas.Timestamp.timetuple

Timestamp.timetuple()
Return time tuple, compatible with time.localtime().

pandas.Timestamp.timetz

Timestamp.timetz()
Return time object with same time and tzinfo.

34.14. Scalars 1881

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

pandas.Timestamp.to_datetime

Timestamp.to_datetime()
DEPRECATED: use to_pydatetime() instead.
Convert a Timestamp object to a native Python datetime object.

pandas.Timestamp.to_datetime64

Timestamp.to_datetime64()
Returns a numpy.datetime64 object with ‘ns’ precision

pandas.Timestamp.to_julian_date

Timestamp.to_julian_date()
Convert TimeStamp to a Julian Date. 0 Julian date is noon January 1, 4713 BC.

pandas.Timestamp.to_period

Timestamp.to_period()
Return an period of which this timestamp is an observation.

pandas.Timestamp.to_pydatetime

Timestamp.to_pydatetime()
Convert a Timestamp object to a native Python datetime object.
If warn=True, issue a warning if nanoseconds is nonzero.

pandas.Timestamp.today

classmethod Timestamp.today()
Return the current time in the local timezone. This differs from datetime.today() in that it can be localized
to a passed timezone.
Parameters tz : string / timezone object, default None
Timezone to localize to

pandas.Timestamp.toordinal

Timestamp.toordinal()
Return proleptic Gregorian ordinal. January 1 of year 1 is day 1.

pandas.Timestamp.tz_convert

Timestamp.tz_convert()
Convert tz-aware Timestamp to another time zone.

1882 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Parameters tz : string, pytz.timezone, dateutil.tz.tzfile or None

Time zone for time which Timestamp will be converted to. None will remove
timezone holding UTC time.
Returns converted : Timestamp
Raises TypeError
If Timestamp is tz-naive.

pandas.Timestamp.tz_localize

Timestamp.tz_localize()
Convert naive Timestamp to local time zone, or remove timezone from tz-aware Timestamp.
Parameters tz : string, pytz.timezone, dateutil.tz.tzfile or None
Time zone for time which Timestamp will be converted to. None will remove
timezone holding local time.
ambiguous : bool, ‘NaT’, default ‘raise’
• bool contains flags to determine if time is dst or not (note
that this flag is only applicable for ambiguous fall dst dates) - ‘NaT’ will return
NaT for an ambiguous time - ‘raise’ will raise an AmbiguousTimeError for an
ambiguous time
errors : ‘raise’, ‘coerce’, default ‘raise’
• ‘raise’ will raise a NonExistentTimeError if a timestamp is not valid in the spec-
ified timezone (e.g. due to a transition from or to DST time)
• ‘coerce’ will return NaT if the timestamp can not be converted into the specified
timezone
New in version 0.19.0.
Returns localized : Timestamp
Raises TypeError
If the Timestamp is tz-aware and tz is not None.

pandas.Timestamp.tzname

Timestamp.tzname()
Return self.tzinfo.tzname(self).

pandas.Timestamp.utcfromtimestamp

classmethod Timestamp.utcfromtimestamp()

pandas.Timestamp.utcnow

classmethod Timestamp.utcnow()

34.14. Scalars 1883

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

pandas.Timestamp.utcoffset

Timestamp.utcoffset()
Return self.tzinfo.utcoffset(self).

pandas.Timestamp.utctimetuple

Timestamp.utctimetuple()
Return UTC time tuple, compatible with time.localtime().

pandas.Timestamp.weekday

Timestamp.weekday()
Return the day of the week represented by the date. Monday == 0 ... Sunday == 6

34.14.5 Properties

Timestamp.asm8
Timestamp.day
Timestamp.dayofweek
Timestamp.dayofyear
Timestamp.days_in_month
Timestamp.daysinmonth
Timestamp.hour
Timestamp.is_leap_year
Timestamp.is_month_end
Timestamp.is_month_start
Timestamp.is_quarter_end
Timestamp.is_quarter_start
Timestamp.is_year_end
Timestamp.is_year_start
Timestamp.max
Timestamp.microsecond
Timestamp.min
Timestamp.month
Timestamp.nanosecond
Timestamp.quarter
Timestamp.resolution
Timestamp.second
Timestamp.tz Alias for tzinfo
Timestamp.tzinfo
Timestamp.value
Timestamp.weekday_name
Timestamp.weekofyear
Timestamp.year

1884 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

34.14.5.1 pandas.Timestamp.max

Timestamp.max = Timestamp(‘2262-04-11 23:47:16.854775807’)

34.14.5.2 pandas.Timestamp.min

Timestamp.min = Timestamp(‘1677-09-21 00:12:43.145225’)

34.14.5.3 pandas.Timestamp.resolution

Timestamp.resolution = datetime.timedelta(0, 0, 1)

34.14.6 Methods

Timestamp.astimezone Convert tz-aware Timestamp to another time zone.

Timestamp.ceil return a new Timestamp ceiled to this resolution
Timestamp.combine
Timestamp.ctime Return ctime() style string.
Timestamp.date Return date object with same year, month and day.
Timestamp.dst Return self.tzinfo.dst(self).
Timestamp.floor return a new Timestamp floored to this resolution
Timestamp.freq
Timestamp.freqstr
Timestamp.fromordinal passed an ordinal, translate and convert to a ts
Timestamp.fromtimestamp
Timestamp.isocalendar Return a 3-tuple containing ISO year, week number, and
weekday.
Timestamp.isoformat
Timestamp.isoweekday Return the day of the week represented by the date.
Timestamp.normalize Normalize Timestamp to midnight, preserving tz informa-
tion.
Timestamp.now Return the current time in the local timezone.
Timestamp.replace implements datetime.replace, handles nanoseconds
Timestamp.round Round the Timestamp to the specified resolution
Timestamp.strftime format -> strftime() style string.
Timestamp.strptime string, format -> new datetime parsed from a string (like
time.strptime()).
Timestamp.time Return time object with same time but with tzinfo=None.
Timestamp.timetuple Return time tuple, compatible with time.localtime().
Timestamp.timetz Return time object with same time and tzinfo.
Timestamp.to_datetime64 Returns a numpy.datetime64 object with ‘ns’ precision
Timestamp.to_julian_date Convert TimeStamp to a Julian Date.
Timestamp.to_period Return an period of which this timestamp is an observation.
Timestamp.to_pydatetime Convert a Timestamp object to a native Python datetime
object.
Timestamp.today Return the current time in the local timezone.
Timestamp.toordinal Return proleptic Gregorian ordinal.
Timestamp.tz_convert Convert tz-aware Timestamp to another time zone.
Continued on next page

34.14. Scalars 1885

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Table 34.132 – continued from previous page

Timestamp.tz_localize Convert naive Timestamp to local time zone, or remove
timezone from tz-aware Timestamp.
Timestamp.tzname Return self.tzinfo.tzname(self).
Timestamp.utcfromtimestamp
Timestamp.utcnow
Timestamp.utcoffset Return self.tzinfo.utcoffset(self).
Timestamp.utctimetuple Return UTC time tuple, compatible with time.localtime().
Timestamp.weekday Return the day of the week represented by the date.

34.14.7 Interval

Interval Immutable object implementing an Interval, a bounded

slice-like interval.

34.14.7.1 pandas.Interval

class pandas.Interval
Immutable object implementing an Interval, a bounded slice-like interval.
New in version 0.20.0.
Parameters left : value
Left bound for interval.
right : value
Right bound for interval.
closed : {‘left’, ‘right’, ‘both’, ‘neither’}
Whether the interval is closed on the left-side, right-side, both or neither. Defaults
to ‘right’.
See also:

IntervalIndex an Index of interval s that are all closed on the same side.

cut, qcut

Examples

>>> iv = pd.Interval(left=0, right=5)

>>> iv
Interval(0, 5, closed='right')
>>> 2.5 in iv
True

>>> year_2017 = pd.Interval(pd.Timestamp('2017-01-01'),

... pd.Timestamp('2017-12-31'), closed='both')
>>> pd.Timestamp('2017-01-01 00:00') in year_2017
True

1886 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Attributes

closed
closed_left
closed_right
left
mid
open_left
open_right
right

pandas.Interval.closed

Interval.closed

pandas.Interval.closed_left

Interval.closed_left

pandas.Interval.closed_right

Interval.closed_right

pandas.Interval.left

Interval.left

pandas.Interval.mid

Interval.mid

pandas.Interval.open_left

Interval.open_left

pandas.Interval.open_right

Interval.open_right

pandas.Interval.right

Interval.right

34.14. Scalars 1887

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

34.14.8 Properties

1888 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Interval.closed
Interval.closed_left
Interval.closed_right
Interval.left
Interval.mid
Interval.open_left
Interval.open_right
Interval.right

34.14.9 Timedelta

Timedelta Represents a duration, the difference between two dates or

times.

34.14.9.1 pandas.Timedelta

class pandas.Timedelta
Represents a duration, the difference between two dates or times.
Timedelta is the pandas equivalent of python’s datetime.timedelta and is interchangable with it in most
cases.
Parameters value : Timedelta, timedelta, np.timedelta64, string, or integer
unit : string, [D,h,m,s,ms,us,ns]
Denote the unit of the input, if input is an integer. Default ‘ns’.
days, seconds, microseconds,
milliseconds, minutes, hours, weeks : numeric, optional
Values for construction in compat with datetime.timedelta. np ints and floats will be
coereced to python ints and floats.

Notes

The .value attribute is always in ns.

Attributes

asm8 return a numpy timedelta64 array view of myself

components Return a Components NamedTuple-like
days Number of Days
delta return out delta in ns (for internal compat)
freq
is_populated
microseconds Number of microseconds (>= 0 and less than 1 second).
nanoseconds Number of nanoseconds (>= 0 and less than 1 microsec-
ond).
Continued on next page

34.14. Scalars 1889

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Table 34.137 – continued from previous page

resolution return a string representing the lowest resolution that we
have
seconds Number of seconds (>= 0 and less than 1 day).
value

pandas.Timedelta.asm8

Timedelta.asm8
return a numpy timedelta64 array view of myself

pandas.Timedelta.components

Timedelta.components
Return a Components NamedTuple-like

pandas.Timedelta.days

Timedelta.days
Number of Days
.components will return the shown components

pandas.Timedelta.delta

Timedelta.delta
return out delta in ns (for internal compat)

pandas.Timedelta.freq

Timedelta.freq

pandas.Timedelta.is_populated

Timedelta.is_populated

pandas.Timedelta.microseconds

Timedelta.microseconds
Number of microseconds (>= 0 and less than 1 second).
.components will return the shown components

1890 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

pandas.Timedelta.nanoseconds

Timedelta.nanoseconds
Number of nanoseconds (>= 0 and less than 1 microsecond).
.components will return the shown components

pandas.Timedelta.resolution

Timedelta.resolution
return a string representing the lowest resolution that we have

pandas.Timedelta.seconds

Timedelta.seconds
Number of seconds (>= 0 and less than 1 day).
.components will return the shown components

pandas.Timedelta.value

Timedelta.value

Methods

ceil return a new Timedelta ceiled to this resolution

floor return a new Timedelta floored to this resolution
isoformat Format Timedelta as ISO 8601 Duration like
P[n]Y[n]M[n]DT[n]H[n]M[n]S, where the ‘[n]‘s
are replaced by the values.
round Round the Timedelta to the specified resolution
to_pytimedelta return an actual datetime.timedelta object
to_timedelta64 Returns a numpy.timedelta64 object with ‘ns’ precision
total_seconds Total duration of timedelta in seconds (to ns precision)
view array view compat

pandas.Timedelta.ceil

Timedelta.ceil()
return a new Timedelta ceiled to this resolution
Parameters freq : a freq string indicating the ceiling resolution

pandas.Timedelta.floor

Timedelta.floor()
return a new Timedelta floored to this resolution
Parameters freq : a freq string indicating the flooring resolution

34.14. Scalars 1891

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

pandas.Timedelta.isoformat

Timedelta.isoformat()
Format Timedelta as ISO 8601 Duration like P[n]Y[n]M[n]DT[n]H[n]M[n]S, where the ‘[n]‘s are re-
placed by the values. See https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO_8601#Durations
New in version 0.20.0.
Returns formatted : str
See also:
Timestamp.isoformat

Notes

The longest component is days, whose value may be larger than 365. Every component is always included,
even if its value is 0. Pandas uses nanosecond precision, so up to 9 decimal places may be included in the
seconds component. Trailing 0’s are removed from the seconds component after the decimal. We do not
0 pad components, so it’s ...T5H..., not ...T05H...

Examples

>>> td = pd.Timedelta(days=6, minutes=50, seconds=3,

... milliseconds=10, microseconds=10, nanoseconds=12)
>>> td.isoformat()
'P6DT0H50M3.010010012S'
>>> pd.Timedelta(hours=1, seconds=10).isoformat()
'P0DT0H0M10S'
>>> pd.Timedelta(hours=1, seconds=10).isoformat()
'P0DT0H0M10S'
>>> pd.Timedelta(days=500.5).isoformat()
'P500DT12H0MS'

pandas.Timedelta.round

Timedelta.round()
Round the Timedelta to the specified resolution
Parameters freq : a freq string indicating the rounding resolution
Returns a new Timedelta rounded to the given resolution of freq
Raises ValueError if the freq cannot be converted

pandas.Timedelta.to_pytimedelta

Timedelta.to_pytimedelta()
return an actual datetime.timedelta object note: we lose nanosecond resolution if any

1892 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

pandas.Timedelta.to_timedelta64

Timedelta.to_timedelta64()
Returns a numpy.timedelta64 object with ‘ns’ precision

pandas.Timedelta.total_seconds

Timedelta.total_seconds()
Total duration of timedelta in seconds (to ns precision)

pandas.Timedelta.view

Timedelta.view()
array view compat

34.14.10 Properties

Timedelta.asm8 return a numpy timedelta64 array view of myself

Timedelta.components Return a Components NamedTuple-like
Timedelta.days Number of Days
Timedelta.freq
Timedelta.max
Timedelta.microseconds Number of microseconds (>= 0 and less than 1 second).
Timedelta.min
Timedelta.nanoseconds Number of nanoseconds (>= 0 and less than 1 microsec-
ond).
Timedelta.resolution return a string representing the lowest resolution that we
have
Timedelta.seconds Number of seconds (>= 0 and less than 1 day).
Timedelta.value

34.14.11 Methods

Timedelta.ceil return a new Timedelta ceiled to this resolution

Timedelta.floor return a new Timedelta floored to this resolution
Timedelta.isoformat Format Timedelta as ISO 8601 Duration like
P[n]Y[n]M[n]DT[n]H[n]M[n]S, where the ‘[n]‘s are
replaced by the values.
Timedelta.round Round the Timedelta to the specified resolution
Timedelta.to_pytimedelta return an actual datetime.timedelta object
Timedelta.to_timedelta64 Returns a numpy.timedelta64 object with ‘ns’ precision
Timedelta.total_seconds Total duration of timedelta in seconds (to ns precision)

34.14. Scalars 1893

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

34.15 Window

Rolling objects are returned by .rolling calls: pandas.DataFrame.rolling(), pandas.Series.

rolling(), etc. Expanding objects are returned by .expanding calls: pandas.DataFrame.expanding(),
pandas.Series.expanding(), etc. EWM objects are returned by .ewm calls: pandas.DataFrame.
ewm(), pandas.Series.ewm(), etc.

34.15.1 Standard moving window functions

Rolling.count() rolling count of number of non-NaN

Rolling.sum(*args, **kwargs) rolling sum
Rolling.mean(*args, **kwargs) rolling mean
Rolling.median(**kwargs) rolling median
Rolling.var([ddof]) rolling variance
Rolling.std([ddof]) rolling standard deviation
Rolling.min(*args, **kwargs) rolling minimum
Rolling.max(*args, **kwargs) rolling maximum
Rolling.corr([other, pairwise]) rolling sample correlation
Rolling.cov([other, pairwise, ddof]) rolling sample covariance
Rolling.skew(**kwargs) Unbiased rolling skewness
Rolling.kurt(**kwargs) Unbiased rolling kurtosis
Rolling.apply(func[, args, kwargs]) rolling function apply
Rolling.quantile(quantile, **kwargs) rolling quantile
Window.mean(*args, **kwargs) window mean
Window.sum(*args, **kwargs) window sum

34.15.1.1 pandas.core.window.Rolling.count

Rolling.count()
rolling count of number of non-NaN observations inside provided window.

Returns same type as input

See also:
pandas.Series.rolling, pandas.DataFrame.rolling

34.15.1.2 pandas.core.window.Rolling.sum

Rolling.sum(*args, **kwargs)
rolling sum
Parameters how : string, default None
Deprecated since version 0.18.0: Method for down- or re-sampling
Returns same type as input
See also:
pandas.Series.rolling, pandas.DataFrame.rolling

1894 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

34.15.1.3 pandas.core.window.Rolling.mean

Rolling.mean(*args, **kwargs)
rolling mean
Parameters how : string, default None
Deprecated since version 0.18.0: Method for down- or re-sampling
Returns same type as input
See also:
pandas.Series.rolling, pandas.DataFrame.rolling

34.15.1.4 pandas.core.window.Rolling.median

Rolling.median(**kwargs)
rolling median
Parameters how : string, default ‘median’
Deprecated since version 0.18.0: Method for down- or re-sampling
Returns same type as input
See also:
pandas.Series.rolling, pandas.DataFrame.rolling

34.15.1.5 pandas.core.window.Rolling.var

Rolling.var(ddof=1, *args, **kwargs)

rolling variance
Parameters ddof : int, default 1
Delta Degrees of Freedom. The divisor used in calculations is N - ddof, where N
represents the number of elements.
Returns same type as input
See also:
pandas.Series.rolling, pandas.DataFrame.rolling

34.15.1.6 pandas.core.window.Rolling.std

Rolling.std(ddof=1, *args, **kwargs)

rolling standard deviation
Parameters ddof : int, default 1
Delta Degrees of Freedom. The divisor used in calculations is N - ddof, where N
represents the number of elements.
Returns same type as input
See also:
pandas.Series.rolling, pandas.DataFrame.rolling

34.15. Window 1895

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

34.15.1.7 pandas.core.window.Rolling.min

Rolling.min(*args, **kwargs)
rolling minimum
Parameters how : string, default ‘min’
Deprecated since version 0.18.0: Method for down- or re-sampling
Returns same type as input
See also:
pandas.Series.rolling, pandas.DataFrame.rolling

34.15.1.8 pandas.core.window.Rolling.max

Rolling.max(*args, **kwargs)
rolling maximum
Parameters how : string, default ‘max’
Deprecated since version 0.18.0: Method for down- or re-sampling
Returns same type as input
See also:
pandas.Series.rolling, pandas.DataFrame.rolling

34.15.1.9 pandas.core.window.Rolling.corr

Rolling.corr(other=None, pairwise=None, **kwargs)

rolling sample correlation
Parameters other : Series, DataFrame, or ndarray, optional
if not supplied then will default to self and produce pairwise output
pairwise : bool, default None
If False then only matching columns between self and other will be used and the
output will be a DataFrame. If True then all pairwise combinations will be calculated
and the output will be a MultiIndex DataFrame in the case of DataFrame inputs. In
the case of missing elements, only complete pairwise observations will be used.
Returns same type as input
See also:
pandas.Series.rolling, pandas.DataFrame.rolling

34.15.1.10 pandas.core.window.Rolling.cov

Rolling.cov(other=None, pairwise=None, ddof=1, **kwargs)

rolling sample covariance
Parameters other : Series, DataFrame, or ndarray, optional
if not supplied then will default to self and produce pairwise output
pairwise : bool, default None

1896 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

If False then only matching columns between self and other will be used and the
output will be a DataFrame. If True then all pairwise combinations will be calculated
and the output will be a MultiIndexed DataFrame in the case of DataFrame inputs.
In the case of missing elements, only complete pairwise observations will be used.
ddof : int, default 1
Delta Degrees of Freedom. The divisor used in calculations is N - ddof, where N
represents the number of elements.
Returns same type as input
See also:
pandas.Series.rolling, pandas.DataFrame.rolling

34.15.1.11 pandas.core.window.Rolling.skew

Rolling.skew(**kwargs)
Unbiased rolling skewness
Returns same type as input
See also:
pandas.Series.rolling, pandas.DataFrame.rolling

34.15.1.12 pandas.core.window.Rolling.kurt

Rolling.kurt(**kwargs)
Unbiased rolling kurtosis
Returns same type as input
See also:
pandas.Series.rolling, pandas.DataFrame.rolling

34.15.1.13 pandas.core.window.Rolling.apply

Rolling.apply(func, args=(), kwargs={})

rolling function apply
Parameters func : function
Must produce a single value from an ndarray input *args and **kwargs are passed
to the function
Returns same type as input
See also:
pandas.Series.rolling, pandas.DataFrame.rolling

34.15.1.14 pandas.core.window.Rolling.quantile

Rolling.quantile(quantile, **kwargs)
rolling quantile
Parameters quantile : float

34.15. Window 1897

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

0 <= quantile <= 1

Returns same type as input
See also:
pandas.Series.rolling, pandas.DataFrame.rolling

34.15.1.15 pandas.core.window.Window.mean

Window.mean(*args, **kwargs)
window mean
Parameters how : string, default None
Deprecated since version 0.18.0: Method for down- or re-sampling
Returns same type as input
See also:
pandas.Series.window, pandas.DataFrame.window

34.15.1.16 pandas.core.window.Window.sum

Window.sum(*args, **kwargs)
window sum
Parameters how : string, default None
Deprecated since version 0.18.0: Method for down- or re-sampling
Returns same type as input
See also:
pandas.Series.window, pandas.DataFrame.window

34.15.2 Standard expanding window functions

Expanding.count(**kwargs) expanding count of number of non-NaN

Expanding.sum(*args, **kwargs) expanding sum
Expanding.mean(*args, **kwargs) expanding mean
Expanding.median(**kwargs) expanding median
Expanding.var([ddof]) expanding variance
Expanding.std([ddof]) expanding standard deviation
Expanding.min(*args, **kwargs) expanding minimum
Expanding.max(*args, **kwargs) expanding maximum
Expanding.corr([other, pairwise]) expanding sample correlation
Expanding.cov([other, pairwise, ddof]) expanding sample covariance
Expanding.skew(**kwargs) Unbiased expanding skewness
Expanding.kurt(**kwargs) Unbiased expanding kurtosis
Expanding.apply(func[, args, kwargs]) expanding function apply
Expanding.quantile(quantile, **kwargs) expanding quantile

1898 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

34.15.2.1 pandas.core.window.Expanding.count

Expanding.count(**kwargs)
expanding count of number of non-NaN observations inside provided window.

Returns same type as input

See also:
pandas.Series.expanding, pandas.DataFrame.expanding

34.15.2.2 pandas.core.window.Expanding.sum

Expanding.sum(*args, **kwargs)
expanding sum
Parameters how : string, default None
Deprecated since version 0.18.0: Method for down- or re-sampling
Returns same type as input
See also:
pandas.Series.expanding, pandas.DataFrame.expanding

34.15.2.3 pandas.core.window.Expanding.mean

Expanding.mean(*args, **kwargs)
expanding mean
Parameters how : string, default None
Deprecated since version 0.18.0: Method for down- or re-sampling
Returns same type as input
See also:
pandas.Series.expanding, pandas.DataFrame.expanding

34.15.2.4 pandas.core.window.Expanding.median

Expanding.median(**kwargs)
expanding median
Parameters how : string, default ‘median’
Deprecated since version 0.18.0: Method for down- or re-sampling
Returns same type as input
See also:
pandas.Series.expanding, pandas.DataFrame.expanding

34.15. Window 1899

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

34.15.2.5 pandas.core.window.Expanding.var

Expanding.var(ddof=1, *args, **kwargs)

expanding variance
Parameters ddof : int, default 1
Delta Degrees of Freedom. The divisor used in calculations is N - ddof, where N
represents the number of elements.
Returns same type as input
See also:
pandas.Series.expanding, pandas.DataFrame.expanding

34.15.2.6 pandas.core.window.Expanding.std

Expanding.std(ddof=1, *args, **kwargs)

expanding standard deviation
Parameters ddof : int, default 1
Delta Degrees of Freedom. The divisor used in calculations is N - ddof, where N
represents the number of elements.
Returns same type as input
See also:
pandas.Series.expanding, pandas.DataFrame.expanding

34.15.2.7 pandas.core.window.Expanding.min

Expanding.min(*args, **kwargs)
expanding minimum
Parameters how : string, default ‘min’
Deprecated since version 0.18.0: Method for down- or re-sampling
Returns same type as input
See also:
pandas.Series.expanding, pandas.DataFrame.expanding

34.15.2.8 pandas.core.window.Expanding.max

Expanding.max(*args, **kwargs)
expanding maximum
Parameters how : string, default ‘max’
Deprecated since version 0.18.0: Method for down- or re-sampling
Returns same type as input
See also:
pandas.Series.expanding, pandas.DataFrame.expanding

1900 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

34.15.2.9 pandas.core.window.Expanding.corr

Expanding.corr(other=None, pairwise=None, **kwargs)

expanding sample correlation
Parameters other : Series, DataFrame, or ndarray, optional
if not supplied then will default to self and produce pairwise output
pairwise : bool, default None
If False then only matching columns between self and other will be used and the
output will be a DataFrame. If True then all pairwise combinations will be calculated
and the output will be a MultiIndex DataFrame in the case of DataFrame inputs. In
the case of missing elements, only complete pairwise observations will be used.
Returns same type as input
See also:
pandas.Series.expanding, pandas.DataFrame.expanding

34.15.2.10 pandas.core.window.Expanding.cov

Expanding.cov(other=None, pairwise=None, ddof=1, **kwargs)

expanding sample covariance
Parameters other : Series, DataFrame, or ndarray, optional
if not supplied then will default to self and produce pairwise output
pairwise : bool, default None
If False then only matching columns between self and other will be used and the
output will be a DataFrame. If True then all pairwise combinations will be calculated
and the output will be a MultiIndexed DataFrame in the case of DataFrame inputs.
In the case of missing elements, only complete pairwise observations will be used.
ddof : int, default 1
Delta Degrees of Freedom. The divisor used in calculations is N - ddof, where N
represents the number of elements.
Returns same type as input
See also:
pandas.Series.expanding, pandas.DataFrame.expanding

34.15.2.11 pandas.core.window.Expanding.skew

Expanding.skew(**kwargs)
Unbiased expanding skewness
Returns same type as input
See also:
pandas.Series.expanding, pandas.DataFrame.expanding

34.15. Window 1901

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

34.15.2.12 pandas.core.window.Expanding.kurt

Expanding.kurt(**kwargs)
Unbiased expanding kurtosis
Returns same type as input
See also:
pandas.Series.expanding, pandas.DataFrame.expanding

34.15.2.13 pandas.core.window.Expanding.apply

Expanding.apply(func, args=(), kwargs={})

expanding function apply
Parameters func : function
Must produce a single value from an ndarray input *args and **kwargs are passed
to the function
Returns same type as input
See also:
pandas.Series.expanding, pandas.DataFrame.expanding

34.15.2.14 pandas.core.window.Expanding.quantile

Expanding.quantile(quantile, **kwargs)
expanding quantile
Parameters quantile : float
0 <= quantile <= 1
Returns same type as input
See also:
pandas.Series.expanding, pandas.DataFrame.expanding

34.15.3 Exponentially-weighted moving window functions

EWM.mean(*args, **kwargs) exponential weighted moving average

EWM.std([bias]) exponential weighted moving stddev
EWM.var([bias]) exponential weighted moving variance
EWM.corr([other, pairwise]) exponential weighted sample correlation
EWM.cov([other, pairwise, bias]) exponential weighted sample covariance

34.15.3.1 pandas.core.window.EWM.mean

EWM.mean(*args, **kwargs)
exponential weighted moving average
Returns same type as input
See also:

1902 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

pandas.Series.ewm, pandas.DataFrame.ewm

34.15.3.2 pandas.core.window.EWM.std

EWM.std(bias=False, *args, **kwargs)

exponential weighted moving stddev
Parameters bias : boolean, default False
Use a standard estimation bias correction
Returns same type as input
See also:
pandas.Series.ewm, pandas.DataFrame.ewm

34.15.3.3 pandas.core.window.EWM.var

EWM.var(bias=False, *args, **kwargs)

exponential weighted moving variance
Parameters bias : boolean, default False
Use a standard estimation bias correction
Returns same type as input
See also:
pandas.Series.ewm, pandas.DataFrame.ewm

34.15.3.4 pandas.core.window.EWM.corr

EWM.corr(other=None, pairwise=None, **kwargs)

exponential weighted sample correlation
Parameters other : Series, DataFrame, or ndarray, optional
if not supplied then will default to self and produce pairwise output
pairwise : bool, default None
If False then only matching columns between self and other will be used and the
output will be a DataFrame. If True then all pairwise combinations will be calculated
and the output will be a MultiIndex DataFrame in the case of DataFrame inputs. In
the case of missing elements, only complete pairwise observations will be used.
bias : boolean, default False
Use a standard estimation bias correction
Returns same type as input
See also:
pandas.Series.ewm, pandas.DataFrame.ewm

34.15. Window 1903

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

34.15.3.5 pandas.core.window.EWM.cov

EWM.cov(other=None, pairwise=None, bias=False, **kwargs)

exponential weighted sample covariance
Parameters other : Series, DataFrame, or ndarray, optional
if not supplied then will default to self and produce pairwise output
pairwise : bool, default None
If False then only matching columns between self and other will be used and the
output will be a DataFrame. If True then all pairwise combinations will be calculated
and the output will be a MultiIndex DataFrame in the case of DataFrame inputs. In
the case of missing elements, only complete pairwise observations will be used.
bias : boolean, default False
Use a standard estimation bias correction
Returns same type as input
See also:
pandas.Series.ewm, pandas.DataFrame.ewm

34.16 GroupBy

GroupBy objects are returned by groupby calls: pandas.DataFrame.groupby(), pandas.Series.

groupby(), etc.

34.16.1 Indexing, iteration

GroupBy.__iter__() Groupby iterator

GroupBy.groups dict {group name -> group labels}
GroupBy.indices dict {group name -> group indices}
GroupBy.get_group(name[, obj]) Constructs NDFrame from group with provided name

34.16.1.1 pandas.core.groupby.GroupBy.__iter__

GroupBy.__iter__()
Groupby iterator
Returns Generator yielding sequence of (name, subsetted object)
for each group

34.16.1.2 pandas.core.groupby.GroupBy.groups

GroupBy.groups
dict {group name -> group labels}

1904 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

34.16.1.3 pandas.core.groupby.GroupBy.indices

GroupBy.indices
dict {group name -> group indices}

34.16.1.4 pandas.core.groupby.GroupBy.get_group

GroupBy.get_group(name, obj=None)
Constructs NDFrame from group with provided name
Parameters name : object
the name of the group to get as a DataFrame
obj : NDFrame, default None
the NDFrame to take the DataFrame out of. If it is None, the object groupby was
called on will be used
Returns group : type of obj

Grouper([key, level, freq, axis, sort]) A Grouper allows the user to specify a groupby instruction
for a target

34.16.1.5 pandas.Grouper

class pandas.Grouper(key=None, level=None, freq=None, axis=0, sort=False)

A Grouper allows the user to specify a groupby instruction for a target object
This specification will select a column via the key parameter, or if the level and/or axis parameters are given, a
level of the index of the target object.
These are local specifications and will override ‘global’ settings, that is the parameters axis and level which are
passed to the groupby itself.
Parameters key : string, defaults to None
groupby key, which selects the grouping column of the target
level : name/number, defaults to None
the level for the target index
freq : string / frequency object, defaults to None
This will groupby the specified frequency if the target selection (via key or level) is a
datetime-like object. For full specification of available frequencies, please see here.
axis : number/name of the axis, defaults to 0
sort : boolean, default to False
whether to sort the resulting labels
additional kwargs to control time-like groupers (when freq is passed)
closed : closed end of interval; left or right
label : interval boundary to use for labeling; left or right
convention : {‘start’, ‘end’, ‘e’, ‘s’}
If grouper is PeriodIndex

34.16. GroupBy 1905

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Returns A specification for a groupby instruction

Examples

Syntactic sugar for df.groupby('A')

>>> df.groupby(Grouper(key='A'))

Specify a resample operation on the column ‘date’

>>> df.groupby(Grouper(key='date', freq='60s'))

Specify a resample operation on the level ‘date’ on the columns axis with a frequency of 60s

>>> df.groupby(Grouper(level='date', freq='60s', axis=1))

Attributes

ax
groups

pandas.Grouper.ax

Grouper.ax

pandas.Grouper.groups

Grouper.groups

34.16.2 Function application

GroupBy.apply(func, *args, **kwargs) Apply function and combine results together in an intelli-
gent way.
GroupBy.aggregate(func, *args, **kwargs)
GroupBy.transform(func, *args, **kwargs)
GroupBy.pipe(func, *args, **kwargs) Apply a function with arguments to this GroupBy object,

34.16.2.1 pandas.core.groupby.GroupBy.apply

GroupBy.apply(func, *args, **kwargs)

Apply function and combine results together in an intelligent way.
The split-apply-combine combination rules attempt to be as common sense based as possible. For example:
case 1: group DataFrame apply aggregation function (f(chunk) -> Series) yield DataFrame, with group axis
having group labels
case 2: group DataFrame apply transform function ((f(chunk) -> DataFrame with same indexes) yield
DataFrame with resulting chunks glued together

1906 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

case 3: group Series apply function with f(chunk) -> DataFrame yield DataFrame with result of chunks glued
together
Parameters func : function
See also:

pipe Apply function to the full GroupBy object instead of to each group.

aggregate, transform

Notes

See online documentation for full exposition on how to use apply.

In the current implementation apply calls func twice on the first group to decide whether it can take a fast or
slow code path. This can lead to unexpected behavior if func has side-effects, as they will take effect twice for
the first group.

34.16.2.2 pandas.core.groupby.GroupBy.aggregate

GroupBy.aggregate(func, *args, **kwargs)

34.16.2.3 pandas.core.groupby.GroupBy.transform

GroupBy.transform(func, *args, **kwargs)

34.16.2.4 pandas.core.groupby.GroupBy.pipe

GroupBy.pipe(func, *args, **kwargs)

Apply a function with arguments to this GroupBy object,
New in version 0.21.0.
Parameters func : callable or tuple of (callable, string)
Function to apply to this GroupBy object or, alternatively, a (callable,
data_keyword) tuple where data_keyword is a string indicating the keyword
of callable that expects the GroupBy object.
args : iterable, optional
positional arguments passed into func.
kwargs : dict, optional
a dictionary of keyword arguments passed into func.
Returns object : the return type of func.
See also:

pandas.Series.pipe Apply a function with arguments to a series

pandas.DataFrame.pipe Apply a function with arguments to a dataframe
apply Apply function to each group instead of to the full GroupBy object.

34.16. GroupBy 1907

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Notes

Use .pipe when chaining together functions that expect Series, DataFrames or GroupBy objects. Instead of
writing

>>> f(g(h(df.groupby('group')), arg1=a), arg2=b, arg3=c)

You can write

>>> (df
... .groupby('group')
... .pipe(f, arg1)
... .pipe(g, arg2)
... .pipe(h, arg3))

See more here

34.16.3 Computations / Descriptive Stats

GroupBy.count() Compute count of group, excluding missing values

GroupBy.cumcount([ascending]) Number each item in each group from 0 to the length of
that group - 1.
GroupBy.first(**kwargs) Compute first of group values
GroupBy.head([n]) Returns first n rows of each group.
GroupBy.last(**kwargs) Compute last of group values
GroupBy.max(**kwargs) Compute max of group values
GroupBy.mean(*args, **kwargs) Compute mean of groups, excluding missing values
GroupBy.median(**kwargs) Compute median of groups, excluding missing values
GroupBy.min(**kwargs) Compute min of group values
GroupBy.ngroup([ascending]) Number each group from 0 to the number of groups - 1.
GroupBy.nth(n[, dropna]) Take the nth row from each group if n is an int, or a subset
of rows if n is a list of ints.
GroupBy.ohlc() Compute sum of values, excluding missing values
GroupBy.prod(**kwargs) Compute prod of group values
GroupBy.size() Compute group sizes
GroupBy.sem([ddof]) Compute standard error of the mean of groups, excluding
missing values
GroupBy.std([ddof]) Compute standard deviation of groups, excluding missing
values
GroupBy.sum(**kwargs) Compute sum of group values
GroupBy.var([ddof]) Compute variance of groups, excluding missing values
GroupBy.tail([n]) Returns last n rows of each group

34.16.3.1 pandas.core.groupby.GroupBy.count

GroupBy.count()
Compute count of group, excluding missing values
See also:
pandas.Series.groupby, pandas.DataFrame.groupby, pandas.Panel.groupby

1908 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

34.16.3.2 pandas.core.groupby.GroupBy.cumcount

GroupBy.cumcount(ascending=True)
Number each item in each group from 0 to the length of that group - 1.
Essentially this is equivalent to

>>> self.apply(lambda x: Series(np.arange(len(x)), x.index))

Parameters ascending : bool, default True

If False, number in reverse, from length of group - 1 to 0.

See also:
pandas.Series.groupby, pandas.DataFrame.groupby, pandas.Panel.groupby

Examples

>>> df = pd.DataFrame([['a'], ['a'], ['a'], ['b'], ['b'], ['a']],

... columns=['A'])
>>> df
A
0 a
1 a
2 a
3 b
4 b
5 a
>>> df.groupby('A').cumcount()
0 0
1 1
2 2
3 0
4 1
5 3
dtype: int64
>>> df.groupby('A').cumcount(ascending=False)
0 3
1 2
2 1
3 1
4 0
5 0
dtype: int64

34.16.3.3 pandas.core.groupby.GroupBy.first

GroupBy.first(**kwargs)
Compute first of group values
See also:
pandas.Series.groupby, pandas.DataFrame.groupby, pandas.Panel.groupby

34.16. GroupBy 1909

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

34.16.3.4 pandas.core.groupby.GroupBy.head

GroupBy.head(n=5)
Returns first n rows of each group.
Essentially equivalent to .apply(lambda x: x.head(n)), except ignores as_index flag.
See also:
pandas.Series.groupby, pandas.DataFrame.groupby, pandas.Panel.groupby

Examples

>>> df = DataFrame([[1, 2], [1, 4], [5, 6]],

columns=['A', 'B'])
>>> df.groupby('A', as_index=False).head(1)
A B
0 1 2
2 5 6
>>> df.groupby('A').head(1)
A B
0 1 2
2 5 6

34.16.3.5 pandas.core.groupby.GroupBy.last

GroupBy.last(**kwargs)
Compute last of group values
See also:
pandas.Series.groupby, pandas.DataFrame.groupby, pandas.Panel.groupby

34.16.3.6 pandas.core.groupby.GroupBy.max

GroupBy.max(**kwargs)
Compute max of group values
See also:
pandas.Series.groupby, pandas.DataFrame.groupby, pandas.Panel.groupby

34.16.3.7 pandas.core.groupby.GroupBy.mean

GroupBy.mean(*args, **kwargs)
Compute mean of groups, excluding missing values
For multiple groupings, the result index will be a MultiIndex
See also:
pandas.Series.groupby, pandas.DataFrame.groupby, pandas.Panel.groupby

1910 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

34.16.3.8 pandas.core.groupby.GroupBy.median

GroupBy.median(**kwargs)
Compute median of groups, excluding missing values
For multiple groupings, the result index will be a MultiIndex
See also:
pandas.Series.groupby, pandas.DataFrame.groupby, pandas.Panel.groupby

34.16.3.9 pandas.core.groupby.GroupBy.min

GroupBy.min(**kwargs)
Compute min of group values
See also:
pandas.Series.groupby, pandas.DataFrame.groupby, pandas.Panel.groupby

34.16.3.10 pandas.core.groupby.GroupBy.ngroup

GroupBy.ngroup(ascending=True)
Number each group from 0 to the number of groups - 1.
This is the enumerative complement of cumcount. Note that the numbers given to the groups match the order in
which the groups would be seen when iterating over the groupby object, not the order they are first observed.
New in version 0.20.2.
Parameters ascending : bool, default True
If False, number in reverse, from number of group - 1 to 0.
See also:
pandas.Series.groupby, pandas.DataFrame.groupby, pandas.Panel.groupby

Examples

>>> df = pd.DataFrame({"A": list("aaabba")})

>>> df
A
0 a
1 a
2 a
3 b
4 b
5 a
>>> df.groupby('A').ngroup()
0 0
1 0
2 0
3 1
4 1
5 0
dtype: int64
>>> df.groupby('A').ngroup(ascending=False)

34.16. GroupBy 1911

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

0 1
1 1
2 1
3 0
4 0
5 1
dtype: int64
>>> df.groupby(["A", [1,1,2,3,2,1]]).ngroup()
0 0
1 0
2 1
3 3
4 2
5 0
dtype: int64

34.16.3.11 pandas.core.groupby.GroupBy.nth

GroupBy.nth(n, dropna=None)
Take the nth row from each group if n is an int, or a subset of rows if n is a list of ints.
If dropna, will take the nth non-null row, dropna is either Truthy (if a Series) or ‘all’, ‘any’ (if a DataFrame);
this is equivalent to calling dropna(how=dropna) before the groupby.
Parameters n : int or list of ints
a single nth value for the row or a list of nth values
dropna : None or str, optional
apply the specified dropna operation before counting which row is the nth row. Needs
to be None, ‘any’ or ‘all’
See also:
pandas.Series.groupby, pandas.DataFrame.groupby, pandas.Panel.groupby

Examples

>>> df = pd.DataFrame({'A': [1, 1, 2, 1, 2],

... 'B': [np.nan, 2, 3, 4, 5]}, columns=['A', 'B'])
>>> g = df.groupby('A')
>>> g.nth(0)
B
A
1 NaN
2 3.0
>>> g.nth(1)
B
A
1 2.0
2 5.0
>>> g.nth(-1)
B
A
1 4.0
2 5.0

1912 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

>>> g.nth([0, 1])

B
A
1 NaN
1 2.0
2 3.0
2 5.0

Specifying dropna allows count ignoring NaN

>>> g.nth(0, dropna='any')

B
A
1 2.0
2 3.0

NaNs denote group exhausted when using dropna

>>> g.nth(3, dropna='any')

B
A
1 NaN
2 NaN

Specifying as_index=False in groupby keeps the original index.

>>> df.groupby('A', as_index=False).nth(1)

A B
1 1 2.0
4 2 5.0

34.16.3.12 pandas.core.groupby.GroupBy.ohlc

GroupBy.ohlc()
Compute sum of values, excluding missing values For multiple groupings, the result index will be a MultiIndex
See also:
pandas.Series.groupby, pandas.DataFrame.groupby, pandas.Panel.groupby

34.16.3.13 pandas.core.groupby.GroupBy.prod

GroupBy.prod(**kwargs)
Compute prod of group values
See also:
pandas.Series.groupby, pandas.DataFrame.groupby, pandas.Panel.groupby

34.16.3.14 pandas.core.groupby.GroupBy.size

GroupBy.size()
Compute group sizes
See also:

34.16. GroupBy 1913

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

pandas.Series.groupby, pandas.DataFrame.groupby, pandas.Panel.groupby

34.16.3.15 pandas.core.groupby.GroupBy.sem

GroupBy.sem(ddof=1)
Compute standard error of the mean of groups, excluding missing values
For multiple groupings, the result index will be a MultiIndex
Parameters ddof : integer, default 1
degrees of freedom
See also:
pandas.Series.groupby, pandas.DataFrame.groupby, pandas.Panel.groupby

34.16.3.16 pandas.core.groupby.GroupBy.std

GroupBy.std(ddof=1, *args, **kwargs)

Compute standard deviation of groups, excluding missing values
For multiple groupings, the result index will be a MultiIndex
Parameters ddof : integer, default 1
degrees of freedom
See also:
pandas.Series.groupby, pandas.DataFrame.groupby, pandas.Panel.groupby

34.16.3.17 pandas.core.groupby.GroupBy.sum

GroupBy.sum(**kwargs)
Compute sum of group values
See also:
pandas.Series.groupby, pandas.DataFrame.groupby, pandas.Panel.groupby

34.16.3.18 pandas.core.groupby.GroupBy.var

GroupBy.var(ddof=1, *args, **kwargs)

Compute variance of groups, excluding missing values
For multiple groupings, the result index will be a MultiIndex
Parameters ddof : integer, default 1
degrees of freedom
See also:
pandas.Series.groupby, pandas.DataFrame.groupby, pandas.Panel.groupby

1914 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

34.16.3.19 pandas.core.groupby.GroupBy.tail

GroupBy.tail(n=5)
Returns last n rows of each group
Essentially equivalent to .apply(lambda x: x.tail(n)), except ignores as_index flag.
See also:
pandas.Series.groupby, pandas.DataFrame.groupby, pandas.Panel.groupby

Examples

>>> df = DataFrame([['a', 1], ['a', 2], ['b', 1], ['b', 2]],

columns=['A', 'B'])
>>> df.groupby('A').tail(1)
A B
1 a 2
3 b 2
>>> df.groupby('A').head(1)
A B
0 a 1
2 b 1

The following methods are available in both SeriesGroupBy and DataFrameGroupBy objects, but may differ
slightly, usually in that the DataFrameGroupBy version usually permits the specification of an axis argument, and
often an argument indicating whether to restrict application to columns of a specific data type.

DataFrameGroupBy.agg(arg, *args, **kwargs) Aggregate using callable, string, dict, or list of

string/callables
DataFrameGroupBy.all Return whether all elements are True over requested axis
DataFrameGroupBy.any Return whether any element is True over requested axis
DataFrameGroupBy.bfill([limit]) Backward fill the values
DataFrameGroupBy.corr Compute pairwise correlation of columns, excluding
NA/null values
DataFrameGroupBy.count() Compute count of group, excluding missing values
DataFrameGroupBy.cov Compute pairwise covariance of columns, excluding
NA/null values
DataFrameGroupBy.cummax([axis]) Cumulative max for each group
DataFrameGroupBy.cummin([axis]) Cumulative min for each group
DataFrameGroupBy.cumprod([axis]) Cumulative product for each group
DataFrameGroupBy.cumsum([axis]) Cumulative sum for each group
DataFrameGroupBy.describe(**kwargs) Generates descriptive statistics that summarize the central
tendency, dispersion and shape of a dataset’s distribution,
excluding NaN values.
DataFrameGroupBy.diff 1st discrete difference of object
DataFrameGroupBy.ffill([limit]) Forward fill the values
DataFrameGroupBy.fillna Fill NA/NaN values using the specified method
DataFrameGroupBy.filter(func[, dropna]) Return a copy of a DataFrame excluding elements from
groups that do not satisfy the boolean criterion specified
by func.
DataFrameGroupBy.hist Draw histogram of the DataFrame’s series using matplotlib
/ pylab.
Continued on next page

34.16. GroupBy 1915

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Table 34.149 – continued from previous page

DataFrameGroupBy.idxmax Return index of first occurrence of maximum over re-
quested axis.
DataFrameGroupBy.idxmin Return index of first occurrence of minimum over re-
quested axis.
DataFrameGroupBy.mad Return the mean absolute deviation of the values for the
requested axis
DataFrameGroupBy.pct_change Percent change over given number of periods.
DataFrameGroupBy.plot Class implementing the .plot attribute for groupby objects
DataFrameGroupBy.quantile Return values at the given quantile over requested axis, a la
numpy.percentile.
DataFrameGroupBy.rank Compute numerical data ranks (1 through n) along axis.
DataFrameGroupBy.resample(rule, *args, Provide resampling when using a TimeGrouper
**kwargs)
DataFrameGroupBy.shift([periods, freq, axis]) Shift each group by periods observations
DataFrameGroupBy.size() Compute group sizes
DataFrameGroupBy.skew Return unbiased skew over requested axis
DataFrameGroupBy.take Return the elements in the given positional indices along
an axis.
DataFrameGroupBy.tshift Shift the time index, using the index’s frequency if avail-
able.

34.16.3.20 pandas.core.groupby.DataFrameGroupBy.agg

DataFrameGroupBy.agg(arg, *args, **kwargs)

Aggregate using callable, string, dict, or list of string/callables
Parameters func : callable, string, dictionary, or list of string/callables
Function to use for aggregating the data. If a function, must either work when passed
a DataFrame or when passed to DataFrame.apply. For a DataFrame, can pass a dict,
if the keys are DataFrame column names.
Accepted Combinations are:
• string function name
• function
• list of functions
• dict of column names -> functions (or list of functions)
Returns aggregated : DataFrame
See also:
pandas.DataFrame.groupby.apply, pandas.DataFrame.groupby.transform, pandas.
DataFrame.aggregate

Notes

Numpy functions mean/median/prod/sum/std/var are special cased so the default behavior is applying the func-
tion along axis=0 (e.g., np.mean(arr_2d, axis=0)) as opposed to mimicking the default Numpy behavior (e.g.,
np.mean(arr_2d)).
agg is an alias for aggregate. Use the alias.

1916 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Examples

>>> df = pd.DataFrame({'A': [1, 1, 2, 2],

... 'B': [1, 2, 3, 4],
... 'C': np.random.randn(4)})

>>> df
A B C
0 1 1 0.362838
1 1 2 0.227877
2 2 3 1.267767
3 2 4 -0.562860

The aggregation is for each column.

>>> df.groupby('A').agg('min')
B C
A
1 1 0.227877
2 3 -0.562860

Multiple aggregations

>>> df.groupby('A').agg(['min', 'max'])

B C
min max min max
A
1 1 2 0.227877 0.362838
2 3 4 -0.562860 1.267767

Select a column for aggregation

>>> df.groupby('A').B.agg(['min', 'max'])

min max
A
1 1 2
2 3 4

Different aggregations per column

>>> df.groupby('A').agg({'B': ['min', 'max'], 'C': 'sum'})

B C
min max sum
A
1 1 2 0.590716
2 3 4 0.704907

34.16.3.21 pandas.core.groupby.DataFrameGroupBy.all

DataFrameGroupBy.all
Return whether all elements are True over requested axis
Parameters axis : {index (0), columns (1)}
skipna : boolean, default True
Exclude NA/null values. If an entire row/column is NA, the result will be NA

34.16. GroupBy 1917

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

level : int or level name, default None

If the axis is a MultiIndex (hierarchical), count along a particular level, collapsing
into a Series
bool_only : boolean, default None
Include only boolean columns. If None, will attempt to use everything, then use only
boolean data. Not implemented for Series.
Returns all : Series or DataFrame (if level specified)

34.16.3.22 pandas.core.groupby.DataFrameGroupBy.any

DataFrameGroupBy.any
Return whether any element is True over requested axis
Parameters axis : {index (0), columns (1)}
skipna : boolean, default True
Exclude NA/null values. If an entire row/column is NA, the result will be NA
level : int or level name, default None
If the axis is a MultiIndex (hierarchical), count along a particular level, collapsing
into a Series
bool_only : boolean, default None
Include only boolean columns. If None, will attempt to use everything, then use only
boolean data. Not implemented for Series.
Returns any : Series or DataFrame (if level specified)

34.16.3.23 pandas.core.groupby.DataFrameGroupBy.bfill

DataFrameGroupBy.bfill(limit=None)
Backward fill the values
Parameters limit : integer, optional
limit of how many values to fill
See also:
pandas.Series.groupby, pandas.DataFrame.groupby, pandas.Panel.groupby

34.16.3.24 pandas.core.groupby.DataFrameGroupBy.corr

DataFrameGroupBy.corr
Compute pairwise correlation of columns, excluding NA/null values
Parameters method : {‘pearson’, ‘kendall’, ‘spearman’}
• pearson : standard correlation coefficient
• kendall : Kendall Tau correlation coefficient
• spearman : Spearman rank correlation
min_periods : int, optional

1918 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Minimum number of observations required per pair of columns to have a valid result.
Currently only available for pearson and spearman correlation
Returns y : DataFrame

34.16.3.25 pandas.core.groupby.DataFrameGroupBy.count

DataFrameGroupBy.count()
Compute count of group, excluding missing values

34.16.3.26 pandas.core.groupby.DataFrameGroupBy.cov

DataFrameGroupBy.cov
Compute pairwise covariance of columns, excluding NA/null values
Parameters min_periods : int, optional
Minimum number of observations required per pair of columns to have a valid result.
Returns y : DataFrame

Notes

y contains the covariance matrix of the DataFrame’s time series. The covariance is normalized by N-1 (unbiased
estimator).

34.16.3.27 pandas.core.groupby.DataFrameGroupBy.cummax

DataFrameGroupBy.cummax(axis=0, **kwargs)
Cumulative max for each group
See also:
pandas.Series.groupby, pandas.DataFrame.groupby, pandas.Panel.groupby

34.16.3.28 pandas.core.groupby.DataFrameGroupBy.cummin

DataFrameGroupBy.cummin(axis=0, **kwargs)
Cumulative min for each group
See also:
pandas.Series.groupby, pandas.DataFrame.groupby, pandas.Panel.groupby

34.16.3.29 pandas.core.groupby.DataFrameGroupBy.cumprod

DataFrameGroupBy.cumprod(axis=0, *args, **kwargs)

Cumulative product for each group
See also:
pandas.Series.groupby, pandas.DataFrame.groupby, pandas.Panel.groupby

34.16. GroupBy 1919

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

34.16.3.30 pandas.core.groupby.DataFrameGroupBy.cumsum

DataFrameGroupBy.cumsum(axis=0, *args, **kwargs)

Cumulative sum for each group
See also:
pandas.Series.groupby, pandas.DataFrame.groupby, pandas.Panel.groupby

34.16.3.31 pandas.core.groupby.DataFrameGroupBy.describe

DataFrameGroupBy.describe(**kwargs)
Generates descriptive statistics that summarize the central tendency, dispersion and shape of a dataset’s distri-
bution, excluding NaN values.
Analyzes both numeric and object series, as well as DataFrame column sets of mixed data types. The output
will vary depending on what is provided. Refer to the notes below for more detail.
Parameters percentiles : list-like of numbers, optional
The percentiles to include in the output. All should fall between 0 and 1. The default
is [.25, .5, .75], which returns the 25th, 50th, and 75th percentiles.
include : ‘all’, list-like of dtypes or None (default), optional
A white list of data types to include in the result. Ignored for Series. Here are the
options:
• ‘all’ : All columns of the input will be included in the output.
• A list-like of dtypes : Limits the results to the provided data types. To limit the
result to numeric types submit numpy.number. To limit it instead to object
columns submit the numpy.object data type. Strings can also be used in
the style of select_dtypes (e.g. df.describe(include=['O'])).
To select pandas categorical columns, use 'category'
• None (default) : The result will include all numeric columns.
exclude : list-like of dtypes or None (default), optional,
A black list of data types to omit from the result. Ignored for Series. Here are the
options:
• A list-like of dtypes : Excludes the provided data types from the result. To
exclude numeric types submit numpy.number. To exclude object columns
submit the data type numpy.object. Strings can also be used in the style of
select_dtypes (e.g. df.describe(include=['O'])). To exclude
pandas categorical columns, use 'category'
• None (default) : The result will exclude nothing.
Returns summary: Series/DataFrame of summary statistics
See also:
DataFrame.count, DataFrame.max, DataFrame.min, DataFrame.mean, DataFrame.std,
DataFrame.select_dtypes

1920 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Notes

For numeric data, the result’s index will include count, mean, std, min, max as well as lower, 50 and upper
percentiles. By default the lower percentile is 25 and the upper percentile is 75. The 50 percentile is the same
as the median.
For object data (e.g. strings or timestamps), the result’s index will include count, unique, top, and freq.
The top is the most common value. The freq is the most common value’s frequency. Timestamps also include
the first and last items.
If multiple object values have the highest count, then the count and top results will be arbitrarily chosen from
among those with the highest count.
For mixed data types provided via a DataFrame, the default is to return only an analysis of numeric columns.
If the dataframe consists only of object and categorical data without any numeric columns, the default is to
return an analysis of both the object and categorical columns. If include='all' is provided as an option,
the result will include a union of attributes of each type.
The include and exclude parameters can be used to limit which columns in a DataFrame are analyzed for the
output. The parameters are ignored when analyzing a Series.

Examples

Describing a numeric Series.

>>> s = pd.Series([1, 2, 3])

>>> s.describe()
count 3.0
mean 2.0
std 1.0
min 1.0
25% 1.5
50% 2.0
75% 2.5
max 3.0

Describing a categorical Series.

>>> s = pd.Series(['a', 'a', 'b', 'c'])

>>> s.describe()
count 4
unique 3
top a
freq 2
dtype: object

Describing a timestamp Series.

>>> s = pd.Series([
... np.datetime64("2000-01-01"),
... np.datetime64("2010-01-01"),
... np.datetime64("2010-01-01")
... ])
>>> s.describe()
count 3
unique 2
top 2010-01-01 00:00:00

34.16. GroupBy 1921

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

freq 2
first 2000-01-01 00:00:00
last 2010-01-01 00:00:00
dtype: object

Describing a DataFrame. By default only numeric fields are returned.

>>> df = pd.DataFrame({ 'object': ['a', 'b', 'c'],
... 'numeric': [1, 2, 3],
... 'categorical': pd.Categorical(['d','e','f'])
... })
>>> df.describe()
numeric
count 3.0
mean 2.0
std 1.0
min 1.0
25% 1.5
50% 2.0
75% 2.5
max 3.0

Describing all columns of a DataFrame regardless of data type.

>>> df.describe(include='all')
categorical numeric object
count 3 3.0 3
unique 3 NaN 3
top f NaN c
freq 1 NaN 1
mean NaN 2.0 NaN
std NaN 1.0 NaN
min NaN 1.0 NaN
25% NaN 1.5 NaN
50% NaN 2.0 NaN
75% NaN 2.5 NaN
max NaN 3.0 NaN

Describing a column from a DataFrame by accessing it as an attribute.

>>> df.numeric.describe()
count 3.0
mean 2.0
std 1.0
min 1.0
25% 1.5
50% 2.0
75% 2.5
max 3.0
Name: numeric, dtype: float64

Including only numeric columns in a DataFrame description.

>>> df.describe(include=[np.number])
numeric
count 3.0
mean 2.0
std 1.0

1922 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

min 1.0
25% 1.5
50% 2.0
75% 2.5
max 3.0

Including only string columns in a DataFrame description.

>>> df.describe(include=[np.object])
object
count 3
unique 3
top c
freq 1

Including only categorical columns from a DataFrame description.

>>> df.describe(include=['category'])
categorical
count 3
unique 3
top f
freq 1

Excluding numeric columns from a DataFrame description.

>>> df.describe(exclude=[np.number])
categorical object
count 3 3
unique 3 3
top f c
freq 1 1

Excluding object columns from a DataFrame description.

>>> df.describe(exclude=[np.object])
categorical numeric
count 3 3.0
unique 3 NaN
top f NaN
freq 1 NaN
mean NaN 2.0
std NaN 1.0
min NaN 1.0
25% NaN 1.5
50% NaN 2.0
75% NaN 2.5
max NaN 3.0

34.16.3.32 pandas.core.groupby.DataFrameGroupBy.diff

DataFrameGroupBy.diff
1st discrete difference of object
Parameters periods : int, default 1
Periods to shift for forming difference

34.16. GroupBy 1923

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

axis : {0 or ‘index’, 1 or ‘columns’}, default 0

Take difference over rows (0) or columns (1).
Returns diffed : DataFrame

34.16.3.33 pandas.core.groupby.DataFrameGroupBy.ffill

DataFrameGroupBy.ffill(limit=None)
Forward fill the values
Parameters limit : integer, optional
limit of how many values to fill
See also:
pandas.Series.groupby, pandas.DataFrame.groupby, pandas.Panel.groupby

34.16.3.34 pandas.core.groupby.DataFrameGroupBy.fillna

DataFrameGroupBy.fillna
Fill NA/NaN values using the specified method
Parameters value : scalar, dict, Series, or DataFrame
Value to use to fill holes (e.g. 0), alternately a dict/Series/DataFrame of values spec-
ifying which value to use for each index (for a Series) or column (for a DataFrame).
(values not in the dict/Series/DataFrame will not be filled). This value cannot be a
list.
method : {‘backfill’, ‘bfill’, ‘pad’, ‘ffill’, None}, default None
Method to use for filling holes in reindexed Series pad / ffill: propagate last valid
observation forward to next valid backfill / bfill: use NEXT valid observation to fill
gap
axis : {0 or ‘index’, 1 or ‘columns’}
inplace : boolean, default False
If True, fill in place. Note: this will modify any other views on this object, (e.g. a
no-copy slice for a column in a DataFrame).
limit : int, default None
If method is specified, this is the maximum number of consecutive NaN values to
forward/backward fill. In other words, if there is a gap with more than this number
of consecutive NaNs, it will only be partially filled. If method is not specified, this
is the maximum number of entries along the entire axis where NaNs will be filled.
Must be greater than 0 if not None.
downcast : dict, default is None
a dict of item->dtype of what to downcast if possible, or the string ‘infer’ which will
try to downcast to an appropriate equal type (e.g. float64 to int64 if possible)
Returns filled : DataFrame
See also:
reindex, asfreq

1924 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Examples

>>> df = pd.DataFrame([[np.nan, 2, np.nan, 0],

... [3, 4, np.nan, 1],
... [np.nan, np.nan, np.nan, 5],
... [np.nan, 3, np.nan, 4]],
... columns=list('ABCD'))
>>> df
A B C D
0 NaN 2.0 NaN 0
1 3.0 4.0 NaN 1
2 NaN NaN NaN 5
3 NaN 3.0 NaN 4

Replace all NaN elements with 0s.

>>> df.fillna(0)
A B C D
0 0.0 2.0 0.0 0
1 3.0 4.0 0.0 1
2 0.0 0.0 0.0 5
3 0.0 3.0 0.0 4

We can also propagate non-null values forward or backward.

>>> df.fillna(method='ffill')
A B C D
0 NaN 2.0 NaN 0
1 3.0 4.0 NaN 1
2 3.0 4.0 NaN 5
3 3.0 3.0 NaN 4

Replace all NaN elements in column ‘A’, ‘B’, ‘C’, and ‘D’, with 0, 1, 2, and 3 respectively.

>>> values = {'A': 0, 'B': 1, 'C': 2, 'D': 3}

>>> df.fillna(value=values)
A B C D
0 0.0 2.0 2.0 0
1 3.0 4.0 2.0 1
2 0.0 1.0 2.0 5
3 0.0 3.0 2.0 4

Only replace the first NaN element.

>>> df.fillna(value=values, limit=1)

A B C D
0 0.0 2.0 2.0 0
1 3.0 4.0 NaN 1
2 NaN 1.0 NaN 5
3 NaN 3.0 NaN 4

34.16.3.35 pandas.core.groupby.DataFrameGroupBy.filter

DataFrameGroupBy.filter(func, dropna=True, *args, **kwargs)

Return a copy of a DataFrame excluding elements from groups that do not satisfy the boolean criterion specified
by func.

34.16. GroupBy 1925

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Parameters f : function
Function to apply to each subframe. Should return True or False.
dropna : Drop groups that do not pass the filter. True by default;
if False, groups that evaluate False are filled with NaNs.
Returns filtered : DataFrame

Notes

Each subframe is endowed the attribute ‘name’ in case you need to know which group you are working on.

Examples

>>> import pandas as pd

>>> df = pd.DataFrame({'A' : ['foo', 'bar', 'foo', 'bar',
... 'foo', 'bar'],
... 'B' : [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6],
... 'C' : [2.0, 5., 8., 1., 2., 9.]})
>>> grouped = df.groupby('A')
>>> grouped.filter(lambda x: x['B'].mean() > 3.)
A B C
1 bar 2 5.0
3 bar 4 1.0
5 bar 6 9.0

34.16.3.36 pandas.core.groupby.DataFrameGroupBy.hist

DataFrameGroupBy.hist
Draw histogram of the DataFrame’s series using matplotlib / pylab.
Parameters data : DataFrame
column : string or sequence
If passed, will be used to limit data to a subset of columns
by : object, optional
If passed, then used to form histograms for separate groups
grid : boolean, default True
Whether to show axis grid lines
xlabelsize : int, default None
If specified changes the x-axis label size
xrot : float, default None
rotation of x axis labels
ylabelsize : int, default None
If specified changes the y-axis label size
yrot : float, default None

1926 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

rotation of y axis labels

ax : matplotlib axes object, default None
sharex : boolean, default True if ax is None else False
In case subplots=True, share x axis and set some x axis labels to invisible; defaults
to True if ax is None otherwise False if an ax is passed in; Be aware, that passing in
both an ax and sharex=True will alter all x axis labels for all subplots in a figure!
sharey : boolean, default False
In case subplots=True, share y axis and set some y axis labels to invisible
figsize : tuple
The size of the figure to create in inches by default
layout : tuple, optional
Tuple of (rows, columns) for the layout of the histograms
bins : integer, default 10
Number of histogram bins to be used
kwds : other plotting keyword arguments
To be passed to hist function

34.16.3.37 pandas.core.groupby.DataFrameGroupBy.idxmax

DataFrameGroupBy.idxmax
Return index of first occurrence of maximum over requested axis. NA/null values are excluded.
Parameters axis : {0 or ‘index’, 1 or ‘columns’}, default 0
0 or ‘index’ for row-wise, 1 or ‘columns’ for column-wise
skipna : boolean, default True
Exclude NA/null values. If an entire row/column is NA, the result will be first index.
Returns idxmax : Series
See also:
Series.idxmax

Notes

This method is the DataFrame version of ndarray.argmax.

34.16.3.38 pandas.core.groupby.DataFrameGroupBy.idxmin

DataFrameGroupBy.idxmin
Return index of first occurrence of minimum over requested axis. NA/null values are excluded.
Parameters axis : {0 or ‘index’, 1 or ‘columns’}, default 0
0 or ‘index’ for row-wise, 1 or ‘columns’ for column-wise
skipna : boolean, default True

34.16. GroupBy 1927

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Exclude NA/null values. If an entire row/column is NA, the result will be NA

Returns idxmin : Series
See also:
Series.idxmin

Notes

This method is the DataFrame version of ndarray.argmin.

34.16.3.39 pandas.core.groupby.DataFrameGroupBy.mad

DataFrameGroupBy.mad
Return the mean absolute deviation of the values for the requested axis
Parameters axis : {index (0), columns (1)}
skipna : boolean, default True
Exclude NA/null values. If an entire row/column is NA or empty, the result will be
NA
level : int or level name, default None
If the axis is a MultiIndex (hierarchical), count along a particular level, collapsing
into a Series
numeric_only : boolean, default None
Include only float, int, boolean columns. If None, will attempt to use everything,
then use only numeric data. Not implemented for Series.
Returns mad : Series or DataFrame (if level specified)

34.16.3.40 pandas.core.groupby.DataFrameGroupBy.pct_change

DataFrameGroupBy.pct_change
Percent change over given number of periods.
Parameters periods : int, default 1
Periods to shift for forming percent change
fill_method : str, default ‘pad’
How to handle NAs before computing percent changes
limit : int, default None
The number of consecutive NAs to fill before stopping
freq : DateOffset, timedelta, or offset alias string, optional
Increment to use from time series API (e.g. ‘M’ or BDay())
Returns chg : NDFrame

1928 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Notes

By default, the percentage change is calculated along the stat axis: 0, or Index, for DataFrame and 1, or
minor for Panel. You can change this with the axis keyword argument.

34.16.3.41 pandas.core.groupby.DataFrameGroupBy.plot

DataFrameGroupBy.plot
Class implementing the .plot attribute for groupby objects

34.16.3.42 pandas.core.groupby.DataFrameGroupBy.quantile

DataFrameGroupBy.quantile
Return values at the given quantile over requested axis, a la numpy.percentile.
Parameters q : float or array-like, default 0.5 (50% quantile)
0 <= q <= 1, the quantile(s) to compute
axis : {0, 1, ‘index’, ‘columns’} (default 0)
0 or ‘index’ for row-wise, 1 or ‘columns’ for column-wise
interpolation : {‘linear’, ‘lower’, ‘higher’, ‘midpoint’, ‘nearest’}
New in version 0.18.0.
This optional parameter specifies the interpolation method to use, when the desired
quantile lies between two data points i and j:
• linear: i + (j - i) * fraction, where fraction is the fractional part of the index
surrounded by i and j.
• lower: i.
• higher: j.
• nearest: i or j whichever is nearest.
• midpoint: (i + j) / 2.
Returns quantiles : Series or DataFrame
• If q is an array, a DataFrame will be returned where the index is q, the columns are the
columns of self, and the values are the quantiles.
• If q is a float, a Series will be returned where the index is the columns of self and the
values are the quantiles.

Examples

>>> df = DataFrame(np.array([[1, 1], [2, 10], [3, 100], [4, 100]]),

columns=['a', 'b'])
>>> df.quantile(.1)
a 1.3
b 3.7
dtype: float64
>>> df.quantile([.1, .5])
a b

34.16. GroupBy 1929

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

0.1 1.3 3.7

0.5 2.5 55.0

34.16.3.43 pandas.core.groupby.DataFrameGroupBy.rank

DataFrameGroupBy.rank
Compute numerical data ranks (1 through n) along axis. Equal values are assigned a rank that is the average of
the ranks of those values
Parameters axis : {0 or ‘index’, 1 or ‘columns’}, default 0
index to direct ranking
method : {‘average’, ‘min’, ‘max’, ‘first’, ‘dense’}
• average: average rank of group
• min: lowest rank in group
• max: highest rank in group
• first: ranks assigned in order they appear in the array
• dense: like ‘min’, but rank always increases by 1 between groups
numeric_only : boolean, default None
Include only float, int, boolean data. Valid only for DataFrame or Panel objects
na_option : {‘keep’, ‘top’, ‘bottom’}
• keep: leave NA values where they are
• top: smallest rank if ascending
• bottom: smallest rank if descending
ascending : boolean, default True
False for ranks by high (1) to low (N)
pct : boolean, default False
Computes percentage rank of data
Returns ranks : same type as caller

34.16.3.44 pandas.core.groupby.DataFrameGroupBy.resample

DataFrameGroupBy.resample(rule, *args, **kwargs)

Provide resampling when using a TimeGrouper Return a new grouper with our resampler appended
See also:
pandas.Series.groupby, pandas.DataFrame.groupby, pandas.Panel.groupby

34.16.3.45 pandas.core.groupby.DataFrameGroupBy.shift

DataFrameGroupBy.shift(periods=1, freq=None, axis=0)

Shift each group by periods observations
Parameters periods : integer, default 1

1930 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

number of periods to shift

freq : frequency string
axis : axis to shift, default 0
See also:
pandas.Series.groupby, pandas.DataFrame.groupby, pandas.Panel.groupby

34.16.3.46 pandas.core.groupby.DataFrameGroupBy.size

DataFrameGroupBy.size()
Compute group sizes
See also:
pandas.Series.groupby, pandas.DataFrame.groupby, pandas.Panel.groupby

34.16.3.47 pandas.core.groupby.DataFrameGroupBy.skew

DataFrameGroupBy.skew
Return unbiased skew over requested axis Normalized by N-1
Parameters axis : {index (0), columns (1)}
skipna : boolean, default True
Exclude NA/null values. If an entire row/column is NA or empty, the result will be
NA
level : int or level name, default None
If the axis is a MultiIndex (hierarchical), count along a particular level, collapsing
into a Series
numeric_only : boolean, default None
Include only float, int, boolean columns. If None, will attempt to use everything,
then use only numeric data. Not implemented for Series.
Returns skew : Series or DataFrame (if level specified)

34.16.3.48 pandas.core.groupby.DataFrameGroupBy.take

DataFrameGroupBy.take
Return the elements in the given positional indices along an axis.
This means that we are not indexing according to actual values in the index attribute of the object. We are
indexing according to the actual position of the element in the object.
Parameters indices : array-like
An array of ints indicating which positions to take.
axis : int, default 0
The axis on which to select elements. “0” means that we are selecting rows, “1”
means that we are selecting columns, etc.
convert : bool, default True

34.16. GroupBy 1931

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Deprecated since version 0.21.0: In the future, negative indices will always be con-
verted.
Whether to convert negative indices into positive ones. For example, -1 would map
to the len(axis) - 1. The conversions are similar to the behavior of indexing a
regular Python list.
is_copy : bool, default True
Whether to return a copy of the original object or not.
Returns taken : type of caller
An array-like containing the elements taken from the object.
See also:
numpy.ndarray.take, numpy.take

Examples

>>> df = pd.DataFrame([('falcon', 'bird', 389.0),

('parrot', 'bird', 24.0),
('lion', 'mammal', 80.5),
('monkey', 'mammal', np.nan)],
columns=('name', 'class', 'max_speed'),
index=[0, 2, 3, 1])
>>> df
name class max_speed
0 falcon bird 389.0
2 parrot bird 24.0
3 lion mammal 80.5
1 monkey mammal NaN

Take elements at positions 0 and 3 along the axis 0 (default).

Note how the actual indices selected (0 and 1) do not correspond to our selected indices 0 and 3. That’s because
we are selecting the 0th and 3rd rows, not rows whose indices equal 0 and 3.

>>> df.take([0, 3])

0 falcon bird 389.0
1 monkey mammal NaN

Take elements at indices 1 and 2 along the axis 1 (column selection).

>>> df.take([1, 2], axis=1)

class max_speed
0 bird 389.0
2 bird 24.0
3 mammal 80.5
1 mammal NaN

We may take elements using negative integers for positive indices, starting from the end of the object, just like
with Python lists.

>>> df.take([-1, -2])

name class max_speed
1 monkey mammal NaN
3 lion mammal 80.5

1932 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

34.16.3.49 pandas.core.groupby.DataFrameGroupBy.tshift

DataFrameGroupBy.tshift
Shift the time index, using the index’s frequency if available.
Parameters periods : int
Number of periods to move, can be positive or negative
freq : DateOffset, timedelta, or time rule string, default None
Increment to use from the tseries module or time rule (e.g. ‘EOM’)
axis : int or basestring
Corresponds to the axis that contains the Index
Returns shifted : NDFrame

Notes

If freq is not specified then tries to use the freq or inferred_freq attributes of the index. If neither of those
attributes exist, a ValueError is thrown
The following methods are available only for SeriesGroupBy objects.

SeriesGroupBy.nlargest Return the largest n elements.

SeriesGroupBy.nsmallest Return the smallest n elements.
SeriesGroupBy.nunique([dropna]) Returns number of unique elements in the group
SeriesGroupBy.unique Return unique values in the object.
SeriesGroupBy.value_counts([normalize, ...])

34.16.3.50 pandas.core.groupby.SeriesGroupBy.nlargest

SeriesGroupBy.nlargest
Return the largest n elements.
Parameters n : int
Return this many descending sorted values
keep : {‘first’, ‘last’, False}, default ‘first’
Where there are duplicate values: - first : take the first occurrence. - last : take
the last occurrence.
Returns top_n : Series
The n largest values in the Series, in sorted order
See also:
Series.nsmallest

Notes

Faster than .sort_values(ascending=False).head(n) for small n relative to the size of the

Series object.

34.16. GroupBy 1933

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Examples

>>> import pandas as pd

>>> import numpy as np
>>> s = pd.Series(np.random.randn(10**6))
>>> s.nlargest(10) # only sorts up to the N requested
219921 4.644710
82124 4.608745
421689 4.564644
425277 4.447014
718691 4.414137
43154 4.403520
283187 4.313922
595519 4.273635
503969 4.250236
121637 4.240952
dtype: float64

34.16.3.51 pandas.core.groupby.SeriesGroupBy.nsmallest

SeriesGroupBy.nsmallest
Return the smallest n elements.
Parameters n : int
Return this many ascending sorted values
keep : {‘first’, ‘last’, False}, default ‘first’
Where there are duplicate values: - first : take the first occurrence. - last : take
the last occurrence.
Returns bottom_n : Series
The n smallest values in the Series, in sorted order
See also:
Series.nlargest

Notes

Faster than .sort_values().head(n) for small n relative to the size of the Series object.

Examples

>>> import pandas as pd

>>> import numpy as np
>>> s = pd.Series(np.random.randn(10**6))
>>> s.nsmallest(10) # only sorts up to the N requested
288532 -4.954580
732345 -4.835960
64803 -4.812550
446457 -4.609998
501225 -4.483945
669476 -4.472935

1934 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

973615 -4.401699
621279 -4.355126
773916 -4.347355
359919 -4.331927
dtype: float64

34.16.3.52 pandas.core.groupby.SeriesGroupBy.nunique

SeriesGroupBy.nunique(dropna=True)
Returns number of unique elements in the group

34.16.3.53 pandas.core.groupby.SeriesGroupBy.unique

SeriesGroupBy.unique
Return unique values in the object. Uniques are returned in order of appearance, this does NOT sort. Hash
table-based unique.
Parameters values : 1d array-like
Returns unique values.
• If the input is an Index, the return is an Index
• If the input is a Categorical dtype, the return is a Categorical
• If the input is a Series/ndarray, the return will be an ndarray
See also:
unique, Index.unique, Series.unique

34.16.3.54 pandas.core.groupby.SeriesGroupBy.value_counts

SeriesGroupBy.value_counts(normalize=False, sort=True, ascending=False, bins=None,

dropna=True)
The following methods are available only for DataFrameGroupBy objects.

DataFrameGroupBy.corrwith Compute pairwise correlation between rows or columns of

two DataFrame objects.
DataFrameGroupBy.boxplot(grouped[, ...]) Make box plots from DataFrameGroupBy data.

34.16.3.55 pandas.core.groupby.DataFrameGroupBy.corrwith

DataFrameGroupBy.corrwith
Compute pairwise correlation between rows or columns of two DataFrame objects.
Parameters other : DataFrame
axis : {0 or ‘index’, 1 or ‘columns’}, default 0
0 or ‘index’ to compute column-wise, 1 or ‘columns’ for row-wise
drop : boolean, default False
Drop missing indices from result, default returns union of all

34.16. GroupBy 1935

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Returns correls : Series

34.16.3.56 pandas.core.groupby.DataFrameGroupBy.boxplot

DataFrameGroupBy.boxplot(grouped, subplots=True, column=None, fontsize=None, rot=0,

grid=True, ax=None, figsize=None, layout=None, **kwds)
Make box plots from DataFrameGroupBy data.
Parameters grouped : Grouped DataFrame
subplots :
• False - no subplots will be used
• True - create a subplot for each group
column : column name or list of names, or vector
Can be any valid input to groupby
fontsize : int or string
rot : label rotation angle
grid : Setting this to True will show the grid
ax : Matplotlib axis object, default None
figsize : A tuple (width, height) in inches
layout : tuple (optional)
(rows, columns) for the layout of the plot
kwds : other plotting keyword arguments to be passed to matplotlib boxplot
function
Returns dict of key/value = group key/DataFrame.boxplot return value
or DataFrame.boxplot return value in case subplots=figures=False

Examples

>>> import pandas

>>> import numpy as np
>>> import itertools
>>>
>>> tuples = [t for t in itertools.product(range(1000), range(4))]
>>> index = pandas.MultiIndex.from_tuples(tuples, names=['lvl0', 'lvl1'])
>>> data = np.random.randn(len(index),4)
>>> df = pandas.DataFrame(data, columns=list('ABCD'), index=index)
>>>
>>> grouped = df.groupby(level='lvl1')
>>> boxplot_frame_groupby(grouped)
>>>
>>> grouped = df.unstack(level='lvl1').groupby(level=0, axis=1)
>>> boxplot_frame_groupby(grouped, subplots=False)

1936 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

34.17 Resampling

Resampler objects are returned by resample calls: pandas.DataFrame.resample(), pandas.Series.

resample().

34.17.1 Indexing, iteration

Resampler.__iter__() Groupby iterator

Resampler.groups dict {group name -> group labels}
Resampler.indices dict {group name -> group indices}
Resampler.get_group(name[, obj]) Constructs NDFrame from group with provided name

34.17.1.1 pandas.core.resample.Resampler.__iter__

Resampler.__iter__()
Groupby iterator
Returns Generator yielding sequence of (name, subsetted object)
for each group

34.17.1.2 pandas.core.resample.Resampler.groups

Resampler.groups
dict {group name -> group labels}

34.17.1.3 pandas.core.resample.Resampler.indices

Resampler.indices
dict {group name -> group indices}

34.17.1.4 pandas.core.resample.Resampler.get_group

Resampler.get_group(name, obj=None)
Constructs NDFrame from group with provided name
Parameters name : object
the name of the group to get as a DataFrame
obj : NDFrame, default None
the NDFrame to take the DataFrame out of. If it is None, the object groupby was
called on will be used
Returns group : type of obj

34.17.2 Function application

34.17. Resampling 1937

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Resampler.apply(arg, *args, **kwargs) Aggregate using callable, string, dict, or list of

string/callables
Resampler.aggregate(arg, *args, **kwargs) Aggregate using callable, string, dict, or list of
string/callables
Resampler.transform(arg, *args, **kwargs) Call function producing a like-indexed Series on each
group and return

34.17.2.1 pandas.core.resample.Resampler.apply

Resampler.apply(arg, *args, **kwargs)

Aggregate using callable, string, dict, or list of string/callables
Parameters func : callable, string, dictionary, or list of string/callables
Function to use for aggregating the data. If a function, must either work when passed
a DataFrame or when passed to DataFrame.apply. For a DataFrame, can pass a dict,
if the keys are DataFrame column names.
Accepted Combinations are:
• string function name
• function
• list of functions
• dict of column names -> functions (or list of functions)
Returns aggregated : DataFrame
See also:
pandas.DataFrame.groupby.aggregate, pandas.DataFrame.resample.transform,
pandas.DataFrame.aggregate

Notes

Numpy functions mean/median/prod/sum/std/var are special cased so the default behavior is applying the func-
tion along axis=0 (e.g., np.mean(arr_2d, axis=0)) as opposed to mimicking the default Numpy behavior (e.g.,
np.mean(arr_2d)).
agg is an alias for aggregate. Use the alias.

Examples

>>> s = Series([1,2,3,4,5],
index=pd.date_range('20130101',
periods=5,freq='s'))
2013-01-01 00:00:00 1
2013-01-01 00:00:01 2
2013-01-01 00:00:02 3
2013-01-01 00:00:03 4
2013-01-01 00:00:04 5
Freq: S, dtype: int64

1938 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

>>> r = s.resample('2s')
DatetimeIndexResampler [freq=<2 * Seconds>, axis=0, closed=left,
label=left, convention=start, base=0]

>>> r.agg(np.sum)
2013-01-01 00:00:00 3
2013-01-01 00:00:02 7
2013-01-01 00:00:04 5
Freq: 2S, dtype: int64

>>> r.agg(['sum','mean','max'])
sum mean max
2013-01-01 00:00:00 3 1.5 2
2013-01-01 00:00:02 7 3.5 4
2013-01-01 00:00:04 5 5.0 5

>>> r.agg({'result' : lambda x: x.mean() / x.std(),

'total' : np.sum})
total result
2013-01-01 00:00:00 3 2.121320
2013-01-01 00:00:02 7 4.949747
2013-01-01 00:00:04 5 NaN

34.17.2.2 pandas.core.resample.Resampler.aggregate

Resampler.aggregate(arg, *args, **kwargs)

Aggregate using callable, string, dict, or list of string/callables
Parameters func : callable, string, dictionary, or list of string/callables
Function to use for aggregating the data. If a function, must either work when passed
a DataFrame or when passed to DataFrame.apply. For a DataFrame, can pass a dict,
if the keys are DataFrame column names.
Accepted Combinations are:
• string function name
• function
• list of functions
• dict of column names -> functions (or list of functions)
Returns aggregated : DataFrame
See also:
pandas.DataFrame.groupby.aggregate, pandas.DataFrame.resample.transform,
pandas.DataFrame.aggregate

Notes

Numpy functions mean/median/prod/sum/std/var are special cased so the default behavior is applying the func-
tion along axis=0 (e.g., np.mean(arr_2d, axis=0)) as opposed to mimicking the default Numpy behavior (e.g.,
np.mean(arr_2d)).
agg is an alias for aggregate. Use the alias.

34.17. Resampling 1939

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Examples

>>> s = Series([1,2,3,4,5],
index=pd.date_range('20130101',
periods=5,freq='s'))
2013-01-01 00:00:00 1
2013-01-01 00:00:01 2
2013-01-01 00:00:02 3
2013-01-01 00:00:03 4
2013-01-01 00:00:04 5
Freq: S, dtype: int64

>>> r = s.resample('2s')
DatetimeIndexResampler [freq=<2 * Seconds>, axis=0, closed=left,
label=left, convention=start, base=0]

>>> r.agg(np.sum)
2013-01-01 00:00:00 3
2013-01-01 00:00:02 7
2013-01-01 00:00:04 5
Freq: 2S, dtype: int64

>>> r.agg(['sum','mean','max'])
sum mean max
2013-01-01 00:00:00 3 1.5 2
2013-01-01 00:00:02 7 3.5 4
2013-01-01 00:00:04 5 5.0 5

>>> r.agg({'result' : lambda x: x.mean() / x.std(),

'total' : np.sum})
total result
2013-01-01 00:00:00 3 2.121320
2013-01-01 00:00:02 7 4.949747
2013-01-01 00:00:04 5 NaN

34.17.2.3 pandas.core.resample.Resampler.transform

Resampler.transform(arg, *args, **kwargs)

Call function producing a like-indexed Series on each group and return a Series with the transformed values
Parameters func : function
To apply to each group. Should return a Series with the same index
Returns transformed : Series

Examples

>>> resampled.transform(lambda x: (x - x.mean()) / x.std())

34.17.3 Upsampling

1940 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Resampler.ffill([limit]) Forward fill the values

Resampler.backfill([limit]) Backward fill the values
Resampler.bfill([limit]) Backward fill the values
Resampler.pad([limit]) Forward fill the values
Resampler.nearest([limit]) Fill values with nearest neighbor starting from center
Resampler.fillna(method[, limit]) Fill missing values
Resampler.asfreq([fill_value]) return the values at the new freq,
Resampler.interpolate([method, axis, limit, ...]) Interpolate values according to different methods.

34.17.3.1 pandas.core.resample.Resampler.ffill

Resampler.ffill(limit=None)
Forward fill the values
Parameters limit : integer, optional
limit of how many values to fill
Returns an upsampled Series
See also:
Series.fillna, DataFrame.fillna

34.17.3.2 pandas.core.resample.Resampler.backfill

Resampler.backfill(limit=None)
Backward fill the values
Parameters limit : integer, optional
limit of how many values to fill
Returns an upsampled Series
See also:
Series.fillna, DataFrame.fillna

34.17.3.3 pandas.core.resample.Resampler.bfill

Resampler.bfill(limit=None)
Backward fill the values
Parameters limit : integer, optional
limit of how many values to fill
Returns an upsampled Series
See also:
Series.fillna, DataFrame.fillna

34.17. Resampling 1941

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

34.17.3.4 pandas.core.resample.Resampler.pad

Resampler.pad(limit=None)
Forward fill the values
Parameters limit : integer, optional
limit of how many values to fill
Returns an upsampled Series
See also:
Series.fillna, DataFrame.fillna

34.17.3.5 pandas.core.resample.Resampler.nearest

Resampler.nearest(limit=None)
Fill values with nearest neighbor starting from center
Parameters limit : integer, optional
limit of how many values to fill
New in version 0.21.0.
Returns an upsampled Series
See also:
Series.fillna, DataFrame.fillna

34.17.3.6 pandas.core.resample.Resampler.fillna

Resampler.fillna(method, limit=None)
Fill missing values
Parameters method : str, method of resampling (‘ffill’, ‘bfill’)
limit : integer, optional
limit of how many values to fill
See also:
Series.fillna, DataFrame.fillna

34.17.3.7 pandas.core.resample.Resampler.asfreq

Resampler.asfreq(fill_value=None)
return the values at the new freq, essentially a reindex
Parameters fill_value: scalar, optional
Value to use for missing values, applied during upsampling (note this does not fill
NaNs that already were present).
New in version 0.20.0.
See also:
Series.asfreq, DataFrame.asfreq

1942 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

34.17.3.8 pandas.core.resample.Resampler.interpolate

Resampler.interpolate(method=’linear’, axis=0, limit=None, inplace=False,

limit_direction=’forward’, downcast=None, **kwargs)
Interpolate values according to different methods.
New in version 0.18.1.
Please note that only method='linear' is supported for DataFrames/Series with a MultiIndex.
Parameters method : {‘linear’, ‘time’, ‘index’, ‘values’, ‘nearest’, ‘zero’,
‘slinear’, ‘quadratic’, ‘cubic’, ‘barycentric’, ‘krogh’, ‘polynomial’, ‘spline’,
‘piecewise_polynomial’, ‘from_derivatives’, ‘pchip’, ‘akima’}

• ‘linear’: ignore the index and treat the values as equally spaced. This is the only
method supported on MultiIndexes. default
• ‘time’: interpolation works on daily and higher resolution data to interpolate
given length of interval
• ‘index’, ‘values’: use the actual numerical values of the index
• ‘nearest’, ‘zero’, ‘slinear’, ‘quadratic’, ‘cubic’, ‘barycentric’, ‘polyno-
mial’ is passed to scipy.interpolate.interp1d. Both ‘poly-
nomial’ and ‘spline’ require that you also specify an order (int), e.g.
df.interpolate(method=’polynomial’, order=4). These use the actual numerical
values of the index.
• ‘krogh’, ‘piecewise_polynomial’, ‘spline’, ‘pchip’ and ‘akima’ are all wrappers
around the scipy interpolation methods of similar names. These use the actual
numerical values of the index. For more information on their behavior, see the
scipy documentation and tutorial documentation
• ‘from_derivatives’ refers to BPoly.from_derivatives which replaces ‘piece-
wise_polynomial’ interpolation method in scipy 0.18

New in version 0.18.1: Added support for the ‘akima’ method Added interpolate
method ‘from_derivatives’ which replaces ‘piecewise_polynomial’ in scipy 0.18;
backwards-compatible with scipy < 0.18
axis : {0, 1}, default 0
• 0: fill column-by-column
• 1: fill row-by-row
limit : int, default None.
Maximum number of consecutive NaNs to fill. Must be greater than 0.
limit_direction : {‘forward’, ‘backward’, ‘both’}, default ‘forward’
If limit is specified, consecutive NaNs will be filled in this direction.
New in version 0.17.0.
inplace : bool, default False
Update the NDFrame in place if possible.
downcast : optional, ‘infer’ or None, defaults to None
Downcast dtypes if possible.

34.17. Resampling 1943

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

kwargs : keyword arguments to pass on to the interpolating function.

Returns Series or DataFrame of same shape interpolated at the NaNs
See also:
reindex, replace, fillna

Examples

Filling in NaNs

>>> s = pd.Series([0, 1, np.nan, 3])

>>> s.interpolate()
0 0
1 1
2 2
3 3
dtype: float64

34.17.4 Computations / Descriptive Stats

Resampler.count([_method]) Compute count of group, excluding missing values

Resampler.nunique([_method]) Returns number of unique elements in the group
Resampler.first([_method]) Compute first of group values
Resampler.last([_method]) Compute last of group values
Resampler.max([_method]) Compute max of group values
Resampler.mean([_method]) Compute mean of groups, excluding missing values
Resampler.median([_method]) Compute median of groups, excluding missing values
Resampler.min([_method]) Compute min of group values
Resampler.ohlc([_method]) Compute sum of values, excluding missing values
Resampler.prod([_method]) Compute prod of group values
Resampler.size() Compute group sizes
Resampler.sem([_method]) Compute standard error of the mean of groups, excluding
missing values
Resampler.std([ddof]) Compute standard deviation of groups, excluding missing
values
Resampler.sum([_method]) Compute sum of group values
Resampler.var([ddof]) Compute variance of groups, excluding missing values

34.17.4.1 pandas.core.resample.Resampler.count

Resampler.count(_method=’count’)
Compute count of group, excluding missing values
See also:
pandas.Series.groupby, pandas.DataFrame.groupby, pandas.Panel.groupby

1944 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

34.17.4.2 pandas.core.resample.Resampler.nunique

Resampler.nunique(_method=’nunique’)
Returns number of unique elements in the group

34.17.4.3 pandas.core.resample.Resampler.first

Resampler.first(_method=’first’, *args, **kwargs)

Compute first of group values
See also:
pandas.Series.groupby, pandas.DataFrame.groupby, pandas.Panel.groupby

34.17.4.4 pandas.core.resample.Resampler.last

Resampler.last(_method=’last’, *args, **kwargs)

Compute last of group values
See also:
pandas.Series.groupby, pandas.DataFrame.groupby, pandas.Panel.groupby

34.17.4.5 pandas.core.resample.Resampler.max

Resampler.max(_method=’max’, *args, **kwargs)

Compute max of group values
See also:
pandas.Series.groupby, pandas.DataFrame.groupby, pandas.Panel.groupby

34.17.4.6 pandas.core.resample.Resampler.mean

Resampler.mean(_method=’mean’, *args, **kwargs)

Compute mean of groups, excluding missing values
For multiple groupings, the result index will be a MultiIndex
See also:
pandas.Series.groupby, pandas.DataFrame.groupby, pandas.Panel.groupby

34.17.4.7 pandas.core.resample.Resampler.median

Resampler.median(_method=’median’, *args, **kwargs)

Compute median of groups, excluding missing values
For multiple groupings, the result index will be a MultiIndex
See also:
pandas.Series.groupby, pandas.DataFrame.groupby, pandas.Panel.groupby

34.17. Resampling 1945

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

34.17.4.8 pandas.core.resample.Resampler.min

Resampler.min(_method=’min’, *args, **kwargs)

Compute min of group values
See also:
pandas.Series.groupby, pandas.DataFrame.groupby, pandas.Panel.groupby

34.17.4.9 pandas.core.resample.Resampler.ohlc

Resampler.ohlc(_method=’ohlc’, *args, **kwargs)

Compute sum of values, excluding missing values For multiple groupings, the result index will be a MultiIndex
See also:
pandas.Series.groupby, pandas.DataFrame.groupby, pandas.Panel.groupby

34.17.4.10 pandas.core.resample.Resampler.prod

Resampler.prod(_method=’prod’, *args, **kwargs)

Compute prod of group values
See also:
pandas.Series.groupby, pandas.DataFrame.groupby, pandas.Panel.groupby

34.17.4.11 pandas.core.resample.Resampler.size

Resampler.size()
Compute group sizes
See also:
pandas.Series.groupby, pandas.DataFrame.groupby, pandas.Panel.groupby

34.17.4.12 pandas.core.resample.Resampler.sem

Resampler.sem(_method=’sem’, *args, **kwargs)

Compute standard error of the mean of groups, excluding missing values
For multiple groupings, the result index will be a MultiIndex
Parameters ddof : integer, default 1
degrees of freedom
See also:
pandas.Series.groupby, pandas.DataFrame.groupby, pandas.Panel.groupby

34.17.4.13 pandas.core.resample.Resampler.std

Resampler.std(ddof=1, *args, **kwargs)

Compute standard deviation of groups, excluding missing values

1946 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Parameters ddof : integer, default 1

degrees of freedom

34.17.4.14 pandas.core.resample.Resampler.sum

Resampler.sum(_method=’sum’, *args, **kwargs)

Compute sum of group values
See also:
pandas.Series.groupby, pandas.DataFrame.groupby, pandas.Panel.groupby

34.17.4.15 pandas.core.resample.Resampler.var

Resampler.var(ddof=1, *args, **kwargs)

Compute variance of groups, excluding missing values
Parameters ddof : integer, default 1
degrees of freedom

34.18 Style

Styler objects are returned by pandas.DataFrame.style.

34.18.1 Constructor

Styler(data[, precision, table_styles, ...]) Helps style a DataFrame or Series according to the data
with HTML and CSS.

34.18.1.1 pandas.io.formats.style.Styler

class pandas.io.formats.style.Styler(data, precision=None, table_styles=None, uuid=None,

caption=None, table_attributes=None)
Helps style a DataFrame or Series according to the data with HTML and CSS.
New in version 0.17.1.

Warning: This is a new feature and is under active development. We’ll be adding features and possibly
making breaking changes in future releases.

Parameters data: Series or DataFrame

precision: int
precision to round floats to, defaults to pd.options.display.precision
table_styles: list-like, default None
list of {selector: (attr, value)} dicts; see Notes
uuid: str, default None

34.18. Style 1947

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

a unique identifier to avoid CSS collisons; generated automatically

caption: str, default None
caption to attach to the table

See also:
pandas.DataFrame.style

Notes

Most styling will be done by passing style functions into Styler.apply or Styler.applymap. Style
functions should return values with strings containing CSS 'attr: value' that will be applied to the
indicated cells.
If using in the Jupyter notebook, Styler has defined a _repr_html_ to automatically render itself. Otherwise
call Styler.render to get the genterated HTML.
CSS classes are attached to the generated HTML
• Index and Column names include index_name and level<k> where k is its level in a MultiIndex
• Index label cells include
– row_heading
– row<n> where n is the numeric position of the row
– level<k> where k is the level in a MultiIndex
• Column label cells include * col_heading * col<n> where n is the numeric position of the column
* evel<k> where k is the level in a MultiIndex
• Blank cells include blank
• Data cells include data

Attributes

env
template
loader

pandas.io.formats.style.Styler.env

Styler.env = <jinja2.environment.Environment object>

pandas.io.formats.style.Styler.template

Styler.template = <Template ‘html.tpl’>

pandas.io.formats.style.Styler.loader

Styler.loader = <jinja2.loaders.PackageLoader object>

1948 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Methods

apply(func[, axis, subset]) Apply a function column-wise, row-wise, or table-wase,

updating the HTML representation with the result.
applymap(func[, subset]) Apply a function elementwise, updating the HTML rep-
resentation with the result.
background_gradient([cmap, low, high, axis, Color the background in a gradient according to the data
...]) in each column (optionally row).
bar([subset, axis, color, width, align]) Color the background color proptional to the values
in each column.
clear() “Reset” the styler, removing any previously applied
styles.
export() Export the styles to applied to the current Styler.
format(formatter[, subset]) Format the text display value of cells.
from_custom_template(searchpath, name) Factory function for creating a subclass of Styler
with a custom template and Jinja environment.
highlight_max([subset, color, axis]) Highlight the maximum by shading the background
highlight_min([subset, color, axis]) Highlight the minimum by shading the background
highlight_null([null_color]) Shade the background null_color for missing val-
ues.
render(**kwargs) Render the built up styles to HTML
set_caption(caption) Se the caption on a Styler
set_precision(precision) Set the precision used to render.
set_properties([subset]) Convience method for setting one or more non-data de-
pendent properties or each cell.
set_table_attributes(attributes) Set the table attributes.
set_table_styles(table_styles) Set the table styles on a Styler.
set_uuid(uuid) Set the uuid for a Styler.
to_excel(excel_writer[, sheet_name, na_rep, ...]) Write Styler to an excel sheet
use(styles) Set the styles on the current Styler, possibly using styles
from Styler.export.
where(cond, value[, other, subset]) Apply a function elementwise, updating the HTML rep-
resentation with a style which is selected in accordance
with the return value of a function.

pandas.io.formats.style.Styler.apply

Styler.apply(func, axis=0, subset=None, **kwargs)

Apply a function column-wise, row-wise, or table-wase, updating the HTML representation with the
result.
New in version 0.17.1.
Parameters func : function
func should take a Series or DataFrame (depending on axis), and return an
object with the same shape. Must return a DataFrame with identical index and
column labels when axis=None
axis : int, str or None
apply to each column (axis=0 or 'index') or to each row (axis=1 or
'columns') or to the entire DataFrame at once with axis=None

34.18. Style 1949

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

subset : IndexSlice
a valid indexer to limit data to before applying the function. Consider using a
pandas.IndexSlice
kwargs : dict
pass along to func
Returns self : Styler

Notes

The output shape of func should match the input, i.e. if x is the input row, column, or table (depending
on axis), then func(x.shape) == x.shape should be true.
This is similar to DataFrame.apply, except that axis=None applies the function to the entire
DataFrame at once, rather than column-wise or row-wise.

Examples

>>> def highlight_max(x):

... return ['background-color: yellow' if v == x.max() else ''
for v in x]
...
>>> df = pd.DataFrame(np.random.randn(5, 2))
>>> df.style.apply(highlight_max)

pandas.io.formats.style.Styler.applymap

Styler.applymap(func, subset=None, **kwargs)

Apply a function elementwise, updating the HTML representation with the result.
New in version 0.17.1.
Parameters func : function
func should take a scalar and return a scalar
subset : IndexSlice
a valid indexer to limit data to before applying the function. Consider using a
pandas.IndexSlice
kwargs : dict
pass along to func
Returns self : Styler
See also:
Styler.where

1950 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

pandas.io.formats.style.Styler.background_gradient

Styler.background_gradient(cmap=’PuBu’, low=0, high=0, axis=0, subset=None)

Color the background in a gradient according to the data in each column (optionally row). Requires
matplotlib.
New in version 0.17.1.
Parameters cmap: str or colormap
matplotlib colormap
low, high: float
compress the range by these values.
axis: int or str
1 or ‘columns’ for columnwise, 0 or ‘index’ for rowwise
subset: IndexSlice
a valid slice for data to limit the style application to
Returns self : Styler

Notes

Tune low and high to keep the text legible by not using the entire range of the color map. These extend
the range of the data by low * (x.max() - x.min()) and high * (x.max() - x.min())
before normalizing.

pandas.io.formats.style.Styler.bar

Styler.bar(subset=None, axis=0, color=’#d65f5f’, width=100, align=’left’)

Color the background color proptional to the values in each column. Excludes non-numeric data by
default.
New in version 0.17.1.
Parameters subset: IndexSlice, default None
a valid slice for data to limit the style application to
axis: int
color: str or 2-tuple/list
If a str is passed, the color is the same for both negative and positive numbers. If
2-tuple/list is used, the first element is the color_negative and the second is the
color_positive (eg: [’#d65f5f’, ‘#5fba7d’])
width: float
A number between 0 or 100. The largest value will cover width percent of the
cell’s width
align : {‘left’, ‘zero’,’ mid’}, default ‘left’
• ‘left’ : the min value starts at the left of the cell
• ‘zero’ : a value of zero is located at the center of the cell

34.18. Style 1951

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• ‘mid’ : the center of the cell is at (max-min)/2, or if values are all negative (positive)
the zero is aligned at the right (left) of the cell
New in version 0.20.0.
Returns self : Styler

pandas.io.formats.style.Styler.clear

Styler.clear()
“Reset” the styler, removing any previously applied styles. Returns None.

pandas.io.formats.style.Styler.export

Styler.export()
Export the styles to applied to the current Styler. Can be applied to a second style with Styler.use.
New in version 0.17.1.
Returns styles: list
See also:
Styler.use

pandas.io.formats.style.Styler.format

Styler.format(formatter, subset=None)
Format the text display value of cells.
New in version 0.18.0.
Parameters formatter: str, callable, or dict
subset: IndexSlice
An argument to DataFrame.loc that restricts which elements formatter is
applied to.
Returns self : Styler

Notes

formatter is either an a or a dict {column name: a} where a is one of

• str: this will be wrapped in: a.format(x)
• callable: called with the value of an individual cell
The default display value for numeric values is the “general” (g) format with pd.options.display.
precision precision.

Examples

1952 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

>>> df = pd.DataFrame(np.random.randn(4, 2), columns=['a', 'b'])

>>> df.style.format("{:.2%}")
>>> df['c'] = ['a', 'b', 'c', 'd']
>>> df.style.format({'C': str.upper})

pandas.io.formats.style.Styler.from_custom_template

classmethod Styler.from_custom_template(searchpath, name)

Factory function for creating a subclass of Styler with a custom template and Jinja environment.
Parameters searchpath : str or list
Path or paths of directories containing the templates
name : str
Name of your custom template to use for rendering
Returns MyStyler : subclass of Styler
has the correct env and template class attributes set.

pandas.io.formats.style.Styler.highlight_max

Styler.highlight_max(subset=None, color=’yellow’, axis=0)

Highlight the maximum by shading the background
New in version 0.17.1.
Parameters subset: IndexSlice, default None
a valid slice for data to limit the style application to
color: str, default ‘yellow’
axis: int, str, or None; default 0
0 or ‘index’ for columnwise (default), 1 or ‘columns’ for rowwise, or None for
tablewise
Returns self : Styler

pandas.io.formats.style.Styler.highlight_min

Styler.highlight_min(subset=None, color=’yellow’, axis=0)

Highlight the minimum by shading the background
New in version 0.17.1.
Parameters subset: IndexSlice, default None
a valid slice for data to limit the style application to
color: str, default ‘yellow’
axis: int, str, or None; default 0
0 or ‘index’ for columnwise (default), 1 or ‘columns’ for rowwise, or None for
tablewise

34.18. Style 1953

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Returns self : Styler

pandas.io.formats.style.Styler.highlight_null

Styler.highlight_null(null_color=’red’)
Shade the background null_color for missing values.
New in version 0.17.1.
Parameters null_color: str
Returns self : Styler

pandas.io.formats.style.Styler.render

Styler.render(**kwargs)
Render the built up styles to HTML
New in version 0.17.1.
Parameters **kwargs:
Any additional keyword arguments are passed through to self.template.
render. This is useful when you need to provide additional variables for a
custom template.
New in version 0.20.
Returns rendered: str
the rendered HTML

Notes

Styler objects have defined the _repr_html_ method which automatically calls self.render()
when it’s the last item in a Notebook cell. When calling Styler.render() directly, wrap the result
in IPython.display.HTML to view the rendered HTML in the notebook.
Pandas uses the following keys in render. Arguments passed in **kwargs take precedence, so think
carefuly if you want to override them:
• head
• cellstyle
• body
• uuid
• precision
• table_styles
• caption
• table_attributes

1954 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

pandas.io.formats.style.Styler.set_caption

Styler.set_caption(caption)
Se the caption on a Styler
New in version 0.17.1.
Parameters caption: str
Returns self : Styler

pandas.io.formats.style.Styler.set_precision

Styler.set_precision(precision)
Set the precision used to render.
New in version 0.17.1.
Parameters precision: int
Returns self : Styler

pandas.io.formats.style.Styler.set_properties

Styler.set_properties(subset=None, **kwargs)
Convience method for setting one or more non-data dependent properties or each cell.
New in version 0.17.1.
Parameters subset: IndexSlice
a valid slice for data to limit the style application to
kwargs: dict
property: value pairs to be set for each cell
Returns self : Styler

Examples

>>> df = pd.DataFrame(np.random.randn(10, 4))

>>> df.style.set_properties(color="white", align="right")
>>> df.style.set_properties(**{'background-color': 'yellow'})

pandas.io.formats.style.Styler.set_table_attributes

Styler.set_table_attributes(attributes)
Set the table attributes. These are the items that show up in the opening <table> tag in addition to to
automatic (by default) id.
New in version 0.17.1.
Parameters attributes : string
Returns self : Styler

34.18. Style 1955

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Examples

>>> df = pd.DataFrame(np.random.randn(10, 4))

>>> df.style.set_table_attributes('class="pure-table"')
# ... <table class="pure-table"> ...

pandas.io.formats.style.Styler.set_table_styles

Styler.set_table_styles(table_styles)
Set the table styles on a Styler. These are placed in a <style> tag before the generated HTML table.
New in version 0.17.1.
Parameters table_styles: list
Each individual table_style should be a dictionary with selector and props
keys. selector should be a CSS selector that the style will be applied to (au-
tomatically prefixed by the table’s UUID) and props should be a list of tuples
with (attribute, value).
Returns self : Styler

Examples

>>> df = pd.DataFrame(np.random.randn(10, 4))

>>> df.style.set_table_styles(
... [{'selector': 'tr:hover',
... 'props': [('background-color', 'yellow')]}]
... )

pandas.io.formats.style.Styler.set_uuid

Styler.set_uuid(uuid)
Set the uuid for a Styler.
New in version 0.17.1.
Parameters uuid: str
Returns self : Styler

pandas.io.formats.style.Styler.to_excel

Styler.to_excel(excel_writer, sheet_name=’Sheet1’, na_rep=’‘, float_format=None,

columns=None, header=True, index=True, index_label=None, startrow=0,
startcol=0, engine=None, merge_cells=True, encoding=None, inf_rep=’inf’,
verbose=True, freeze_panes=None)
Write Styler to an excel sheet
New in version 0.20.
Parameters excel_writer : string or ExcelWriter object
File path or existing ExcelWriter

1956 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

sheet_name : string, default ‘Sheet1’

Name of sheet which will contain DataFrame
na_rep : string, default ‘’
Missing data representation
float_format : string, default None
Format string for floating point numbers
columns : sequence, optional
Columns to write
header : boolean or list of string, default True
Write out the column names. If a list of strings is given it is assumed to be aliases
for the column names
index : boolean, default True
Write row names (index)
index_label : string or sequence, default None
Column label for index column(s) if desired. If None is given, and header and
index are True, then the index names are used. A sequence should be given if the
DataFrame uses MultiIndex.
startrow :
upper left cell row to dump data frame
startcol :
upper left cell column to dump data frame
engine : string, default None
write engine to use - you can also set this via the options io.excel.xlsx.
writer, io.excel.xls.writer, and io.excel.xlsm.writer.
merge_cells : boolean, default True
Write MultiIndex and Hierarchical Rows as merged cells.
encoding: string, default None
encoding of the resulting excel file. Only necessary for xlwt, other writers support
unicode natively.
inf_rep : string, default ‘inf’
Representation for infinity (there is no native representation for infinity in Excel)
freeze_panes : tuple of integer (length 2), default None
Specifies the one-based bottommost row and rightmost column that is to be frozen
New in version 0.20.0.

Notes

If passing an existing ExcelWriter object, then the sheet will be added to the existing workbook. This can
be used to save different DataFrames to one workbook:

34.18. Style 1957

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

>>> writer = pd.ExcelWriter('output.xlsx')

>>> df1.to_excel(writer,'Sheet1')
>>> df2.to_excel(writer,'Sheet2')
>>> writer.save()

For compatibility with to_csv, to_excel serializes lists and dicts to strings before writing.

pandas.io.formats.style.Styler.use

Styler.use(styles)
Set the styles on the current Styler, possibly using styles from Styler.export.
New in version 0.17.1.
Parameters styles: list
list of style functions
Returns self : Styler
See also:
Styler.export

pandas.io.formats.style.Styler.where

Styler.where(cond, value, other=None, subset=None, **kwargs)

Apply a function elementwise, updating the HTML representation with a style which is selected in accor-
dance with the return value of a function.
New in version 0.21.0.
Parameters cond : callable
cond should take a scalar and return a boolean
value : str
applied when cond returns true
other : str
applied when cond returns false
subset : IndexSlice
a valid indexer to limit data to before applying the function. Consider using a
pandas.IndexSlice
kwargs : dict
pass along to cond
Returns self : Styler
See also:
Styler.applymap

1958 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

34.18.2 Style Application

34.18. Style 1959

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Styler.apply(func[, axis, subset]) Apply a function column-wise, row-wise, or table-wase,

updating the HTML representation with the result.
Styler.applymap(func[, subset]) Apply a function elementwise, updating the HTML repre-
sentation with the result.
Styler.where(cond, value[, other, subset]) Apply a function elementwise, updating the HTML repre-
sentation with a style which is selected in accordance with
the return value of a function.
Styler.format(formatter[, subset]) Format the text display value of cells.
Styler.set_precision(precision) Set the precision used to render.
Styler.set_table_styles(table_styles) Set the table styles on a Styler.
Styler.set_caption(caption) Se the caption on a Styler
Styler.set_properties([subset]) Convience method for setting one or more non-data depen-
dent properties or each cell.
Styler.set_uuid(uuid) Set the uuid for a Styler.
Styler.clear() “Reset” the styler, removing any previously applied styles.

34.18.3 Builtin Styles

Styler.highlight_max([subset, color, axis]) Highlight the maximum by shading the background

Styler.highlight_min([subset, color, axis]) Highlight the minimum by shading the background
Styler.highlight_null([null_color]) Shade the background null_color for missing values.
Styler.background_gradient([cmap, low, ...]) Color the background in a gradient according to the data in
each column (optionally row).
Styler.bar([subset, axis, color, width, align]) Color the background color proptional to the values in
each column.

34.18.4 Style Export and Import

Styler.render(**kwargs) Render the built up styles to HTML

Styler.export() Export the styles to applied to the current Styler.
Styler.use(styles) Set the styles on the current Styler, possibly using styles
from Styler.export.

34.19 General utility functions

34.19.1 Working with options

describe_option(pat[, _print_desc]) Prints the description for one or more registered options.
reset_option(pat) Reset one or more options to their default value.
get_option(pat) Retrieves the value of the specified option.
set_option(pat, value) Sets the value of the specified option.
option_context(*args) Context manager to temporarily set options in the with
statement context.

1960 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

34.19.1.1 pandas.describe_option

pandas.describe_option(pat, _print_desc=False) = <pandas.core.config.CallableDynamicDoc ob-

ject>
Prints the description for one or more registered options.
Call with not arguments to get a listing for all registered options.
Available options:
• compute.[use_bottleneck, use_numexpr]
• display.[chop_threshold, colheader_justify, column_space, date_dayfirst, date_yearfirst, encoding, ex-
pand_frame_repr, float_format, height]
• display.html.[border, table_schema]
• display.[large_repr]
• display.latex.[escape, longtable, multicolumn, multicolumn_format, multirow, repr]
• display.[line_width, max_categories, max_columns, max_colwidth, max_info_columns, max_info_rows,
max_rows, max_seq_items, memory_usage, multi_sparse, notebook_repr_html, pprint_nest_depth, pre-
cision, show_dimensions]
• display.unicode.[ambiguous_as_wide, east_asian_width]
• display.[width]
• html.[border]
• io.excel.xls.[writer]
• io.excel.xlsm.[writer]
• io.excel.xlsx.[writer]
• io.hdf.[default_format, dropna_table]
• io.parquet.[engine]
• mode.[chained_assignment, sim_interactive, use_inf_as_na, use_inf_as_null]

Parameters pat : str

Regexp pattern. All matching keys will have their description displayed.
_print_desc : bool, default True
If True (default) the description(s) will be printed to stdout. Otherwise, the descrip-
tion(s) will be returned as a unicode string (for testing).
Returns None by default, the description(s) as a unicode string if _print_desc
is False

Notes

The available options with its descriptions:

compute.use_bottleneck [bool] Use the bottleneck library to accelerate if it is installed, the default is True
Valid values: False,True [default: True] [currently: True]
compute.use_numexpr [bool] Use the numexpr library to accelerate computation if it is installed, the default
is True Valid values: False,True [default: True] [currently: True]

34.19. General utility functions 1961

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

display.chop_threshold [float or None] if set to a float value, all float values smaller then the given threshold
will be displayed as exactly 0 by repr and friends. [default: None] [currently: None]
display.colheader_justify [‘left’/’right’] Controls the justification of column headers. used by DataFrameFor-
matter. [default: right] [currently: right]
display.column_space No description available. [default: 12] [currently: 12]
display.date_dayfirst [boolean] When True, prints and parses dates with the day first, eg 20/01/2005 [default:
False] [currently: False]
display.date_yearfirst [boolean] When True, prints and parses dates with the year first, eg 2005/01/20 [default:
False] [currently: False]
display.encoding [str/unicode] Defaults to the detected encoding of the console. Specifies the encoding to be
used for strings returned by to_string, these are generally strings meant to be displayed on the console.
[default: UTF-8] [currently: UTF-8]
display.expand_frame_repr [boolean] Whether to print out the full DataFrame repr for wide DataFrames
across multiple lines, max_columns is still respected, but the output will wrap-around across multiple
“pages” if its width exceeds display.width. [default: True] [currently: True]
display.float_format [callable] The callable should accept a floating point number and return a string with
the desired format of the number. This is used in some places like SeriesFormatter. See for-
mats.format.EngFormatter for an example. [default: None] [currently: None]
display.height [int] Deprecated. [default: 60] [currently: 60]
display.html.border [int] A border=value attribute is inserted in the <table> tag for the DataFrame
HTML repr. [default: 1] [currently: 1]
display.html.table_schema [boolean] Whether to publish a Table Schema representation for frontends that
support it. (default: False) [default: False] [currently: False]
display.large_repr [‘truncate’/’info’] For DataFrames exceeding max_rows/max_cols, the repr (and HTML
repr) can show a truncated table (the default from 0.13), or switch to the view from df.info() (the behaviour
in earlier versions of pandas). [default: truncate] [currently: truncate]
display.latex.escape [bool] This specifies if the to_latex method of a Dataframe uses escapes special characters.
Valid values: False,True [default: True] [currently: True]
display.latex.longtable :bool This specifies if the to_latex method of a Dataframe uses the longtable format.
Valid values: False,True [default: False] [currently: False]
display.latex.multicolumn [bool] This specifies if the to_latex method of a Dataframe uses multicolumns to
pretty-print MultiIndex columns. Valid values: False,True [default: True] [currently: True]
display.latex.multicolumn_format [bool] This specifies if the to_latex method of a Dataframe uses multi-
columns to pretty-print MultiIndex columns. Valid values: False,True [default: l] [currently: l]
display.latex.multirow [bool] This specifies if the to_latex method of a Dataframe uses multirows to pretty-
print MultiIndex rows. Valid values: False,True [default: False] [currently: False]
display.latex.repr [boolean] Whether to produce a latex DataFrame representation for jupyter environments
that support it. (default: False) [default: False] [currently: False]
display.line_width [int] Deprecated. [default: 80] [currently: 80]
display.max_categories [int] This sets the maximum number of categories pandas should output when printing
out a Categorical or a Series of dtype “category”. [default: 8] [currently: 8]
display.max_columns [int] If max_cols is exceeded, switch to truncate view. Depending on large_repr, objects
are either centrally truncated or printed as a summary view. ‘None’ value means unlimited.

1962 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In case python/IPython is running in a terminal and large_repr equals ‘truncate’ this can be set to 0 and
pandas will auto-detect the width of the terminal and print a truncated object which fits the screen width.
The IPython notebook, IPython qtconsole, or IDLE do not run in a terminal and hence it is not possible
to do correct auto-detection. [default: 20] [currently: 20]
display.max_colwidth [int] The maximum width in characters of a column in the repr of a pandas data struc-
ture. When the column overflows, a ”...” placeholder is embedded in the output. [default: 50] [currently:
50]
display.max_info_columns [int] max_info_columns is used in DataFrame.info method to decide if per column
information will be printed. [default: 100] [currently: 100]
display.max_info_rows [int or None] df.info() will usually show null-counts for each column. For large frames
this can be quite slow. max_info_rows and max_info_cols limit this null check only to frames with smaller
dimensions than specified. [default: 1690785] [currently: 1690785]
display.max_rows [int] If max_rows is exceeded, switch to truncate view. Depending on large_repr, objects
are either centrally truncated or printed as a summary view. ‘None’ value means unlimited.
In case python/IPython is running in a terminal and large_repr equals ‘truncate’ this can be set to 0 and
pandas will auto-detect the height of the terminal and print a truncated object which fits the screen height.
The IPython notebook, IPython qtconsole, or IDLE do not run in a terminal and hence it is not possible
to do correct auto-detection. [default: 60] [currently: 15]
display.max_seq_items [int or None] when pretty-printing a long sequence, no more then max_seq_items will
be printed. If items are omitted, they will be denoted by the addition of ”...” to the resulting string.
If set to None, the number of items to be printed is unlimited. [default: 100] [currently: 100]
display.memory_usage [bool, string or None] This specifies if the memory usage of a DataFrame should be
displayed when df.info() is called. Valid values True,False,’deep’ [default: True] [currently: True]
display.multi_sparse [boolean] “sparsify” MultiIndex display (don’t display repeated elements in outer levels
within groups) [default: True] [currently: True]
display.notebook_repr_html [boolean] When True, IPython notebook will use html representation for pandas
objects (if it is available). [default: True] [currently: True]
display.pprint_nest_depth [int] Controls the number of nested levels to process when pretty-printing [default:
3] [currently: 3]
display.precision [int] Floating point output precision (number of significant digits). This is only a suggestion
[default: 6] [currently: 6]
display.show_dimensions [boolean or ‘truncate’] Whether to print out dimensions at the end of DataFrame
repr. If ‘truncate’ is specified, only print out the dimensions if the frame is truncated (e.g. not display all
rows and/or columns) [default: truncate] [currently: truncate]
display.unicode.ambiguous_as_wide [boolean] Whether to use the Unicode East Asian Width to calculate the
display text width. Enabling this may affect to the performance (default: False) [default: False] [currently:
False]
display.unicode.east_asian_width [boolean] Whether to use the Unicode East Asian Width to calculate the
display text width. Enabling this may affect to the performance (default: False) [default: False] [currently:
False]
display.width [int] Width of the display in characters. In case python/IPython is running in a terminal this can
be set to None and pandas will correctly auto-detect the width. Note that the IPython notebook, IPython
qtconsole, or IDLE do not run in a terminal and hence it is not possible to correctly detect the width.
[default: 80] [currently: 80]

34.19. General utility functions 1963

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

html.border [int] A border=value attribute is inserted in the <table> tag for the DataFrame HTML repr.
[default: 1] [currently: 1] (Deprecated, use display.html.border instead.)
io.excel.xls.writer [string] The default Excel writer engine for ‘xls’ files. Available options: auto, xlwt. [de-
fault: auto] [currently: auto]
io.excel.xlsm.writer [string] The default Excel writer engine for ‘xlsm’ files. Available options: auto, open-
pyxl. [default: auto] [currently: auto]
io.excel.xlsx.writer [string] The default Excel writer engine for ‘xlsx’ files. Available options: auto, openpyxl,
xlsxwriter. [default: auto] [currently: auto]
io.hdf.default_format [format] default format writing format, if None, then put will default to ‘fixed’ and
append will default to ‘table’ [default: None] [currently: None]
io.hdf.dropna_table [boolean] drop ALL nan rows when appending to a table [default: False] [currently:
False]
io.parquet.engine [string] The default parquet reader/writer engine. Available options: ‘auto’, ‘pyarrow’, ‘fast-
parquet’, the default is ‘auto’ [default: auto] [currently: auto]
mode.chained_assignment [string] Raise an exception, warn, or no action if trying to use chained assignment,
The default is warn [default: warn] [currently: warn]
mode.sim_interactive [boolean] Whether to simulate interactive mode for purposes of testing [default: False]
[currently: False]
mode.use_inf_as_na [boolean] True means treat None, NaN, INF, -INF as NA (old way), False means None
and NaN are null, but INF, -INF are not NA (new way). [default: False] [currently: False]
mode.use_inf_as_null use_inf_as_null had been deprecated and will be removed in a future version. Use
use_inf_as_na instead.
[default: False] [currently: False] (Deprecated, use mode.use_inf_as_na instead.)

34.19.1.2 pandas.reset_option

pandas.reset_option(pat) = <pandas.core.config.CallableDynamicDoc object>

Reset one or more options to their default value.
Pass “all” as argument to reset all options.
Available options:
• compute.[use_bottleneck, use_numexpr]
• display.[chop_threshold, colheader_justify, column_space, date_dayfirst, date_yearfirst, encoding, ex-
pand_frame_repr, float_format, height]
• display.html.[border, table_schema]
• display.[large_repr]
• display.latex.[escape, longtable, multicolumn, multicolumn_format, multirow, repr]
• display.[line_width, max_categories, max_columns, max_colwidth, max_info_columns, max_info_rows,
max_rows, max_seq_items, memory_usage, multi_sparse, notebook_repr_html, pprint_nest_depth, pre-
cision, show_dimensions]
• display.unicode.[ambiguous_as_wide, east_asian_width]
• display.[width]
• html.[border]

1964 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• io.excel.xls.[writer]
• io.excel.xlsm.[writer]
• io.excel.xlsx.[writer]
• io.hdf.[default_format, dropna_table]
• io.parquet.[engine]
• mode.[chained_assignment, sim_interactive, use_inf_as_na, use_inf_as_null]

Parameters pat : str/regex

If specified only options matching prefix* will be reset. Note: partial matches
are supported for convenience, but unless you use the full option name (e.g.
x.y.z.option_name), your code may break in future versions if new options with sim-
ilar names are introduced.
Returns None

Notes

The available options with its descriptions:

compute.use_bottleneck [bool] Use the bottleneck library to accelerate if it is installed, the default is True
Valid values: False,True [default: True] [currently: True]
compute.use_numexpr [bool] Use the numexpr library to accelerate computation if it is installed, the default
is True Valid values: False,True [default: True] [currently: True]
display.chop_threshold [float or None] if set to a float value, all float values smaller then the given threshold
will be displayed as exactly 0 by repr and friends. [default: None] [currently: None]
display.colheader_justify [‘left’/’right’] Controls the justification of column headers. used by DataFrameFor-
matter. [default: right] [currently: right]
display.column_space No description available. [default: 12] [currently: 12]
display.date_dayfirst [boolean] When True, prints and parses dates with the day first, eg 20/01/2005 [default:
False] [currently: False]
display.date_yearfirst [boolean] When True, prints and parses dates with the year first, eg 2005/01/20 [default:
False] [currently: False]
display.encoding [str/unicode] Defaults to the detected encoding of the console. Specifies the encoding to be
used for strings returned by to_string, these are generally strings meant to be displayed on the console.
[default: UTF-8] [currently: UTF-8]
display.expand_frame_repr [boolean] Whether to print out the full DataFrame repr for wide DataFrames
across multiple lines, max_columns is still respected, but the output will wrap-around across multiple
“pages” if its width exceeds display.width. [default: True] [currently: True]
display.float_format [callable] The callable should accept a floating point number and return a string with
the desired format of the number. This is used in some places like SeriesFormatter. See for-
mats.format.EngFormatter for an example. [default: None] [currently: None]
display.height [int] Deprecated. [default: 60] [currently: 60]
display.html.border [int] A border=value attribute is inserted in the <table> tag for the DataFrame
HTML repr. [default: 1] [currently: 1]

34.19. General utility functions 1965

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

display.html.table_schema [boolean] Whether to publish a Table Schema representation for frontends that
support it. (default: False) [default: False] [currently: False]
display.large_repr [‘truncate’/’info’] For DataFrames exceeding max_rows/max_cols, the repr (and HTML
repr) can show a truncated table (the default from 0.13), or switch to the view from df.info() (the behaviour
in earlier versions of pandas). [default: truncate] [currently: truncate]
display.latex.escape [bool] This specifies if the to_latex method of a Dataframe uses escapes special characters.
Valid values: False,True [default: True] [currently: True]
display.latex.longtable :bool This specifies if the to_latex method of a Dataframe uses the longtable format.
Valid values: False,True [default: False] [currently: False]
display.latex.multicolumn [bool] This specifies if the to_latex method of a Dataframe uses multicolumns to
pretty-print MultiIndex columns. Valid values: False,True [default: True] [currently: True]
display.latex.multicolumn_format [bool] This specifies if the to_latex method of a Dataframe uses multi-
columns to pretty-print MultiIndex columns. Valid values: False,True [default: l] [currently: l]
display.latex.multirow [bool] This specifies if the to_latex method of a Dataframe uses multirows to pretty-
print MultiIndex rows. Valid values: False,True [default: False] [currently: False]
display.latex.repr [boolean] Whether to produce a latex DataFrame representation for jupyter environments
that support it. (default: False) [default: False] [currently: False]
display.line_width [int] Deprecated. [default: 80] [currently: 80]
display.max_categories [int] This sets the maximum number of categories pandas should output when printing
out a Categorical or a Series of dtype “category”. [default: 8] [currently: 8]
display.max_columns [int] If max_cols is exceeded, switch to truncate view. Depending on large_repr, objects
are either centrally truncated or printed as a summary view. ‘None’ value means unlimited.
In case python/IPython is running in a terminal and large_repr equals ‘truncate’ this can be set to 0 and
pandas will auto-detect the width of the terminal and print a truncated object which fits the screen width.
The IPython notebook, IPython qtconsole, or IDLE do not run in a terminal and hence it is not possible
to do correct auto-detection. [default: 20] [currently: 20]
display.max_colwidth [int] The maximum width in characters of a column in the repr of a pandas data struc-
ture. When the column overflows, a ”...” placeholder is embedded in the output. [default: 50] [currently:
50]
display.max_info_columns [int] max_info_columns is used in DataFrame.info method to decide if per column
information will be printed. [default: 100] [currently: 100]
display.max_info_rows [int or None] df.info() will usually show null-counts for each column. For large frames
this can be quite slow. max_info_rows and max_info_cols limit this null check only to frames with smaller
dimensions than specified. [default: 1690785] [currently: 1690785]
display.max_rows [int] If max_rows is exceeded, switch to truncate view. Depending on large_repr, objects
are either centrally truncated or printed as a summary view. ‘None’ value means unlimited.
In case python/IPython is running in a terminal and large_repr equals ‘truncate’ this can be set to 0 and
pandas will auto-detect the height of the terminal and print a truncated object which fits the screen height.
The IPython notebook, IPython qtconsole, or IDLE do not run in a terminal and hence it is not possible
to do correct auto-detection. [default: 60] [currently: 15]
display.max_seq_items [int or None] when pretty-printing a long sequence, no more then max_seq_items will
be printed. If items are omitted, they will be denoted by the addition of ”...” to the resulting string.
If set to None, the number of items to be printed is unlimited. [default: 100] [currently: 100]

1966 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

display.memory_usage [bool, string or None] This specifies if the memory usage of a DataFrame should be
displayed when df.info() is called. Valid values True,False,’deep’ [default: True] [currently: True]
display.multi_sparse [boolean] “sparsify” MultiIndex display (don’t display repeated elements in outer levels
within groups) [default: True] [currently: True]
display.notebook_repr_html [boolean] When True, IPython notebook will use html representation for pandas
objects (if it is available). [default: True] [currently: True]
display.pprint_nest_depth [int] Controls the number of nested levels to process when pretty-printing [default:
3] [currently: 3]
display.precision [int] Floating point output precision (number of significant digits). This is only a suggestion
[default: 6] [currently: 6]
display.show_dimensions [boolean or ‘truncate’] Whether to print out dimensions at the end of DataFrame
repr. If ‘truncate’ is specified, only print out the dimensions if the frame is truncated (e.g. not display all
rows and/or columns) [default: truncate] [currently: truncate]
display.unicode.ambiguous_as_wide [boolean] Whether to use the Unicode East Asian Width to calculate the
display text width. Enabling this may affect to the performance (default: False) [default: False] [currently:
False]
display.unicode.east_asian_width [boolean] Whether to use the Unicode East Asian Width to calculate the
display text width. Enabling this may affect to the performance (default: False) [default: False] [currently:
False]
display.width [int] Width of the display in characters. In case python/IPython is running in a terminal this can
be set to None and pandas will correctly auto-detect the width. Note that the IPython notebook, IPython
qtconsole, or IDLE do not run in a terminal and hence it is not possible to correctly detect the width.
[default: 80] [currently: 80]
html.border [int] A border=value attribute is inserted in the <table> tag for the DataFrame HTML repr.
[default: 1] [currently: 1] (Deprecated, use display.html.border instead.)
io.excel.xls.writer [string] The default Excel writer engine for ‘xls’ files. Available options: auto, xlwt. [de-
fault: auto] [currently: auto]
io.excel.xlsm.writer [string] The default Excel writer engine for ‘xlsm’ files. Available options: auto, open-
pyxl. [default: auto] [currently: auto]
io.excel.xlsx.writer [string] The default Excel writer engine for ‘xlsx’ files. Available options: auto, openpyxl,
xlsxwriter. [default: auto] [currently: auto]
io.hdf.default_format [format] default format writing format, if None, then put will default to ‘fixed’ and
append will default to ‘table’ [default: None] [currently: None]
io.hdf.dropna_table [boolean] drop ALL nan rows when appending to a table [default: False] [currently:
False]
io.parquet.engine [string] The default parquet reader/writer engine. Available options: ‘auto’, ‘pyarrow’, ‘fast-
parquet’, the default is ‘auto’ [default: auto] [currently: auto]
mode.chained_assignment [string] Raise an exception, warn, or no action if trying to use chained assignment,
The default is warn [default: warn] [currently: warn]
mode.sim_interactive [boolean] Whether to simulate interactive mode for purposes of testing [default: False]
[currently: False]
mode.use_inf_as_na [boolean] True means treat None, NaN, INF, -INF as NA (old way), False means None
and NaN are null, but INF, -INF are not NA (new way). [default: False] [currently: False]

34.19. General utility functions 1967

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

mode.use_inf_as_null use_inf_as_null had been deprecated and will be removed in a future version. Use
use_inf_as_na instead.
[default: False] [currently: False] (Deprecated, use mode.use_inf_as_na instead.)

34.19.1.3 pandas.get_option

pandas.get_option(pat) = <pandas.core.config.CallableDynamicDoc object>

Retrieves the value of the specified option.
Available options:
• compute.[use_bottleneck, use_numexpr]
• display.[chop_threshold, colheader_justify, column_space, date_dayfirst, date_yearfirst, encoding, ex-
pand_frame_repr, float_format, height]
• display.html.[border, table_schema]
• display.[large_repr]
• display.latex.[escape, longtable, multicolumn, multicolumn_format, multirow, repr]
• display.[line_width, max_categories, max_columns, max_colwidth, max_info_columns, max_info_rows,
max_rows, max_seq_items, memory_usage, multi_sparse, notebook_repr_html, pprint_nest_depth, pre-
cision, show_dimensions]
• display.unicode.[ambiguous_as_wide, east_asian_width]
• display.[width]
• html.[border]
• io.excel.xls.[writer]
• io.excel.xlsm.[writer]
• io.excel.xlsx.[writer]
• io.hdf.[default_format, dropna_table]
• io.parquet.[engine]
• mode.[chained_assignment, sim_interactive, use_inf_as_na, use_inf_as_null]

Parameters pat : str

Regexp which should match a single option. Note: partial matches are supported for
convenience, but unless you use the full option name (e.g. x.y.z.option_name), your
code may break in future versions if new options with similar names are introduced.
Returns result : the value of the option
Raises OptionError : if no such option exists

Notes

The available options with its descriptions:

compute.use_bottleneck [bool] Use the bottleneck library to accelerate if it is installed, the default is True
Valid values: False,True [default: True] [currently: True]

1968 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

compute.use_numexpr [bool] Use the numexpr library to accelerate computation if it is installed, the default
is True Valid values: False,True [default: True] [currently: True]
display.chop_threshold [float or None] if set to a float value, all float values smaller then the given threshold
will be displayed as exactly 0 by repr and friends. [default: None] [currently: None]
display.colheader_justify [‘left’/’right’] Controls the justification of column headers. used by DataFrameFor-
matter. [default: right] [currently: right]
display.column_space No description available. [default: 12] [currently: 12]
display.date_dayfirst [boolean] When True, prints and parses dates with the day first, eg 20/01/2005 [default:
False] [currently: False]
display.date_yearfirst [boolean] When True, prints and parses dates with the year first, eg 2005/01/20 [default:
False] [currently: False]
display.encoding [str/unicode] Defaults to the detected encoding of the console. Specifies the encoding to be
used for strings returned by to_string, these are generally strings meant to be displayed on the console.
[default: UTF-8] [currently: UTF-8]
display.expand_frame_repr [boolean] Whether to print out the full DataFrame repr for wide DataFrames
across multiple lines, max_columns is still respected, but the output will wrap-around across multiple
“pages” if its width exceeds display.width. [default: True] [currently: True]
display.float_format [callable] The callable should accept a floating point number and return a string with
the desired format of the number. This is used in some places like SeriesFormatter. See for-
mats.format.EngFormatter for an example. [default: None] [currently: None]
display.height [int] Deprecated. [default: 60] [currently: 60]
display.html.border [int] A border=value attribute is inserted in the <table> tag for the DataFrame
HTML repr. [default: 1] [currently: 1]
display.html.table_schema [boolean] Whether to publish a Table Schema representation for frontends that
support it. (default: False) [default: False] [currently: False]
display.large_repr [‘truncate’/’info’] For DataFrames exceeding max_rows/max_cols, the repr (and HTML
repr) can show a truncated table (the default from 0.13), or switch to the view from df.info() (the behaviour
in earlier versions of pandas). [default: truncate] [currently: truncate]
display.latex.escape [bool] This specifies if the to_latex method of a Dataframe uses escapes special characters.
Valid values: False,True [default: True] [currently: True]
display.latex.longtable :bool This specifies if the to_latex method of a Dataframe uses the longtable format.
Valid values: False,True [default: False] [currently: False]
display.latex.multicolumn [bool] This specifies if the to_latex method of a Dataframe uses multicolumns to
pretty-print MultiIndex columns. Valid values: False,True [default: True] [currently: True]
display.latex.multicolumn_format [bool] This specifies if the to_latex method of a Dataframe uses multi-
columns to pretty-print MultiIndex columns. Valid values: False,True [default: l] [currently: l]
display.latex.multirow [bool] This specifies if the to_latex method of a Dataframe uses multirows to pretty-
print MultiIndex rows. Valid values: False,True [default: False] [currently: False]
display.latex.repr [boolean] Whether to produce a latex DataFrame representation for jupyter environments
that support it. (default: False) [default: False] [currently: False]
display.line_width [int] Deprecated. [default: 80] [currently: 80]
display.max_categories [int] This sets the maximum number of categories pandas should output when printing
out a Categorical or a Series of dtype “category”. [default: 8] [currently: 8]

34.19. General utility functions 1969

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

display.max_columns [int] If max_cols is exceeded, switch to truncate view. Depending on large_repr, objects
are either centrally truncated or printed as a summary view. ‘None’ value means unlimited.
In case python/IPython is running in a terminal and large_repr equals ‘truncate’ this can be set to 0 and
pandas will auto-detect the width of the terminal and print a truncated object which fits the screen width.
The IPython notebook, IPython qtconsole, or IDLE do not run in a terminal and hence it is not possible
to do correct auto-detection. [default: 20] [currently: 20]
display.max_colwidth [int] The maximum width in characters of a column in the repr of a pandas data struc-
ture. When the column overflows, a ”...” placeholder is embedded in the output. [default: 50] [currently:
50]
display.max_info_columns [int] max_info_columns is used in DataFrame.info method to decide if per column
information will be printed. [default: 100] [currently: 100]
display.max_info_rows [int or None] df.info() will usually show null-counts for each column. For large frames
this can be quite slow. max_info_rows and max_info_cols limit this null check only to frames with smaller
dimensions than specified. [default: 1690785] [currently: 1690785]
display.max_rows [int] If max_rows is exceeded, switch to truncate view. Depending on large_repr, objects
are either centrally truncated or printed as a summary view. ‘None’ value means unlimited.
In case python/IPython is running in a terminal and large_repr equals ‘truncate’ this can be set to 0 and
pandas will auto-detect the height of the terminal and print a truncated object which fits the screen height.
The IPython notebook, IPython qtconsole, or IDLE do not run in a terminal and hence it is not possible
to do correct auto-detection. [default: 60] [currently: 15]
display.max_seq_items [int or None] when pretty-printing a long sequence, no more then max_seq_items will
be printed. If items are omitted, they will be denoted by the addition of ”...” to the resulting string.
If set to None, the number of items to be printed is unlimited. [default: 100] [currently: 100]
display.memory_usage [bool, string or None] This specifies if the memory usage of a DataFrame should be
displayed when df.info() is called. Valid values True,False,’deep’ [default: True] [currently: True]
display.multi_sparse [boolean] “sparsify” MultiIndex display (don’t display repeated elements in outer levels
within groups) [default: True] [currently: True]
display.notebook_repr_html [boolean] When True, IPython notebook will use html representation for pandas
objects (if it is available). [default: True] [currently: True]
display.pprint_nest_depth [int] Controls the number of nested levels to process when pretty-printing [default:
3] [currently: 3]
display.precision [int] Floating point output precision (number of significant digits). This is only a suggestion
[default: 6] [currently: 6]
display.show_dimensions [boolean or ‘truncate’] Whether to print out dimensions at the end of DataFrame
repr. If ‘truncate’ is specified, only print out the dimensions if the frame is truncated (e.g. not display all
rows and/or columns) [default: truncate] [currently: truncate]
display.unicode.ambiguous_as_wide [boolean] Whether to use the Unicode East Asian Width to calculate the
display text width. Enabling this may affect to the performance (default: False) [default: False] [currently:
False]
display.unicode.east_asian_width [boolean] Whether to use the Unicode East Asian Width to calculate the
display text width. Enabling this may affect to the performance (default: False) [default: False] [currently:
False]
display.width [int] Width of the display in characters. In case python/IPython is running in a terminal this can
be set to None and pandas will correctly auto-detect the width. Note that the IPython notebook, IPython

1970 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

qtconsole, or IDLE do not run in a terminal and hence it is not possible to correctly detect the width.
[default: 80] [currently: 80]
html.border [int] A border=value attribute is inserted in the <table> tag for the DataFrame HTML repr.
[default: 1] [currently: 1] (Deprecated, use display.html.border instead.)
io.excel.xls.writer [string] The default Excel writer engine for ‘xls’ files. Available options: auto, xlwt. [de-
fault: auto] [currently: auto]
io.excel.xlsm.writer [string] The default Excel writer engine for ‘xlsm’ files. Available options: auto, open-
pyxl. [default: auto] [currently: auto]
io.excel.xlsx.writer [string] The default Excel writer engine for ‘xlsx’ files. Available options: auto, openpyxl,
xlsxwriter. [default: auto] [currently: auto]
io.hdf.default_format [format] default format writing format, if None, then put will default to ‘fixed’ and
append will default to ‘table’ [default: None] [currently: None]
io.hdf.dropna_table [boolean] drop ALL nan rows when appending to a table [default: False] [currently:
False]
io.parquet.engine [string] The default parquet reader/writer engine. Available options: ‘auto’, ‘pyarrow’, ‘fast-
parquet’, the default is ‘auto’ [default: auto] [currently: auto]
mode.chained_assignment [string] Raise an exception, warn, or no action if trying to use chained assignment,
The default is warn [default: warn] [currently: warn]
mode.sim_interactive [boolean] Whether to simulate interactive mode for purposes of testing [default: False]
[currently: False]
mode.use_inf_as_na [boolean] True means treat None, NaN, INF, -INF as NA (old way), False means None
and NaN are null, but INF, -INF are not NA (new way). [default: False] [currently: False]
mode.use_inf_as_null use_inf_as_null had been deprecated and will be removed in a future version. Use
use_inf_as_na instead.
[default: False] [currently: False] (Deprecated, use mode.use_inf_as_na instead.)

34.19.1.4 pandas.set_option

pandas.set_option(pat, value) = <pandas.core.config.CallableDynamicDoc object>

Sets the value of the specified option.
Available options:
• compute.[use_bottleneck, use_numexpr]
• display.[chop_threshold, colheader_justify, column_space, date_dayfirst, date_yearfirst, encoding, ex-
pand_frame_repr, float_format, height]
• display.html.[border, table_schema]
• display.[large_repr]
• display.latex.[escape, longtable, multicolumn, multicolumn_format, multirow, repr]
• display.[line_width, max_categories, max_columns, max_colwidth, max_info_columns, max_info_rows,
max_rows, max_seq_items, memory_usage, multi_sparse, notebook_repr_html, pprint_nest_depth, pre-
cision, show_dimensions]
• display.unicode.[ambiguous_as_wide, east_asian_width]
• display.[width]

34.19. General utility functions 1971

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• html.[border]
• io.excel.xls.[writer]
• io.excel.xlsm.[writer]
• io.excel.xlsx.[writer]
• io.hdf.[default_format, dropna_table]
• io.parquet.[engine]
• mode.[chained_assignment, sim_interactive, use_inf_as_na, use_inf_as_null]

Parameters pat : str

Regexp which should match a single option. Note: partial matches are supported for
convenience, but unless you use the full option name (e.g. x.y.z.option_name), your
code may break in future versions if new options with similar names are introduced.
value :
new value of option.
Returns None
Raises OptionError if no such option exists

Notes

The available options with its descriptions:

compute.use_bottleneck [bool] Use the bottleneck library to accelerate if it is installed, the default is True
Valid values: False,True [default: True] [currently: True]
compute.use_numexpr [bool] Use the numexpr library to accelerate computation if it is installed, the default
is True Valid values: False,True [default: True] [currently: True]
display.chop_threshold [float or None] if set to a float value, all float values smaller then the given threshold
will be displayed as exactly 0 by repr and friends. [default: None] [currently: None]
display.colheader_justify [‘left’/’right’] Controls the justification of column headers. used by DataFrameFor-
matter. [default: right] [currently: right]
display.column_space No description available. [default: 12] [currently: 12]
display.date_dayfirst [boolean] When True, prints and parses dates with the day first, eg 20/01/2005 [default:
False] [currently: False]
display.date_yearfirst [boolean] When True, prints and parses dates with the year first, eg 2005/01/20 [default:
False] [currently: False]
display.encoding [str/unicode] Defaults to the detected encoding of the console. Specifies the encoding to be
used for strings returned by to_string, these are generally strings meant to be displayed on the console.
[default: UTF-8] [currently: UTF-8]
display.expand_frame_repr [boolean] Whether to print out the full DataFrame repr for wide DataFrames
across multiple lines, max_columns is still respected, but the output will wrap-around across multiple
“pages” if its width exceeds display.width. [default: True] [currently: True]
display.float_format [callable] The callable should accept a floating point number and return a string with
the desired format of the number. This is used in some places like SeriesFormatter. See for-
mats.format.EngFormatter for an example. [default: None] [currently: None]

1972 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

display.height [int] Deprecated. [default: 60] [currently: 60]

display.html.border [int] A border=value attribute is inserted in the <table> tag for the DataFrame
HTML repr. [default: 1] [currently: 1]
display.html.table_schema [boolean] Whether to publish a Table Schema representation for frontends that
support it. (default: False) [default: False] [currently: False]
display.large_repr [‘truncate’/’info’] For DataFrames exceeding max_rows/max_cols, the repr (and HTML
repr) can show a truncated table (the default from 0.13), or switch to the view from df.info() (the behaviour
in earlier versions of pandas). [default: truncate] [currently: truncate]
display.latex.escape [bool] This specifies if the to_latex method of a Dataframe uses escapes special characters.
Valid values: False,True [default: True] [currently: True]
display.latex.longtable :bool This specifies if the to_latex method of a Dataframe uses the longtable format.
Valid values: False,True [default: False] [currently: False]
display.latex.multicolumn [bool] This specifies if the to_latex method of a Dataframe uses multicolumns to
pretty-print MultiIndex columns. Valid values: False,True [default: True] [currently: True]
display.latex.multicolumn_format [bool] This specifies if the to_latex method of a Dataframe uses multi-
columns to pretty-print MultiIndex columns. Valid values: False,True [default: l] [currently: l]
display.latex.multirow [bool] This specifies if the to_latex method of a Dataframe uses multirows to pretty-
print MultiIndex rows. Valid values: False,True [default: False] [currently: False]
display.latex.repr [boolean] Whether to produce a latex DataFrame representation for jupyter environments
that support it. (default: False) [default: False] [currently: False]
display.line_width [int] Deprecated. [default: 80] [currently: 80]
display.max_categories [int] This sets the maximum number of categories pandas should output when printing
out a Categorical or a Series of dtype “category”. [default: 8] [currently: 8]
display.max_columns [int] If max_cols is exceeded, switch to truncate view. Depending on large_repr, objects
are either centrally truncated or printed as a summary view. ‘None’ value means unlimited.
In case python/IPython is running in a terminal and large_repr equals ‘truncate’ this can be set to 0 and
pandas will auto-detect the width of the terminal and print a truncated object which fits the screen width.
The IPython notebook, IPython qtconsole, or IDLE do not run in a terminal and hence it is not possible
to do correct auto-detection. [default: 20] [currently: 20]
display.max_colwidth [int] The maximum width in characters of a column in the repr of a pandas data struc-
ture. When the column overflows, a ”...” placeholder is embedded in the output. [default: 50] [currently:
50]
display.max_info_columns [int] max_info_columns is used in DataFrame.info method to decide if per column
information will be printed. [default: 100] [currently: 100]
display.max_info_rows [int or None] df.info() will usually show null-counts for each column. For large frames
this can be quite slow. max_info_rows and max_info_cols limit this null check only to frames with smaller
dimensions than specified. [default: 1690785] [currently: 1690785]
display.max_rows [int] If max_rows is exceeded, switch to truncate view. Depending on large_repr, objects
are either centrally truncated or printed as a summary view. ‘None’ value means unlimited.
In case python/IPython is running in a terminal and large_repr equals ‘truncate’ this can be set to 0 and
pandas will auto-detect the height of the terminal and print a truncated object which fits the screen height.
The IPython notebook, IPython qtconsole, or IDLE do not run in a terminal and hence it is not possible
to do correct auto-detection. [default: 60] [currently: 15]

34.19. General utility functions 1973

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

display.max_seq_items [int or None] when pretty-printing a long sequence, no more then max_seq_items will
be printed. If items are omitted, they will be denoted by the addition of ”...” to the resulting string.
If set to None, the number of items to be printed is unlimited. [default: 100] [currently: 100]
display.memory_usage [bool, string or None] This specifies if the memory usage of a DataFrame should be
displayed when df.info() is called. Valid values True,False,’deep’ [default: True] [currently: True]
display.multi_sparse [boolean] “sparsify” MultiIndex display (don’t display repeated elements in outer levels
within groups) [default: True] [currently: True]
display.notebook_repr_html [boolean] When True, IPython notebook will use html representation for pandas
objects (if it is available). [default: True] [currently: True]
display.pprint_nest_depth [int] Controls the number of nested levels to process when pretty-printing [default:
3] [currently: 3]
display.precision [int] Floating point output precision (number of significant digits). This is only a suggestion
[default: 6] [currently: 6]
display.show_dimensions [boolean or ‘truncate’] Whether to print out dimensions at the end of DataFrame
repr. If ‘truncate’ is specified, only print out the dimensions if the frame is truncated (e.g. not display all
rows and/or columns) [default: truncate] [currently: truncate]
display.unicode.ambiguous_as_wide [boolean] Whether to use the Unicode East Asian Width to calculate the
display text width. Enabling this may affect to the performance (default: False) [default: False] [currently:
False]
display.unicode.east_asian_width [boolean] Whether to use the Unicode East Asian Width to calculate the
display text width. Enabling this may affect to the performance (default: False) [default: False] [currently:
False]
display.width [int] Width of the display in characters. In case python/IPython is running in a terminal this can
be set to None and pandas will correctly auto-detect the width. Note that the IPython notebook, IPython
qtconsole, or IDLE do not run in a terminal and hence it is not possible to correctly detect the width.
[default: 80] [currently: 80]
html.border [int] A border=value attribute is inserted in the <table> tag for the DataFrame HTML repr.
[default: 1] [currently: 1] (Deprecated, use display.html.border instead.)
io.excel.xls.writer [string] The default Excel writer engine for ‘xls’ files. Available options: auto, xlwt. [de-
fault: auto] [currently: auto]
io.excel.xlsm.writer [string] The default Excel writer engine for ‘xlsm’ files. Available options: auto, open-
pyxl. [default: auto] [currently: auto]
io.excel.xlsx.writer [string] The default Excel writer engine for ‘xlsx’ files. Available options: auto, openpyxl,
xlsxwriter. [default: auto] [currently: auto]
io.hdf.default_format [format] default format writing format, if None, then put will default to ‘fixed’ and
append will default to ‘table’ [default: None] [currently: None]
io.hdf.dropna_table [boolean] drop ALL nan rows when appending to a table [default: False] [currently:
False]
io.parquet.engine [string] The default parquet reader/writer engine. Available options: ‘auto’, ‘pyarrow’, ‘fast-
parquet’, the default is ‘auto’ [default: auto] [currently: auto]
mode.chained_assignment [string] Raise an exception, warn, or no action if trying to use chained assignment,
The default is warn [default: warn] [currently: warn]
mode.sim_interactive [boolean] Whether to simulate interactive mode for purposes of testing [default: False]
[currently: False]

1974 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

mode.use_inf_as_na [boolean] True means treat None, NaN, INF, -INF as NA (old way), False means None
and NaN are null, but INF, -INF are not NA (new way). [default: False] [currently: False]
mode.use_inf_as_null use_inf_as_null had been deprecated and will be removed in a future version. Use
use_inf_as_na instead.
[default: False] [currently: False] (Deprecated, use mode.use_inf_as_na instead.)

34.19.1.5 pandas.option_context

class pandas.option_context(*args)
Context manager to temporarily set options in the with statement context.
You need to invoke as option_context(pat, val, [(pat, val), ...]).

Examples

>>> with option_context('display.max_rows', 10, 'display.max_columns', 5):

...

34.19.2 Testing functions

testing.assert_frame_equal(left, right[, ...]) Check that left and right DataFrame are equal.
testing.assert_series_equal(left, right[, ...]) Check that left and right Series are equal.
testing.assert_index_equal(left, right[, ...]) Check that left and right Index are equal.

34.19.2.1 pandas.testing.assert_frame_equal

pandas.testing.assert_frame_equal(left, right, check_dtype=True, check_index_type=’equiv’,

check_column_type=’equiv’, check_frame_type=True,
check_less_precise=False, check_names=True,
by_blocks=False, check_exact=False,
check_datetimelike_compat=False,
check_categorical=True, check_like=False,
obj=’DataFrame’)
Check that left and right DataFrame are equal.
Parameters left : DataFrame
right : DataFrame
check_dtype : bool, default True
Whether to check the DataFrame dtype is identical.
check_index_type : bool / string {‘equiv’}, default False
Whether to check the Index class, dtype and inferred_type are identical.
check_column_type : bool / string {‘equiv’}, default False
Whether to check the columns class, dtype and inferred_type are identical.
check_frame_type : bool, default False
Whether to check the DataFrame class is identical.

34.19. General utility functions 1975

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

check_less_precise : bool or int, default False

Specify comparison precision. Only used when check_exact is False. 5 digits (False)
or 3 digits (True) after decimal points are compared. If int, then specify the digits to
compare
check_names : bool, default True
Whether to check the Index names attribute.
by_blocks : bool, default False
Specify how to compare internal data. If False, compare by columns. If True, com-
pare by blocks.
check_exact : bool, default False
Whether to compare number exactly.
check_datetimelike_compat : bool, default False
Compare datetime-like which is comparable ignoring dtype.
check_categorical : bool, default True
Whether to compare internal Categorical exactly.
check_like : bool, default False
If true, ignore the order of rows & columns
obj : str, default ‘DataFrame’
Specify object name being compared, internally used to show appropriate assertion
message

34.19.2.2 pandas.testing.assert_series_equal

pandas.testing.assert_series_equal(left, right, check_dtype=True, check_index_type=’equiv’,

check_series_type=True, check_less_precise=False,
check_names=True, check_exact=False,
check_datetimelike_compat=False,
check_categorical=True, obj=’Series’)
Check that left and right Series are equal.
Parameters left : Series
right : Series
check_dtype : bool, default True
Whether to check the Series dtype is identical.
check_index_type : bool / string {‘equiv’}, default ‘equiv’
Whether to check the Index class, dtype and inferred_type are identical.
check_series_type : bool, default True
Whether to check the Series class is identical.
check_less_precise : bool or int, default False
Specify comparison precision. Only used when check_exact is False. 5 digits (False)
or 3 digits (True) after decimal points are compared. If int, then specify the digits to
compare

1976 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

check_exact : bool, default False

Whether to compare number exactly.
check_names : bool, default True
Whether to check the Series and Index names attribute.
check_datetimelike_compat : bool, default False
Compare datetime-like which is comparable ignoring dtype.
check_categorical : bool, default True
Whether to compare internal Categorical exactly.
obj : str, default ‘Series’
Specify object name being compared, internally used to show appropriate assertion
message

34.19.2.3 pandas.testing.assert_index_equal

pandas.testing.assert_index_equal(left, right, exact=’equiv’, check_names=True,

check_less_precise=False, check_exact=True,
check_categorical=True, obj=’Index’)
Check that left and right Index are equal.
Parameters left : Index
right : Index
exact : bool / string {‘equiv’}, default False
Whether to check the Index class, dtype and inferred_type are identical. If ‘equiv’,
then RangeIndex can be substituted for Int64Index as well.
check_names : bool, default True
Whether to check the names attribute.
check_less_precise : bool or int, default False
Specify comparison precision. Only used when check_exact is False. 5 digits (False)
or 3 digits (True) after decimal points are compared. If int, then specify the digits to
compare
check_exact : bool, default True
Whether to compare number exactly.
check_categorical : bool, default True
Whether to compare internal Categorical exactly.
obj : str, default ‘Index’
Specify object name being compared, internally used to show appropriate assertion
message
Continued on next page

34.19. General utility functions 1977

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Table 34.164 – continued from previous page

34.19.3 Exceptions and warnings

errors.DtypeWarning Warning that is raised for a dtype incompatiblity.

errors.EmptyDataError Exception that is thrown in pd.read_csv (by both the C and
Python engines) when empty data or header is encountered.
errors.OutOfBoundsDatetime
errors.ParserError Exception that is raised by an error encountered in
pd.read_csv.
errors.ParserWarning Warning that is raised in pd.read_csv whenever it is nec-
essary to change parsers (generally from ‘c’ to ‘python’)
contrary to the one specified by the user due to lack of sup-
port or functionality for parsing particular attributes of a
CSV file with the requsted engine.
errors.PerformanceWarning Warning raised when there is a possible performance im-
pact.
errors.UnsortedIndexError Error raised when attempting to get a slice of a MultiIndex,
and the index has not been lexsorted.
errors.UnsupportedFunctionCall Exception raised when attempting to call a numpy function
on a pandas object, but that function is not supported by the
object e.g.

34.19.3.1 pandas.errors.DtypeWarning

exception pandas.errors.DtypeWarning
Warning that is raised for a dtype incompatiblity. This can happen whenever pd.read_csv encounters non-
uniform dtypes in a column(s) of a given CSV file.

34.19.3.2 pandas.errors.EmptyDataError

exception pandas.errors.EmptyDataError
Exception that is thrown in pd.read_csv (by both the C and Python engines) when empty data or header is
encountered.

34.19.3.3 pandas.errors.OutOfBoundsDatetime

exception pandas.errors.OutOfBoundsDatetime

34.19.3.4 pandas.errors.ParserError

exception pandas.errors.ParserError
Exception that is raised by an error encountered in pd.read_csv.

34.19.3.5 pandas.errors.ParserWarning

exception pandas.errors.ParserWarning
Warning that is raised in pd.read_csv whenever it is necessary to change parsers (generally from ‘c’ to ‘python’)

1978 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

contrary to the one specified by the user due to lack of support or functionality for parsing particular attributes
of a CSV file with the requsted engine.

34.19.3.6 pandas.errors.PerformanceWarning

exception pandas.errors.PerformanceWarning
Warning raised when there is a possible performance impact.

34.19.3.7 pandas.errors.UnsortedIndexError

exception pandas.errors.UnsortedIndexError
Error raised when attempting to get a slice of a MultiIndex, and the index has not been lexsorted. Subclass of
KeyError.
New in version 0.20.0.

34.19.3.8 pandas.errors.UnsupportedFunctionCall

exception pandas.errors.UnsupportedFunctionCall
Exception raised when attempting to call a numpy function on a pandas object, but that function is not supported
by the object e.g. np.cumsum(groupby_object).

34.19.4 Data types related functionality

api.types.union_categoricals(to_union[, ...]) Combine list-like of Categorical-like, unioning categories.

api.types.infer_dtype Efficiently infer the type of a passed val, or list-like array
of values.
api.types.pandas_dtype(dtype) Converts input into a pandas only dtype object or a numpy
dtype object.

34.19.4.1 pandas.api.types.union_categoricals

pandas.api.types.union_categoricals(to_union, sort_categories=False, ignore_order=False)

Combine list-like of Categorical-like, unioning categories. All categories must have the same dtype.
New in version 0.19.0.
Parameters to_union : list-like of Categorical, CategoricalIndex,
or Series with dtype=’category’
sort_categories : boolean, default False
If true, resulting categories will be lexsorted, otherwise they will be ordered as they
appear in the data.
ignore_order: boolean, default False
If true, the ordered attribute of the Categoricals will be ignored. Results in an un-
ordered categorical.
New in version 0.20.0.
Returns result : Categorical

34.19. General utility functions 1979

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Raises TypeError
• all inputs do not have the same dtype
• all inputs do not have the same ordered property
• all inputs are ordered and their categories are not identical
• sort_categories=True and Categoricals are ordered
ValueError
Empty list of categoricals passed

Notes

To learn more about categories, see link

Examples

>>> from pandas.api.types import union_categoricals

If you want to combine categoricals that do not necessarily have the same categories, union_categoricals will
combine a list-like of categoricals. The new categories will be the union of the categories being combined.
>>> a = pd.Categorical(["b", "c"])
>>> b = pd.Categorical(["a", "b"])
>>> union_categoricals([a, b])
[b, c, a, b]
Categories (3, object): [b, c, a]

By default, the resulting categories will be ordered as they appear in the categories of the data. If you want the
categories to be lexsorted, use sort_categories=True argument.
>>> union_categoricals([a, b], sort_categories=True)
[b, c, a, b]
Categories (3, object): [a, b, c]

union_categoricals also works with the case of combining two categoricals of the same categories and order
information (e.g. what you could also append for).
>>> a = pd.Categorical(["a", "b"], ordered=True)
>>> b = pd.Categorical(["a", "b", "a"], ordered=True)
>>> union_categoricals([a, b])
[a, b, a, b, a]
Categories (2, object): [a < b]

Raises TypeError because the categories are ordered and not identical.
>>> a = pd.Categorical(["a", "b"], ordered=True)
>>> b = pd.Categorical(["a", "b", "c"], ordered=True)
>>> union_categoricals([a, b])
TypeError: to union ordered Categoricals, all categories must be the same

New in version 0.20.0

Ordered categoricals with different categories or orderings can be combined by using the ignore_ordered=True
argument.

1980 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

>>> a = pd.Categorical(["a", "b", "c"], ordered=True)

>>> b = pd.Categorical(["c", "b", "a"], ordered=True)
>>> union_categoricals([a, b], ignore_order=True)
[a, b, c, c, b, a]
Categories (3, object): [a, b, c]

union_categoricals also works with a CategoricalIndex, or Series containing categorical data, but note that the
resulting array will always be a plain Categorical

>>> a = pd.Series(["b", "c"], dtype='category')

>>> b = pd.Series(["a", "b"], dtype='category')
>>> union_categoricals([a, b])
[b, c, a, b]
Categories (3, object): [b, c, a]

34.19.4.2 pandas.api.types.infer_dtype

pandas.api.types.infer_dtype()
Efficiently infer the type of a passed val, or list-like array of values. Return a string describing the type.
Parameters value : scalar, list, ndarray, or pandas type
skipna : bool, default False
Ignore NaN values when inferring the type. The default of False will be deprecated
in a later version of pandas.
New in version 0.21.0.
Returns string describing the common type of the input data.
Results can include:
• string
• unicode
• bytes
• floating
• integer
• mixed-integer
• mixed-integer-float
• decimal
• complex
• categorical
• boolean
• datetime64
• datetime
• date
• timedelta64
• timedelta

34.19. General utility functions 1981

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• time
• period
• mixed
Raises TypeError if ndarray-like but cannot infer the dtype

Notes

• ‘mixed’ is the catchall for anything that is not otherwise specialized

• ‘mixed-integer-float’ are floats and integers
• ‘mixed-integer’ are integers mixed with non-integers

Examples

>>> infer_dtype(['foo', 'bar'])

'string'

>>> infer_dtype(['a', np.nan, 'b'], skipna=True)

'string'

>>> infer_dtype(['a', np.nan, 'b'], skipna=False)

'mixed'

>>> infer_dtype([b'foo', b'bar'])

'bytes'

>>> infer_dtype([1, 2, 3])

'integer'

>>> infer_dtype([1, 2, 3.5])

'mixed-integer-float'

>>> infer_dtype([1.0, 2.0, 3.5])

'floating'

>>> infer_dtype(['a', 1])

'mixed-integer'

>>> infer_dtype([Decimal(1), Decimal(2.0)])

'decimal'

>>> infer_dtype([True, False])

'boolean'

>>> infer_dtype([True, False, np.nan])

'mixed'

1982 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

>>> infer_dtype([pd.Timestamp('20130101')])
'datetime'

>>> infer_dtype([datetime.date(2013, 1, 1)])

'date'

>>> infer_dtype([np.datetime64('2013-01-01')])
'datetime64'

>>> infer_dtype([datetime.timedelta(0, 1, 1)])

'timedelta'

>>> infer_dtype(pd.Series(list('aabc')).astype('category'))
'categorical'

34.19.4.3 pandas.api.types.pandas_dtype

pandas.api.types.pandas_dtype(dtype)
Converts input into a pandas only dtype object or a numpy dtype object.
Parameters dtype : object to be converted
Returns np.dtype or a pandas dtype
Dtype introspection

api.types.is_bool_dtype(arr_or_dtype) Check whether the provided array or dtype is of a boolean

dtype.
api.types.is_categorical_dtype(arr_or_dtype) Check whether an array-like or dtype is of the Categorical
dtype.
api.types.is_complex_dtype(arr_or_dtype) Check whether the provided array or dtype is of a complex
dtype.
Check whether the provided array or dtype is of the date-
api.types.is_datetime64_any_dtype(arr_or_dtype)
time64 dtype.
api.types.is_datetime64_dtype(arr_or_dtype) Check whether an array-like or dtype is of the datetime64
dtype.
api.types.is_datetime64_ns_dtype(arr_or_dtype)Check whether the provided array or dtype is of the date-
time64[ns] dtype.
api.types.is_datetime64tz_dtype(arr_or_dtype) Check whether an array-like or dtype is of a DatetimeTZD-
type dtype.
api.types.is_extension_type(arr) Check whether an array-like is of a pandas extension class
instance.
api.types.is_float_dtype(arr_or_dtype) Check whether the provided array or dtype is of a float
dtype.
api.types.is_int64_dtype(arr_or_dtype) Check whether the provided array or dtype is of the int64
dtype.
api.types.is_integer_dtype(arr_or_dtype) Check whether the provided array or dtype is of an integer
dtype.
api.types.is_interval_dtype(arr_or_dtype) Check whether an array-like or dtype is of the Interval
dtype.
api.types.is_numeric_dtype(arr_or_dtype) Check whether the provided array or dtype is of a numeric
dtype.
Continued on next page

34.19. General utility functions 1983

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Table 34.166 – continued from previous page

api.types.is_object_dtype(arr_or_dtype) Check whether an array-like or dtype is of the object dtype.
api.types.is_period_dtype(arr_or_dtype) Check whether an array-like or dtype is of the Period dtype.
api.types.is_signed_integer_dtype(arr_or_dtype) Check whether the provided array or dtype is of a signed
integer dtype.
api.types.is_string_dtype(arr_or_dtype) Check whether the provided array or dtype is of the string
dtype.
api.types.is_timedelta64_dtype(arr_or_dtype) Check whether an array-like or dtype is of the timedelta64
dtype.
api.types.is_timedelta64_ns_dtype(arr_or_dtype) Check whether the provided array or dtype is of the
timedelta64[ns] dtype.
Check whether the provided array or dtype is of an un-
api.types.is_unsigned_integer_dtype(arr_or_dtype)
signed integer dtype.
api.types.is_sparse(arr) Check whether an array-like is a pandas sparse array.

34.19.4.4 pandas.api.types.is_bool_dtype

pandas.api.types.is_bool_dtype(arr_or_dtype)
Check whether the provided array or dtype is of a boolean dtype.
Parameters arr_or_dtype : array-like
The array or dtype to check.
Returns boolean : Whether or not the array or dtype is of a boolean dtype.

Examples

>>> is_bool_dtype(str)
False
>>> is_bool_dtype(int)
False
>>> is_bool_dtype(bool)
True
>>> is_bool_dtype(np.bool)
True
>>> is_bool_dtype(np.array(['a', 'b']))
False
>>> is_bool_dtype(pd.Series([1, 2]))
False
>>> is_bool_dtype(np.array([True, False]))
True

34.19.4.5 pandas.api.types.is_categorical_dtype

pandas.api.types.is_categorical_dtype(arr_or_dtype)
Check whether an array-like or dtype is of the Categorical dtype.
Parameters arr_or_dtype : array-like
The array-like or dtype to check.
Returns boolean : Whether or not the array-like or dtype is
of the Categorical dtype.

1984 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Examples

>>> is_categorical_dtype(object)
False
>>> is_categorical_dtype(CategoricalDtype())
True
>>> is_categorical_dtype([1, 2, 3])
False
>>> is_categorical_dtype(pd.Categorical([1, 2, 3]))
True
>>> is_categorical_dtype(pd.CategoricalIndex([1, 2, 3]))
True

34.19.4.6 pandas.api.types.is_complex_dtype

pandas.api.types.is_complex_dtype(arr_or_dtype)
Check whether the provided array or dtype is of a complex dtype.
Parameters arr_or_dtype : array-like
The array or dtype to check.
Returns boolean : Whether or not the array or dtype is of a compex dtype.

Examples

>>> is_complex_dtype(str)
False
>>> is_complex_dtype(int)
False
>>> is_complex_dtype(np.complex)
True
>>> is_complex_dtype(np.array(['a', 'b']))
False
>>> is_complex_dtype(pd.Series([1, 2]))
False
>>> is_complex_dtype(np.array([1 + 1j, 5]))
True

34.19.4.7 pandas.api.types.is_datetime64_any_dtype

pandas.api.types.is_datetime64_any_dtype(arr_or_dtype)
Check whether the provided array or dtype is of the datetime64 dtype.
Parameters arr_or_dtype : array-like
The array or dtype to check.
Returns boolean : Whether or not the array or dtype is of the datetime64 dtype.

34.19. General utility functions 1985

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Examples

>>> is_datetime64_any_dtype(str)
False
>>> is_datetime64_any_dtype(int)
False
>>> is_datetime64_any_dtype(np.datetime64) # can be tz-naive
True
>>> is_datetime64_any_dtype(DatetimeTZDtype("ns", "US/Eastern"))
True
>>> is_datetime64_any_dtype(np.array(['a', 'b']))
False
>>> is_datetime64_any_dtype(np.array([1, 2]))
False
>>> is_datetime64_any_dtype(np.array([], dtype=np.datetime64))
True
>>> is_datetime64_any_dtype(pd.DatetimeIndex([1, 2, 3],
dtype=np.datetime64))
True

34.19.4.8 pandas.api.types.is_datetime64_dtype

pandas.api.types.is_datetime64_dtype(arr_or_dtype)
Check whether an array-like or dtype is of the datetime64 dtype.
Parameters arr_or_dtype : array-like
The array-like or dtype to check.
Returns boolean : Whether or not the array-like or dtype is of
the datetime64 dtype.

Examples

>>> is_datetime64_dtype(object)
False
>>> is_datetime64_dtype(np.datetime64)
True
>>> is_datetime64_dtype(np.array([], dtype=int))
False
>>> is_datetime64_dtype(np.array([], dtype=np.datetime64))
True
>>> is_datetime64_dtype([1, 2, 3])
False

34.19.4.9 pandas.api.types.is_datetime64_ns_dtype

pandas.api.types.is_datetime64_ns_dtype(arr_or_dtype)
Check whether the provided array or dtype is of the datetime64[ns] dtype.
Parameters arr_or_dtype : array-like
The array or dtype to check.

1986 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Returns boolean : Whether or not the array or dtype is of the datetime64[ns] dtype.

Examples

>>> is_datetime64_ns_dtype(str)
False
>>> is_datetime64_ns_dtype(int)
False
>>> is_datetime64_ns_dtype(np.datetime64) # no unit
False
>>> is_datetime64_ns_dtype(DatetimeTZDtype("ns", "US/Eastern"))
True
>>> is_datetime64_ns_dtype(np.array(['a', 'b']))
False
>>> is_datetime64_ns_dtype(np.array([1, 2]))
False
>>> is_datetime64_ns_dtype(np.array([], dtype=np.datetime64)) # no unit
False
>>> is_datetime64_ns_dtype(np.array([],
dtype="datetime64[ps]")) # wrong unit
False
>>> is_datetime64_ns_dtype(pd.DatetimeIndex([1, 2, 3],
dtype=np.datetime64)) # has 'ns' unit
True

34.19.4.10 pandas.api.types.is_datetime64tz_dtype

pandas.api.types.is_datetime64tz_dtype(arr_or_dtype)
Check whether an array-like or dtype is of a DatetimeTZDtype dtype.
Parameters arr_or_dtype : array-like
The array-like or dtype to check.
Returns boolean : Whether or not the array-like or dtype is of
a DatetimeTZDtype dtype.

Examples

>>> is_datetime64tz_dtype(object)
False
>>> is_datetime64tz_dtype([1, 2, 3])
False
>>> is_datetime64tz_dtype(pd.DatetimeIndex([1, 2, 3])) # tz-naive
False
>>> is_datetime64tz_dtype(pd.DatetimeIndex([1, 2, 3], tz="US/Eastern"))
True

>>> dtype = DatetimeTZDtype("ns", tz="US/Eastern")

>>> s = pd.Series([], dtype=dtype)
>>> is_datetime64tz_dtype(dtype)
True
>>> is_datetime64tz_dtype(s)
True

34.19. General utility functions 1987

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

34.19.4.11 pandas.api.types.is_extension_type

pandas.api.types.is_extension_type(arr)
Check whether an array-like is of a pandas extension class instance.
Extension classes include categoricals, pandas sparse objects (i.e. classes represented within the pandas library
and not ones external to it like scipy sparse matrices), and datetime-like arrays.
Parameters arr : array-like
The array-like to check.
Returns boolean : Whether or not the array-like is of a pandas
extension class instance.

Examples

>>> is_extension_type([1, 2, 3])

False
>>> is_extension_type(np.array([1, 2, 3]))
False
>>>
>>> cat = pd.Categorical([1, 2, 3])
>>>
>>> is_extension_type(cat)
True
>>> is_extension_type(pd.Series(cat))
True
>>> is_extension_type(pd.SparseArray([1, 2, 3]))
True
>>> is_extension_type(pd.SparseSeries([1, 2, 3]))
True
>>>
>>> from scipy.sparse import bsr_matrix
>>> is_extension_type(bsr_matrix([1, 2, 3]))
False
>>> is_extension_type(pd.DatetimeIndex([1, 2, 3]))
False
>>> is_extension_type(pd.DatetimeIndex([1, 2, 3], tz="US/Eastern"))
True
>>>
>>> dtype = DatetimeTZDtype("ns", tz="US/Eastern")
>>> s = pd.Series([], dtype=dtype)
>>> is_extension_type(s)
True

34.19.4.12 pandas.api.types.is_float_dtype

pandas.api.types.is_float_dtype(arr_or_dtype)
Check whether the provided array or dtype is of a float dtype.
Parameters arr_or_dtype : array-like
The array or dtype to check.

1988 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Returns boolean : Whether or not the array or dtype is of a float dtype.

Examples

>>> is_float_dtype(str)
False
>>> is_float_dtype(int)
False
>>> is_float_dtype(float)
True
>>> is_float_dtype(np.array(['a', 'b']))
False
>>> is_float_dtype(pd.Series([1, 2]))
False
>>> is_float_dtype(pd.Index([1, 2.]))
True

34.19.4.13 pandas.api.types.is_int64_dtype

pandas.api.types.is_int64_dtype(arr_or_dtype)
Check whether the provided array or dtype is of the int64 dtype.
Parameters arr_or_dtype : array-like
The array or dtype to check.
Returns boolean : Whether or not the array or dtype is of the int64 dtype.

Notes

Depending on system architecture, the return value of is_int64_dtype( int) will be True if the OS uses 64-bit
integers and False if the OS uses 32-bit integers.

Examples

>>> is_int64_dtype(str)
False
>>> is_int64_dtype(np.int32)
False
>>> is_int64_dtype(np.int64)
True
>>> is_int64_dtype(float)
False
>>> is_int64_dtype(np.uint64) # unsigned
False
>>> is_int64_dtype(np.array(['a', 'b']))
False
>>> is_int64_dtype(np.array([1, 2], dtype=np.int64))
True
>>> is_int64_dtype(pd.Index([1, 2.])) # float
False
>>> is_int64_dtype(np.array([1, 2], dtype=np.uint32)) # unsigned
False

34.19. General utility functions 1989

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

34.19.4.14 pandas.api.types.is_integer_dtype

pandas.api.types.is_integer_dtype(arr_or_dtype)
Check whether the provided array or dtype is of an integer dtype.
Unlike in in_any_int_dtype, timedelta64 instances will return False.
Parameters arr_or_dtype : array-like
The array or dtype to check.
Returns boolean : Whether or not the array or dtype is of an integer dtype
and not an instance of timedelta64.

Examples

>>> is_integer_dtype(str)
False
>>> is_integer_dtype(int)
True
>>> is_integer_dtype(float)
False
>>> is_integer_dtype(np.uint64)
True
>>> is_integer_dtype(np.datetime64)
False
>>> is_integer_dtype(np.timedelta64)
False
>>> is_integer_dtype(np.array(['a', 'b']))
False
>>> is_integer_dtype(pd.Series([1, 2]))
True
>>> is_integer_dtype(np.array([], dtype=np.timedelta64))
False
>>> is_integer_dtype(pd.Index([1, 2.])) # float
False

34.19.4.15 pandas.api.types.is_interval_dtype

pandas.api.types.is_interval_dtype(arr_or_dtype)
Check whether an array-like or dtype is of the Interval dtype.
Parameters arr_or_dtype : array-like
The array-like or dtype to check.
Returns boolean : Whether or not the array-like or dtype is
of the Interval dtype.

Examples

>>> is_interval_dtype(object)
False
>>> is_interval_dtype(IntervalDtype())

1990 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

True
>>> is_interval_dtype([1, 2, 3])
False
>>>
>>> interval = pd.Interval(1, 2, closed="right")
>>> is_interval_dtype(interval)
False
>>> is_interval_dtype(pd.IntervalIndex([interval]))
True

34.19.4.16 pandas.api.types.is_numeric_dtype

pandas.api.types.is_numeric_dtype(arr_or_dtype)
Check whether the provided array or dtype is of a numeric dtype.
Parameters arr_or_dtype : array-like
The array or dtype to check.
Returns boolean : Whether or not the array or dtype is of a numeric dtype.

Examples

>>> is_numeric_dtype(str)
False
>>> is_numeric_dtype(int)
True
>>> is_numeric_dtype(float)
True
>>> is_numeric_dtype(np.uint64)
True
>>> is_numeric_dtype(np.datetime64)
False
>>> is_numeric_dtype(np.timedelta64)
False
>>> is_numeric_dtype(np.array(['a', 'b']))
False
>>> is_numeric_dtype(pd.Series([1, 2]))
True
>>> is_numeric_dtype(pd.Index([1, 2.]))
True
>>> is_numeric_dtype(np.array([], dtype=np.timedelta64))
False

34.19.4.17 pandas.api.types.is_object_dtype

pandas.api.types.is_object_dtype(arr_or_dtype)
Check whether an array-like or dtype is of the object dtype.
Parameters arr_or_dtype : array-like
The array-like or dtype to check.
Returns boolean : Whether or not the array-like or dtype is of the object dtype.

34.19. General utility functions 1991

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Examples

>>> is_object_dtype(object)
True
>>> is_object_dtype(int)
False
>>> is_object_dtype(np.array([], dtype=object))
True
>>> is_object_dtype(np.array([], dtype=int))
False
>>> is_object_dtype([1, 2, 3])
False

34.19.4.18 pandas.api.types.is_period_dtype

pandas.api.types.is_period_dtype(arr_or_dtype)
Check whether an array-like or dtype is of the Period dtype.
Parameters arr_or_dtype : array-like
The array-like or dtype to check.
Returns boolean : Whether or not the array-like or dtype is of the Period dtype.

Examples

>>> is_period_dtype(object)
False
>>> is_period_dtype(PeriodDtype(freq="D"))
True
>>> is_period_dtype([1, 2, 3])
False
>>> is_period_dtype(pd.Period("2017-01-01"))
False
>>> is_period_dtype(pd.PeriodIndex([], freq="A"))
True

34.19.4.19 pandas.api.types.is_signed_integer_dtype

pandas.api.types.is_signed_integer_dtype(arr_or_dtype)
Check whether the provided array or dtype is of a signed integer dtype.
Unlike in in_any_int_dtype, timedelta64 instances will return False.
Parameters arr_or_dtype : array-like
The array or dtype to check.
Returns boolean : Whether or not the array or dtype is of a signed integer dtype
and not an instance of timedelta64.

1992 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Examples

>>> is_signed_integer_dtype(str)
False
>>> is_signed_integer_dtype(int)
True
>>> is_signed_integer_dtype(float)
False
>>> is_signed_integer_dtype(np.uint64) # unsigned
False
>>> is_signed_integer_dtype(np.datetime64)
False
>>> is_signed_integer_dtype(np.timedelta64)
False
>>> is_signed_integer_dtype(np.array(['a', 'b']))
False
>>> is_signed_integer_dtype(pd.Series([1, 2]))
True
>>> is_signed_integer_dtype(np.array([], dtype=np.timedelta64))
False
>>> is_signed_integer_dtype(pd.Index([1, 2.])) # float
False
>>> is_signed_integer_dtype(np.array([1, 2], dtype=np.uint32)) # unsigned
False

34.19.4.20 pandas.api.types.is_string_dtype

pandas.api.types.is_string_dtype(arr_or_dtype)
Check whether the provided array or dtype is of the string dtype.
Parameters arr_or_dtype : array-like
The array or dtype to check.
Returns boolean : Whether or not the array or dtype is of the string dtype.

Examples

>>> is_string_dtype(str)
True
>>> is_string_dtype(object)
True
>>> is_string_dtype(int)
False
>>>
>>> is_string_dtype(np.array(['a', 'b']))
True
>>> is_string_dtype(pd.Series([1, 2]))
False

34.19.4.21 pandas.api.types.is_timedelta64_dtype

pandas.api.types.is_timedelta64_dtype(arr_or_dtype)
Check whether an array-like or dtype is of the timedelta64 dtype.

34.19. General utility functions 1993

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Parameters arr_or_dtype : array-like

The array-like or dtype to check.
Returns boolean : Whether or not the array-like or dtype is
of the timedelta64 dtype.

Examples

>>> is_timedelta64_dtype(object)
False
>>> is_timedelta64_dtype(np.timedelta64)
True
>>> is_timedelta64_dtype([1, 2, 3])
False
>>> is_timedelta64_dtype(pd.Series([], dtype="timedelta64[ns]"))
True
>>> is_timedelta64_dtype('0 days')
False

34.19.4.22 pandas.api.types.is_timedelta64_ns_dtype

pandas.api.types.is_timedelta64_ns_dtype(arr_or_dtype)
Check whether the provided array or dtype is of the timedelta64[ns] dtype.
This is a very specific dtype, so generic ones like np.timedelta64 will return False if passed into this function.
Parameters arr_or_dtype : array-like
The array or dtype to check.
Returns boolean : Whether or not the array or dtype is of the
timedelta64[ns] dtype.

Examples

>>> is_timedelta64_ns_dtype(np.dtype('m8[ns]'))
True
>>> is_timedelta64_ns_dtype(np.dtype('m8[ps]')) # Wrong frequency
False
>>> is_timedelta64_ns_dtype(np.array([1, 2], dtype='m8[ns]'))
True
>>> is_timedelta64_ns_dtype(np.array([1, 2], dtype=np.timedelta64))
False

34.19.4.23 pandas.api.types.is_unsigned_integer_dtype

pandas.api.types.is_unsigned_integer_dtype(arr_or_dtype)
Check whether the provided array or dtype is of an unsigned integer dtype.
Parameters arr_or_dtype : array-like
The array or dtype to check.

1994 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Returns boolean : Whether or not the array or dtype is of an

unsigned integer dtype.

Examples

>>> is_unsigned_integer_dtype(str)
False
>>> is_unsigned_integer_dtype(int) # signed
False
>>> is_unsigned_integer_dtype(float)
False
>>> is_unsigned_integer_dtype(np.uint64)
True
>>> is_unsigned_integer_dtype(np.array(['a', 'b']))
False
>>> is_unsigned_integer_dtype(pd.Series([1, 2])) # signed
False
>>> is_unsigned_integer_dtype(pd.Index([1, 2.])) # float
False
>>> is_unsigned_integer_dtype(np.array([1, 2], dtype=np.uint32))
True

34.19.4.24 pandas.api.types.is_sparse

pandas.api.types.is_sparse(arr)
Check whether an array-like is a pandas sparse array.
Parameters arr : array-like
The array-like to check.
Returns boolean : Whether or not the array-like is a pandas sparse array.

Examples

>>> is_sparse(np.array([1, 2, 3]))

False
>>> is_sparse(pd.SparseArray([1, 2, 3]))
True
>>> is_sparse(pd.SparseSeries([1, 2, 3]))
True

This function checks only for pandas sparse array instances, so sparse arrays from other libraries will return
False.

>>> from scipy.sparse import bsr_matrix

>>> is_sparse(bsr_matrix([1, 2, 3]))
False

Iterable introspection

api.types.is_dict_like(obj) Check if the object is dict-like.

Continued on next page

34.19. General utility functions 1995

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Table 34.167 – continued from previous page

api.types.is_file_like(obj) Check if the object is a file-like object.
api.types.is_list_like(obj) Check if the object is list-like.
api.types.is_named_tuple(obj) Check if the object is a named tuple.
api.types.is_iterator(obj) Check if the object is an iterator.

34.19.4.25 pandas.api.types.is_dict_like

pandas.api.types.is_dict_like(obj)
Check if the object is dict-like.
Parameters obj : The object to check.
Returns is_dict_like : bool
Whether obj has dict-like properties.

Examples

>>> is_dict_like({1: 2})

True
>>> is_dict_like([1, 2, 3])
False

34.19.4.26 pandas.api.types.is_file_like

pandas.api.types.is_file_like(obj)
Check if the object is a file-like object.
For objects to be considered file-like, they must be an iterator AND have either a read and/or write method as
an attribute.
Note: file-like objects must be iterable, but iterable objects need not be file-like.
New in version 0.20.0.
Parameters obj : The object to check.
Returns is_file_like : bool
Whether obj has file-like properties.

Examples

>>> buffer(StringIO("data"))
>>> is_file_like(buffer)
True
>>> is_file_like([1, 2, 3])
False

1996 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

34.19.4.27 pandas.api.types.is_list_like

pandas.api.types.is_list_like(obj)
Check if the object is list-like.
Objects that are considered list-like are for example Python lists, tuples, sets, NumPy arrays, and Pandas Series.
Strings and datetime objects, however, are not considered list-like.
Parameters obj : The object to check.
Returns is_list_like : bool
Whether obj has list-like properties.

Examples

>>> is_list_like([1, 2, 3])

True
>>> is_list_like({1, 2, 3})
True
>>> is_list_like(datetime(2017, 1, 1))
False
>>> is_list_like("foo")
False
>>> is_list_like(1)
False

34.19.4.28 pandas.api.types.is_named_tuple

pandas.api.types.is_named_tuple(obj)
Check if the object is a named tuple.
Parameters obj : The object to check.
Returns is_named_tuple : bool
Whether obj is a named tuple.

Examples

>>> Point = namedtuple("Point", ["x", "y"])

>>> p = Point(1, 2)
>>>
>>> is_named_tuple(p)
True
>>> is_named_tuple((1, 2))
False

34.19.4.29 pandas.api.types.is_iterator

pandas.api.types.is_iterator(obj)
Check if the object is an iterator.
For example, lists are considered iterators but not strings or datetime objects.

34.19. General utility functions 1997

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Parameters obj : The object to check.

Returns is_iter : bool
Whether obj is an iterator.

Examples

>>> is_iterator([1, 2, 3])

True
>>> is_iterator(datetime(2017, 1, 1))
False
>>> is_iterator("foo")
False
>>> is_iterator(1)
False

Scalar introspection

api.types.is_bool
api.types.is_categorical(arr) Check whether an array-like is a Categorical instance.
api.types.is_complex
api.types.is_datetimetz(arr) Check whether an array-like is a datetime array-like with a
timezone component in its dtype.
api.types.is_float
api.types.is_hashable(obj) Return True if hash(obj) will succeed, False otherwise.
api.types.is_integer
api.types.is_interval
api.types.is_number(obj) Check if the object is a number.
api.types.is_period(arr) Check whether an array-like is a periodical index.
api.types.is_re(obj) Check if the object is a regex pattern instance.
api.types.is_re_compilable(obj) Check if the object can be compiled into a regex pattern
instance.
api.types.is_scalar Return True if given value is scalar.

34.19.4.30 pandas.api.types.is_bool

pandas.api.types.is_bool()

34.19.4.31 pandas.api.types.is_categorical

pandas.api.types.is_categorical(arr)
Check whether an array-like is a Categorical instance.
Parameters arr : array-like
The array-like to check.
Returns boolean : Whether or not the array-like is of a Categorical instance.

1998 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Examples

>>> is_categorical([1, 2, 3])

False

Categoricals, Series Categoricals, and CategoricalIndex will return True.

>>> cat = pd.Categorical([1, 2, 3])

>>> is_categorical(cat)
True
>>> is_categorical(pd.Series(cat))
True
>>> is_categorical(pd.CategoricalIndex([1, 2, 3]))
True

34.19.4.32 pandas.api.types.is_complex

pandas.api.types.is_complex()

34.19.4.33 pandas.api.types.is_datetimetz

pandas.api.types.is_datetimetz(arr)
Check whether an array-like is a datetime array-like with a timezone component in its dtype.
Parameters arr : array-like
The array-like to check.
Returns boolean : Whether or not the array-like is a datetime array-like with
a timezone component in its dtype.

Examples

>>> is_datetimetz([1, 2, 3])

False

Although the following examples are both DatetimeIndex objects, the first one returns False because it has no
timezone component unlike the second one, which returns True.

>>> is_datetimetz(pd.DatetimeIndex([1, 2, 3]))

False
>>> is_datetimetz(pd.DatetimeIndex([1, 2, 3], tz="US/Eastern"))
True

The object need not be a DatetimeIndex object. It just needs to have a dtype which has a timezone component.

>>> dtype = DatetimeTZDtype("ns", tz="US/Eastern")

>>> s = pd.Series([], dtype=dtype)
>>> is_datetimetz(s)
True

34.19. General utility functions 1999

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

34.19.4.34 pandas.api.types.is_float

pandas.api.types.is_float()

34.19.4.35 pandas.api.types.is_hashable

pandas.api.types.is_hashable(obj)
Return True if hash(obj) will succeed, False otherwise.
Some types will pass a test against collections.Hashable but fail when they are actually hashed with hash().
Distinguish between these and other types by trying the call to hash() and seeing if they raise TypeError.

Examples

>>> a = ([],)
>>> isinstance(a, collections.Hashable)
True
>>> is_hashable(a)
False

34.19.4.36 pandas.api.types.is_integer

pandas.api.types.is_integer()

34.19.4.37 pandas.api.types.is_interval

pandas.api.types.is_interval()

34.19.4.38 pandas.api.types.is_number

pandas.api.types.is_number(obj)
Check if the object is a number.
Parameters obj : The object to check.
Returns is_number : bool
Whether obj is a number or not.

Examples

>>> is_number(1)
True
>>> is_number("foo")
False

2000 Chapter 34. API Reference

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

34.19.4.39 pandas.api.types.is_period

pandas.api.types.is_period(arr)
Check whether an array-like is a periodical index.
Parameters arr : array-like
The array-like to check.
Returns boolean : Whether or not the array-like is a periodical index.

Examples

>>> is_period([1, 2, 3])

False
>>> is_period(pd.Index([1, 2, 3]))
False
>>> is_period(pd.PeriodIndex(["2017-01-01"], freq="D"))
True

34.19.4.40 pandas.api.types.is_re

pandas.api.types.is_re(obj)
Check if the object is a regex pattern instance.
Parameters obj : The object to check.
Returns is_regex : bool
Whether obj is a regex pattern.

Examples

>>> is_re(re.compile(".*"))
True
>>> is_re("foo")
False

34.19.4.41 pandas.api.types.is_re_compilable

pandas.api.types.is_re_compilable(obj)
Check if the object can be compiled into a regex pattern instance.
Parameters obj : The object to check.
Returns is_regex_compilable : bool
Whether obj can be compiled as a regex pattern.

Examples

34.19. General utility functions 2001

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

>>> is_re_compilable(".*")
True
>>> is_re_compilable(1)
False

34.19.4.42 pandas.api.types.is_scalar

pandas.api.types.is_scalar()
Return True if given value is scalar.
This includes: - numpy array scalar (e.g. np.int64) - Python builtin numerics - Python builtin byte arrays
and strings - None - instances of datetime.datetime - instances of datetime.timedelta - Period - instances of
decimal.Decimal - Interval

2002 Chapter 34. API Reference

 CHAPTER

THIRTYFIVE

DEVELOPER

This section will focus on downstream applications of pandas.

35.1 Storing pandas DataFrame objects in Apache Parquet format

The Apache Parquet format provides key-value metadata at the file and column level, stored in the footer of the Parquet
file:

5: optional list<KeyValue> key_value_metadata

where KeyValue is

struct KeyValue {
1: required string key
2: optional string value
}

So that a pandas.DataFrame can be faithfully reconstructed, we store a pandas metadata key in the
FileMetaData with the the value stored as :

{'index_columns': ['__index_level_0__', '__index_level_1__', ...],

'column_indexes': [<ci0>, <ci1>, ..., <ciN>],
'columns': [<c0>, <c1>, ...],
'pandas_version': $VERSION}

Here, <c0>/<ci0> and so forth are dictionaries containing the metadata for each column. This has JSON form:

{'name': column_name,
'pandas_type': pandas_type,
'numpy_type': numpy_type,
'metadata': metadata}

pandas_type is the logical type of the column, and is one of:

• Boolean: 'bool'
• Integers: 'int8', 'int16', 'int32', 'int64', 'uint8', 'uint16', 'uint32',
'uint64'
• Floats: 'float16', 'float32', 'float64'
• Date and Time Types: 'datetime', 'datetimetz', 'timedelta'
• String: 'unicode', 'bytes'

2003
pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Categorical: 'categorical'
• Other Python objects: 'object'
The numpy_type is the physical storage type of the column, which is the result of str(dtype) for the underlying
NumPy array that holds the data. So for datetimetz this is datetime64[ns] and for categorical, it may be any
of the supported integer categorical types.
The metadata field is None except for:
• datetimetz: {'timezone': zone, 'unit': 'ns'}, e.g. {'timezone', 'America/
New_York', 'unit': 'ns'}. The 'unit' is optional, and if omitted it is assumed to be nanoseconds.
• categorical: {'num_categories': K, 'ordered': is_ordered, 'type': $TYPE}
– Here 'type' is optional, and can be a nested pandas type specification here (but not categorical)
• unicode: {'encoding': encoding}
– The encoding is optional, and if not present is UTF-8
• object: {'encoding': encoding}. Objects can be serialized and stored in BYTE_ARRAY Parquet
columns. The encoding can be one of:
– 'pickle'
– 'msgpack'
– 'bson'
– 'json'
• timedelta: {'unit': 'ns'}. The 'unit' is optional, and if omitted it is assumed to be nanoseconds.
This metadata is optional altogether
For types other than these, the 'metadata' key can be omitted. Implementations can assume None if the key is not
present.
As an example of fully-formed metadata:

{'index_columns': ['__index_level_0__'],
'column_indexes': [
{'name': None,
'pandas_type': 'string',
'numpy_type': 'object',
'metadata': None}
],
'columns': [
{'name': 'c0',
'pandas_type': 'int8',
'numpy_type': 'int8',
'metadata': None},
{'name': 'c1',
'pandas_type': 'bytes',
'numpy_type': 'object',
'metadata': None},
{'name': 'c2',
'pandas_type': 'categorical',
'numpy_type': 'int16',
'metadata': {'num_categories': 1000, 'ordered': False}},
{'name': 'c3',
'pandas_type': 'datetimetz',
'numpy_type': 'datetime64[ns]',
'metadata': {'timezone': 'America/Los_Angeles'}},

2004 Chapter 35. Developer

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

{'name': 'c4',
'pandas_type': 'object',
'numpy_type': 'object',
'metadata': {'encoding': 'pickle'}},
{'name': '__index_level_0__',
'pandas_type': 'int64',
'numpy_type': 'int64',
'metadata': None}
],
'pandas_version': '0.20.0'}

35.1. Storing pandas DataFrame objects in Apache Parquet format 2005

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

2006 Chapter 35. Developer

 CHAPTER

THIRTYSIX

INTERNALS

This section will provide a look into some of pandas internals.

36.1 Indexing

In pandas there are a few objects implemented which can serve as valid containers for the axis labels:
• Index: the generic “ordered set” object, an ndarray of object dtype assuming nothing about its contents. The
labels must be hashable (and likely immutable) and unique. Populates a dict of label to location in Cython to do
O(1) lookups.
• Int64Index: a version of Index highly optimized for 64-bit integer data, such as time stamps
• Float64Index: a version of Index highly optimized for 64-bit float data
• MultiIndex: the standard hierarchical index object
• DatetimeIndex: An Index object with Timestamp boxed elements (impl are the int64 values)
• TimedeltaIndex: An Index object with Timedelta boxed elements (impl are the in64 values)
• PeriodIndex: An Index object with Period elements
There are functions that make the creation of a regular index easy:
• date_range: fixed frequency date range generated from a time rule or DateOffset. An ndarray of Python
datetime objects
• period_range: fixed frequency date range generated from a time rule or DateOffset. An ndarray of Period
objects, representing Timespans
The motivation for having an Index class in the first place was to enable different implementations of indexing.
This means that it’s possible for you, the user, to implement a custom Index subclass that may be better suited to a
particular application than the ones provided in pandas.
From an internal implementation point of view, the relevant methods that an Index must define are one or more of
the following (depending on how incompatible the new object internals are with the Index functions):
• get_loc: returns an “indexer” (an integer, or in some cases a slice object) for a label
• slice_locs: returns the “range” to slice between two labels
• get_indexer: Computes the indexing vector for reindexing / data alignment purposes. See the source /
docstrings for more on this
• get_indexer_non_unique: Computes the indexing vector for reindexing / data alignment purposes when
the index is non-unique. See the source / docstrings for more on this
• reindex: Does any pre-conversion of the input index then calls get_indexer

2007
pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• union, intersection: computes the union or intersection of two Index objects

• insert: Inserts a new label into an Index, yielding a new object
• delete: Delete a label, yielding a new object
• drop: Deletes a set of labels
• take: Analogous to ndarray.take

36.1.1 MultiIndex

Internally, the MultiIndex consists of a few things: the levels, the integer labels, and the level names:

In [1]: index = pd.MultiIndex.from_product([range(3), ['one', 'two']], names=['first',

˓→ 'second'])

In [2]: index
Out[2]:
MultiIndex(levels=[[0, 1, 2], ['one', 'two']],
labels=[[0, 0, 1, 1, 2, 2], [0, 1, 0, 1, 0, 1]],
names=['first', 'second'])

In [3]: index.levels
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→FrozenList([[0, 1, 2], ['one', 'two']])

In [4]: index.labels
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→FrozenList([[0, 0, 1, 1, 2, 2], [0, 1, 0, 1, 0, 1]])

In [5]: index.names
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→FrozenList(['first', 'second'])

You can probably guess that the labels determine which unique element is identified with that location at each layer
of the index. It’s important to note that sortedness is determined solely from the integer labels and does not check
(or care) whether the levels themselves are sorted. Fortunately, the constructors from_tuples and from_arrays
ensure that this is true, but if you compute the levels and labels yourself, please be careful.

36.2 Subclassing pandas Data Structures

Warning: There are some easier alternatives before considering subclassing pandas data structures.
1. Extensible method chains with pipe
2. Use composition. See here.

This section describes how to subclass pandas data structures to meet more specific needs. There are 2 points which
need attention:
1. Override constructor properties.
2. Define original properties

2008 Chapter 36. Internals

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

Note: You can find a nice example in geopandas project.

36.2.1 Override Constructor Properties

Each data structure has constructor properties to specifying data constructors. By overriding these properties, you can
retain defined-classes through pandas data manipulations.
There are 3 constructors to be defined:
• _constructor: Used when a manipulation result has the same dimesions as the original.
• _constructor_sliced: Used when a manipulation result has one lower dimension(s) as the original, such
as DataFrame single columns slicing.
• _constructor_expanddim: Used when a manipulation result has one higher dimension as the original,
such as Series.to_frame() and DataFrame.to_panel().
Following table shows how pandas data structures define constructor properties by default.
Property Attributes Series DataFrame Panel
_constructor Series DataFrame Panel
_constructor_sliced NotImplementedError Series DataFrame
_constructor_expanddim DataFrame Panel NotImplementedError
Below example shows how to define SubclassedSeries and SubclassedDataFrame overriding constructor
properties.
class SubclassedSeries(Series):

@property
def _constructor(self):
return SubclassedSeries

@property
def _constructor_expanddim(self):
return SubclassedDataFrame

class SubclassedDataFrame(DataFrame):

@property
def _constructor(self):
return SubclassedDataFrame

@property
def _constructor_sliced(self):
return SubclassedSeries

>>> s = SubclassedSeries([1, 2, 3])

>>> type(s)
<class '__main__.SubclassedSeries'>

>>> to_framed = s.to_frame()

>>> type(to_framed)
<class '__main__.SubclassedDataFrame'>

>>> df = SubclassedDataFrame({'A', [1, 2, 3], 'B': [4, 5, 6], 'C': [7, 8, 9]})
>>> df

36.2. Subclassing pandas Data Structures 2009

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

A B C
0 1 4 7
1 2 5 8
2 3 6 9

>>> type(df)
<class '__main__.SubclassedDataFrame'>

>>> sliced1 = df[['A', 'B']]

>>> sliced1
A B
0 1 4
1 2 5
2 3 6
>>> type(sliced1)
<class '__main__.SubclassedDataFrame'>

>>> sliced2 = df['A']

>>> sliced2
0 1
1 2
2 3
Name: A, dtype: int64
>>> type(sliced2)
<class '__main__.SubclassedSeries'>

36.2.2 Define Original Properties

To let original data structures have additional properties, you should let pandas know what properties are added.
pandas maps unknown properties to data names overriding __getattribute__. Defining original properties
can be done in one of 2 ways:
1. Define _internal_names and _internal_names_set for temporary properties which WILL NOT be
passed to manipulation results.
2. Define _metadata for normal properties which will be passed to manipulation results.
Below is an example to define 2 original properties, “internal_cache” as a temporary property and “added_property”
as a normal property
class SubclassedDataFrame2(DataFrame):

# temporary properties
_internal_names = pd.DataFrame._internal_names + ['internal_cache']
_internal_names_set = set(_internal_names)

# normal properties
_metadata = ['added_property']

@property
def _constructor(self):
return SubclassedDataFrame2

>>> df = SubclassedDataFrame2({'A', [1, 2, 3], 'B': [4, 5, 6], 'C': [7, 8, 9]})
>>> df
A B C
0 1 4 7

2010 Chapter 36. Internals

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

1 2 5 8
2 3 6 9

>>> df.internal_cache = 'cached'

>>> df.added_property = 'property'

>>> df.internal_cache
cached
>>> df.added_property
property

# properties defined in _internal_names is reset after manipulation

>>> df[['A', 'B']].internal_cache
AttributeError: 'SubclassedDataFrame2' object has no attribute 'internal_cache'

# properties defined in _metadata are retained

>>> df[['A', 'B']].added_property
property

36.2. Subclassing pandas Data Structures 2011

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

2012 Chapter 36. Internals

 CHAPTER

THIRTYSEVEN

RELEASE NOTES

This is the list of changes to pandas between each release. For full details, see the commit logs at http://github.com/
pandas-dev/pandas
What is it
pandas is a Python package providing fast, flexible, and expressive data structures designed to make working with
“relational” or “labeled” data both easy and intuitive. It aims to be the fundamental high-level building block for doing
practical, real world data analysis in Python. Additionally, it has the broader goal of becoming the most powerful and
flexible open source data analysis / manipulation tool available in any language.
Where to get it
• Source code: http://github.com/pandas-dev/pandas
• Binary installers on PyPI: http://pypi.python.org/pypi/pandas
• Documentation: http://pandas.pydata.org

37.1 pandas 0.21.0

Release date: October 27, 2017

This is a major release from 0.20.3 and includes a number of API changes, deprecations, new features, enhancements,
and performance improvements along with a large number of bug fixes. We recommend that all users upgrade to this
version.
Highlights include:
• Integration with Apache Parquet, including a new top-level read_parquet() function and DataFrame.
to_parquet() method, see here.
• New user-facing pandas.api.types.CategoricalDtype for specifying categoricals independent of
the data, see here.
• The behavior of sum and prod on all-NaN Series/DataFrames is now consistent and no longer depends on
whether bottleneck is installed, see here.
• Compatibility fixes for pypy, see here.
• Additions to the drop, reindex and rename API to make them more consistent, see here.
• Addition of the new methods DataFrame.infer_objects (see here) and GroupBy.pipe (see here).
• Indexing with a list of labels, where one or more of the labels is missing, is deprecated and will raise a KeyError
in a future version, see here.
See the v0.21.0 Whatsnew overview for an extensive list of all enhancements and bugs that have been fixed in 0.21.0

2013
pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

37.1.1 Thanks

A total of 206 people contributed to this release. People with a “+” by their names contributed a patch for the first
time.

37.1.1.1 Contributors

• 3553x +
• Aaron Barber
• Adam Gleave +
• Adam Smith +
• AdamShamlian +
• Adrian Liaw +
• Alan Velasco +
• Alan Yee +
• Alex B +
• Alex Lubbock +
• Alex Marchenko +
• Alex Rychyk +
• Amol K +
• Andreas Winkler
• Andrew +
• Andrew
• André Jonasson +
• Becky Sweger
• Berkay +
• Bob Haffner +
• Bran Yang
• Brian Tu +
• Brock Mendel +
• Carol Willing +
• Carter Green +
• Chankey Pathak +
• Chris
• Chris Billington
• Chris Filo Gorgolewski +
• Chris Kerr
• Chris M +

2014 Chapter 37. Release Notes

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Chris Mazzullo +
• Christian Prinoth
• Christian Stade-Schuldt
• Christoph Moehl +
• DSM
• Daniel Chen +
• Daniel Grady
• Daniel Himmelstein
• Dave Willmer
• David Cook
• David Gwynne
• David Read +
• Dillon Niederhut +
• Douglas Rudd
• Eric Stein +
• Eric Wieser +
• Erik Fredriksen
• Florian Wilhelm +
• Floris Kint +
• Forbidden Donut
• Gabe F +
• Giftlin +
• Giftlin Rajaiah +
• Giulio Pepe +
• Guilherme Beltramini
• Guillem Borrell +
• Hanmin Qin +
• Hendrik Makait +
• Hugues Valois
• Hussain Tamboli +
• Iva Miholic +
• Jan Novotný +
• Jan Rudolph
• Jean Helie +
• Jean-Baptiste Schiratti +
• Jean-Mathieu Deschenes

37.1. pandas 0.21.0 2015

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Jeff Knupp +
• Jeff Reback
• Jeff Tratner
• JennaVergeynst
• JimStearns206
• Joel Nothman
• John W. O’Brien
• Jon Crall +
• Jon Mease
• Jonathan J. Helmus +
• Joris Van den Bossche
• JosephWagner
• Juarez Bochi
• Julian Kuhlmann +
• Karel De Brabandere
• Kassandra Keeton +
• Keiron Pizzey +
• Keith Webber
• Kernc
• Kevin Sheppard
• Kirk Hansen +
• Licht Takeuchi +
• Lucas Kushner +
• Mahdi Ben Jelloul +
• Makarov Andrey +
• Malgorzata Turzanska +
• Marc Garcia +
• Margaret Sy +
• MarsGuy +
• Matt Bark +
• Matthew Roeschke
• Matti Picus
• Mehmet Ali “Mali” Akmanalp
• Michael Gasvoda +
• Michael Penkov +
• Milo +

2016 Chapter 37. Release Notes

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Morgan Stuart +
• Morgan243 +
• Nathan Ford +
• Nick Eubank
• Nick Garvey +
• Oleg Shteynbuk +
• P-Tillmann +
• Pankaj Pandey
• Patrick Luo
• Patrick O’Melveny
• Paul Reidy +
• Paula +
• Peter Quackenbush
• Peter Yanovich +
• Phillip Cloud
• Pierre Haessig
• Pietro Battiston
• Pradyumna Reddy Chinthala
• Prasanjit Prakash
• RobinFiveWords
• Ryan Hendrickson
• Sam Foo
• Sangwoong Yoon +
• Simon Gibbons +
• SimonBaron
• Steven Cutting +
• Sudeep +
• Sylvia +
• TN+
• Telt
• Thomas A Caswell
• Tim Swast +
• Tom Augspurger
• Tong SHEN
• Tuan +
• Utkarsh Upadhyay +

37.1. pandas 0.21.0 2017

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Vincent La +
• Vivek +
• WANG Aiyong
• WBare
• Wes McKinney
• XF +
• Yi Liu +
• Yosuke Nakabayashi +
• aaron315 +
• abarber4gh +
• aernlund +
• agustín méndez +
• andymaheshw +
• ante328 +
• aviolov +
• bpraggastis
• cbertinato +
• cclauss +
• chernrick
• chris-b1
• dkamm +
• dwkenefick
• economy
• faic +
• fding253 +
• gfyoung
• guygoldberg +
• hhuuggoo +
• huashuai +
• ian
• iulia +
• jaredsnyder
• jbrockmendel +
• jdeschenes
• jebob +
• jschendel +

2018 Chapter 37. Release Notes

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• keitakurita
• kernc +
• kiwirob +
• kjford
• linebp
• lloydkirk
• louispotok +
• majiang +
• manikbhandari +
• matthiashuschle +
• mattip
• maxwasserman +
• mjlove12 +
• nmartensen +
• pandas-docs-bot +
• parchd-1 +
• philipphanemann +
• rdk1024 +
• reidy-p +
• ri938
• ruiann +
• rvernica +
• s-weigand +
• scotthavard92 +
• skwbc +
• step4me +
• tobycheese +
• topper-123 +
• tsdlovell
• ysau +
• zzgao +

37.2 pandas 0.20.0 / 0.20.1

Release date: May 5, 2017

37.2. pandas 0.20.0 / 0.20.1 2019

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

This is a major release from 0.19.2 and includes a number of API changes, deprecations, new features, enhancements,
and performance improvements along with a large number of bug fixes. We recommend that all users upgrade to this
version.
Highlights include:
• New .agg() API for Series/DataFrame similar to the groupby-rolling-resample API’s, see here
• Integration with the feather-format, including a new top-level pd.read_feather() and
DataFrame.to_feather() method, see here.
• The .ix indexer has been deprecated, see here
• Panel has been deprecated, see here
• Addition of an IntervalIndex and Interval scalar type, see here
• Improved user API when grouping by index levels in .groupby(), see here
• Improved support for UInt64 dtypes, see here
• A new orient for JSON serialization, orient='table', that uses the Table Schema spec and that gives the
possibility for a more interactive repr in the Jupyter Notebook, see here
• Experimental support for exporting styled DataFrames (DataFrame.style) to Excel, see here
• Window binary corr/cov operations now return a MultiIndexed DataFrame rather than a Panel, as Panel is
now deprecated, see here
• Support for S3 handling now uses s3fs, see here
• Google BigQuery support now uses the pandas-gbq library, see here
See the v0.20.1 Whatsnew overview for an extensive list of all enhancements and bugs that have been fixed in 0.20.1.

Note: This is a combined release for 0.20.0 and and 0.20.1. Version 0.20.1 contains one additional change for
backwards-compatibility with downstream projects using pandas’ utils routines. (GH16250)

37.2.1 Thanks

• abaldenko
• Adam J. Stewart
• Adrian
• adrian-stepien
• Ajay Saxena
• Akash Tandon
• Albert Villanova del Moral
• Aleksey Bilogur
• alexandercbooth
• Alexis Mignon
• Amol Kahat
• Andreas Winkler
• Andrew Kittredge

2020 Chapter 37. Release Notes

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Anthonios Partheniou
• Arco Bast
• Ashish Singal
• atbd
• bastewart
• Baurzhan Muftakhidinov
• Ben Kandel
• Ben Thayer
• Ben Welsh
• Bill Chambers
• bmagnusson
• Brandon M. Burroughs
• Brian
• Brian McFee
• carlosdanielcsantos
• Carlos Souza
• chaimdemulder
• Chris
• chris-b1
• Chris Ham
• Christopher C. Aycock
• Christoph Gohlke
• Christoph Paulik
• Chris Warth
• Clemens Brunner
• DaanVanHauwermeiren
• Daniel Himmelstein
• Dave Willmer
• David Cook
• David Gwynne
• David Hoffman
• David Krych
• dickreuter
• Diego Fernandez
• Dimitris Spathis
• discort

37.2. pandas 0.20.0 / 0.20.1 2021

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Dmitry L
• Dody Suria Wijaya
• Dominik Stanczak
• Dr-Irv
• Dr. Irv
• dr-leo
• D.S. McNeil
• dubourg
• dwkenefick
• Elliott Sales de Andrade
• Ennemoser Christoph
• Francesc Alted
• Fumito Hamamura
• funnycrab
• gfyoung
• Giacomo Ferroni
• goldenbull
• Graham R. Jeffries
• Greg Williams
• Guilherme Beltramini
• Guilherme Samora
• Hao Wu
• Harshit Patni
• [email protected]
• Ilya V. Schurov
• Iván Vallés Pérez
• Jackie Leng
• Jaehoon Hwang
• James Draper
• James Goppert
• James McBride
• James Santucci
• Jan Schulz
• Jeff Carey
• Jeff Reback
• JennaVergeynst

2022 Chapter 37. Release Notes

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Jim
• Jim Crist
• Joe Jevnik
• Joel Nothman
• John
• John Tucker
• John W. O’Brien
• John Zwinck
• jojomdt
• Jonathan de Bruin
• Jonathan Whitmore
• Jon Mease
• Jon M. Mease
• Joost Kranendonk
• Joris Van den Bossche
• Joshua Bradt
• Julian Santander
• Julien Marrec
• Jun Kim
• Justin Solinsky
• Kacawi
• Kamal Kamalaldin
• Kerby Shedden
• Kernc
• Keshav Ramaswamy
• Kevin Sheppard
• Kyle Kelley
• Larry Ren
• Leon Yin
• linebp
• Line Pedersen
• Lorenzo Cestaro
• Luca Scarabello
• Lukasz
• Mahmoud Lababidi
• manu

37.2. pandas 0.20.0 / 0.20.1 2023

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• manuels
• Mark Mandel
• Matthew Brett
• Matthew Roeschke
• mattip
• Matti Picus
• Matt Roeschke
• maxalbert
• Maximilian Roos
• mcocdawc
• Michael Charlton
• Michael Felt
• Michael Lamparski
• Michiel Stock
• Mikolaj Chwalisz
• Min RK
• Miroslav Šedivý
• Mykola Golubyev
• Nate Yoder
• Nathalie Rud
• Nicholas Ver Halen
• Nick Chmura
• Nolan Nichols
• nuffe
• Pankaj Pandey
• paul-mannino
• Pawel Kordek
• pbreach
• Pete Huang
• Peter
• Peter Csizsek
• Petio Petrov
• Phil Ruffwind
• Pietro Battiston
• Piotr Chromiec
• Prasanjit Prakash

2024 Chapter 37. Release Notes

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Robert Bradshaw
• Rob Forgione
• Robin
• Rodolfo Fernandez
• Roger Thomas
• Rouz Azari
• Sahil Dua
• sakkemo
• Sam Foo
• Sami Salonen
• Sarah Bird
• Sarma Tangirala
• scls19fr
• Scott Sanderson
• Sebastian Bank
• Sebastian Gsänger
• Sébastien de Menten
• Shawn Heide
• Shyam Saladi
• sinhrks
• Sinhrks
• Stephen Rauch
• stijnvanhoey
• Tara Adiseshan
• themrmax
• the-nose-knows
• Thiago Serafim
• Thoralf Gutierrez
• Thrasibule
• Tobias Gustafsson
• Tom Augspurger
• tomrod
• Tong Shen
• Tong SHEN
• TrigonaMinima
• tzinckgraf

37.2. pandas 0.20.0 / 0.20.1 2025

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Uwe
• wandersoncferreira
• watercrossing
• wcwagner
• Wes Turner
• Wiktor Tomczak
• WillAyd
• xgdgsc
• Yaroslav Halchenko
• Yimeng Zhang
• yui-knk

37.3 pandas 0.19.2

Release date: December 24, 2016

This is a minor bug-fix release in the 0.19.x series and includes some small regression fixes, bug fixes and performance
improvements.
Highlights include:
• Compatibility with Python 3.6
• Added a Pandas Cheat Sheet. (GH13202).
See the v0.19.2 Whatsnew page for an overview of all bugs that have been fixed in 0.19.2.

37.3.1 Thanks

• Ajay Saxena
• Ben Kandel
• Chris
• Chris Ham
• Christopher C. Aycock
• Daniel Himmelstein
• Dave Willmer
• Dr-Irv
• gfyoung
• hesham shabana
• Jeff Carey
• Jeff Reback
• Joe Jevnik

2026 Chapter 37. Release Notes

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Joris Van den Bossche

• Julian Santander
• Kerby Shedden
• Keshav Ramaswamy
• Kevin Sheppard
• Luca Scarabello
• Matti Picus
• Matt Roeschke
• Maximilian Roos
• Mykola Golubyev
• Nate Yoder
• Nicholas Ver Halen
• Pawel Kordek
• Pietro Battiston
• Rodolfo Fernandez
• sinhrks
• Tara Adiseshan
• Tom Augspurger
• wandersoncferreira
• Yaroslav Halchenko

37.4 pandas 0.19.1

Release date: November 3, 2016

This is a minor bug-fix release from 0.19.0 and includes some small regression fixes, bug fixes and performance
improvements.
See the v0.19.1 Whatsnew page for an overview of all bugs that have been fixed in 0.19.1.

37.4.1 Thanks

• Adam Chainz
• Anthonios Partheniou
• Arash Rouhani
• Ben Kandel
• Brandon M. Burroughs
• Chris
• chris-b1

37.4. pandas 0.19.1 2027

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Chris Warth
• David Krych
• dubourg
• gfyoung
• Iván Vallés Pérez
• Jeff Reback
• Joe Jevnik
• Jon M. Mease
• Joris Van den Bossche
• Josh Owen
• Keshav Ramaswamy
• Larry Ren
• mattrijk
• Michael Felt
• paul-mannino
• Piotr Chromiec
• Robert Bradshaw
• Sinhrks
• Thiago Serafim
• Tom Bird

37.5 pandas 0.19.0

Release date: October 2, 2016

This is a major release from 0.18.1 and includes number of API changes, several new features, enhancements, and
performance improvements along with a large number of bug fixes. We recommend that all users upgrade to this
version.
Highlights include:
• merge_asof() for asof-style time-series joining, see here
• .rolling() is now time-series aware, see here
• read_csv() now supports parsing Categorical data, see here
• A function union_categorical() has been added for combining categoricals, see here
• PeriodIndex now has its own period dtype, and changed to be more consistent with other Index classes.
See here
• Sparse data structures gained enhanced support of int and bool dtypes, see here
• Comparison operations with Series no longer ignores the index, see here for an overview of the API changes.
• Introduction of a pandas development API for utility functions, see here.

2028 Chapter 37. Release Notes

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Deprecation of Panel4D and PanelND. We recommend to represent these types of n-dimensional data with
the xarray package.
• Removal of the previously deprecated modules pandas.io.data, pandas.io.wb, pandas.tools.
rplot.
See the v0.19.0 Whatsnew overview for an extensive list of all enhancements and bugs that have been fixed in 0.19.0.

37.5.1 Thanks

• adneu
• Adrien Emery
• agraboso
• Alex Alekseyev
• Alex Vig
• Allen Riddell
• Amol
• Amol Agrawal
• Andy R. Terrel
• Anthonios Partheniou
• babakkeyvani
• Ben Kandel
• Bob Baxley
• Brett Rosen
• c123w
• Camilo Cota
• Chris
• chris-b1
• Chris Grinolds
• Christian Hudon
• Christopher C. Aycock
• Chris Warth
• cmazzullo
• conquistador1492
• cr3
• Daniel Siladji
• Douglas McNeil
• Drewrey Lupton
• dsm054
• Eduardo Blancas Reyes

37.5. pandas 0.19.0 2029

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Elliot Marsden
• Evan Wright
• Felix Marczinowski
• Francis T. O’Donovan
• Gábor Lipták
• Geraint Duck
• gfyoung
• Giacomo Ferroni
• Grant Roch
• Haleemur Ali
• harshul1610
• Hassan Shamim
• iamsimha
• Iulius Curt
• Ivan Nazarov
• jackieleng
• Jeff Reback
• Jeffrey Gerard
• Jenn Olsen
• Jim Crist
• Joe Jevnik
• John Evans
• John Freeman
• John Liekezer
• Johnny Gill
• John W. O’Brien
• John Zwinck
• Jordan Erenrich
• Joris Van den Bossche
• Josh Howes
• Jozef Brandys
• Kamil Sindi
• Ka Wo Chen
• Kerby Shedden
• Kernc
• Kevin Sheppard

2030 Chapter 37. Release Notes

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Matthieu Brucher
• Maximilian Roos
• Michael Scherer
• Mike Graham
• Mortada Mehyar
• mpuels
• Muhammad Haseeb Tariq
• Nate George
• Neil Parley
• Nicolas Bonnotte
• OXPHOS
• Pan Deng / Zora
• Paul
• Pauli Virtanen
• Paul Mestemaker
• Pawel Kordek
• Pietro Battiston
• pijucha
• Piotr Jucha
• priyankjain
• Ravi Kumar Nimmi
• Robert Gieseke
• Robert Kern
• Roger Thomas
• Roy Keyes
• Russell Smith
• Sahil Dua
• Sanjiv Lobo
• Sašo Stanovnik
• Shawn Heide
• sinhrks
• Sinhrks
• Stephen Kappel
• Steve Choi
• Stewart Henderson
• Sudarshan Konge

37.5. pandas 0.19.0 2031

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Thomas A Caswell
• Tom Augspurger
• Tom Bird
• Uwe Hoffmann
• wcwagner
• WillAyd
• Xiang Zhang
• Yadunandan
• Yaroslav Halchenko
• YG-Riku
• Yuichiro Kaneko
• yui-knk
• zhangjinjie
• znmean
• Yan Facai

37.6 pandas 0.18.1

Release date: (May 3, 2016)

This is a minor release from 0.18.0 and includes a large number of bug fixes along with several new features, enhance-
ments, and performance improvements.
Highlights include:
• .groupby(...) has been enhanced to provide convenient syntax when working with .rolling(..),
.expanding(..) and .resample(..) per group, see here
• pd.to_datetime() has gained the ability to assemble dates from a DataFrame, see here
• Method chaining improvements, see here.
• Custom business hour offset, see here.
• Many bug fixes in the handling of sparse, see here
• Expanded the Tutorials section with a feature on modern pandas, courtesy of @TomAugsburger. (GH13045).
See the v0.18.1 Whatsnew overview for an extensive list of all enhancements and bugs that have been fixed in 0.18.1.

37.6.1 Thanks

• Andrew Fiore-Gartland
• Bastiaan
• Benoît Vinot
• Brandon Rhodes
• DaCoEx

2032 Chapter 37. Release Notes

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Drew Fustin
• Ernesto Freitas
• Filip Ter
• Gregory Livschitz
• Gábor Lipták
• Hassan Kibirige
• Iblis Lin
• Israel Saeta Pérez
• Jason Wolosonovich
• Jeff Reback
• Joe Jevnik
• Joris Van den Bossche
• Joshua Storck
• Ka Wo Chen
• Kerby Shedden
• Kieran O’Mahony
• Leif Walsh
• Mahmoud Lababidi
• Maoyuan Liu
• Mark Roth
• Matt Wittmann
• MaxU
• Maximilian Roos
• Michael Droettboom
• Nick Eubank
• Nicolas Bonnotte
• OXPHOS
• Pauli Virtanen
• Peter Waller
• Pietro Battiston
• Prabhjot Singh
• Robin Wilson
• Roger Thomas
• Sebastian Bank
• Stephen Hoover
• Tim Hopper

37.6. pandas 0.18.1 2033

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Tom Augspurger
• WANG Aiyong
• Wes Turner
• Winand
• Xbar
• Yan Facai
• adneu
• ajenkins-cargometrics
• behzad nouri
• chinskiy
• gfyoung
• jeps-journal
• jonaslb
• kotrfa
• nileracecrew
• onesandzeroes
• rs2
• sinhrks
• tsdlovell

37.7 pandas 0.18.0

Release date: (March 13, 2016)

This is a major release from 0.17.1 and includes a small number of API changes, several new features, enhancements,
and performance improvements along with a large number of bug fixes. We recommend that all users upgrade to this
version.
Highlights include:
• Moving and expanding window functions are now methods on Series and DataFrame, similar to .groupby,
see here.
• Adding support for a RangeIndex as a specialized form of the Int64Index for memory savings, see here.
• API breaking change to the .resample method to make it more .groupby like, see here.
• Removal of support for positional indexing with floats, which was deprecated since 0.14.0. This will now raise
a TypeError, see here.
• The .to_xarray() function has been added for compatibility with the xarray package, see here.
• The read_sas function has been enhanced to read sas7bdat files, see here.
• Addition of the .str.extractall() method, and API changes to the .str.extract() method and .str.cat() method.
• pd.test() top-level nose test runner is available (GH4327).
See the v0.18.0 Whatsnew overview for an extensive list of all enhancements and bugs that have been fixed in 0.18.0.

2034 Chapter 37. Release Notes

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

37.7.1 Thanks

• ARF
• Alex Alekseyev
• Andrew McPherson
• Andrew Rosenfeld
• Anthonios Partheniou
• Anton I. Sipos
• Ben
• Ben North
• Bran Yang
• Chris
• Chris Carroux
• Christopher C. Aycock
• Christopher Scanlin
• Cody
• Da Wang
• Daniel Grady
• Dorozhko Anton
• Dr-Irv
• Erik M. Bray
• Evan Wright
• Francis T. O’Donovan
• Frank Cleary
• Gianluca Rossi
• Graham Jeffries
• Guillaume Horel
• Henry Hammond
• Isaac Schwabacher
• Jean-Mathieu Deschenes
• Jeff Reback
• Joe Jevnik
• John Freeman
• John Fremlin
• Jonas Hoersch
• Joris Van den Bossche
• Joris Vankerschaver

37.7. pandas 0.18.0 2035

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Justin Lecher
• Justin Lin
• Ka Wo Chen
• Keming Zhang
• Kerby Shedden
• Kyle
• Marco Farrugia
• MasonGallo
• MattRijk
• Matthew Lurie
• Maximilian Roos
• Mayank Asthana
• Mortada Mehyar
• Moussa Taifi
• Navreet Gill
• Nicolas Bonnotte
• Paul Reiners
• Philip Gura
• Pietro Battiston
• RahulHP
• Randy Carnevale
• Rinoc Johnson
• Rishipuri
• Sangmin Park
• Scott E Lasley
• Sereger13
• Shannon Wang
• Skipper Seabold
• Thierry Moisan
• Thomas A Caswell
• Toby Dylan Hocking
• Tom Augspurger
• Travis
• Trent Hauck
• Tux1
• Varun

2036 Chapter 37. Release Notes

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Wes McKinney
• Will Thompson
• Yoav Ram
• Yoong Kang Lim
• Yoshiki Vázquez Baeza
• Young Joong Kim
• Younggun Kim
• Yuval Langer
• alex argunov
• behzad nouri
• boombard
• brian-pantano
• chromy
• daniel
• dgram0
• gfyoung
• hack-c
• hcontrast
• jfoo
• kaustuv deolal
• llllllllll
• ranarag
• rockg
• scls19fr
• seales
• sinhrks
• srib
• surveymedia.ca
• tworec

37.8 pandas 0.17.1

Release date: (November 21, 2015)

This is a minor release from 0.17.0 and includes a large number of bug fixes along with several new features, enhance-
ments, and performance improvements.
Highlights include:
• Support for Conditional HTML Formatting, see here

37.8. pandas 0.17.1 2037

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Releasing the GIL on the csv reader & other ops, see here
• Regression in DataFrame.drop_duplicates from 0.16.2, causing incorrect results on integer values
(GH11376)
See the v0.17.1 Whatsnew overview for an extensive list of all enhancements and bugs that have been fixed in 0.17.1.

37.8.1 Thanks

• Aleksandr Drozd
• Alex Chase
• Anthonios Partheniou
• BrenBarn
• Brian J. McGuirk
• Chris
• Christian Berendt
• Christian Perez
• Cody Piersall
• Data & Code Expert Experimenting with Code on Data
• DrIrv
• Evan Wright
• Guillaume Gay
• Hamed Saljooghinejad
• Iblis Lin
• Jake VanderPlas
• Jan Schulz
• Jean-Mathieu Deschenes
• Jeff Reback
• Jimmy Callin
• Joris Van den Bossche
• K.-Michael Aye
• Ka Wo Chen
• Loïc Séguin-C
• Luo Yicheng
• Magnus Jöud
• Manuel Leonhardt
• Matthew Gilbert
• Maximilian Roos
• Michael

2038 Chapter 37. Release Notes

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Nicholas Stahl
• Nicolas Bonnotte
• Pastafarianist
• Petra Chong
• Phil Schaf
• Philipp A
• Rob deCarvalho
• Roman Khomenko
• Rémy Léone
• Sebastian Bank
• Thierry Moisan
• Tom Augspurger
• Tux1
• Varun
• Wieland Hoffmann
• Winterflower
• Yoav Ram
• Younggun Kim
• Zeke
• ajcr
• azuranski
• behzad nouri
• cel4
• emilydolson
• hironow
• lexual
• llllllllll
• rockg
• silentquasar
• sinhrks
• taeold

37.9 pandas 0.17.0

Release date: (October 9, 2015)

37.9. pandas 0.17.0 2039

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

This is a major release from 0.16.2 and includes a small number of API changes, several new features, enhancements,
and performance improvements along with a large number of bug fixes. We recommend that all users upgrade to this
version.
Highlights include:
• Release the Global Interpreter Lock (GIL) on some cython operations, see here
• Plotting methods are now available as attributes of the .plot accessor, see here
• The sorting API has been revamped to remove some long-time inconsistencies, see here
• Support for a datetime64[ns] with timezones as a first-class dtype, see here
• The default for to_datetime will now be to raise when presented with unparseable formats, previously
this would return the original input. Also, date parse functions now return consistent results. See here
• The default for dropna in HDFStore has changed to False, to store by default all rows even if they are all
NaN, see here
• Datetime accessor (dt) now supports Series.dt.strftime to generate formatted strings for datetime-
likes, and Series.dt.total_seconds to generate each duration of the timedelta in seconds. See here
• Period and PeriodIndex can handle multiplied freq like 3D, which corresponding to 3 days span. See here
• Development installed versions of pandas will now have PEP440 compliant version strings (GH9518)
• Development support for benchmarking with the Air Speed Velocity library (GH8316)
• Support for reading SAS xport files, see here
• Documentation comparing SAS to pandas, see here
• Removal of the automatic TimeSeries broadcasting, deprecated since 0.8.0, see here
• Display format with plain text can optionally align with Unicode East Asian Width, see here
• Compatibility with Python 3.5 (GH11097)
• Compatibility with matplotlib 1.5.0 (GH11111)
See the v0.17.0 Whatsnew overview for an extensive list of all enhancements and bugs that have been fixed in 0.17.0.

37.9.1 Thanks

• Alex Rothberg
• Andrea Bedini
• Andrew Rosenfeld
• Andy Li
• Anthonios Partheniou
• Artemy Kolchinsky
• Bernard Willers
• Charlie Clark
• Chris
• Chris Whelan
• Christoph Gohlke
• Christopher Whelan

2040 Chapter 37. Release Notes

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Clark Fitzgerald
• Clearfield Christopher
• Dan Ringwalt
• Daniel Ni
• Data & Code Expert Experimenting with Code on Data
• David Cottrell
• David John Gagne
• David Kelly
• ETF
• Eduardo Schettino
• Egor
• Egor Panfilov
• Evan Wright
• Frank Pinter
• Gabriel Araujo
• Garrett-R
• Gianluca Rossi
• Guillaume Gay
• Guillaume Poulin
• Harsh Nisar
• Ian Henriksen
• Ian Hoegen
• Jaidev Deshpande
• Jan Rudolph
• Jan Schulz
• Jason Swails
• Jeff Reback
• Jonas Buyl
• Joris Van den Bossche
• Joris Vankerschaver
• Josh Levy-Kramer
• Julien Danjou
• Ka Wo Chen
• Karrie Kehoe
• Kelsey Jordahl
• Kerby Shedden

37.9. pandas 0.17.0 2041

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Kevin Sheppard
• Lars Buitinck
• Leif Johnson
• Luis Ortiz
• Mac
• Matt Gambogi
• Matt Savoie
• Matthew Gilbert
• Maximilian Roos
• Michelangelo D’Agostino
• Mortada Mehyar
• Nick Eubank
• Nipun Batra
• Ondřej Čertík
• Phillip Cloud
• Pratap Vardhan
• Rafal Skolasinski
• Richard Lewis
• Rinoc Johnson
• Rob Levy
• Robert Gieseke
• Safia Abdalla
• Samuel Denny
• Saumitra Shahapure
• Sebastian Pölsterl
• Sebastian Rubbert
• Sheppard, Kevin
• Sinhrks
• Siu Kwan Lam
• Skipper Seabold
• Spencer Carrucciu
• Stephan Hoyer
• Stephen Hoover
• Stephen Pascoe
• Terry Santegoeds
• Thomas Grainger

2042 Chapter 37. Release Notes

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Tjerk Santegoeds
• Tom Augspurger
• Vincent Davis
• Winterflower
• Yaroslav Halchenko
• Yuan Tang (Terry)
• agijsberts
• ajcr
• behzad nouri
• cel4
• cyrusmaher
• davidovitch
• ganego
• jreback
• juricast
• larvian
• maximilianr
• msund
• rekcahpassyla
• robertzk
• scls19fr
• seth-p
• sinhrks
• springcoil
• terrytangyuan
• tzinckgraf

37.10 pandas 0.16.2

Release date: (June 12, 2015)

This is a minor release from 0.16.1 and includes a large number of bug fixes along with several new features, enhance-
ments, and performance improvements.
Highlights include:
• A new pipe method, see here
• Documentation on how to use numba with pandas, see here
See the v0.16.2 Whatsnew overview for an extensive list of all enhancements and bugs that have been fixed in 0.16.2.

37.10. pandas 0.16.2 2043

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

37.10.1 Thanks

• Andrew Rosenfeld
• Artemy Kolchinsky
• Bernard Willers
• Christer van der Meeren
• Christian Hudon
• Constantine Glen Evans
• Daniel Julius Lasiman
• Evan Wright
• Francesco Brundu
• Gaëtan de Menten
• Jake VanderPlas
• James Hiebert
• Jeff Reback
• Joris Van den Bossche
• Justin Lecher
• Ka Wo Chen
• Kevin Sheppard
• Mortada Mehyar
• Morton Fox
• Robin Wilson
• Thomas Grainger
• Tom Ajamian
• Tom Augspurger
• Yoshiki Vázquez Baeza
• Younggun Kim
• austinc
• behzad nouri
• jreback
• lexual
• rekcahpassyla
• scls19fr
• sinhrks

2044 Chapter 37. Release Notes

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

37.11 pandas 0.16.1

Release date: (May 11, 2015)

This is a minor release from 0.16.0 and includes a large number of bug fixes along with several new features, enhance-
ments, and performance improvements. A small number of API changes were necessary to fix existing bugs.
See the v0.16.1 Whatsnew overview for an extensive list of all API changes, enhancements and bugs that have been
fixed in 0.16.1.

37.11.1 Thanks

• Alfonso MHC
• Andy Hayden
• Artemy Kolchinsky
• Chris Gilmer
• Chris Grinolds
• Dan Birken
• David BROCHART
• David Hirschfeld
• David Stephens
• Dr. Leo
• Evan Wright
• Frans van Dunné
• Hatem Nassrat
• Henning Sperr
• Hugo Herter
• Jan Schulz
• Jeff Blackburne
• Jeff Reback
• Jim Crist
• Jonas Abernot
• Joris Van den Bossche
• Kerby Shedden
• Leo Razoumov
• Manuel Riel
• Mortada Mehyar
• Nick Burns
• Nick Eubank
• Olivier Grisel

37.11. pandas 0.16.1 2045

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Phillip Cloud
• Pietro Battiston
• Roy Hyunjin Han
• Sam Zhang
• Scott Sanderson
• Stephan Hoyer
• Tiago Antao
• Tom Ajamian
• Tom Augspurger
• Tomaz Berisa
• Vikram Shirgur
• Vladimir Filimonov
• William Hogman
• Yasin A
• Younggun Kim
• behzad nouri
• dsm054
• floydsoft
• flying-sheep
• gfr
• jnmclarty
• jreback
• ksanghai
• lucas
• mschmohl
• ptype
• rockg
• scls19fr
• sinhrks

37.12 pandas 0.16.0

Release date: (March 22, 2015)

This is a major release from 0.15.2 and includes a number of API changes, several new features, enhancements, and
performance improvements along with a large number of bug fixes.
Highlights include:
• DataFrame.assign method, see here

2046 Chapter 37. Release Notes

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Series.to_coo/from_coo methods to interact with scipy.sparse, see here

• Backwards incompatible change to Timedelta to conform the .seconds attribute with datetime.
timedelta, see here
• Changes to the .loc slicing API to conform with the behavior of .ix see here
• Changes to the default for ordering in the Categorical constructor, see here
• The pandas.tools.rplot, pandas.sandbox.qtpandas and pandas.rpy modules are deprecated.
We refer users to external packages like seaborn, pandas-qt and rpy2 for similar or equivalent functionality, see
here
See the v0.16.0 Whatsnew overview or the issue tracker on GitHub for an extensive list of all API changes, enhance-
ments and bugs that have been fixed in 0.16.0.

37.12.1 Thanks

• Aaron Toth
• Alan Du
• Alessandro Amici
• Artemy Kolchinsky
• Ashwini Chaudhary
• Ben Schiller
• Bill Letson
• Brandon Bradley
• Chau Hoang
• Chris Reynolds
• Chris Whelan
• Christer van der Meeren
• David Cottrell
• David Stephens
• Ehsan Azarnasab
• Garrett-R
• Guillaume Gay
• Jake Torcasso
• Jason Sexauer
• Jeff Reback
• John McNamara
• Joris Van den Bossche
• Joschka zur Jacobsmühlen
• Juarez Bochi
• Junya Hayashi

37.12. pandas 0.16.0 2047

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• K.-Michael Aye
• Kerby Shedden
• Kevin Sheppard
• Kieran O’Mahony
• Kodi Arfer
• Matti Airas
• Min RK
• Mortada Mehyar
• Robert
• Scott E Lasley
• Scott Lasley
• Sergio Pascual
• Skipper Seabold
• Stephan Hoyer
• Thomas Grainger
• Tom Augspurger
• TomAugspurger
• Vladimir Filimonov
• Vyomkesh Tripathi
• Will Holmgren
• Yulong Yang
• behzad nouri
• bertrandhaut
• bjonen
• cel4
• clham
• hsperr
• ischwabacher
• jnmclarty
• josham
• jreback
• omtinez
• roch
• sinhrks
• unutbu

2048 Chapter 37. Release Notes

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

37.13 pandas 0.15.2

Release date: (December 12, 2014)

This is a minor release from 0.15.1 and includes a large number of bug fixes along with several new features, enhance-
ments, and performance improvements. A small number of API changes were necessary to fix existing bugs.
See the v0.15.2 Whatsnew overview for an extensive list of all API changes, enhancements and bugs that have been
fixed in 0.15.2.

37.13.1 Thanks

• Aaron Staple
• Angelos Evripiotis
• Artemy Kolchinsky
• Benoit Pointet
• Brian Jacobowski
• Charalampos Papaloizou
• Chris Warth
• David Stephens
• Fabio Zanini
• Francesc Via
• Henry Kleynhans
• Jake VanderPlas
• Jan Schulz
• Jeff Reback
• Jeff Tratner
• Joris Van den Bossche
• Kevin Sheppard
• Matt Suggit
• Matthew Brett
• Phillip Cloud
• Rupert Thompson
• Scott E Lasley
• Stephan Hoyer
• Stephen Simmons
• Sylvain Corlay
• Thomas Grainger
• Tiago Antao
• Trent Hauck

37.13. pandas 0.15.2 2049

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Victor Chaves
• Victor Salgado
• Vikram Bhandoh
• WANG Aiyong
• Will Holmgren
• behzad nouri
• broessli
• charalampos papaloizou
• immerrr
• jnmclarty
• jreback
• mgilbert
• onesandzeroes
• peadarcoyle
• rockg
• seth-p
• sinhrks
• unutbu
• wavedatalab
• Åsmund Hjulstad

37.14 pandas 0.15.1

Release date: (November 9, 2014)

This is a minor release from 0.15.0 and includes a small number of API changes, several new features, enhancements,
and performance improvements along with a large number of bug fixes.
See the v0.15.1 Whatsnew overview for an extensive list of all API changes, enhancements and bugs that have been
fixed in 0.15.1.

37.14.1 Thanks

• Aaron Staple
• Andrew Rosenfeld
• Anton I. Sipos
• Artemy Kolchinsky
• Bill Letson
• Dave Hughes
• David Stephens

2050 Chapter 37. Release Notes

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Guillaume Horel
• Jeff Reback
• Joris Van den Bossche
• Kevin Sheppard
• Nick Stahl
• Sanghee Kim
• Stephan Hoyer
• TomAugspurger
• WANG Aiyong
• behzad nouri
• immerrr
• jnmclarty
• jreback
• pallav-fdsi
• unutbu

37.15 pandas 0.15.0

Release date: (October 18, 2014)

This is a major release from 0.14.1 and includes a number of API changes, several new features, enhancements, and
performance improvements along with a large number of bug fixes.
Highlights include:
• Drop support for numpy < 1.7.0 (GH7711)
• The Categorical type was integrated as a first-class pandas type, see here
• New scalar type Timedelta, and a new index type TimedeltaIndex, see here
• New DataFrame default display for df.info() to include memory usage, see Memory Usage
• New datetimelike properties accessor .dt for Series, see Datetimelike Properties
• Split indexing documentation into Indexing and Selecting Data and MultiIndex / Advanced Indexing
• Split out string methods documentation into Working with Text Data
• read_csv will now by default ignore blank lines when parsing, see here
• API change in using Indexes in set operations, see here
• Internal refactoring of the Index class to no longer sub-class ndarray, see Internal Refactoring
• dropping support for PyTables less than version 3.0.0, and numexpr less than version 2.1 (GH7990)
See the v0.15.0 Whatsnew overview or the issue tracker on GitHub for an extensive list of all API changes, enhance-
ments and bugs that have been fixed in 0.15.0.

37.15. pandas 0.15.0 2051

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

37.15.1 Thanks

• Aaron Schumacher
• Adam Greenhall
• Andy Hayden
• Anthony O’Brien
• Artemy Kolchinsky
• behzad nouri
• Benedikt Sauer
• benjamin
• Benjamin Thyreau
• Ben Schiller
• bjonen
• BorisVerk
• Chris Reynolds
• Chris Stoafer
• Dav Clark
• dlovell
• DSM
• dsm054
• FragLegs
• German Gomez-Herrero
• Hsiaoming Yang
• Huan Li
• hunterowens
• Hyungtae Kim
• immerrr
• Isaac Slavitt
• ischwabacher
• Jacob Schaer
• Jacob Wasserman
• Jan Schulz
• Jeff Tratner
• Jesse Farnham
• jmorris0x0
• jnmclarty
• Joe Bradish

2052 Chapter 37. Release Notes

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Joerg Rittinger
• John W. O’Brien
• Joris Van den Bossche
• jreback
• Kevin Sheppard
• klonuo
• Kyle Meyer
• lexual
• Max Chang
• mcjcode
• Michael Mueller
• Michael W Schatzow
• Mike Kelly
• Mortada Mehyar
• mtrbean
• Nathan Sanders
• Nathan Typanski
• onesandzeroes
• Paul Masurel
• Phillip Cloud
• Pietro Battiston
• RenzoBertocchi
• rockg
• Ross Petchler
• seth-p
• Shahul Hameed
• Shashank Agarwal
• sinhrks
• someben
• stahlous
• stas-sl
• Stephan Hoyer
• thatneat
• tom-alcorn
• TomAugspurger
• Tom Augspurger

37.15. pandas 0.15.0 2053

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Tony Lorenzo
• unknown
• unutbu
• Wes Turner
• Wilfred Hughes
• Yevgeniy Grechka
• Yoshiki Vázquez Baeza
• zachcp

37.16 pandas 0.14.1

Release date: (July 11, 2014)

This is a minor release from 0.14.0 and includes a small number of API changes, several new features, enhancements,
and performance improvements along with a large number of bug fixes.
Highlights include:
• New methods select_dtypes() to select columns based on the dtype and sem() to calculate the standard
error of the mean.
• Support for dateutil timezones (see docs).
• Support for ignoring full line comments in the read_csv() text parser.
• New documentation section on Options and Settings.
• Lots of bug fixes.
See the v0.14.1 Whatsnew overview or the issue tracker on GitHub for an extensive list of all API changes, enhance-
ments and bugs that have been fixed in 0.14.1.

37.16.1 Thanks

• Andrew Rosenfeld
• Andy Hayden
• Benjamin Adams
• Benjamin M. Gross
• Brian Quistorff
• Brian Wignall
• bwignall
• clham
• Daniel Waeber
• David Bew
• David Stephens
• DSM

2054 Chapter 37. Release Notes

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• dsm054
• helger
• immerrr
• Jacob Schaer
• jaimefrio
• Jan Schulz
• John David Reaver
• John W. O’Brien
• Joris Van den Bossche
• jreback
• Julien Danjou
• Kevin Sheppard
• K.-Michael Aye
• Kyle Meyer
• lexual
• Matthew Brett
• Matt Wittmann
• Michael Mueller
• Mortada Mehyar
• onesandzeroes
• Phillip Cloud
• Rob Levy
• rockg
• sanguineturtle
• Schaer, Jacob C
• seth-p
• sinhrks
• Stephan Hoyer
• Thomas Kluyver
• Todd Jennings
• TomAugspurger
• unknown
• yelite

37.16. pandas 0.14.1 2055

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

37.17 pandas 0.14.0

Release date: (May 31, 2014)

This is a major release from 0.13.1 and includes a number of API changes, several new features, enhancements, and
performance improvements along with a large number of bug fixes.
Highlights include:
• Officially support Python 3.4
• SQL interfaces updated to use sqlalchemy, see here.
• Display interface changes, see here
• MultiIndexing using Slicers, see here.
• Ability to join a singly-indexed DataFrame with a multi-indexed DataFrame, see here
• More consistency in groupby results and more flexible groupby specifications, see here
• Holiday calendars are now supported in CustomBusinessDay, see here
• Several improvements in plotting functions, including: hexbin, area and pie plots, see here.
• Performance doc section on I/O operations, see here
See the v0.14.0 Whatsnew overview or the issue tracker on GitHub for an extensive list of all API changes, enhance-
ments and bugs that have been fixed in 0.14.0.

37.17.1 Thanks

• Acanthostega
• Adam Marcus
• agijsberts
• akittredge
• Alex Gaudio
• Alex Rothberg
• AllenDowney
• Andrew Rosenfeld
• Andy Hayden
• ankostis
• anomrake
• Antoine Mazières
• anton-d
• bashtage
• Benedikt Sauer
• benjamin
• Brad Buran
• bwignall

2056 Chapter 37. Release Notes

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• cgohlke
• chebee7i
• Christopher Whelan
• Clark Fitzgerald
• clham
• Dale Jung
• Dan Allan
• Dan Birken
• danielballan
• Daniel Waeber
• David Jung
• David Stephens
• Douglas McNeil
• DSM
• Garrett Drapala
• Gouthaman Balaraman
• Guillaume Poulin
• hshimizu77
• hugo
• immerrr
• ischwabacher
• Jacob Howard
• Jacob Schaer
• jaimefrio
• Jason Sexauer
• Jeff Reback
• Jeffrey Starr
• Jeff Tratner
• John David Reaver
• John McNamara
• John W. O’Brien
• Jonathan Chambers
• Joris Van den Bossche
• jreback
• jsexauer
• Julia Evans

37.17. pandas 0.14.0 2057

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Júlio
• Katie Atkinson
• kdiether
• Kelsey Jordahl
• Kevin Sheppard
• K.-Michael Aye
• Matthias Kuhn
• Matt Wittmann
• Max Grender-Jones
• Michael E. Gruen
• michaelws
• mikebailey
• Mike Kelly
• Nipun Batra
• Noah Spies
• ojdo
• onesandzeroes
• Patrick O’Keeffe
• phaebz
• Phillip Cloud
• Pietro Battiston
• PKEuS
• Randy Carnevale
• ribonoous
• Robert Gibboni
• rockg
• sinhrks
• Skipper Seabold
• SplashDance
• Stephan Hoyer
• Tim Cera
• Tobias Brandt
• Todd Jennings
• TomAugspurger
• Tom Augspurger
• unutbu

2058 Chapter 37. Release Notes

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• westurner
• Yaroslav Halchenko
• y-p
• zach powers

37.18 pandas 0.13.1

Release date: (February 3, 2014)

37.18.1 New Features

• Added date_format and datetime_format attribute to ExcelWriter. (GH4133)

37.18.2 API Changes

• Series.sort will raise a ValueError (rather than a TypeError) on sorting an object that is a view of
another (GH5856, GH5853)
• Raise/Warn SettingWithCopyError (according to the option chained_assignment in more cases,
when detecting chained assignment, related (GH5938, GH6025)
• DataFrame.head(0) returns self instead of empty frame (GH5846)
• autocorrelation_plot now accepts **kwargs. (GH5623)
• convert_objects now accepts a convert_timedeltas='coerce' argument to allow forced dtype
conversion of timedeltas (GH5458,:issue:5689)
• Add -NaN and -nan to the default set of NA values (GH5952). See NA Values.
• NDFrame now has an equals method. (GH5283)
• DataFrame.apply will use the reduce argument to determine whether a Series or a DataFrame
should be returned when the DataFrame is empty (GH6007).

37.18.3 Experimental Features

37.18.4 Improvements to existing features

• perf improvements in Series datetime/timedelta binary operations (GH5801)

• option_context context manager now available as top-level API (GH5752)
• df.info() view now display dtype info per column (GH5682)
• df.info() now honors option max_info_rows, disable null counts for large frames (GH5974)
• perf improvements in DataFrame count/dropna for axis=1
• Series.str.contains now has a regex=False keyword which can be faster for plain (non-regex) string patterns.
(GH5879)
• support dtypes property on Series/Panel/Panel4D

37.18. pandas 0.13.1 2059

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• extend Panel.apply to allow arbitrary functions (rather than only ufuncs) (GH1148) allow multiple axes to
be used to operate on slabs of a Panel
• The ArrayFormatter for datetime and timedelta64 now intelligently limit precision based on the
values in the array (GH3401)
• pd.show_versions() is now available for convenience when reporting issues.
• perf improvements to Series.str.extract (GH5944)
• perf improvements in dtypes/ftypes methods (GH5968)
• perf improvements in indexing with object dtypes (GH5968)
• improved dtype inference for timedelta like passed to constructors (GH5458, GH5689)
• escape special characters when writing to latex (:issue: 5374)
• perf improvements in DataFrame.apply (GH6013)
• pd.read_csv and pd.to_datetime learned a new infer_datetime_format keyword which greatly
improves parsing perf in many cases. Thanks to @lexual for suggesting and @danbirken for rapidly implement-
ing. (GH5490,:issue:6021)
• add ability to recognize ‘%p’ format code (am/pm) to date parsers when the specific format is supplied (GH5361)
• Fix performance regression in JSON IO (GH5765)
• performance regression in Index construction from Series (GH6150)

37.18.5 Bug Fixes

• Bug in io.wb.get_countries not including all countries (GH6008)

• Bug in Series replace with timestamp dict (GH5797)
• read_csv/read_table now respects the prefix kwarg (GH5732).
• Bug in selection with missing values via .ix from a duplicate indexed DataFrame failing (GH5835)
• Fix issue of boolean comparison on empty DataFrames (GH5808)
• Bug in isnull handling NaT in an object array (GH5443)
• Bug in to_datetime when passed a np.nan or integer datelike and a format string (GH5863)
• Bug in groupby dtype conversion with datetimelike (GH5869)
• Regression in handling of empty Series as indexers to Series (GH5877)
• Bug in internal caching, related to (GH5727)
• Testing bug in reading JSON/msgpack from a non-filepath on windows under py3 (GH5874)
• Bug when assigning to .ix[tuple(...)] (GH5896)
• Bug in fully reindexing a Panel (GH5905)
• Bug in idxmin/max with object dtypes (GH5914)
• Bug in BusinessDay when adding n days to a date not on offset when n>5 and n%5==0 (GH5890)
• Bug in assigning to chained series with a series via ix (GH5928)
• Bug in creating an empty DataFrame, copying, then assigning (GH5932)
• Bug in DataFrame.tail with empty frame (GH5846)

2060 Chapter 37. Release Notes

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Bug in propagating metadata on resample (GH5862)

• Fixed string-representation of NaT to be “NaT” (GH5708)
• Fixed string-representation for Timestamp to show nanoseconds if present (GH5912)
• pd.match not returning passed sentinel
• Panel.to_frame() no longer fails when major_axis is a MultiIndex (GH5402).
• Bug in pd.read_msgpack with inferring a DateTimeIndex frequency incorrectly (GH5947)
• Fixed to_datetime for array with both Tz-aware datetimes and NaT‘s (GH5961)
• Bug in rolling skew/kurtosis when passed a Series with bad data (GH5749)
• Bug in scipy interpolate methods with a datetime index (GH5975)
• Bug in NaT comparison if a mixed datetime/np.datetime64 with NaT were passed (GH5968)
• Fixed bug with pd.concat losing dtype information if all inputs are empty (GH5742)
• Recent changes in IPython cause warnings to be emitted when using previous versions of pandas in QTConsole,
now fixed. If you’re using an older version and need to suppress the warnings, see (GH5922).
• Bug in merging timedelta dtypes (GH5695)
• Bug in plotting.scatter_matrix function. Wrong alignment among diagonal and off-diagonal plots, see
(GH5497).
• Regression in Series with a multi-index via ix (GH6018)
• Bug in Series.xs with a multi-index (GH6018)
• Bug in Series construction of mixed type with datelike and an integer (which should result in object type and
not automatic conversion) (GH6028)
• Possible segfault when chained indexing with an object array under numpy 1.7.1 (GH6026, GH6056)
• Bug in setting using fancy indexing a single element with a non-scalar (e.g. a list), (GH6043)
• to_sql did not respect if_exists (GH4110 GH4304)
• Regression in .get(None) indexing from 0.12 (GH5652)
• Subtle iloc indexing bug, surfaced in (GH6059)
• Bug with insert of strings into DatetimeIndex (GH5818)
• Fixed unicode bug in to_html/HTML repr (GH6098)
• Fixed missing arg validation in get_options_data (GH6105)
• Bug in assignment with duplicate columns in a frame where the locations are a slice (e.g. next to each other)
(GH6120)
• Bug in propogating _ref_locs during construction of a DataFrame with dups index/columns (GH6121)
• Bug in DataFrame.apply when using mixed datelike reductions (GH6125)
• Bug in DataFrame.append when appending a row with different columns (GH6129)
• Bug in DataFrame construction with recarray and non-ns datetime dtype (GH6140)
• Bug in .loc setitem indexing with a dataframe on rhs, multiple item setting, and a datetimelike (GH6152)
• Fixed a bug in query/eval during lexicographic string comparisons (GH6155).
• Fixed a bug in query where the index of a single-element Series was being thrown away (GH6148).

37.18. pandas 0.13.1 2061

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Bug in HDFStore on appending a dataframe with multi-indexed columns to an existing table (GH6167)
• Consistency with dtypes in setting an empty DataFrame (GH6171)
• Bug in selecting on a multi-index HDFStore even in the presence of under specified column spec (GH6169)
• Bug in nanops.var with ddof=1 and 1 elements would sometimes return inf rather than nan on some
platforms (GH6136)
• Bug in Series and DataFrame bar plots ignoring the use_index keyword (GH6209)
• Bug in groupby with mixed str/int under python3 fixed; argsort was failing (GH6212)

37.19 pandas 0.13.0

Release date: January 3, 2014

37.19.1 New Features

• plot(kind='kde') now accepts the optional parameters bw_method and ind, passed to
scipy.stats.gaussian_kde() (for scipy >= 0.11.0) to set the bandwidth, and to gkde.evaluate() to specify the indi-
cies at which it is evaluated, respectively. See scipy docs. (GH4298)
• Added isin method to DataFrame (GH4211)
• df.to_clipboard() learned a new excel keyword that let’s you paste df data directly into excel (enabled
by default). (GH5070).
• Clipboard functionality now works with PySide (GH4282)
• New extract string method returns regex matches more conveniently (GH4685)
• Auto-detect field widths in read_fwf when unspecified (GH4488)
• to_csv() now outputs datetime objects according to a specified format string via the date_format key-
word (GH4313)
• Added LastWeekOfMonth DateOffset (GH4637)
• Added cumcount groupby method (GH4646)
• Added FY5253, and FY5253Quarter DateOffsets (GH4511)
• Added mode() method to Series and DataFrame to get the statistical mode(s) of a column/series.
(GH5367)

37.19.2 Experimental Features

• The new eval() function implements expression evaluation using numexpr behind the scenes. This results
in large speedups for complicated expressions involving large DataFrames/Series.
• DataFrame has a new eval() that evaluates an expression in the context of the DataFrame; allows inline
expression assignment
• A query() method has been added that allows you to select elements of a DataFrame using a natural query
syntax nearly identical to Python syntax.
• pd.eval and friends now evaluate operations involving datetime64 objects in Python space because
numexpr cannot handle NaT values (GH4897).

2062 Chapter 37. Release Notes

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Add msgpack support via pd.read_msgpack() and pd.to_msgpack() / df.to_msgpack() for se-
rialization of arbitrary pandas (and python objects) in a lightweight portable binary format (GH686, GH5506)
• Added PySide support for the qtpandas DataFrameModel and DataFrameWidget.
• Added pandas.io.gbq for reading from (and writing to) Google BigQuery into a DataFrame. (GH4140)

37.19.3 Improvements to existing features

• read_html now raises a URLError instead of catching and raising a ValueError (GH4303, GH4305)
• read_excel now supports an integer in its sheetname argument giving the index of the sheet to read in
(GH4301).
• get_dummies works with NaN (GH4446)
• Added a test for read_clipboard() and to_clipboard() (GH4282)
• Added bins argument to value_counts (GH3945), also sort and ascending, now available in Series method
as well as top-level function.
• Text parser now treats anything that reads like inf (“inf”, “Inf”, “-Inf”, “iNf”, etc.) to infinity. (GH4220,
GH4219), affecting read_table, read_csv, etc.
• Added a more informative error message when plot arguments contain overlapping color and style arguments
(GH4402)
• Significant table writing performance improvements in HDFStore
• JSON date serialization now performed in low-level C code.
• JSON support for encoding datetime.time
• Expanded JSON docs, more info about orient options and the use of the numpy param when decoding.
• Add drop_level argument to xs (GH4180)
• Can now resample a DataFrame with ohlc (GH2320)
• Index.copy() and MultiIndex.copy() now accept keyword arguments to change attributes (i.e.,
names, levels, labels) (GH4039)
• Add rename and set_names methods to Index as well as set_names, set_levels, set_labels to
MultiIndex. (GH4039) with improved validation for all (GH4039, GH4794)
• A Series of dtype timedelta64[ns] can now be divided/multiplied by an integer series (GH4521)
• A Series of dtype timedelta64[ns] can now be divided by another timedelta64[ns] object to yield a
float64 dtyped Series. This is frequency conversion; astyping is also supported.
• Timedelta64 support fillna/ffill/bfill with an integer interpreted as seconds, or a timedelta
(GH3371)
• Box numeric ops on timedelta Series (GH4984)
• Datetime64 support ffill/bfill
• Performance improvements with __getitem__ on DataFrames with when the key is a column
• Support for using a DatetimeIndex/PeriodsIndex directly in a datelike calculation e.g. s-s.index
(GH4629)
• Better/cleaned up exceptions in core/common, io/excel and core/format (GH4721, GH3954), as well as cleaned
up test cases in tests/test_frame, tests/test_multilevel (GH4732).

37.19. pandas 0.13.0 2063

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Performance improvement of timeseries plotting with PeriodIndex and added test to vbench (GH4705 and
GH4722)
• Add axis and level keywords to where, so that the other argument can now be an alignable pandas
object.
• to_datetime with a format of ‘%Y%m%d’ now parses much faster
• It’s now easier to hook new Excel writers into pandas (just subclass ExcelWriter and register your engine).
You can specify an engine in to_excel or in ExcelWriter. You can also specify which writers you want
to use by default with config options io.excel.xlsx.writer and io.excel.xls.writer. (GH4745,
GH4750)
• Panel.to_excel() now accepts keyword arguments that will be passed to its DataFrame‘s
to_excel() methods. (GH4750)
• Added XlsxWriter as an optional ExcelWriter engine. This is about 5x faster than the default openpyxl xlsx
writer and is equivalent in speed to the xlwt xls writer module. (GH4542)
• allow DataFrame constructor to accept more list-like objects, e.g. list of collections.Sequence and
array.Array objects (GH3783, GH4297, GH4851), thanks @lgautier
• DataFrame constructor now accepts a numpy masked record array (GH3478), thanks @jnothman
• __getitem__ with tuple key (e.g., [:, 2]) on Series without MultiIndex raises ValueError
(GH4759, GH4837)
• read_json now raises a (more informative) ValueError when the dict contains a bad key and
orient='split' (GH4730, GH4838)
• read_stata now accepts Stata 13 format (GH4291)
• ExcelWriter and ExcelFile can be used as contextmanagers. (GH3441, GH4933)
• pandas is now tested with two different versions of statsmodels (0.4.3 and 0.5.0) (GH4981).
• Better string representations of MultiIndex (including ability to roundtrip via repr). (GH3347, GH4935)
• Both ExcelFile and read_excel to accept an xlrd.Book for the io (formerly path_or_buf) argument; this requires
engine to be set. (GH4961).
• concat now gives a more informative error message when passed objects that cannot be concatenated
(GH4608).
• Add halflife option to exponentially weighted moving functions (PR GH4998)
• to_dict now takes records as a possible outtype. Returns an array of column-keyed dictionaries. (GH4936)
• tz_localize can infer a fall daylight savings transition based on the structure of unlocalized data (GH4230)
• DatetimeIndex is now in the API documentation
• Improve support for converting R datasets to pandas objects (more informative index for timeseries and numeric,
support for factors, dist, and high-dimensional arrays).
• read_html() now supports the parse_dates, tupleize_cols and thousands parameters
(GH4770).
• json_normalize() is a new method to allow you to create a flat table from semi-structured JSON data. See
the docs (GH1067)
• DataFrame.from_records() will now accept generators (GH4910)
• DataFrame.interpolate() and Series.interpolate() have been expanded to include interpola-
tion methods from scipy. (GH4434, GH1892)

2064 Chapter 37. Release Notes

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Series now supports a to_frame method to convert it to a single-column DataFrame (GH5164)

• DatetimeIndex (and date_range) can now be constructed in a left- or right-open fashion using the closed
parameter (GH4579)
• Python csv parser now supports usecols (GH4335)
• Added support for Google Analytics v3 API segment IDs that also supports v2 IDs. (GH5271)
• NDFrame.drop() now accepts names as well as integers for the axis argument. (GH5354)
• Added short docstrings to a few methods that were missing them + fixed the docstrings for Panel flex methods.
(GH5336)
• NDFrame.drop(), NDFrame.dropna(), and .drop_duplicates() all accept inplace as a key-
word argument; however, this only means that the wrapper is updated inplace, a copy is still made internally.
(GH1960, GH5247, GH5628, and related GH2325 [still not closed])
• Fixed bug in tools.plotting.andrews_curvres so that lines are drawn grouped by color as expected.
• read_excel() now tries to convert integral floats (like 1.0) to int by default. (GH5394)
• Excel writers now have a default option merge_cells in to_excel() to merge cells in MultiIndex and Hi-
erarchical Rows. Note: using this option it is no longer possible to round trip Excel files with merged MultiIndex
and Hierarchical Rows. Set the merge_cells to False to restore the previous behaviour. (GH5254)
• The FRED DataReader now accepts multiple series (:issue‘3413‘)
• StataWriter adjusts variable names to Stata’s limitations (GH5709)

37.19.4 API Changes

• DataFrame.reindex() and forward/backward filling now raises ValueError if either index is not mono-
tonic (GH4483, GH4484).
• pandas now is Python 2/3 compatible without the need for 2to3 thanks to @jtratner. As a result, pandas now
uses iterators more extensively. This also led to the introduction of substantive parts of the Benjamin Peterson’s
six library into compat. (GH4384, GH4375, GH4372)
• pandas.util.compat and pandas.util.py3compat have been merged into pandas.compat.
pandas.compat now includes many functions allowing 2/3 compatibility. It contains both list and itera-
tor versions of range, filter, map and zip, plus other necessary elements for Python 3 compatibility. lmap,
lzip, lrange and lfilter all produce lists instead of iterators, for compatibility with numpy, subscripting
and pandas constructors.(GH4384, GH4375, GH4372)
• deprecated iterkv, which will be removed in a future release (was just an alias of iteritems used to get around
2to3‘s changes). (GH4384, GH4375, GH4372)
• Series.get with negative indexers now returns the same as [] (GH4390)
• allow ix/loc for Series/DataFrame/Panel to set on any axis even when the single-key is not currently contained
in the index for that axis (GH2578, GH5226, GH5632, GH5720, GH5744, GH5756)
• Default export for to_clipboard is now csv with a sep of t for compat (GH3368)
• at now will enlarge the object inplace (and return the same) (GH2578)
• DataFrame.plot will scatter plot x versus y by passing kind='scatter' (GH2215)
• HDFStore
– append_to_multiple automatically synchronizes writing rows to multiple tables and adds a
dropna kwarg (GH4698)

37.19. pandas 0.13.0 2065

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

– handle a passed Series in table format (GH4330)

– added an is_open property to indicate if the underlying file handle is_open; a closed store will now
report ‘CLOSED’ when viewing the store (rather than raising an error) (GH4409)
– a close of a HDFStore now will close that instance of the HDFStore but will only close the actual file
if the ref count (by PyTables) w.r.t. all of the open handles are 0. Essentially you have a local instance
of HDFStore referenced by a variable. Once you close it, it will report closed. Other references (to the
same file) will continue to operate until they themselves are closed. Performing an action on a closed file
will raise ClosedFileError
– removed the _quiet attribute, replace by a DuplicateWarning if retrieving duplicate rows from a
table (GH4367)
– removed the warn argument from open. Instead a PossibleDataLossError exception will be
raised if you try to use mode='w' with an OPEN file handle (GH4367)
– allow a passed locations array or mask as a where condition (GH4467)
– add the keyword dropna=True to append to change whether ALL nan rows are not written to
the store (default is True, ALL nan rows are NOT written), also settable via the option io.hdf.
dropna_table (GH4625)
– the format keyword now replaces the table keyword; allowed values are fixed(f)|table(t)
the Storer format has been renamed to Fixed
– a column multi-index will be recreated properly (GH4710); raise on trying to use a multi-index with
data_columns on the same axis
– select_as_coordinates will now return an Int64Index of the resultant selection set
– support timedelta64[ns] as a serialization type (GH3577)
– store datetime.date objects as ordinals rather then timetuples to avoid timezone issues (GH2852), thanks
@tavistmorph and @numpand
– numexpr 2.2.2 fixes incompatibility in PyTables 2.4 (GH4908)
– flush now accepts an fsync parameter, which defaults to False (GH5364)
– unicode indices not supported on table formats (GH5386)
– pass thru store creation arguments; can be used to support in-memory stores
• JSON
– added date_unit parameter to specify resolution of timestamps. Options are seconds, milliseconds,
microseconds and nanoseconds. (GH4362, GH4498).
– added default_handler parameter to allow a callable to be passed which will be responsible for
handling otherwise unserialiable objects. (GH5138)
• Index and MultiIndex changes (GH4039):
– Setting levels and labels directly on MultiIndex is now deprecated. Instead, you can use the
set_levels() and set_labels() methods.
– levels, labels and names properties no longer return lists, but instead return containers that do not
allow setting of items (‘mostly immutable’)
– levels, labels and names are validated upon setting and are either copied or shallow-copied.
– inplace setting of levels or labels now correctly invalidates the cached properties. (GH5238).
– __deepcopy__ now returns a shallow copy (currently: a view) of the data - allowing metadata changes.

2066 Chapter 37. Release Notes

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

– MultiIndex.astype() now only allows np.object_-like dtypes and now returns a

MultiIndex rather than an Index. (GH4039)
– Added is_ method to Index that allows fast equality comparison of views (similar to np.
may_share_memory but no false positives, and changes on levels and labels setting on
MultiIndex). (GH4859 , GH4909)
– Aliased __iadd__ to __add__. (GH4996)
– Added is_ method to Index that allows fast equality comparison of views (similar to np.
may_share_memory but no false positives, and changes on levels and labels setting on
MultiIndex). (GH4859, GH4909)
• Infer and downcast dtype if downcast='infer' is passed to fillna/ffill/bfill (GH4604)
• __nonzero__ for all NDFrame objects, will now raise a ValueError, this reverts back to (GH1073,
GH4633) behavior. Add .bool() method to NDFrame objects to facilitate evaluating of single-element
boolean Series
• DataFrame.update() no longer raises a DataConflictError, it now will raise a ValueError in-
stead (if necessary) (GH4732)
• Series.isin() and DataFrame.isin() now raise a TypeError when passed a string (GH4763). Pass
a list of one element (containing the string) instead.
• Remove undocumented/unused kind keyword argument from read_excel, and ExcelFile. (GH4713,
GH4712)
• The method argument of NDFrame.replace() is valid again, so that a a list can be passed to
to_replace (GH4743).
• provide automatic dtype conversions on _reduce operations (GH3371)
• exclude non-numerics if mixed types with datelike in _reduce operations (GH3371)
• default for tupleize_cols is now False for both to_csv and read_csv. Fair warning in 0.12
(GH3604)
• moved timedeltas support to pandas.tseries.timedeltas.py; add timedeltas string parsing, add top-level
to_timedelta function
• NDFrame now is compatible with Python’s toplevel abs() function (GH4821).
• raise a TypeError on invalid comparison ops on Series/DataFrame (e.g. integer/datetime) (GH4968)
• Added a new index type, Float64Index. This will be automatically created when passing floating values
in index creation. This enables a pure label-based slicing paradigm that makes [],ix,loc for scalar index-
ing and slicing work exactly the same. Indexing on other index types are preserved (and positional fallback
for [],ix), with the exception, that floating point slicing on indexes on non Float64Index will raise a
TypeError, e.g. Series(range(5))[3.5:4.5] (GH263,:issue:5375)
• Make Categorical repr nicer (GH4368)
• Remove deprecated Factor (GH3650)
• Remove deprecated set_printoptions/reset_printoptions (:issue:3046)
• Remove deprecated _verbose_info (GH3215)
• Begin removing methods that don’t make sense on GroupBy objects (GH4887).
• Remove deprecated read_clipboard/to_clipboard/ExcelFile/ExcelWriter from pandas.
io.parsers (GH3717)

37.19. pandas 0.13.0 2067

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• All non-Index NDFrames (Series, DataFrame, Panel, Panel4D, SparsePanel, etc.), now support the
entire set of arithmetic operators and arithmetic flex methods (add, sub, mul, etc.). SparsePanel does not
support pow or mod with non-scalars. (GH3765)
• Arithmetic func factories are now passed real names (suitable for using with super) (GH5240)
• Provide numpy compatibility with 1.7 for a calling convention like np.prod(pandas_object) as numpy
call with additional keyword args (GH4435)
• Provide __dir__ method (and local context) for tab completion / remove ipython completers code (GH4501)
• Support non-unique axes in a Panel via indexing operations (GH4960)
• .truncate will raise a ValueError if invalid before and afters dates are given (GH5242)
• Timestamp now supports now/today/utcnow class methods (GH5339)
• default for display.max_seq_len is now 100 rather then None. This activates truncated display (”...”) of long
sequences in various places. (GH3391)
• All division with NDFrame - likes is now truedivision, regardless of the future import. You can use // and
floordiv to do integer division.

In [3]: arr = np.array([1, 2, 3, 4])

In [4]: arr2 = np.array([5, 3, 2, 1])

In [5]: arr / arr2

Out[5]: array([0, 0, 1, 4])

In [6]: pd.Series(arr) / pd.Series(arr2) # no future import required

Out[6]:
0 0.200000
1 0.666667
2 1.500000
3 4.000000
dtype: float64

• raise/warn SettingWithCopyError/Warning exception/warning when setting of a copy thru chained

assignment is detected, settable via option mode.chained_assignment
• test the list of NA values in the csv parser. add N/A, #NA as independent default na values (GH5521)
• The refactoring involving‘‘Series‘‘ deriving from NDFrame breaks rpy2<=2.3.8. an Issue has been opened
against rpy2 and a workaround is detailed in GH5698. Thanks @JanSchulz.
• Series.argmin and Series.argmax are now aliased to Series.idxmin and Series.idxmax.
These return the index of the min or max element respectively. Prior to 0.13.0 these would return the posi-
tion of the min / max element (GH6214)

37.19.5 Internal Refactoring

In 0.13.0 there is a major refactor primarily to subclass Series from NDFrame, which is the base class currently
for DataFrame and Panel, to unify methods and behaviors. Series formerly subclassed directly from ndarray.
(GH4080, GH3862, GH816) See Internal Refactoring
• Refactor of series.py/frame.py/panel.py to move common code to generic.py
• added _setup_axes to created generic NDFrame structures
• moved methods

2068 Chapter 37. Release Notes

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

– from_axes, _wrap_array, axes, ix, loc, iloc, shape, empty, swapaxes, transpose,
pop
– __iter__, keys, __contains__, __len__, __neg__, __invert__
– convert_objects, as_blocks, as_matrix, values
– __getstate__, __setstate__ (compat remains in frame/panel)
– __getattr__, __setattr__
– _indexed_same, reindex_like, align, where, mask
– fillna, replace (Series replace is now consistent with DataFrame)
– filter (also added axis argument to selectively filter on a different axis)
– reindex, reindex_axis, take
– truncate (moved to become part of NDFrame)
– isnull/notnull now available on NDFrame objects
• These are API changes which make Panel more consistent with DataFrame
• swapaxes on a Panel with the same axes specified now return a copy
• support attribute access for setting
• filter supports same API as original DataFrame filter
• fillna refactored to core/generic.py, while > 3ndim is NotImplemented
• Series now inherits from NDFrame rather than directly from ndarray. There are several minor changes that
affect the API.
• numpy functions that do not support the array interface will now return ndarrays rather than series, e.g.
np.diff, np.ones_like, np.where
• Series(0.5) would previously return the scalar 0.5, this is no longer supported
• TimeSeries is now an alias for Series. the property is_time_series can be used to distinguish (if
desired)
• Refactor of Sparse objects to use BlockManager
• Created a new block type in internals, SparseBlock, which can hold multi-dtypes and is non-
consolidatable. SparseSeries and SparseDataFrame now inherit more methods from there hier-
archy (Series/DataFrame), and no longer inherit from SparseArray (which instead is the object of the
SparseBlock)
• Sparse suite now supports integration with non-sparse data. Non-float sparse data is supportable (partially
implemented)
• Operations on sparse structures within DataFrames should preserve sparseness, merging type operations will
convert to dense (and back to sparse), so might be somewhat inefficient
• enable setitem on SparseSeries for boolean/integer/slices
• SparsePanels implementation is unchanged (e.g. not using BlockManager, needs work)
• added ftypes method to Series/DataFame, similar to dtypes, but indicates if the underlying is sparse/dense
(as well as the dtype)
• All NDFrame objects now have a _prop_attributes, which can be used to indicate various values to
propagate to a new object from an existing (e.g. name in Series will follow more automatically now)

37.19. pandas 0.13.0 2069

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Internal type checking is now done via a suite of generated classes, allowing isinstance(value, klass)
without having to directly import the klass, courtesy of @jtratner
• Bug in Series update where the parent frame is not updating its cache based on changes (GH4080, GH5216) or
types (GH3217), fillna (GH3386)
• Indexing with dtype conversions fixed (GH4463, GH4204)
• Refactor Series.reindex to core/generic.py (GH4604, GH4618), allow method= in reindexing on a Se-
ries to work
• Series.copy no longer accepts the order parameter and is now consistent with NDFrame copy
• Refactor rename methods to core/generic.py; fixes Series.rename for (GH4605), and adds rename with
the same signature for Panel
• Series (for index) / Panel (for items) now as attribute access to its elements (GH1903)
• Refactor clip methods to core/generic.py (GH4798)
• Refactor of _get_numeric_data/_get_bool_data to core/generic.py, allowing Series/Panel function-
ality
• Refactor of Series arithmetic with time-like objects (datetime/timedelta/time etc.) into a separate, cleaned up
wrapper class. (GH4613)
• Complex compat for Series with ndarray. (GH4819)
• Removed unnecessary rwproperty from codebase in favor of builtin property. (GH4843)
• Refactor object level numeric methods (mean/sum/min/max...) from object level modules to core/generic.
py (GH4435).
• Refactor cum objects to core/generic.py (GH4435), note that these have a more numpy-like function signature.
• read_html() now uses TextParser to parse HTML data from bs4/lxml (GH4770).
• Removed the keep_internal keyword parameter in pandas/core/groupby.py because it wasn’t be-
ing used (GH5102).
• Base DateOffsets are no longer all instantiated on importing pandas, instead they are generated and cached
on the fly. The internal representation and handling of DateOffsets has also been clarified. (GH5189, related
GH5004)
• MultiIndex constructor now validates that passed levels and labels are compatible. (GH5213, GH5214)
• Unity dropna for Series/DataFrame signature (GH5250), tests from GH5234, courtesy of @rockg
• Rewrite assert_almost_equal() in cython for performance (GH4398)
• Added an internal _update_inplace method to facilitate updating NDFrame wrappers on inplace ops (only
is for convenience of caller, doesn’t actually prevent copies). (GH5247)

37.19.6 Bug Fixes

• HDFStore
– raising an invalid TypeError rather than ValueError when appending with a different block ordering
(GH4096)
– read_hdf was not respecting as passed mode (GH4504)
– appending a 0-len table will work correctly (GH4273)
– to_hdf was raising when passing both arguments append and table (GH4584)

2070 Chapter 37. Release Notes

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

– reading from a store with duplicate columns across dtypes would raise (GH4767)
– Fixed a bug where ValueError wasn’t correctly raised when column names weren’t strings (GH4956)
– A zero length series written in Fixed format not deserializing properly. (GH4708)
– Fixed decoding perf issue on pyt3 (GH5441)
– Validate levels in a multi-index before storing (GH5527)
– Correctly handle data_columns with a Panel (GH5717)
• Fixed bug in tslib.tz_convert(vals, tz1, tz2): it could raise IndexError exception while trying to access trans[pos
+ 1] (GH4496)
• The by argument now works correctly with the layout argument (GH4102, GH4014) in *.hist plotting
methods
• Fixed bug in PeriodIndex.map where using str would return the str representation of the index (GH4136)
• Fixed test failure test_time_series_plot_color_with_empty_kwargs when using custom mat-
plotlib default colors (GH4345)
• Fix running of stata IO tests. Now uses temporary files to write (GH4353)
• Fixed an issue where DataFrame.sum was slower than DataFrame.mean for integer valued frames
(GH4365)
• read_html tests now work with Python 2.6 (GH4351)
• Fixed bug where network testing was throwing NameError because a local variable was undefined
(GH4381)
• In to_json, raise if a passed orient would cause loss of data because of a duplicate index (GH4359)
• In to_json, fix date handling so milliseconds are the default timestamp as the docstring says (GH4362).
• as_index is no longer ignored when doing groupby apply (GH4648, GH3417)
• JSON NaT handling fixed, NaTs are now serialized to null (GH4498)
• Fixed JSON handling of escapable characters in JSON object keys (GH4593)
• Fixed passing keep_default_na=False when na_values=None (GH4318)
• Fixed bug with values raising an error on a DataFrame with duplicate columns and mixed dtypes, surfaced in
(GH4377)
• Fixed bug with duplicate columns and type conversion in read_json when orient='split' (GH4377)
• Fixed JSON bug where locales with decimal separators other than ‘.’ threw exceptions when encoding / decoding
certain values. (GH4918)
• Fix .iat indexing with a PeriodIndex (GH4390)
• Fixed an issue where PeriodIndex joining with self was returning a new instance rather than the same
instance (GH4379); also adds a test for this for the other index types
• Fixed a bug with all the dtypes being converted to object when using the CSV cparser with the usecols parameter
(GH3192)
• Fix an issue in merging blocks where the resulting DataFrame had partially set _ref_locs (GH4403)
• Fixed an issue where hist subplots were being overwritten when they were called using the top level matplotlib
API (GH4408)
• Fixed a bug where calling Series.astype(str) would truncate the string (GH4405, GH4437)

37.19. pandas 0.13.0 2071

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Fixed a py3 compat issue where bytes were being repr’d as tuples (GH4455)
• Fixed Panel attribute naming conflict if item is named ‘a’ (GH3440)
• Fixed an issue where duplicate indexes were raising when plotting (GH4486)
• Fixed an issue where cumsum and cumprod didn’t work with bool dtypes (GH4170, GH4440)
• Fixed Panel slicing issued in xs that was returning an incorrect dimmed object (GH4016)
• Fix resampling bug where custom reduce function not used if only one group (GH3849, GH4494)
• Fixed Panel assignment with a transposed frame (GH3830)
• Raise on set indexing with a Panel and a Panel as a value which needs alignment (GH3777)
• frozenset objects now raise in the Series constructor (GH4482, GH4480)
• Fixed issue with sorting a duplicate multi-index that has multiple dtypes (GH4516)
• Fixed bug in DataFrame.set_values which was causing name attributes to be lost when expanding the
index. (GH3742, GH4039)
• Fixed issue where individual names, levels and labels could be set on MultiIndex without validation
(GH3714, GH4039)
• Fixed (GH3334) in pivot_table. Margins did not compute if values is the index.
• Fix bug in having a rhs of np.timedelta64 or np.offsets.DateOffset when operating with date-
times (GH4532)
• Fix arithmetic with series/datetimeindex and np.timedelta64 not working the same (GH4134) and buggy
timedelta in numpy 1.6 (GH4135)
• Fix bug in pd.read_clipboard on windows with PY3 (GH4561); not decoding properly
• tslib.get_period_field() and tslib.get_period_field_arr() now raise if code argument
out of range (GH4519, GH4520)
• Fix boolean indexing on an empty series loses index names (GH4235), infer_dtype works with empty arrays.
• Fix reindexing with multiple axes; if an axes match was not replacing the current axes, leading to a possible
lazay frequency inference issue (GH3317)
• Fixed issue where DataFrame.apply was reraising exceptions incorrectly (causing the original stack trace
to be truncated).
• Fix selection with ix/loc and non_unique selectors (GH4619)
• Fix assignment with iloc/loc involving a dtype change in an existing column (GH4312, GH5702) have internal
setitem_with_indexer in core/indexing to use Block.setitem
• Fixed bug where thousands operator was not handled correctly for floating point numbers in csv_import
(GH4322)
• Fix an issue with CacheableOffset not properly being used by many DateOffset; this prevented the DateOffset
from being cached (GH4609)
• Fix boolean comparison with a DataFrame on the lhs, and a list/tuple on the rhs (GH4576)
• Fix error/dtype conversion with setitem of None on Series/DataFrame (GH4667)
• Fix decoding based on a passed in non-default encoding in pd.read_stata (GH4626)
• Fix DataFrame.from_records with a plain-vanilla ndarray. (GH4727)
• Fix some inconsistencies with Index.rename and MultiIndex.rename, etc. (GH4718, GH4628)

2072 Chapter 37. Release Notes

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Bug in using iloc/loc with a cross-sectional and duplicate indicies (GH4726)

• Bug with using QUOTE_NONE with to_csv causing Exception. (GH4328)
• Bug with Series indexing not raising an error when the right-hand-side has an incorrect length (GH2702)
• Bug in multi-indexing with a partial string selection as one part of a MultIndex (GH4758)
• Bug with reindexing on the index with a non-unique index will now raise ValueError (GH4746)
• Bug in setting with loc/ix a single indexer with a multi-index axis and a numpy array, related to (GH3777)
• Bug in concatenation with duplicate columns across dtypes not merging with axis=0 (GH4771, GH4975)
• Bug in iloc with a slice index failing (GH4771)
• Incorrect error message with no colspecs or width in read_fwf. (GH4774)
• Fix bugs in indexing in a Series with a duplicate index (GH4548, GH4550)
• Fixed bug with reading compressed files with read_fwf in Python 3. (GH3963)
• Fixed an issue with a duplicate index and assignment with a dtype change (GH4686)
• Fixed bug with reading compressed files in as bytes rather than str in Python 3. Simplifies bytes-producing
file-handling in Python 3 (GH3963, GH4785).
• Fixed an issue related to ticklocs/ticklabels with log scale bar plots across different versions of matplotlib
(GH4789)
• Suppressed DeprecationWarning associated with internal calls issued by repr() (GH4391)
• Fixed an issue with a duplicate index and duplicate selector with .loc (GH4825)
• Fixed an issue with DataFrame.sort_index where, when sorting by a single column and passing a list for
ascending, the argument for ascending was being interpreted as True (GH4839, GH4846)
• Fixed Panel.tshift not working. Added freq support to Panel.shift (GH4853)
• Fix an issue in TextFileReader w/ Python engine (i.e. PythonParser) with thousands != ”,” (GH4596)
• Bug in getitem with a duplicate index when using where (GH4879)
• Fix Type inference code coerces float column into datetime (GH4601)
• Fixed _ensure_numeric does not check for complex numbers (GH4902)
• Fixed a bug in Series.hist where two figures were being created when the by argument was passed
(GH4112, GH4113).
• Fixed a bug in convert_objects for > 2 ndims (GH4937)
• Fixed a bug in DataFrame/Panel cache insertion and subsequent indexing (GH4939, GH5424)
• Fixed string methods for FrozenNDArray and FrozenList (GH4929)
• Fixed a bug with setting invalid or out-of-range values in indexing enlargement scenarios (GH4940)
• Tests for fillna on empty Series (GH4346), thanks @immerrr
• Fixed copy() to shallow copy axes/indices as well and thereby keep separate metadata. (GH4202, GH4830)
• Fixed skiprows option in Python parser for read_csv (GH4382)
• Fixed bug preventing cut from working with np.inf levels without explicitly passing labels (GH3415)
• Fixed wrong check for overlapping in DatetimeIndex.union (GH4564)
• Fixed conflict between thousands separator and date parser in csv_parser (GH4678)

37.19. pandas 0.13.0 2073

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Fix appending when dtypes are not the same (error showing mixing float/np.datetime64) (GH4993)
• Fix repr for DateOffset. No longer show duplicate entries in kwds. Removed unused offset fields. (GH4638)
• Fixed wrong index name during read_csv if using usecols. Applies to c parser only. (GH4201)
• Timestamp objects can now appear in the left hand side of a comparison operation with a Series or
DataFrame object (GH4982).
• Fix a bug when indexing with np.nan via iloc/loc (GH5016)
• Fixed a bug where low memory c parser could create different types in different chunks of the same file. Now
coerces to numerical type or raises warning. (GH3866)
• Fix a bug where reshaping a Series to its own shape raised TypeError (GH4554) and other reshaping
issues.
• Bug in setting with ix/loc and a mixed int/string index (GH4544)
• Make sure series-series boolean comparisons are label based (GH4947)
• Bug in multi-level indexing with a Timestamp partial indexer (GH4294)
• Tests/fix for multi-index construction of an all-nan frame (GH4078)
• Fixed a bug where read_html() wasn’t correctly inferring values of tables with commas (GH5029)
• Fixed a bug where read_html() wasn’t providing a stable ordering of returned tables (GH4770, GH5029).
• Fixed a bug where read_html() was incorrectly parsing when passed index_col=0 (GH5066).
• Fixed a bug where read_html() was incorrectly inferring the type of headers (GH5048).
• Fixed a bug where DatetimeIndex joins with PeriodIndex caused a stack overflow (GH3899).
• Fixed a bug where groupby objects didn’t allow plots (GH5102).
• Fixed a bug where groupby objects weren’t tab-completing column names (GH5102).
• Fixed a bug where groupby.plot() and friends were duplicating figures multiple times (GH5102).
• Provide automatic conversion of object dtypes on fillna, related (GH5103)
• Fixed a bug where default options were being overwritten in the option parser cleaning (GH5121).
• Treat a list/ndarray identically for iloc indexing with list-like (GH5006)
• Fix MultiIndex.get_level_values() with missing values (GH5074)
• Fix bound checking for Timestamp() with datetime64 input (GH4065)
• Fix a bug where TestReadHtml wasn’t calling the correct read_html() function (GH5150).
• Fix a bug with NDFrame.replace() which made replacement appear as though it was (incorrectly) using
regular expressions (GH5143).
• Fix better error message for to_datetime (GH4928)
• Made sure different locales are tested on travis-ci (GH4918). Also adds a couple of utilities for getting locales
and setting locales with a context manager.
• Fixed segfault on isnull(MultiIndex) (now raises an error instead) (GH5123, GH5125)
• Allow duplicate indices when performing operations that align (GH5185, GH5639)
• Compound dtypes in a constructor raise NotImplementedError (GH5191)
• Bug in comparing duplicate frames (GH4421) related
• Bug in describe on duplicate frames

2074 Chapter 37. Release Notes

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Bug in to_datetime with a format and coerce=True not raising (GH5195)

• Bug in loc setting with multiple indexers and a rhs of a Series that needs broadcasting (GH5206)
• Fixed bug where inplace setting of levels or labels on MultiIndex would not clear cached values property
and therefore return wrong values. (GH5215)
• Fixed bug where filtering a grouped DataFrame or Series did not maintain the original ordering (GH4621).
• Fixed Period with a business date freq to always roll-forward if on a non-business date. (GH5203)
• Fixed bug in Excel writers where frames with duplicate column names weren’t written correctly. (GH5235)
• Fixed issue with drop and a non-unique index on Series (GH5248)
• Fixed seg fault in C parser caused by passing more names than columns in the file. (GH5156)
• Fix Series.isin with date/time-like dtypes (GH5021)
• C and Python Parser can now handle the more common multi-index column format which doesn’t have a row
for index names (GH4702)
• Bug when trying to use an out-of-bounds date as an object dtype (GH5312)
• Bug when trying to display an embedded PandasObject (GH5324)
• Allows operating of Timestamps to return a datetime if the result is out-of-bounds related (GH5312)
• Fix return value/type signature of initObjToJSON() to be compatible with numpy’s import_array()
(GH5334, GH5326)
• Bug when renaming then set_index on a DataFrame (GH5344)
• Test suite no longer leaves around temporary files when testing graphics. (GH5347) (thanks for catching this
@yarikoptic!)
• Fixed html tests on win32. (GH4580)
• Make sure that head/tail are iloc based, (GH5370)
• Fixed bug for PeriodIndex string representation if there are 1 or 2 elements. (GH5372)
• The GroupBy methods transform and filter can be used on Series and DataFrames that have repeated
(non-unique) indices. (GH4620)
• Fix empty series not printing name in repr (GH4651)
• Make tests create temp files in temp directory by default. (GH5419)
• pd.to_timedelta of a scalar returns a scalar (GH5410)
• pd.to_timedelta accepts NaN and NaT, returning NaT instead of raising (GH5437)
• performance improvements in isnull on larger size pandas objects
• Fixed various setitem with 1d ndarray that does not have a matching length to the indexer (GH5508)
• Bug in getitem with a multi-index and iloc (GH5528)
• Bug in delitem on a Series (GH5542)
• Bug fix in apply when using custom function and objects are not mutated (GH5545)
• Bug in selecting from a non-unique index with loc (GH5553)
• Bug in groupby returning non-consistent types when user function returns a None, (GH5592)
• Work around regression in numpy 1.7.0 which erroneously raises IndexError from ndarray.item (GH5666)
• Bug in repeated indexing of object with resultant non-unique index (GH5678)

37.19. pandas 0.13.0 2075

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Bug in fillna with Series and a passed series/dict (GH5703)

• Bug in groupby transform with a datetime-like grouper (GH5712)
• Bug in multi-index selection in PY3 when using certain keys (GH5725)
• Row-wise concat of differing dtypes failing in certain cases (GH5754)

37.20 pandas 0.12.0

Release date: 2013-07-24

37.20.1 New Features

• pd.read_html() can now parse HTML strings, files or urls and returns a list of DataFrame s courtesy of
@cpcloud. (GH3477, GH3605, GH3606)
• Support for reading Amazon S3 files. (GH3504)
• Added module for reading and writing JSON strings/files: pandas.io.json includes to_json DataFrame/Series
method, and a read_json top-level reader various issues (GH1226, GH3804, GH3876, GH3867, GH1305)
• Added module for reading and writing Stata files: pandas.io.stata (GH1512) includes to_stata DataFrame
method, and a read_stata top-level reader
• Added support for writing in to_csv and reading in read_csv, multi-index columns. The header option in
read_csv now accepts a list of the rows from which to read the index. Added the option, tupleize_cols
to provide compatibility for the pre 0.12 behavior of writing and reading multi-index columns via a list of tuples.
The default in 0.12 is to write lists of tuples and not interpret list of tuples as a multi-index column. Note: The
default value will change in 0.12 to make the default to write and read multi-index columns in the new format.
(GH3571, GH1651, GH3141)
• Add iterator to Series.str (GH3638)
• pd.set_option() now allows N option, value pairs (GH3667).
• Added keyword parameters for different types of scatter_matrix subplots
• A filter method on grouped Series or DataFrames returns a subset of the original (GH3680, GH919)
• Access to historical Google Finance data in pandas.io.data (GH3814)
• DataFrame plotting methods can sample column colors from a Matplotlib colormap via the colormap key-
word. (GH3860)

37.20.2 Improvements to existing features

• Fixed various issues with internal pprinting code, the repr() for various objects including TimeStamp and Index
now produces valid python code strings and can be used to recreate the object, (GH3038, GH3379, GH3251,
GH3460)
• convert_objects now accepts a copy parameter (defaults to True)
• HDFStore
– will retain index attributes (freq,tz,name) on recreation (GH3499,:issue:4098)

2076 Chapter 37. Release Notes

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

– will warn with a AttributeConflictWarning if you are attempting to append an index with a
different frequency than the existing, or attempting to append an index with a different name than the
existing
– support datelike columns with a timezone as data_columns (GH2852)
– table writing performance improvements.
– support python3 (via PyTables 3.0.0) (GH3750)
• Add modulo operator to Series, DataFrame
• Add date method to DatetimeIndex
• Add dropna argument to pivot_table (:issue: 3820)
• Simplified the API and added a describe method to Categorical
• melt now accepts the optional parameters var_name and value_name to specify custom column names of
the returned DataFrame (GH3649), thanks @hoechenberger. If var_name is not specified and dataframe.
columns.name is not None, then this will be used as the var_name (GH4144). Also support for MultiIndex
columns.
• clipboard functions use pyperclip (no dependencies on Windows, alternative dependencies offered for Linux)
(GH3837).
• Plotting functions now raise a TypeError before trying to plot anything if the associated objects have have a
dtype of object (GH1818, GH3572, GH3911, GH3912), but they will try to convert object arrays to numeric
arrays if possible so that you can still plot, for example, an object array with floats. This happens before any
drawing takes place which eliminates any spurious plots from showing up.
• Added Faq section on repr display options, to help users customize their setup.
• where operations that result in block splitting are much faster (GH3733)
• Series and DataFrame hist methods now take a figsize argument (GH3834)
• DatetimeIndexes no longer try to convert mixed-integer indexes during join operations (GH3877)
• Add unit keyword to Timestamp and to_datetime to enable passing of integers or floats that are in
an epoch unit of D, s, ms, us, ns, thanks @mtkini (GH3969) (e.g. unix timestamps or epoch s, with
fractional seconds allowed) (GH3540)
• DataFrame corr method (spearman) is now cythonized.
• Improved network test decorator to catch IOError (and therefore URLError as well). Added
with_connectivity_check decorator to allow explicitly checking a website as a proxy for seeing if there
is network connectivity. Plus, new optional_args decorator factory for decorators. (GH3910, GH3914)
• read_csv will now throw a more informative error message when a file contains no columns, e.g., all newline
characters
• Added layout keyword to DataFrame.hist() for more customizable layout (GH4050)
• Timestamp.min and Timestamp.max now represent valid Timestamp instances instead of the default date-
time.min and datetime.max (respectively), thanks @SleepingPills
• read_html now raises when no tables are found and BeautifulSoup==4.2.0 is detected (GH4214)

37.20.3 API Changes

• HDFStore
– When removing an object, remove(key) raises KeyError if the key is not a valid store object.

37.20. pandas 0.12.0 2077

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

– raise a TypeError on passing where or columns to select with a Storer; these are invalid parameters
at this time (GH4189)
– can now specify an encoding option to append/put to enable alternate encodings (GH3750)
– enable support for iterator/chunksize with read_hdf
• The repr() for (Multi)Index now obeys display.max_seq_items rather then numpy threshold print options.
(GH3426, GH3466)
• Added mangle_dupe_cols option to read_table/csv, allowing users to control legacy behaviour re dupe cols (A,
A.1, A.2 vs A, A ) (GH3468) Note: The default value will change in 0.12 to the “no mangle” behaviour, If your
code relies on this behaviour, explicitly specify mangle_dupe_cols=True in your calls.
• Do not allow astypes on datetime64[ns] except to object, and timedelta64[ns] to object/int
(GH3425)
• The behavior of datetime64 dtypes has changed with respect to certain so-called reduction operations
(GH3726). The following operations now raise a TypeError when performed on a Series and return
an empty Series when performed on a DataFrame similar to performing these operations on, for example,
a DataFrame of slice objects: - sum, prod, mean, std, var, skew, kurt, corr, and cov
• Do not allow datetimelike/timedeltalike creation except with valid types (e.g. cannot pass datetime64[ms])
(GH3423)
• Add squeeze keyword to groupby to allow reduction from DataFrame -> Series if groups are unique. Re-
gression from 0.10.1, partial revert on (GH2893) with (GH3596)
• Raise on iloc when boolean indexing with a label based indexer mask e.g. a boolean Series, even with integer
labels, will raise. Since iloc is purely positional based, the labels on the Series are not alignable (GH3631)
• The raise_on_error option to plotting methods is obviated by GH3572, so it is removed. Plots now always
raise when data cannot be plotted or the object being plotted has a dtype of object.
• DataFrame.interpolate() is now deprecated. Please use DataFrame.fillna() and
DataFrame.replace() instead (GH3582, GH3675, GH3676).
• the method and axis arguments of DataFrame.replace() are deprecated
• DataFrame.replace ‘s infer_types parameter is removed and now performs conversion by default.
(GH3907)
• Deprecated display.height, display.width is now only a formatting option does not control triggering of summary,
similar to < 0.11.0.
• Add the keyword allow_duplicates to DataFrame.insert to allow a duplicate column to be inserted
if True, default is False (same as prior to 0.12) (GH3679)
• io API changes
– added pandas.io.api for i/o imports
– removed Excel support to pandas.io.excel
– added top-level pd.read_sql and to_sql DataFrame methods
– removed clipboard support to pandas.io.clipboard
– replace top-level and instance methods save and load with top-level read_pickle and to_pickle
instance method, save and load will give deprecation warning.
• the method and axis arguments of DataFrame.replace() are deprecated
• set FutureWarning to require data_source, and to replace year/month with expiry date in pandas.io options. This
is in preparation to add options data from Google (GH3822)

2078 Chapter 37. Release Notes

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• the method and axis arguments of DataFrame.replace() are deprecated

• Implement __nonzero__ for NDFrame objects (GH3691, GH3696)
• as_matrix with mixed signed and unsigned dtypes will result in 2 x the lcd of the unsigned as an int, maxing
with int64, to avoid precision issues (GH3733)
• na_values in a list provided to read_csv/read_excel will match string and numeric versions e.g.
na_values=['99'] will match 99 whether the column ends up being int, float, or string (GH3611)
• read_html now defaults to None when reading, and falls back on bs4 + html5lib when lxml fails to
parse. a list of parsers to try until success is also valid
• more consistency in the to_datetime return types (give string/array of string inputs) (GH3888)
• The internal pandas class hierarchy has changed (slightly). The previous PandasObject now is called
PandasContainer and a new PandasObject has become the baseclass for PandasContainer as well
as Index, Categorical, GroupBy, SparseList, and SparseArray (+ their base classes). Currently,
PandasObject provides string methods (from StringMixin). (GH4090, GH4092)
• New StringMixin that, given a __unicode__ method, gets python 2 and python 3 compatible string
methods (__str__, __bytes__, and __repr__). Plus string safety throughout. Now employed in many
places throughout the pandas library. (GH4090, GH4092)

37.20.4 Experimental Features

• Added experimental CustomBusinessDay class to support DateOffsets with custom holiday calendars
and custom weekmasks. (GH2301)

37.20.5 Bug Fixes

• Fixed an esoteric excel reading bug, xlrd>= 0.9.0 now required for excel support. Should provide python3
support (for reading) which has been lacking. (GH3164)
• Disallow Series constructor called with MultiIndex which caused segfault (GH4187)
• Allow unioning of date ranges sharing a timezone (GH3491)
• Fix to_csv issue when having a large number of rows and NaT in some columns (GH3437)
• .loc was not raising when passed an integer list (GH3449)
• Unordered time series selection was misbehaving when using label slicing (GH3448)
• Fix sorting in a frame with a list of columns which contains datetime64[ns] dtypes (GH3461)
• DataFrames fetched via FRED now handle ‘.’ as a NaN. (GH3469)
• Fix regression in a DataFrame apply with axis=1, objects were not being converted back to base dtypes correctly
(GH3480)
• Fix issue when storing uint dtypes in an HDFStore. (GH3493)
• Non-unique index support clarified (GH3468)
– Addressed handling of dupe columns in df.to_csv new and old (GH3454, GH3457)
– Fix assigning a new index to a duplicate index in a DataFrame would fail (GH3468)
– Fix construction of a DataFrame with a duplicate index
– ref_locs support to allow duplicative indices across dtypes, allows iget support to always find the index
(even across dtypes) (GH2194)

37.20. pandas 0.12.0 2079

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

– applymap on a DataFrame with a non-unique index now works (removed warning) (GH2786), and fix
(GH3230)
– Fix to_csv to handle non-unique columns (GH3495)
– Duplicate indexes with getitem will return items in the correct order (GH3455, GH3457) and handle
missing elements like unique indices (GH3561)
– Duplicate indexes with and empty DataFrame.from_records will return a correct frame (GH3562)
– Concat to produce a non-unique columns when duplicates are across dtypes is fixed (GH3602)
– Non-unique indexing with a slice via loc and friends fixed (GH3659)
– Allow insert/delete to non-unique columns (GH3679)
– Extend reindex to correctly deal with non-unique indices (GH3679)
– DataFrame.itertuples() now works with frames with duplicate column names (GH3873)
– Bug in non-unique indexing via iloc (GH4017); added takeable argument to reindex for location-
based taking
– Allow non-unique indexing in series via .ix/.loc and __getitem__ (GH4246)
– Fixed non-unique indexing memory allocation issue with .ix/.loc (GH4280)
• Fixed bug in groupby with empty series referencing a variable before assignment. (GH3510)
• Allow index name to be used in groupby for non MultiIndex (GH4014)
• Fixed bug in mixed-frame assignment with aligned series (GH3492)
• Fixed bug in selecting month/quarter/year from a series would not select the time element on the last day
(GH3546)
• Fixed a couple of MultiIndex rendering bugs in df.to_html() (GH3547, GH3553)
• Properly convert np.datetime64 objects in a Series (GH3416)
• Raise a TypeError on invalid datetime/timedelta operations e.g. add datetimes, multiple timedelta x datetime
• Fix .diff on datelike and timedelta operations (GH3100)
• combine_first not returning the same dtype in cases where it can (GH3552)
• Fixed bug with Panel.transpose argument aliases (GH3556)
• Fixed platform bug in PeriodIndex.take (GH3579)
• Fixed bud in incorrect conversion of datetime64[ns] in combine_first (GH3593)
• Fixed bug in reset_index with NaN in a multi-index (GH3586)
• fillna methods now raise a TypeError when the value parameter is a list or tuple.
• Fixed bug where a time-series was being selected in preference to an actual column name in a frame (GH3594)
• Make secondary_y work properly for bar plots (GH3598)
• Fix modulo and integer division on Series,DataFrames to act similary to float dtypes to return np.nan or
np.inf as appropriate (GH3590)
• Fix incorrect dtype on groupby with as_index=False (GH3610)
• Fix read_csv/read_excel to correctly encode identical na_values, e.g. na_values=[-999.0,-999]
was failing (GH3611)
• Disable HTML output in qtconsole again. (GH3657)

2080 Chapter 37. Release Notes

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Reworked the new repr display logic, which users found confusing. (GH3663)
• Fix indexing issue in ndim >= 3 with iloc (GH3617)
• Correctly parse date columns with embedded (nan/NaT) into datetime64[ns] dtype in read_csv when
parse_dates is specified (GH3062)
• Fix not consolidating before to_csv (GH3624)
• Fix alignment issue when setitem in a DataFrame with a piece of a DataFrame (GH3626) or a mixed DataFrame
and a Series (GH3668)
• Fix plotting of unordered DatetimeIndex (GH3601)
• sql.write_frame failing when writing a single column to sqlite (GH3628), thanks to @stonebig
• Fix pivoting with nan in the index (GH3558)
• Fix running of bs4 tests when it is not installed (GH3605)
• Fix parsing of html table (GH3606)
• read_html() now only allows a single backend: html5lib (GH3616)
• convert_objects with convert_dates='coerce' was parsing some single-letter strings into today’s
date
• DataFrame.from_records did not accept empty recarrays (GH3682)
• DataFrame.to_csv will succeed with the deprecated option nanRep, @tdsmith
• DataFrame.to_html and DataFrame.to_latex now accept a path for their first argument (GH3702)
• Fix file tokenization error with r delimiter and quoted fields (GH3453)
• Groupby transform with item-by-item not upcasting correctly (GH3740)
• Incorrectly read a HDFStore multi-index Frame with a column specification (GH3748)
• read_html now correctly skips tests (GH3741)
• PandasObjects raise TypeError when trying to hash (GH3882)
• Fix incorrect arguments passed to concat that are not list-like (e.g. concat(df1,df2)) (GH3481)
• Correctly parse when passed the dtype=str (or other variable-len string dtypes) in read_csv (GH3795)
• Fix index name not propagating when using loc/ix (GH3880)
• Fix groupby when applying a custom function resulting in a returned DataFrame was not converting dtypes
(GH3911)
• Fixed a bug where DataFrame.replace with a compiled regular expression in the to_replace argument
wasn’t working (GH3907)
• Fixed __truediv__ in Python 2.7 with numexpr installed to actually do true division when dividing two
integer arrays with at least 10000 cells total (GH3764)
• Indexing with a string with seconds resolution not selecting from a time index (GH3925)
• csv parsers would loop infinitely if iterator=True but no chunksize was specified (GH3967), python
parser failing with chunksize=1
• Fix index name not propagating when using shift
• Fixed dropna=False being ignored with multi-index stack (GH3997)
• Fixed flattening of columns when renaming MultiIndex columns DataFrame (GH4004)

37.20. pandas 0.12.0 2081

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Fix Series.clip for datetime series. NA/NaN threshold values will now throw ValueError (GH3996)
• Fixed insertion issue into DataFrame, after rename (GH4032)
• Fixed testing issue where too many sockets where open thus leading to a connection reset issue (GH3982,
GH3985, GH4028, GH4054)
• Fixed failing tests in test_yahoo, test_google where symbols were not retrieved but were being accessed
(GH3982, GH3985, GH4028, GH4054)
• Series.hist will now take the figure from the current environment if one is not passed
• Fixed bug where a 1xN DataFrame would barf on a 1xN mask (GH4071)
• Fixed running of tox under python3 where the pickle import was getting rewritten in an incompatible way
(GH4062, GH4063)
• Fixed bug where sharex and sharey were not being passed to grouped_hist (GH4089)
• Fix bug where HDFStore will fail to append because of a different block ordering on-disk (GH4096)
• Better error messages on inserting incompatible columns to a frame (GH4107)
• Fixed bug in DataFrame.replace where a nested dict wasn’t being iterated over when regex=False
(GH4115)
• Fixed bug in convert_objects(convert_numeric=True) where a mixed numeric and object Se-
ries/Frame was not converting properly (GH4119)
• Fixed bugs in multi-index selection with column multi-index and duplicates (GH4145, GH4146)
• Fixed bug in the parsing of microseconds when using the format argument in to_datetime (GH4152)
• Fixed bug in PandasAutoDateLocator where invert_xaxis triggered incorrectly
MilliSecondLocator (GH3990)
• Fixed bug in Series.where where broadcasting a single element input vector to the length of the series
resulted in multiplying the value inside the input (GH4192)
• Fixed bug in plotting that wasn’t raising on invalid colormap for matplotlib 1.1.1 (GH4215)
• Fixed the legend displaying in DataFrame.plot(kind='kde') (GH4216)
• Fixed bug where Index slices weren’t carrying the name attribute (GH4226)
• Fixed bug in initializing DatetimeIndex with an array of strings in a certain time zone (GH4229)
• Fixed bug where html5lib wasn’t being properly skipped (GH4265)
• Fixed bug where get_data_famafrench wasn’t using the correct file edges (GH4281)

37.21 pandas 0.11.0

Release date: 2013-04-22

37.21.1 New Features

• New documentation section, 10 Minutes to Pandas

• New documentation section, Cookbook
• Allow mixed dtypes (e.g float32/float64/int32/int16/int8) to coexist in DataFrames and propa-
gate in operations

2082 Chapter 37. Release Notes

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Add function to pandas.io.data for retrieving stock index components from Yahoo! finance (GH2795)
• Support slicing with time objects (GH2681)
• Added .iloc attribute, to support strict integer based indexing, analogous to .ix (GH2922)
• Added .loc attribute, to support strict label based indexing, analogous to .ix (GH3053)
• Added .iat attribute, to support fast scalar access via integers (replaces iget_value/iset_value)
• Added .at attribute, to support fast scalar access via labels (replaces get_value/set_value)
• Moved functionality from irow,icol,iget_value/iset_value to .iloc indexer (via _ixs methods
in each object)
• Added support for expression evaluation using the numexpr library
• Added convert=boolean to take routines to translate negative indices to positive, defaults to True
• Added to_series() method to indices, to facilitate the creation of indexers (GH3275)

37.21.2 Improvements to existing features

• Improved performance of df.to_csv() by up to 10x in some cases. (GH3059)

• added blocks attribute to DataFrames, to return a dict of dtypes to homogeneously dtyped DataFrames
• added keyword convert_numeric to convert_objects() to try to convert object dtypes to numeric
types (default is False)
• convert_dates in convert_objects can now be coerce which will return a datetime64[ns] dtype
with non-convertibles set as NaT; will preserve an all-nan object (e.g. strings), default is True (to perform
soft-conversion
• Series print output now includes the dtype by default
• Optimize internal reindexing routines (GH2819, GH2867)
• describe_option() now reports the default and current value of options.
• Add format option to pandas.to_datetime with faster conversion of strings that can be parsed with
datetime.strptime
• Add axes property to Series for compatibility
• Add xs function to Series for compatibility
• Allow setitem in a frame where only mixed numerics are present (e.g. int and float), (GH3037)
• HDFStore
– Provide dotted attribute access to get from stores (e.g. store.df == store[’df’])
– New keywords iterator=boolean, and chunksize=number_in_a_chunk are provided to
support iteration on select and select_as_multiple (GH3076)
– support read_hdf/to_hdf API similar to read_csv/to_csv (GH3222)
• Add squeeze method to possibly remove length 1 dimensions from an object.

In [1]: p = pd.Panel(np.random.randn(3,4,4),items=['ItemA','ItemB','ItemC'],
...: major_axis=pd.date_range('20010102',periods=4),
...: minor_axis=['A','B','C','D'])
...:

37.21. pandas 0.11.0 2083

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

In [2]: p
Out[2]:
<class 'pandas.core.panel.Panel'>
Dimensions: 3 (items) x 4 (major_axis) x 4 (minor_axis)
Items axis: ItemA to ItemC
Major_axis axis: 2001-01-02 00:00:00 to 2001-01-05 00:00:00
Minor_axis axis: A to D

In [3]: p.reindex(items=['ItemA']).squeeze()
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

A B C D
2001-01-02 0.469112 -0.282863 -1.509059 -1.135632
2001-01-03 1.212112 -0.173215 0.119209 -1.044236
2001-01-04 -0.861849 -2.104569 -0.494929 1.071804
2001-01-05 0.721555 -0.706771 -1.039575 0.271860

In [4]: p.reindex(items=['ItemA'],minor=['B']).squeeze()
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
˓→

2001-01-02 -0.282863
2001-01-03 -0.173215
2001-01-04 -2.104569
2001-01-05 -0.706771
Freq: D, Name: B, dtype: float64

• Improvement to Yahoo API access in pd.io.data.Options (GH2758)

• added option display.max_seq_items to control the number of elements printed per sequence pprinting it.
(GH2979)
• added option display.chop_threshold to control display of small numerical values. (GH2739)
• added option display.max_info_rows to prevent verbose_info from being calculated for frames above 1M rows
(configurable). (GH2807, GH2918)
• value_counts() now accepts a “normalize” argument, for normalized histograms. (GH2710).
• DataFrame.from_records now accepts not only dicts but any instance of the collections.Mapping ABC.
• Allow selection semantics via a string with a datelike index to work in both Series and DataFrames (GH3070)

In [5]: idx = pd.date_range("2001-10-1", periods=5, freq='M')

In [6]: ts = pd.Series(np.random.rand(len(idx)),index=idx)

In [7]: ts['2001']
Out[7]:
2001-10-31 0.838796
2001-11-30 0.897333
2001-12-31 0.732592
Freq: M, dtype: float64

In [8]: df = pd.DataFrame(dict(A = ts))

In [9]: df['2001']
Out[9]:
A
2001-10-31 0.838796

2084 Chapter 37. Release Notes

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

2001-11-30 0.897333
2001-12-31 0.732592

• added option display.mpl_style providing a sleeker visual style for plots. Based on https://gist.github.com/
huyng/816622 (GH3075).
• Improved performance across several core functions by taking memory ordering of arrays into account. Courtesy
of @stephenwlin (GH3130)
• Improved performance of groupby transform method (GH2121)
• Handle “ragged” CSV files missing trailing delimiters in rows with missing fields when also providing explicit
list of column names (so the parser knows how many columns to expect in the result) (GH2981)
• On a mixed DataFrame, allow setting with indexers with ndarray/DataFrame on rhs (GH3216)
• Treat boolean values as integers (values 1 and 0) for numeric operations. (GH2641)
• Add time method to DatetimeIndex (GH3180)
• Return NA when using Series.str[...] for values that are not long enough (GH3223)
• Display cursor coordinate information in time-series plots (GH1670)
• to_html() now accepts an optional “escape” argument to control reserved HTML character escaping (enabled
by default) and escapes &, in addition to < and >. (GH2919)

37.21.3 API Changes

• Do not automatically upcast numeric specified dtypes to int64 or float64 (GH622 and GH797)
• DataFrame construction of lists and scalars, with no dtype present, will result in casting to int64 or float64,
regardless of platform. This is not an apparent change in the API, but noting it.
• Guarantee that convert_objects() for Series/DataFrame always returns a copy
• groupby operations will respect dtypes for numeric float operations (float32/float64); other types will be operated
on, and will try to cast back to the input dtype (e.g. if an int is passed, as long as the output doesn’t have nans,
then an int will be returned)
• backfill/pad/take/diff/ohlc will now support float32/int16/int8 operations
• Block types will upcast as needed in where/masking operations (GH2793)
• Series now automatically will try to set the correct dtype based on passed datetimelike objects (date-
time/Timestamp)
– timedelta64 are returned in appropriate cases (e.g. Series - Series, when both are datetime64)
– mixed datetimes and objects (GH2751) in a constructor will be cast correctly
– astype on datetimes to object are now handled (as well as NaT conversions to np.nan)
– all timedelta like objects will be correctly assigned to timedelta64 with mixed NaN and/or NaT al-
lowed
• arguments to DataFrame.clip were inconsistent to numpy and Series clipping (GH2747)
• util.testing.assert_frame_equal now checks the column and index names (GH2964)
• Constructors will now return a more informative ValueError on failures when invalid shapes are passed
• Don’t suppress TypeError in GroupBy.agg (GH3238)
• Methods return None when inplace=True (GH1893)

37.21. pandas 0.11.0 2085

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• HDFStore
– added the method select_column to select a single column from a table as a Series.
– deprecated the unique method, can be replicated by select_column(key,column).unique()
– min_itemsize parameter will now automatically create data_columns for passed keys
• Downcast on pivot if possible (GH3283), adds argument downcast to fillna
• Introduced options display.height/width for explicitly specifying terminal height/width in characters. Depre-
cated display.line_width, now replaced by display.width. These defaults are in effect for scripts as well, so
unless disabled, previously very wide output will now be output as “expand_repr” style wrapped output.
• Various defaults for options (including display.max_rows) have been revised, after a brief survey concluded they
were wrong for everyone. Now at w=80,h=60.
• HTML repr output in IPython qtconsole is once again controlled by the option display.notebook_repr_html, and
on by default.

37.21.4 Bug Fixes

• Fix seg fault on empty data frame when fillna with pad or backfill (GH2778)
• Single element ndarrays of datetimelike objects are handled (e.g. np.array(datetime(2001,1,1,0,0))), w/o dtype
being passed
• 0-dim ndarrays with a passed dtype are handled correctly (e.g. np.array(0.,dtype=’float32’))
• Fix some boolean indexing inconsistencies in Series.__getitem__/__setitem__ (GH2776)
• Fix issues with DataFrame and Series constructor with integers that overflow int64 and some mixed typed
type lists (GH2845)
• HDFStore
– Fix weird PyTables error when using too many selectors in a where also correctly filter on any number of
values in a Term expression (so not using numexpr filtering, but isin filtering)
– Internally, change all variables to be private-like (now have leading underscore)
– Fixes for query parsing to correctly interpret boolean and != (GH2849, GH2973)
– Fixes for pathological case on SparseSeries with 0-len array and compression (GH2931)
– Fixes bug with writing rows if part of a block was all-nan (GH3012)
– Exceptions are now ValueError or TypeError as needed
– A table will now raise if min_itemsize contains fields which are not queryables
• Bug showing up in applymap where some object type columns are converted (GH2909) had an incorrect default
in convert_objects
• TimeDeltas
– Series ops with a Timestamp on the rhs was throwing an exception (GH2898) added tests for Series ops
with datetimes,timedeltas,Timestamps, and datelike Series on both lhs and rhs
– Fixed subtle timedelta64 inference issue on py3 & numpy 1.7.0 (GH3094)
– Fixed some formatting issues on timedelta when negative
– Support null checking on timedelta64, representing (and formatting) with NaT
– Support setitem with np.nan value, converts to NaT

2086 Chapter 37. Release Notes

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

– Support min/max ops in a Dataframe (abs not working, nor do we error on non-supported ops)
– Support idxmin/idxmax/abs/max/min in a Series (GH2989, GH2982)
• Bug on in-place putmasking on an integer series that needs to be converted to float (GH2746)
• Bug in argsort of datetime64[ns] Series with NaT (GH2967)
• Bug in value_counts of datetime64[ns] Series (GH3002)
• Fixed printing of NaT in an index
• Bug in idxmin/idxmax of datetime64[ns] Series with NaT (GH2982)
• Bug in icol, take with negative indicies was producing incorrect return values (see GH2922, GH2892),
also check for out-of-bounds indices (GH3029)
• Bug in DataFrame column insertion when the column creation fails, existing frame is left in an irrecoverable
state (GH3010)
• Bug in DataFrame update, combine_first where non-specified values could cause dtype changes (GH3016,
GH3041)
• Bug in groupby with first/last where dtypes could change (GH3041, GH2763)
• Formatting of an index that has nan was inconsistent or wrong (would fill from other values), (GH2850)
• Unstack of a frame with no nans would always cause dtype upcasting (GH2929)
• Fix scalar datetime.datetime parsing bug in read_csv (GH3071)
• Fixed slow printing of large Dataframes, due to inefficient dtype reporting (GH2807)
• Fixed a segfault when using a function as grouper in groupby (GH3035)
• Fix pretty-printing of infinite data structures (closes GH2978)
• Fixed exception when plotting timeseries bearing a timezone (closes GH2877)
• str.contains ignored na argument (GH2806)
• Substitute warning for segfault when grouping with categorical grouper of mismatched length (GH3011)
• Fix exception in SparseSeries.density (GH2083)
• Fix upsampling bug with closed=’left’ and daily to daily data (GH3020)
• Fixed missing tick bars on scatter_matrix plot (GH3063)
• Fixed bug in Timestamp(d,tz=foo) when d is date() rather then datetime() (GH2993)
• series.plot(kind=’bar’) now respects pylab color schem (GH3115)
• Fixed bug in reshape if not passed correct input, now raises TypeError (GH2719)
• Fixed a bug where Series ctor did not respect ordering if OrderedDict passed in (GH3282)
• Fix NameError issue on RESO_US (GH2787)
• Allow selection in an unordered timeseries to work similary to an ordered timeseries (GH2437).
• Fix implemented .xs when called with axes=1 and a level parameter (GH2903)
• Timestamp now supports the class method fromordinal similar to datetimes (GH3042)
• Fix issue with indexing a series with a boolean key and specifiying a 1-len list on the rhs (GH2745) or a list on
the rhs (GH3235)
• Fixed bug in groupby apply when kernel generate list of arrays having unequal len (GH1738)

37.21. pandas 0.11.0 2087

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• fixed handling of rolling_corr with center=True which could produce corr>1 (GH3155)
• Fixed issues where indices can be passed as ‘index/column’ in addition to 0/1 for the axis parameter
• PeriodIndex.tolist now boxes to Period (GH3178)
• PeriodIndex.get_loc KeyError now reports Period instead of ordinal (GH3179)
• df.to_records bug when handling MultiIndex (GH3189)
• Fix Series.__getitem__ segfault when index less than -length (GH3168)
• Fix bug when using Timestamp as a date parser (GH2932)
• Fix bug creating date range from Timestamp with time zone and passing same time zone (GH2926)
• Add comparison operators to Period object (GH2781)
• Fix bug when concatenating two Series into a DataFrame when they have the same name (GH2797)
• Fix automatic color cycling when plotting consecutive timeseries without color arguments (GH2816)
• fixed bug in the pickling of PeriodIndex (GH2891)
• Upcast/split blocks when needed in a mixed DataFrame when setitem with an indexer (GH3216)
• Invoking df.applymap on a dataframe with dupe cols now raises a ValueError (GH2786)
• Apply with invalid returned indices raise correct Exception (GH2808)
• Fixed a bug in plotting log-scale bar plots (GH3247)
• df.plot() grid on/off now obeys the mpl default style, just like series.plot(). (GH3233)
• Fixed a bug in the legend of plotting.andrews_curves() (GH3278)
• Produce a series on apply if we only generate a singular series and have a simple index (GH2893)
• Fix Python ASCII file parsing when integer falls outside of floating point spacing (GH3258)
• fixed pretty priniting of sets (GH3294)
• Panel() and Panel.from_dict() now respects ordering when give OrderedDict (GH3303)
• DataFrame where with a datetimelike incorrectly selecting (GH3311)
• Ensure index casts work even in Int64Index
• Fix set_index segfault when passing MultiIndex (GH3308)
• Ensure pickles created in py2 can be read in py3
• Insert ellipsis in MultiIndex summary repr (GH3348)
• Groupby will handle mutation among an input groups columns (and fallback to non-fast apply) (GH3380)
• Eliminated unicode errors on FreeBSD when using MPL GTK backend (GH3360)
• Period.strftime should return unicode strings always (GH3363)
• Respect passed read_* chunksize in get_chunk function (GH3406)

37.22 pandas 0.10.1

Release date: 2013-01-22

2088 Chapter 37. Release Notes

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

37.22.1 New Features

• Add data interface to World Bank WDI pandas.io.wb (GH2592)

37.22.2 API Changes

• Restored inplace=True behavior returning self (same object) with deprecation warning until 0.11 (GH1893)
• HDFStore
– refactored HFDStore to deal with non-table stores as objects, will allow future enhancements
– removed keyword compression from put (replaced by keyword complib to be consistent across
library)
– warn PerformanceWarning if you are attempting to store types that will be pickled by PyTables

37.22.3 Improvements to existing features

• HDFStore
– enables storing of multi-index dataframes (closes GH1277)
– support data column indexing and selection, via data_columns keyword in append
– support write chunking to reduce memory footprint, via chunksize keyword to append
– support automagic indexing via index keyword to append
– support expectedrows keyword in append to inform PyTables about the expected tablesize
– support start and stop keywords in select to limit the row selection space
– added get_store context manager to automatically import with pandas
– added column filtering via columns keyword in select
– added methods append_to_multiple/select_as_multiple/select_as_coordinates to do multiple-table ap-
pend/selection
– added support for datetime64 in columns
– added method unique to select the unique values in an indexable or data column
– added method copy to copy an existing store (and possibly upgrade)
– show the shape of the data on disk for non-table stores when printing the store
– added ability to read PyTables flavor tables (allows compatibility to other HDF5 systems)
• Add logx option to DataFrame/Series.plot (GH2327, GH2565)
• Support reading gzipped data from file-like object
• pivot_table aggfunc can be anything used in GroupBy.aggregate (GH2643)
• Implement DataFrame merges in case where set cardinalities might overflow 64-bit integer (GH2690)
• Raise exception in C file parser if integer dtype specified and have NA values. (GH2631)
• Attempt to parse ISO8601 format dates when parse_dates=True in read_csv for major performance boost in
such cases (GH2698)
• Add methods neg and inv to Series

37.22. pandas 0.10.1 2089

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Implement kind option in ExcelFile to indicate whether it’s an XLS or XLSX file (GH2613)
• Documented a fast-path in pd.read_csv when parsing iso8601 datetime strings yielding as much as a 20x
speedup. (GH5993)

37.22.4 Bug Fixes

• Fix read_csv/read_table multithreading issues (GH2608)

• HDFStore
– correctly handle nan elements in string columns; serialize via the nan_rep keyword to append
– raise correctly on non-implemented column types (unicode/date)
– handle correctly Term passed types (e.g. index<1000, when index is Int64), (closes GH512)
– handle Timestamp correctly in data_columns (closes GH2637)
– contains correctly matches on non-natural names
– correctly store float32 dtypes in tables (if not other float types in the same table)
• Fix DataFrame.info bug with UTF8-encoded columns. (GH2576)
• Fix DatetimeIndex handling of FixedOffset tz (GH2604)
• More robust detection of being in IPython session for wide DataFrame console formatting (GH2585)
• Fix platform issues with file:/// in unit test (GH2564)
• Fix bug and possible segfault when grouping by hierarchical level that contains NA values (GH2616)
• Ensure that MultiIndex tuples can be constructed with NAs (GH2616)
• Fix int64 overflow issue when unstacking MultiIndex with many levels (GH2616)
• Exclude non-numeric data from DataFrame.quantile by default (GH2625)
• Fix a Cython C int64 boxing issue causing read_csv to return incorrect results (GH2599)
• Fix groupby summing performance issue on boolean data (GH2692)
• Don’t bork Series containing datetime64 values with to_datetime (GH2699)
• Fix DataFrame.from_records corner case when passed columns, index column, but empty record list (GH2633)
• Fix C parser-tokenizer bug with trailing fields. (GH2668)
• Don’t exclude non-numeric data from GroupBy.max/min (GH2700)
• Don’t lose time zone when calling DatetimeIndex.drop (GH2621)
• Fix setitem on a Series with a boolean key and a non-scalar as value (GH2686)
• Box datetime64 values in Series.apply/map (GH2627, GH2689)
• Upconvert datetime + datetime64 values when concatenating frames (GH2624)
• Raise a more helpful error message in merge operations when one DataFrame has duplicate columns (GH2649)
• Fix partial date parsing issue occuring only when code is run at EOM (GH2618)
• Prevent MemoryError when using counting sort in sortlevel with high-cardinality MultiIndex objects (GH2684)
• Fix Period resampling bug when all values fall into a single bin (GH2070)
• Fix buggy interaction with usecols argument in read_csv when there is an implicit first index column (GH2654)

2090 Chapter 37. Release Notes

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Fix bug in Index.summary() where string format methods were being called incorrectly. (GH3869)

37.23 pandas 0.10.0

Release date: 2012-12-17

37.23.1 New Features

• Brand new high-performance delimited file parsing engine written in C and Cython. 50% or better performance
in many standard use cases with a fraction as much memory usage. (GH407, GH821)
• Many new file parser (read_csv, read_table) features:
– Support for on-the-fly gzip or bz2 decompression (compression option)
– Ability to get back numpy.recarray instead of DataFrame (as_recarray=True)
– dtype option: explicit column dtypes
– usecols option: specify list of columns to be read from a file. Good for reading very wide files with many
irrelevant columns (GH1216 GH926, GH2465)
– Enhanced unicode decoding support via encoding option
– skipinitialspace dialect option
– Can specify strings to be recognized as True (true_values) or False (false_values)
– High-performance delim_whitespace option for whitespace-delimited files; a preferred alternative to the
‘s+’ regular expression delimiter
– Option to skip “bad” lines (wrong number of fields) that would otherwise have caused an error in the past
(error_bad_lines and warn_bad_lines options)
– Substantially improved performance in the parsing of integers with thousands markers and lines with
comments
– Easy of European (and other) decimal formats (decimal option) (GH584, GH2466)
– Custom line terminators (e.g. lineterminator=’~’) (GH2457)
– Handling of no trailing commas in CSV files (GH2333)
– Ability to handle fractional seconds in date_converters (GH2209)
– read_csv allow scalar arg to na_values (GH1944)
– Explicit column dtype specification in read_* functions (GH1858)
– Easier CSV dialect specification (GH1743)
– Improve parser performance when handling special characters (GH1204)
• Google Analytics API integration with easy oauth2 workflow (GH2283)
• Add error handling to Series.str.encode/decode (GH2276)
• Add where and mask to Series (GH2337)
• Grouped histogram via by keyword in Series/DataFrame.hist (GH2186)
• Support optional min_periods keyword in corr and cov for both Series and DataFrame (GH2002)
• Add duplicated and drop_duplicates functions to Series (GH1923)

37.23. pandas 0.10.0 2091

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Add docs for HDFStore table format

• ‘density’ property in SparseSeries (GH2384)
• Add ffill and bfill convenience functions for forward- and backfilling time series data (GH2284)
• New option configuration system and functions set_option, get_option, describe_option, and reset_option.
Deprecate set_printoptions and reset_printoptions (GH2393). You can also access options as attributes via
pandas.options.X
• Wide DataFrames can be viewed more easily in the console with new expand_frame_repr and line_width con-
figuration options. This is on by default now (GH2436)
• Scikits.timeseries-like moving window functions via rolling_window (GH1270)

37.23.2 Experimental Features

• Add support for Panel4D, a named 4 Dimensional structure

• Add support for ndpanel factory functions, to create custom, domain-specific N-Dimensional containers

37.23.3 API Changes

• The default binning/labeling behavior for resample has been changed to closed=’left’, label=’left’ for daily
and lower frequencies. This had been a large source of confusion for users. See “what’s new” page for more on
this. (GH2410)
• Methods with inplace option now return None instead of the calling (modified) object (GH1893)
• The special case DataFrame - TimeSeries doing column-by-column broadcasting has been deprecated. Users
should explicitly do e.g. df.sub(ts, axis=0) instead. This is a legacy hack and can lead to subtle bugs.
• inf/-inf are no longer considered as NA by isnull/notnull. To be clear, this is legacy cruft from early pandas. This
behavior can be globally re-enabled using the new option mode.use_inf_as_null (GH2050, GH1919)
• pandas.merge will now default to sort=False. For many use cases sorting the join keys is not necessary,
and doing it by default is wasteful
• Specify header=0 explicitly to replace existing column names in file in read_* functions.
• Default column names for header-less parsed files (yielded by read_csv, etc.) are now the integers 0, 1, .... A
new argument prefix has been added; to get the v0.9.x behavior specify prefix='X' (GH2034). This API
change was made to make the default column names more consistent with the DataFrame constructor’s default
column names when none are specified.
• DataFrame selection using a boolean frame now preserves input shape
• If function passed to Series.apply yields a Series, result will be a DataFrame (GH2316)
• Values like YES/NO/yes/no will not be considered as boolean by default any longer in the file parsers. This can
be customized using the new true_values and false_values options (GH2360)
• obj.fillna() is no longer valid; make method=’pad’ no longer the default option, to be more explicit about what
kind of filling to perform. Add ffill/bfill convenience functions per above (GH2284)
• HDFStore.keys() now returns an absolute path-name for each key
• to_string() now always returns a unicode string. (GH2224)
• File parsers will not handle NA sentinel values arising from passed converter functions

2092 Chapter 37. Release Notes

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

37.23.4 Improvements to existing features

• Add nrows option to DataFrame.from_records for iterators (GH1794)

• Unstack/reshape algorithm rewrite to avoid high memory use in cases where the number of observed key-tuples
is much smaller than the total possible number that could occur (GH2278). Also improves performance in most
cases.
• Support duplicate columns in DataFrame.from_records (GH2179)
• Add normalize option to Series/DataFrame.asfreq (GH2137)
• SparseSeries and SparseDataFrame construction from empty and scalar values now no longer create dense
ndarrays unnecessarily (GH2322)
• HDFStore now supports hierarchical keys (GH2397)
• Support multiple query selection formats for HDFStore tables (GH1996)
• Support del store['df'] syntax to delete HDFStores
• Add multi-dtype support for HDFStore tables
• min_itemsize parameter can be specified in HDFStore table creation
• Indexing support in HDFStore tables (GH698)
• Add line_terminator option to DataFrame.to_csv (GH2383)
• added implementation of str(x)/unicode(x)/bytes(x) to major pandas data structures, which should do the right
thing on both py2.x and py3.x. (GH2224)
• Reduce groupby.apply overhead substantially by low-level manipulation of internal NumPy arrays in
DataFrames (GH535)
• Implement value_vars in melt and add melt to pandas namespace (GH2412)
• Added boolean comparison operators to Panel
• Enable Series.str.strip/lstrip/rstrip methods to take an argument (GH2411)
• The DataFrame ctor now respects column ordering when given an OrderedDict (GH2455)
• Assigning DatetimeIndex to Series changes the class to TimeSeries (GH2139)
• Improve performance of .value_counts method on non-integer data (GH2480)
• get_level_values method for MultiIndex return Index instead of ndarray (GH2449)
• convert_to_r_dataframe conversion for datetime values (GH2351)
• Allow DataFrame.to_csv to represent inf and nan differently (GH2026)
• Add min_i argument to nancorr to specify minimum required observations (GH2002)
• Add inplace option to sortlevel / sort functions on DataFrame (GH1873)
• Enable DataFrame to accept scalar constructor values like Series (GH1856)
• DataFrame.from_records now takes optional size parameter (GH1794)
• include iris dataset (GH1709)
• No datetime64 DataFrame column conversion of datetime.datetime with tzinfo (GH1581)
• Micro-optimizations in DataFrame for tracking state of internal consolidation (GH217)
• Format parameter in DataFrame.to_csv (GH1525)

37.23. pandas 0.10.0 2093

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Partial string slicing for DatetimeIndex for daily and higher frequencies (GH2306)
• Implement col_space parameter in to_html and to_string in DataFrame (GH1000)
• Override Series.tolist and box datetime64 types (GH2447)
• Optimize unstack memory usage by compressing indices (GH2278)
• Fix HTML repr in IPython qtconsole if opening window is small (GH2275)
• Escape more special characters in console output (GH2492)
• df.select now invokes bool on the result of crit(x) (GH2487)

37.23.5 Bug Fixes

• Fix major performance regression in DataFrame.iteritems (GH2273)

• Fixes bug when negative period passed to Series/DataFrame.diff (GH2266)
• Escape tabs in console output to avoid alignment issues (GH2038)
• Properly box datetime64 values when retrieving cross-section from mixed-dtype DataFrame (GH2272)
• Fix concatenation bug leading to GH2057, GH2257
• Fix regression in Index console formatting (GH2319)
• Box Period data when assigning PeriodIndex to frame column (GH2243, GH2281)
• Raise exception on calling reset_index on Series with inplace=True (GH2277)
• Enable setting multiple columns in DataFrame with hierarchical columns (GH2295)
• Respect dtype=object in DataFrame constructor (GH2291)
• Fix DatetimeIndex.join bug with tz-aware indexes and how=’outer’ (GH2317)
• pop(...) and del works with DataFrame with duplicate columns (GH2349)
• Treat empty strings as NA in date parsing (rather than let dateutil do something weird) (GH2263)
• Prevent uint64 -> int64 overflows (GH2355)
• Enable joins between MultiIndex and regular Index (GH2024)
• Fix time zone metadata issue when unioning non-overlapping DatetimeIndex objects (GH2367)
• Raise/handle int64 overflows in parsers (GH2247)
• Deleting of consecutive rows in HDFStore tables` is much faster than before
• Appending on a HDFStore would fail if the table was not first created via put
• Use col_space argument as minimum column width in DataFrame.to_html (GH2328)
• Fix tz-aware DatetimeIndex.to_period (GH2232)
• Fix DataFrame row indexing case with MultiIndex (GH2314)
• Fix to_excel exporting issues with Timestamp objects in index (GH2294)
• Fixes assigning scalars and array to hierarchical column chunk (GH1803)
• Fixed a UnicodeDecodeError with series tidy_repr (GH2225)
• Fixed issued with duplicate keys in an index (GH2347, GH2380)
• Fixed issues re: Hash randomization, default on starting w/ py3.3 (GH2331)

2094 Chapter 37. Release Notes

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Fixed issue with missing attributes after loading a pickled dataframe (GH2431)
• Fix Timestamp formatting with tzoffset time zone in dateutil 2.1 (GH2443)
• Fix GroupBy.apply issue when using BinGrouper to do ts binning (GH2300)
• Fix issues resulting from datetime.datetime columns being converted to datetime64 when calling
DataFrame.apply. (GH2374)
• Raise exception when calling to_panel on non uniquely-indexed frame (GH2441)
• Improved detection of console encoding on IPython zmq frontends (GH2458)
• Preserve time zone when .append-ing two time series (GH2260)
• Box timestamps when calling reset_index on time-zone-aware index rather than creating a tz-less datetime64
column (GH2262)
• Enable searching non-string columns in DataFrame.filter(like=...) (GH2467)
• Fixed issue with losing nanosecond precision upon conversion to DatetimeIndex(GH2252)
• Handle timezones in Datetime.normalize (GH2338)
• Fix test case where dtype specification with endianness causes failures on big endian machines (GH2318)
• Fix plotting bug where upsampling causes data to appear shifted in time (GH2448)
• Fix read_csv failure for UTF-16 with BOM and skiprows(GH2298)
• read_csv with names arg not implicitly setting header=None(GH2459)
• Unrecognized compression mode causes segfault in read_csv(GH2474)
• In read_csv, header=0 and passed names should discard first row(GH2269)
• Correctly route to stdout/stderr in read_table (GH2071)
• Fix exception when Timestamp.to_datetime is called on a Timestamp with tzoffset (GH2471)
• Fixed unintentional conversion of datetime64 to long in groupby.first() (GH2133)
• Union of empty DataFrames now return empty with concatenated index (GH2307)
• DataFrame.sort_index raises more helpful exception if sorting by column with duplicates (GH2488)
• DataFrame.to_string formatters can be list, too (GH2520)
• DataFrame.combine_first will always result in the union of the index and columns, even if one DataFrame is
length-zero (GH2525)
• Fix several DataFrame.icol/irow with duplicate indices issues (GH2228, GH2259)
• Use Series names for column names when using concat with axis=1 (GH2489)
• Raise Exception if start, end, periods all passed to date_range (GH2538)
• Fix Panel resampling issue (GH2537)

37.24 pandas 0.9.1

Release date: 2012-11-14

37.24. pandas 0.9.1 2095

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

37.24.1 New Features

• Can specify multiple sort orders in DataFrame/Series.sort/sort_index (GH928)

• New top and bottom options for handling NAs in rank (GH1508, GH2159)
• Add where and mask functions to DataFrame (GH2109, GH2151)
• Add at_time and between_time functions to DataFrame (GH2149)
• Add flexible pow and rpow methods to DataFrame (GH2190)

37.24.2 API Changes

• Upsampling period index “spans” intervals. Example: annual periods upsampled to monthly will span all
months in each year
• Period.end_time will yield timestamp at last nanosecond in the interval (GH2124, GH2125, GH1764)
• File parsers no longer coerce to float or bool for columns that have custom converters specified (GH2184)

37.24.3 Improvements to existing features

• Time rule inference for week-of-month (e.g. WOM-2FRI) rules (GH2140)

• Improve performance of datetime + business day offset with large number of offset periods
• Improve HTML display of DataFrame objects with hierarchical columns
• Enable referencing of Excel columns by their column names (GH1936)
• DataFrame.dot can accept ndarrays (GH2042)
• Support negative periods in Panel.shift (GH2164)
• Make .drop(...) work with non-unique indexes (GH2101)
• Improve performance of Series/DataFrame.diff (re: GH2087)
• Support unary ~ (__invert__) in DataFrame (GH2110)
• Turn off pandas-style tick locators and formatters (GH2205)
• DataFrame[DataFrame] uses DataFrame.where to compute masked frame (GH2230)

37.24.4 Bug Fixes

• Fix some duplicate-column DataFrame constructor issues (GH2079)

• Fix bar plot color cycle issues (GH2082)
• Fix off-center grid for stacked bar plots (GH2157)
• Fix plotting bug if inferred frequency is offset with N > 1 (GH2126)
• Implement comparisons on date offsets with fixed delta (GH2078)
• Handle inf/-inf correctly in read_* parser functions (GH2041)
• Fix matplotlib unicode interaction bug
• Make WLS r-squared match statsmodels 0.5.0 fixed value

2096 Chapter 37. Release Notes

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Fix zero-trimming DataFrame formatting bug

• Correctly compute/box datetime64 min/max values from Series.min/max (GH2083)
• Fix unstacking edge case with unrepresented groups (GH2100)
• Fix Series.str failures when using pipe pattern ‘|’ (GH2119)
• Fix pretty-printing of dict entries in Series, DataFrame (GH2144)
• Cast other datetime64 values to nanoseconds in DataFrame ctor (GH2095)
• Alias Timestamp.astimezone to tz_convert, so will yield Timestamp (GH2060)
• Fix timedelta64 formatting from Series (GH2165, GH2146)
• Handle None values gracefully in dict passed to Panel constructor (GH2075)
• Box datetime64 values as Timestamp objects in Series/DataFrame.iget (GH2148)
• Fix Timestamp indexing bug in DatetimeIndex.insert (GH2155)
• Use index name(s) (if any) in DataFrame.to_records (GH2161)
• Don’t lose index names in Panel.to_frame/DataFrame.to_panel (GH2163)
• Work around length-0 boolean indexing NumPy bug (GH2096)
• Fix partial integer indexing bug in DataFrame.xs (GH2107)
• Fix variety of cut/qcut string-bin formatting bugs (GH1978, GH1979)
• Raise Exception when xs view not possible of MultiIndex’d DataFrame (GH2117)
• Fix groupby(...).first() issue with datetime64 (GH2133)
• Better floating point error robustness in some rolling_* functions (GH2114, GH2527)
• Fix ewma NA handling in the middle of Series (GH2128)
• Fix numerical precision issues in diff with integer data (GH2087)
• Fix bug in MultiIndex.__getitem__ with NA values (GH2008)
• Fix DataFrame.from_records dict-arg bug when passing columns (GH2179)
• Fix Series and DataFrame.diff for integer dtypes (GH2087, GH2174)
• Fix bug when taking intersection of DatetimeIndex with empty index (GH2129)
• Pass through timezone information when calling DataFrame.align (GH2127)
• Properly sort when joining on datetime64 values (GH2196)
• Fix indexing bug in which False/True were being coerced to 0/1 (GH2199)
• Many unicode formatting fixes (GH2201)
• Fix improper MultiIndex conversion issue when assigning e.g. DataFrame.index (GH2200)
• Fix conversion of mixed-type DataFrame to ndarray with dup columns (GH2236)
• Fix duplicate columns issue (GH2218, GH2219)
• Fix SparseSeries.__pow__ issue with NA input (GH2220)
• Fix icol with integer sequence failure (GH2228)
• Fixed resampling tz-aware time series issue (GH2245)
• SparseDataFrame.icol was not returning SparseSeries (GH2227, GH2229)

37.24. pandas 0.9.1 2097

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Enable ExcelWriter to handle PeriodIndex (GH2240)

• Fix issue constructing DataFrame from empty Series with name (GH2234)
• Use console-width detection in interactive sessions only (GH1610)
• Fix parallel_coordinates legend bug with mpl 1.2.0 (GH2237)
• Make tz_localize work in corner case of empty Series (GH2248)

37.25 pandas 0.9.0

Release date: 10/7/2012

37.25.1 New Features

• Add str.encode and str.decode to Series (GH1706)

• Add to_latex method to DataFrame (GH1735)
• Add convenient expanding window equivalents of all rolling_* ops (GH1785)
• Add Options class to pandas.io.data for fetching options data from Yahoo! Finance (GH1748, GH1739)
• Recognize and convert more boolean values in file parsing (Yes, No, TRUE, FALSE, variants thereof) (GH1691,
GH1295)
• Add Panel.update method, analogous to DataFrame.update (GH1999, GH1988)

37.25.2 Improvements to existing features

• Proper handling of NA values in merge operations (GH1990)

• Add flags option for re.compile in some Series.str methods (GH1659)
• Parsing of UTC date strings in read_* functions (GH1693)
• Handle generator input to Series (GH1679)
• Add na_action=’ignore’ to Series.map to quietly propagate NAs (GH1661)
• Add args/kwds options to Series.apply (GH1829)
• Add inplace option to Series/DataFrame.reset_index (GH1797)
• Add level parameter to Series.reset_index
• Add quoting option for DataFrame.to_csv (GH1902)
• Indicate long column value truncation in DataFrame output with ... (GH1854)
• DataFrame.dot will not do data alignment, and also work with Series (GH1915)
• Add na option for missing data handling in some vectorized string methods (GH1689)
• If index_label=False in DataFrame.to_csv, do not print fields/commas in the text output. Results in easier
importing into R (GH1583)
• Can pass tuple/list of axes to DataFrame.dropna to simplify repeated calls (dropping both columns and rows)
(GH924)
• Improve DataFrame.to_html output for hierarchically-indexed rows (do not repeat levels) (GH1929)

2098 Chapter 37. Release Notes

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• TimeSeries.between_time can now select times across midnight (GH1871)

• Enable skip_footer parameter in ExcelFile.parse (GH1843)

37.25.3 API Changes

• Change default header names in read_* functions to more Pythonic X0, X1, etc. instead of X.1, X.2. (GH2000)
• Deprecated day_of_year API removed from PeriodIndex, use dayofyear (GH1723)
• Don’t modify NumPy suppress printoption at import time
• The internal HDF5 data arrangement for DataFrames has been transposed. Legacy files will still be readable by
HDFStore (GH1834, GH1824)
• Legacy cruft removed: pandas.stats.misc.quantileTS
• Use ISO8601 format for Period repr: monthly, daily, and on down (GH1776)
• Empty DataFrame columns are now created as object dtype. This will prevent a class of TypeErrors that was
occurring in code where the dtype of a column would depend on the presence of data or not (e.g. a SQL query
having results) (GH1783)
• Setting parts of DataFrame/Panel using ix now aligns input Series/DataFrame (GH1630)
• first and last methods in GroupBy no longer drop non-numeric columns (GH1809)
• Resolved inconsistencies in specifying custom NA values in text parser. na_values of type dict no longer over-
ride default NAs unless keep_default_na is set to false explicitly (GH1657)
• Enable skipfooter parameter in text parsers as an alias for skip_footer

37.25.4 Bug Fixes

• Perform arithmetic column-by-column in mixed-type DataFrame to avoid type upcasting issues. Caused down-
stream DataFrame.diff bug (GH1896)
• Fix matplotlib auto-color assignment when no custom spectrum passed. Also respect passed color keyword
argument (GH1711)
• Fix resampling logical error with closed=’left’ (GH1726)
• Fix critical DatetimeIndex.union bugs (GH1730, GH1719, GH1745, GH1702, GH1753)
• Fix critical DatetimeIndex.intersection bug with unanchored offsets (GH1708)
• Fix MM-YYYY time series indexing case (GH1672)
• Fix case where Categorical group key was not being passed into index in GroupBy result (GH1701)
• Handle Ellipsis in Series.__getitem__/__setitem__ (GH1721)
• Fix some bugs with handling datetime64 scalars of other units in NumPy 1.6 and 1.7 (GH1717)
• Fix performance issue in MultiIndex.format (GH1746)
• Fixed GroupBy bugs interacting with DatetimeIndex asof / map methods (GH1677)
• Handle factors with NAs in pandas.rpy (GH1615)
• Fix statsmodels import in pandas.stats.var (GH1734)
• Fix DataFrame repr/info summary with non-unique columns (GH1700)
• Fix Series.iget_value for non-unique indexes (GH1694)

37.25. pandas 0.9.0 2099

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Don’t lose tzinfo when passing DatetimeIndex as DataFrame column (GH1682)

• Fix tz conversion with time zones that haven’t had any DST transitions since first date in the array (GH1673)
• Fix field access with UTC->local conversion on unsorted arrays (GH1756)
• Fix isnull handling of array-like (list) inputs (GH1755)
• Fix regression in handling of Series in Series constructor (GH1671)
• Fix comparison of Int64Index with DatetimeIndex (GH1681)
• Fix min_periods handling in new rolling_max/min at array start (GH1695)
• Fix errors with how=’median’ and generic NumPy resampling in some cases caused by SeriesBinGrouper
(GH1648, GH1688)
• When grouping by level, exclude unobserved levels (GH1697)
• Don’t lose tzinfo in DatetimeIndex when shifting by different offset (GH1683)
• Hack to support storing data with a zero-length axis in HDFStore (GH1707)
• Fix DatetimeIndex tz-aware range generation issue (GH1674)
• Fix method=’time’ interpolation with intraday data (GH1698)
• Don’t plot all-NA DataFrame columns as zeros (GH1696)
• Fix bug in scatter_plot with by option (GH1716)
• Fix performance problem in infer_freq with lots of non-unique stamps (GH1686)
• Fix handling of PeriodIndex as argument to create MultiIndex (GH1705)
• Fix re: unicode MultiIndex level names in Series/DataFrame repr (GH1736)
• Handle PeriodIndex in to_datetime instance method (GH1703)
• Support StaticTzInfo in DatetimeIndex infrastructure (GH1692)
• Allow MultiIndex setops with length-0 other type indexes (GH1727)
• Fix handling of DatetimeIndex in DataFrame.to_records (GH1720)
• Fix handling of general objects in isnull on which bool(...) fails (GH1749)
• Fix .ix indexing with MultiIndex ambiguity (GH1678)
• Fix .ix setting logic error with non-unique MultiIndex (GH1750)
• Basic indexing now works on MultiIndex with > 1000000 elements, regression from earlier version of pandas
(GH1757)
• Handle non-float64 dtypes in fast DataFrame.corr/cov code paths (GH1761)
• Fix DatetimeIndex.isin to function properly (GH1763)
• Fix conversion of array of tz-aware datetime.datetime to DatetimeIndex with right time zone (GH1777)
• Fix DST issues with generating ancxhored date ranges (GH1778)
• Fix issue calling sort on result of Series.unique (GH1807)
• Fix numerical issue leading to square root of negative number in rolling_std (GH1840)
• Let Series.str.split accept no arguments (like str.split) (GH1859)
• Allow user to have dateutil 2.1 installed on a Python 2 system (GH1851)
• Catch ImportError less aggressively in pandas/__init__.py (GH1845)

2100 Chapter 37. Release Notes

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Fix pip source installation bug when installing from GitHub (GH1805)
• Fix error when window size > array size in rolling_apply (GH1850)
• Fix pip source installation issues via SSH from GitHub
• Fix OLS.summary when column is a tuple (GH1837)
• Fix bug in __doc__ patching when -OO passed to interpreter (GH1792 GH1741 GH1774)
• Fix unicode console encoding issue in IPython notebook (GH1782, GH1768)
• Fix unicode formatting issue with Series.name (GH1782)
• Fix bug in DataFrame.duplicated with datetime64 columns (GH1833)
• Fix bug in Panel internals resulting in error when doing fillna after truncate not changing size of panel (GH1823)
• Prevent segfault due to MultiIndex not being supported in HDFStore table format (GH1848)
• Fix UnboundLocalError in Panel.__setitem__ and add better error (GH1826)
• Fix to_csv issues with list of string entries. Isnull works on list of strings now too (GH1791)
• Fix Timestamp comparisons with datetime values outside the nanosecond range (1677-2262)
• Revert to prior behavior of normalize_date with datetime.date objects (return datetime)
• Fix broken interaction between np.nansum and Series.any/all
• Fix bug with multiple column date parsers (GH1866)
• DatetimeIndex.union(Int64Index) was broken
• Make plot x vs y interface consistent with integer indexing (GH1842)
• set_index inplace modified data even if unique check fails (GH1831)
• Only use Q-OCT/NOV/DEC in quarterly frequency inference (GH1789)
• Upcast to dtype=object when unstacking boolean DataFrame (GH1820)
• Fix float64/float32 merging bug (GH1849)
• Fixes to Period.start_time for non-daily frequencies (GH1857)
• Fix failure when converter used on index_col in read_csv (GH1835)
• Implement PeriodIndex.append so that pandas.concat works correctly (GH1815)
• Avoid Cython out-of-bounds access causing segfault sometimes in pad_2d, backfill_2d
• Fix resampling error with intraday times and anchored target time (like AS-DEC) (GH1772)
• Fix .ix indexing bugs with mixed-integer indexes (GH1799)
• Respect passed color keyword argument in Series.plot (GH1890)
• Fix rolling_min/max when the window is larger than the size of the input array. Check other malformed inputs
(GH1899, GH1897)
• Rolling variance / standard deviation with only a single observation in window (GH1884)
• Fix unicode sheet name failure in to_excel (GH1828)
• Override DatetimeIndex.min/max to return Timestamp objects (GH1895)
• Fix column name formatting issue in length-truncated column (GH1906)
• Fix broken handling of copying Index metadata to new instances created by view(...) calls inside the NumPy
infrastructure

37.25. pandas 0.9.0 2101

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Support datetime.date again in DateOffset.rollback/rollforward

• Raise Exception if set passed to Series constructor (GH1913)
• Add TypeError when appending HDFStore table w/ wrong index type (GH1881)
• Don’t raise exception on empty inputs in EW functions (e.g. ewma) (GH1900)
• Make asof work correctly with PeriodIndex (GH1883)
• Fix extlinks in doc build
• Fill boolean DataFrame with NaN when calling shift (GH1814)
• Fix setuptools bug causing pip not to Cythonize .pyx files sometimes
• Fix negative integer indexing regression in .ix from 0.7.x (GH1888)
• Fix error while retrieving timezone and utc offset from subclasses of datetime.tzinfo without .zone and ._utcoff-
set attributes (GH1922)
• Fix DataFrame formatting of small, non-zero FP numbers (GH1911)
• Various fixes by upcasting of date -> datetime (GH1395)
• Raise better exception when passing multiple functions with the same name, such as lambdas, to
GroupBy.aggregate
• Fix DataFrame.apply with axis=1 on a non-unique index (GH1878)
• Proper handling of Index subclasses in pandas.unique (GH1759)
• Set index names in DataFrame.from_records (GH1744)
• Fix time series indexing error with duplicates, under and over hash table size cutoff (GH1821)
• Handle list keys in addition to tuples in DataFrame.xs when partial-indexing a hierarchically-indexed DataFrame
(GH1796)
• Support multiple column selection in DataFrame.__getitem__ with duplicate columns (GH1943)
• Fix time zone localization bug causing improper fields (e.g. hours) in time zones that have not had a UTC
transition in a long time (GH1946)
• Fix errors when parsing and working with with fixed offset timezones (GH1922, GH1928)
• Fix text parser bug when handling UTC datetime objects generated by dateutil (GH1693)
• Fix plotting bug when ‘B’ is the inferred frequency but index actually contains weekends (GH1668, GH1669)
• Fix plot styling bugs (GH1666, GH1665, GH1658)
• Fix plotting bug with index/columns with unicode (GH1685)
• Fix DataFrame constructor bug when passed Series with datetime64 dtype in a dict (GH1680)
• Fixed regression in generating DatetimeIndex using timezone aware datetime.datetime (GH1676)
• Fix DataFrame bug when printing concatenated DataFrames with duplicated columns (GH1675)
• Fixed bug when plotting time series with multiple intraday frequencies (GH1732)
• Fix bug in DataFrame.duplicated to enable iterables other than list-types as input argument (GH1773)
• Fix resample bug when passed list of lambdas as how argument (GH1808)
• Repr fix for MultiIndex level with all NAs (GH1971)
• Fix PeriodIndex slicing bug when slice start/end are out-of-bounds (GH1977)

2102 Chapter 37. Release Notes

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Fix read_table bug when parsing unicode (GH1975)

• Fix BlockManager.iget bug when dealing with non-unique MultiIndex as columns (GH1970)
• Fix reset_index bug if both drop and level are specified (GH1957)
• Work around unsafe NumPy object->int casting with Cython function (GH1987)
• Fix datetime64 formatting bug in DataFrame.to_csv (GH1993)
• Default start date in pandas.io.data to 1/1/2000 as the docs say (GH2011)

37.26 pandas 0.8.1

Release date: July 22, 2012

37.26.1 New Features

• Add vectorized, NA-friendly string methods to Series (GH1621, GH620)

• Can pass dict of per-column line styles to DataFrame.plot (GH1559)
• Selective plotting to secondary y-axis on same subplot (GH1640)
• Add new bootstrap_plot plot function
• Add new parallel_coordinates plot function (GH1488)
• Add radviz plot function (GH1566)
• Add multi_sparse option to set_printoptions to modify display of hierarchical indexes (GH1538)
• Add dropna method to Panel (GH171)

37.26.2 Improvements to existing features

• Use moving min/max algorithms from Bottleneck in rolling_min/rolling_max for > 100x speedup. (GH1504,
GH50)
• Add Cython group median method for >15x speedup (GH1358)
• Drastically improve to_datetime performance on ISO8601 datetime strings (with no time zones) (GH1571)
• Improve single-key groupby performance on large data sets, accelerate use of groupby with a Categorical vari-
able
• Add ability to append hierarchical index levels with set_index and to drop single levels with reset_index
(GH1569, GH1577)
• Always apply passed functions in resample, even if upsampling (GH1596)
• Avoid unnecessary copies in DataFrame constructor with explicit dtype (GH1572)
• Cleaner DatetimeIndex string representation with 1 or 2 elements (GH1611)
• Improve performance of array-of-Period to PeriodIndex, convert such arrays to PeriodIndex inside Index
(GH1215)
• More informative string representation for weekly Period objects (GH1503)
• Accelerate 3-axis multi data selection from homogeneous Panel (GH979)

37.26. pandas 0.8.1 2103

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Add adjust option to ewma to disable adjustment factor (GH1584)

• Add new matplotlib converters for high frequency time series plotting (GH1599)
• Handling of tz-aware datetime.datetime objects in to_datetime; raise Exception unless utc=True given (GH1581)

37.26.3 Bug Fixes

• Fix NA handling in DataFrame.to_panel (GH1582)

• Handle TypeError issues inside PyObject_RichCompareBool calls in khash (GH1318)
• Fix resampling bug to lower case daily frequency (GH1588)
• Fix kendall/spearman DataFrame.corr bug with no overlap (GH1595)
• Fix bug in DataFrame.set_index (GH1592)
• Don’t ignore axes in boxplot if by specified (GH1565)
• Fix Panel .ix indexing with integers bug (GH1603)
• Fix Partial indexing bugs (years, months, ...) with PeriodIndex (GH1601)
• Fix MultiIndex console formatting issue (GH1606)
• Unordered index with duplicates doesn’t yield scalar location for single entry (GH1586)
• Fix resampling of tz-aware time series with “anchored” freq (GH1591)
• Fix DataFrame.rank error on integer data (GH1589)
• Selection of multiple SparseDataFrame columns by list in __getitem__ (GH1585)
• Override Index.tolist for compatibility with MultiIndex (GH1576)
• Fix hierarchical summing bug with MultiIndex of length 1 (GH1568)
• Work around numpy.concatenate use/bug in Series.set_value (GH1561)
• Ensure Series/DataFrame are sorted before resampling (GH1580)
• Fix unhandled IndexError when indexing very large time series (GH1562)
• Fix DatetimeIndex intersection logic error with irregular indexes (GH1551)
• Fix unit test errors on Python 3 (GH1550)
• Fix .ix indexing bugs in duplicate DataFrame index (GH1201)
• Better handle errors with non-existing objects in HDFStore (GH1254)
• Don’t copy int64 array data in DatetimeIndex when copy=False (GH1624)
• Fix resampling of conforming periods quarterly to annual (GH1622)
• Don’t lose index name on resampling (GH1631)
• Support python-dateutil version 2.1 (GH1637)
• Fix broken scatter_matrix axis labeling, esp. with time series (GH1625)
• Fix cases where extra keywords weren’t being passed on to matplotlib from Series.plot (GH1636)
• Fix BusinessMonthBegin logic for dates before 1st bday of month (GH1645)
• Ensure string alias converted (valid in DatetimeIndex.get_loc) in DataFrame.xs / __getitem__ (GH1644)
• Fix use of string alias timestamps with tz-aware time series (GH1647)

2104 Chapter 37. Release Notes

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Fix Series.max/min and Series.describe on len-0 series (GH1650)

• Handle None values in dict passed to concat (GH1649)
• Fix Series.interpolate with method=’values’ and DatetimeIndex (GH1646)
• Fix IndexError in left merges on a DataFrame with 0-length (GH1628)
• Fix DataFrame column width display with UTF-8 encoded characters (GH1620)
• Handle case in pandas.io.data.get_data_yahoo where Yahoo! returns duplicate dates for most recent business
day
• Avoid downsampling when plotting mixed frequencies on the same subplot (GH1619)
• Fix read_csv bug when reading a single line (GH1553)
• Fix bug in C code causing monthly periods prior to December 1969 to be off (GH1570)

37.27 pandas 0.8.0

Release date: 6/29/2012

37.27.1 New Features

• New unified DatetimeIndex class for nanosecond-level timestamp data

• New Timestamp datetime.datetime subclass with easy time zone conversions, and support for nanoseconds
• New PeriodIndex class for timespans, calendar logic, and Period scalar object
• High performance resampling of timestamp and period data. New resample method of all pandas data structures
• New frequency names plus shortcut string aliases like ‘15h’, ‘1h30min’
• Time series string indexing shorthand (GH222)
• Add week, dayofyear array and other timestamp array-valued field accessor functions to DatetimeIndex
• Add GroupBy.prod optimized aggregation function and ‘prod’ fast time series conversion method (GH1018)
• Implement robust frequency inference function and inferred_freq attribute on DatetimeIndex (GH391)
• New tz_convert and tz_localize methods in Series / DataFrame
• Convert DatetimeIndexes to UTC if time zones are different in join/setops (GH864)
• Add limit argument for forward/backward filling to reindex, fillna, etc. (GH825 and others)
• Add support for indexes (dates or otherwise) with duplicates and common sense indexing/selection functionality
• Series/DataFrame.update methods, in-place variant of combine_first (GH961)
• Add match function to API (GH502)
• Add Cython-optimized first, last, min, max, prod functions to GroupBy (GH994, GH1043)
• Dates can be split across multiple columns (GH1227, GH1186)
• Add experimental support for converting pandas DataFrame to R data.frame via rpy2 (GH350, GH1212)
• Can pass list of (name, function) to GroupBy.aggregate to get aggregates in a particular order (GH610)
• Can pass dicts with lists of functions or dicts to GroupBy aggregate to do much more flexible multiple function
aggregation (GH642, GH610)

37.27. pandas 0.8.0 2105

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• New ordered_merge functions for merging DataFrames with ordered data. Also supports group-wise merging
for panel data (GH813)
• Add keys() method to DataFrame
• Add flexible replace method for replacing potentially values to Series and DataFrame (GH929, GH1241)
• Add ‘kde’ plot kind for Series/DataFrame.plot (GH1059)
• More flexible multiple function aggregation with GroupBy
• Add pct_change function to Series/DataFrame
• Add option to interpolate by Index values in Series.interpolate (GH1206)
• Add max_colwidth option for DataFrame, defaulting to 50
• Conversion of DataFrame through rpy2 to R data.frame (GH1282, )
• Add keys() method on DataFrame (GH1240)
• Add new match function to API (similar to R) (GH502)
• Add dayfirst option to parsers (GH854)
• Add method argument to align method for forward/backward fillin (GH216)
• Add Panel.transpose method for rearranging axes (GH695)
• Add new cut function (patterned after R) for discretizing data into equal range-length bins or arbitrary breaks
of your choosing (GH415)
• Add new qcut for cutting with quantiles (GH1378)
• Add value_counts top level array method (GH1392)
• Added Andrews curves plot tupe (GH1325)
• Add lag plot (GH1440)
• Add autocorrelation_plot (GH1425)
• Add support for tox and Travis CI (GH1382)
• Add support for Categorical use in GroupBy (GH292)
• Add any and all methods to DataFrame (GH1416)
• Add secondary_y option to Series.plot
• Add experimental lreshape function for reshaping wide to long

37.27.2 Improvements to existing features

• Switch to klib/khash-based hash tables in Index classes for better performance in many cases and lower memory
footprint
• Shipping some functions from scipy.stats to reduce dependency, e.g. Series.describe and DataFrame.describe
(GH1092)
• Can create MultiIndex by passing list of lists or list of arrays to Series, DataFrame constructor, etc. (GH831)
• Can pass arrays in addition to column names to DataFrame.set_index (GH402)
• Improve the speed of “square” reindexing of homogeneous DataFrame objects by significant margin (GH836)
• Handle more dtypes when passed MaskedArrays in DataFrame constructor (GH406)

2106 Chapter 37. Release Notes

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Improved performance of join operations on integer keys (GH682)

• Can pass multiple columns to GroupBy object, e.g. grouped[[col1, col2]] to only aggregate a subset of the value
columns (GH383)
• Add histogram / kde plot options for scatter_matrix diagonals (GH1237)
• Add inplace option to Series/DataFrame.rename and sort_index, DataFrame.drop_duplicates (GH805, GH207)
• More helpful error message when nothing passed to Series.reindex (GH1267)
• Can mix array and scalars as dict-value inputs to DataFrame ctor (GH1329)
• Use DataFrame columns’ name for legend title in plots
• Preserve frequency in DatetimeIndex when possible in boolean indexing operations
• Promote datetime.date values in data alignment operations (GH867)
• Add order method to Index classes (GH1028)
• Avoid hash table creation in large monotonic hash table indexes (GH1160)
• Store time zones in HDFStore (GH1232)
• Enable storage of sparse data structures in HDFStore (GH85)
• Enable Series.asof to work with arrays of timestamp inputs
• Cython implementation of DataFrame.corr speeds up by > 100x (GH1349, GH1354)
• Exclude “nuisance” columns automatically in GroupBy.transform (GH1364)
• Support functions-as-strings in GroupBy.transform (GH1362)
• Use index name as xlabel/ylabel in plots (GH1415)
• Add convert_dtype option to Series.apply to be able to leave data as dtype=object (GH1414)
• Can specify all index level names in concat (GH1419)
• Add dialect keyword to parsers for quoting conventions (GH1363)
• Enable DataFrame[bool_DataFrame] += value (GH1366)
• Add retries argument to get_data_yahoo to try to prevent Yahoo! API 404s (GH826)
• Improve performance of reshaping by using O(N) categorical sorting
• Series names will be used for index of DataFrame if no index passed (GH1494)
• Header argument in DataFrame.to_csv can accept a list of column names to use instead of the object’s columns
(GH921)
• Add raise_conflict argument to DataFrame.update (GH1526)
• Support file-like objects in ExcelFile (GH1529)

37.27.3 API Changes

• Rename pandas._tseries to pandas.lib

• Rename Factor to Categorical and add improvements. Numerous Categorical bug fixes
• Frequency name overhaul, WEEKDAY/EOM and rules with @ deprecated. get_legacy_offset_name backwards
compatibility function added
• Raise ValueError in DataFrame.__nonzero__, so “if df” no longer works (GH1073)

37.27. pandas 0.8.0 2107

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Change BDay (business day) to not normalize dates by default (GH506)

• Remove deprecated DataMatrix name
• Default merge suffixes for overlap now have underscores instead of periods to facilitate tab completion, etc.
(GH1239)
• Deprecation of offset, time_rule timeRule parameters throughout codebase
• Series.append and DataFrame.append no longer check for duplicate indexes by default, add verify_integrity
parameter (GH1394)
• Refactor Factor class, old constructor moved to Factor.from_array
• Modified internals of MultiIndex to use less memory (no longer represented as array of tuples) internally, speed
up construction time and many methods which construct intermediate hierarchical indexes (GH1467)

37.27.4 Bug Fixes

• Fix OverflowError from storing pre-1970 dates in HDFStore by switching to datetime64 (GH179)
• Fix logical error with February leap year end in YearEnd offset
• Series([False, nan]) was getting casted to float64 (GH1074)
• Fix binary operations between boolean Series and object Series with booleans and NAs (GH1074, GH1079)
• Couldn’t assign whole array to column in mixed-type DataFrame via .ix (GH1142)
• Fix label slicing issues with float index values (GH1167)
• Fix segfault caused by empty groups passed to groupby (GH1048)
• Fix occasionally misbehaved reindexing in the presence of NaN labels (GH522)
• Fix imprecise logic causing weird Series results from .apply (GH1183)
• Unstack multiple levels in one shot, avoiding empty columns in some cases. Fix pivot table bug (GH1181)
• Fix formatting of MultiIndex on Series/DataFrame when index name coincides with label (GH1217)
• Handle Excel 2003 #N/A as NaN from xlrd (GH1213, GH1225)
• Fix timestamp locale-related deserialization issues with HDFStore by moving to datetime64 representation
(GH1081, GH809)
• Fix DataFrame.duplicated/drop_duplicates NA value handling (GH557)
• Actually raise exceptions in fast reducer (GH1243)
• Fix various timezone-handling bugs from 0.7.3 (GH969)
• GroupBy on level=0 discarded index name (GH1313)
• Better error message with unmergeable DataFrames (GH1307)
• Series.__repr__ alignment fix with unicode index values (GH1279)
• Better error message if nothing passed to reindex (GH1267)
• More robust NA handling in DataFrame.drop_duplicates (GH557)
• Resolve locale-based and pre-epoch HDF5 timestamp deserialization issues (GH973, GH1081, GH179)
• Implement Series.repeat (GH1229)
• Fix indexing with namedtuple and other tuple subclasses (GH1026)

2108 Chapter 37. Release Notes

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Fix float64 slicing bug (GH1167)

• Parsing integers with commas (GH796)
• Fix groupby improper data type when group consists of one value (GH1065)
• Fix negative variance possibility in nanvar resulting from floating point error (GH1090)
• Consistently set name on groupby pieces (GH184)
• Treat dict return values as Series in GroupBy.apply (GH823)
• Respect column selection for DataFrame in in GroupBy.transform (GH1365)
• Fix MultiIndex partial indexing bug (GH1352)
• Enable assignment of rows in mixed-type DataFrame via .ix (GH1432)
• Reset index mapping when grouping Series in Cython (GH1423)
• Fix outer/inner DataFrame.join with non-unique indexes (GH1421)
• Fix MultiIndex groupby bugs with empty lower levels (GH1401)
• Calling fillna with a Series will have same behavior as with dict (GH1486)
• SparseSeries reduction bug (GH1375)
• Fix unicode serialization issue in HDFStore (GH1361)
• Pass keywords to pyplot.boxplot in DataFrame.boxplot (GH1493)
• Bug fixes in MonthBegin (GH1483)
• Preserve MultiIndex names in drop (GH1513)
• Fix Panel DataFrame slice-assignment bug (GH1533)
• Don’t use locals() in read_* functions (GH1547)

37.28 pandas 0.7.3

Release date: April 12, 2012

37.28.1 New Features

• Support for non-unique indexes: indexing and selection, many-to-one and many-to-many joins (GH1306)
• Added fixed-width file reader, read_fwf (GH952)
• Add group_keys argument to groupby to not add group names to MultiIndex in result of apply (GH938)
• DataFrame can now accept non-integer label slicing (GH946). Previously only DataFrame.ix was able to do so.
• DataFrame.apply now retains name attributes on Series objects (GH983)
• Numeric DataFrame comparisons with non-numeric values now raises proper TypeError (GH943). Previously
raise “PandasError: DataFrame constructor not properly called!”
• Add kurt methods to Series and DataFrame (GH964)
• Can pass dict of column -> list/set NA values for text parsers (GH754)
• Allows users specified NA values in text parsers (GH754)

37.28. pandas 0.7.3 2109

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Parsers checks for openpyxl dependency and raises ImportError if not found (GH1007)
• New factory function to create HDFStore objects that can be used in a with statement so users do not have to
explicitly call HDFStore.close (GH1005)
• pivot_table is now more flexible with same parameters as groupby (GH941)
• Added stacked bar plots (GH987)
• scatter_matrix method in pandas/tools/plotting.py (GH935)
• DataFrame.boxplot returns plot results for ex-post styling (GH985)
• Short version number accessible as pandas.version.short_version (GH930)
• Additional documentation in panel.to_frame (GH942)
• More informative Series.apply docstring regarding element-wise apply (GH977)
• Notes on rpy2 installation (GH1006)
• Add rotation and font size options to hist method (GH1012)
• Use exogenous / X variable index in result of OLS.y_predict. Add OLS.predict method (GH1027, GH1008)

37.28.2 API Changes

• Calling apply on grouped Series, e.g. describe(), will no longer yield DataFrame by default. Will have to call
unstack() to get prior behavior
• NA handling in non-numeric comparisons has been tightened up (GH933, GH953)
• No longer assign dummy names key_0, key_1, etc. to groupby index (GH1291)

37.28.3 Bug Fixes

• Fix logic error when selecting part of a row in a DataFrame with a MultiIndex index (GH1013)
• Series comparison with Series of differing length causes crash (GH1016).
• Fix bug in indexing when selecting section of hierarchically-indexed row (GH1013)
• DataFrame.plot(logy=True) has no effect (GH1011).
• Broken arithmetic operations between SparsePanel-Panel (GH1015)
• Unicode repr issues in MultiIndex with non-ASCII characters (GH1010)
• DataFrame.lookup() returns inconsistent results if exact match not present (GH1001)
• DataFrame arithmetic operations not treating None as NA (GH992)
• DataFrameGroupBy.apply returns incorrect result (GH991)
• Series.reshape returns incorrect result for multiple dimensions (GH989)
• Series.std and Series.var ignores ddof parameter (GH934)
• DataFrame.append loses index names (GH980)
• DataFrame.plot(kind=’bar’) ignores color argument (GH958)
• Inconsistent Index comparison results (GH948)
• Improper int dtype DataFrame construction from data with NaN (GH846)

2110 Chapter 37. Release Notes

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Removes default ‘result’ name in groupby results (GH995)

• DataFrame.from_records no longer mutate input columns (GH975)
• Use Index name when grouping by it (GH1313)

37.29 pandas 0.7.2

Release date: March 16, 2012

37.29.1 New Features

• Add additional tie-breaking methods in DataFrame.rank (GH874)

• Add ascending parameter to rank in Series, DataFrame (GH875)
• Add sort_columns parameter to allow unsorted plots (GH918)
• IPython tab completion on GroupBy objects

37.29.2 API Changes

• Series.sum returns 0 instead of NA when called on an empty series. Analogously for a DataFrame whose rows
or columns are length 0 (GH844)

37.29.3 Improvements to existing features

• Don’t use groups dict in Grouper.size (GH860)

• Use khash for Series.value_counts, add raw function to algorithms.py (GH861)
• Enable column access via attributes on GroupBy (GH882)
• Enable setting existing columns (only) via attributes on DataFrame, Panel (GH883)
• Intercept __builtin__.sum in groupby (GH885)
• Can pass dict to DataFrame.fillna to use different values per column (GH661)
• Can select multiple hierarchical groups by passing list of values in .ix (GH134)
• Add level keyword to drop for dropping values from a level (GH159)
• Add coerce_float option on DataFrame.from_records (GH893)
• Raise exception if passed date_parser fails in read_csv
• Add axis option to DataFrame.fillna (GH174)
• Fixes to Panel to make it easier to subclass (GH888)

37.29.4 Bug Fixes

• Fix overflow-related bugs in groupby (GH850, GH851)

• Fix unhelpful error message in parsers (GH856)
• Better err msg for failed boolean slicing of dataframe (GH859)

37.29. pandas 0.7.2 2111

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Series.count cannot accept a string (level name) in the level argument (GH869)
• Group index platform int check (GH870)
• concat on axis=1 and ignore_index=True raises TypeError (GH871)
• Further unicode handling issues resolved (GH795)
• Fix failure in multiindex-based access in Panel (GH880)
• Fix DataFrame boolean slice assignment failure (GH881)
• Fix combineAdd NotImplementedError for SparseDataFrame (GH887)
• Fix DataFrame.to_html encoding and columns (GH890, GH891, GH909)
• Fix na-filling handling in mixed-type DataFrame (GH910)
• Fix to DataFrame.set_value with non-existant row/col (GH911)
• Fix malformed block in groupby when excluding nuisance columns (GH916)
• Fix inconsistant NA handling in dtype=object arrays (GH925)
• Fix missing center-of-mass computation in ewmcov (GH862)
• Don’t raise exception when opening read-only HDF5 file (GH847)
• Fix possible out-of-bounds memory access in 0-length Series (GH917)

37.30 pandas 0.7.1

Release date: February 29, 2012

37.30.1 New Features

• Add to_clipboard function to pandas namespace for writing objects to the system clipboard (GH774)
• Add itertuples method to DataFrame for iterating through the rows of a dataframe as tuples (GH818)
• Add ability to pass fill_value and method to DataFrame and Series align method (GH806, GH807)
• Add fill_value option to reindex, align methods (GH784)
• Enable concat to produce DataFrame from Series (GH787)
• Add between method to Series (GH802)
• Add HTML representation hook to DataFrame for the IPython HTML notebook (GH773)
• Support for reading Excel 2007 XML documents using openpyxl

37.30.2 Improvements to existing features

• Improve performance and memory usage of fillna on DataFrame

• Can concatenate a list of Series along axis=1 to obtain a DataFrame (GH787)

2112 Chapter 37. Release Notes

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

37.30.3 Bug Fixes

• Fix memory leak when inserting large number of columns into a single DataFrame (GH790)
• Appending length-0 DataFrame with new columns would not result in those new columns being part of the
resulting concatenated DataFrame (GH782)
• Fixed groupby corner case when passing dictionary grouper and as_index is False (GH819)
• Fixed bug whereby bool array sometimes had object dtype (GH820)
• Fix exception thrown on np.diff (GH816)
• Fix to_records where columns are non-strings (GH822)
• Fix Index.intersection where indices have incomparable types (GH811)
• Fix ExcelFile throwing an exception for two-line file (GH837)
• Add clearer error message in csv parser (GH835)
• Fix loss of fractional seconds in HDFStore (GH513)
• Fix DataFrame join where columns have datetimes (GH787)
• Work around numpy performance issue in take (GH817)
• Improve comparison operations for NA-friendliness (GH801)
• Fix indexing operation for floating point values (GH780, GH798)
• Fix groupby case resulting in malformed dataframe (GH814)
• Fix behavior of reindex of Series dropping name (GH812)
• Improve on redudant groupby computation (GH775)
• Catch possible NA assignment to int/bool series with exception (GH839)

37.31 pandas 0.7.0

Release date: 2/9/2012

37.31.1 New Features

• New merge function for efficiently performing full gamut of database / relational-algebra operations. Refac-
tored existing join methods to use the new infrastructure, resulting in substantial performance gains (GH220,
GH249, GH267)
• New concat function for concatenating DataFrame or Panel objects along an axis. Can form union or inter-
section of the other axes. Improves performance of DataFrame.append (GH468, GH479, GH273)
• Handle differently-indexed output values in DataFrame.apply (GH498)
• Can pass list of dicts (e.g., a list of shallow JSON objects) to DataFrame constructor (GH526)
• Add reorder_levels method to Series and DataFrame (GH534)
• Add dict-like get function to DataFrame and Panel (GH521)
• DataFrame.iterrows method for efficiently iterating through the rows of a DataFrame
• Added DataFrame.to_panel with code adapted from LongPanel.to_long

37.31. pandas 0.7.0 2113

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• reindex_axis method added to DataFrame

• Add level option to binary arithmetic functions on DataFrame and Series
• Add level option to the reindex and align methods on Series and DataFrame for broadcasting values
across a level (GH542, GH552, others)
• Add attribute-based item access to Panel and add IPython completion (PR GH554)
• Add logy option to Series.plot for log-scaling on the Y axis
• Add index, header, and justify options to DataFrame.to_string. Add option to (GH570, GH571)
• Can pass multiple DataFrames to DataFrame.join to join on index (GH115)
• Can pass multiple Panels to Panel.join (GH115)
• Can pass multiple DataFrames to DataFrame.append to concatenate (stack) and multiple Series to Series.
append too
• Added justify argument to DataFrame.to_string to allow different alignment of column headers
• Add sort option to GroupBy to allow disabling sorting of the group keys for potential speedups (GH595)
• Can pass MaskedArray to Series constructor (GH563)
• Add Panel item access via attributes and IPython completion (GH554)
• Implement DataFrame.lookup, fancy-indexing analogue for retrieving values given a sequence of row and
column labels (GH338)
• Add verbose option to read_csv and read_table to show number of NA values inserted in non-numeric
columns (GH614)
• Can pass a list of dicts or Series to DataFrame.append to concatenate multiple rows (GH464)
• Add level argument to DataFrame.xs for selecting data from other MultiIndex levels. Can take one or
more levels with potentially a tuple of keys for flexible retrieval of data (GH371, GH629)
• New crosstab function for easily computing frequency tables (GH170)
• Can pass a list of functions to aggregate with groupby on a DataFrame, yielding an aggregated result with
hierarchical columns (GH166)
• Add integer-indexing functions iget in Series and irow / iget in DataFrame (GH628)
• Add new Series.unique function, significantly faster than numpy.unique (GH658)
• Add new cummin and cummax instance methods to Series and DataFrame (GH647)
• Add new value_range function to return min/max of a dataframe (GH288)
• Add drop parameter to reset_index method of DataFrame and added method to Series as well
(GH699)
• Add isin method to Index objects, works just like Series.isin (GH GH657)
• Implement array interface on Panel so that ufuncs work (re: GH740)
• Add sort option to DataFrame.join (GH731)
• Improved handling of NAs (propagation) in binary operations with dtype=object arrays (GH737)
• Add abs method to Pandas objects
• Added algorithms module to start collecting central algos

2114 Chapter 37. Release Notes

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

37.31.2 API Changes

• Label-indexing with integer indexes now raises KeyError if a label is not found instead of falling back on
location-based indexing (GH700)
• Label-based slicing via ix or [] on Series will now only work if exact matches for the labels are found or if
the index is monotonic (for range selections)
• Label-based slicing and sequences of labels can be passed to [] on a Series for both getting and setting (GH86)
• [] operator (__getitem__ and __setitem__) will raise KeyError with integer indexes when an index is
not contained in the index. The prior behavior would fall back on position-based indexing if a key was not found
in the index which would lead to subtle bugs. This is now consistent with the behavior of .ix on DataFrame
and friends (GH328)
• Rename DataFrame.delevel to DataFrame.reset_index and add deprecation warning
• Series.sort (an in-place operation) called on a Series which is a view on a larger array (e.g. a column in a
DataFrame) will generate an Exception to prevent accidentally modifying the data source (GH316)
• Refactor to remove deprecated LongPanel class (GH552)
• Deprecated Panel.to_long, renamed to to_frame
• Deprecated colSpace argument in DataFrame.to_string, renamed to col_space
• Rename precision to accuracy in engineering float formatter (GH GH395)
• The default delimiter for read_csv is comma rather than letting csv.Sniffer infer it
• Rename col_or_columns argument in DataFrame.drop_duplicates (GH GH734)

37.31.3 Improvements to existing features

• Better error message in DataFrame constructor when passed column labels don’t match data (GH497)
• Substantially improve performance of multi-GroupBy aggregation when a Python function is passed, reuse
ndarray object in Cython (GH496)
• Can store objects indexed by tuples and floats in HDFStore (GH492)
• Don’t print length by default in Series.to_string, add length option (GH GH489)
• Improve Cython code for multi-groupby to aggregate without having to sort the data (GH93)
• Improve MultiIndex reindexing speed by storing tuples in the MultiIndex, test for backwards unpickling com-
patibility
• Improve column reindexing performance by using specialized Cython take function
• Further performance tweaking of Series.__getitem__ for standard use cases
• Avoid Index dict creation in some cases (i.e. when getting slices, etc.), regression from prior versions
• Friendlier error message in setup.py if NumPy not installed
• Use common set of NA-handling operations (sum, mean, etc.) in Panel class also (GH536)
• Default name assignment when calling reset_index on DataFrame with a regular (non-hierarchical) index
(GH476)
• Use Cythonized groupers when possible in Series/DataFrame stat ops with level parameter passed (GH545)
• Ported skiplist data structure to C to speed up rolling_median by about 5-10x in most typical use cases
(GH374)

37.31. pandas 0.7.0 2115

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Some performance enhancements in constructing a Panel from a dict of DataFrame objects

• Made Index._get_duplicates a public method by removing the underscore
• Prettier printing of floats, and column spacing fix (GH395, GH571)
• Add bold_rows option to DataFrame.to_html (GH586)
• Improve the performance of DataFrame.sort_index by up to 5x or more when sorting by multiple
columns
• Substantially improve performance of DataFrame and Series constructors when passed a nested dict or dict,
respectively (GH540, GH621)
• Modified setup.py so that pip / setuptools will install dependencies (GH GH507, various pull requests)
• Unstack called on DataFrame with non-MultiIndex will return Series (GH GH477)
• Improve DataFrame.to_string and console formatting to be more consistent in the number of displayed digits
(GH395)
• Use bottleneck if available for performing NaN-friendly statistical operations that it implemented (GH91)
• Monkey-patch context to traceback in DataFrame.apply to indicate which row/column the function appli-
cation failed on (GH614)
• Improved ability of read_table and read_clipboard to parse console-formatted DataFrames (can read the row of
index names, etc.)
• Can pass list of group labels (without having to convert to an ndarray yourself) to groupby in some cases
(GH659)
• Use kind argument to Series.order for selecting different sort kinds (GH668)
• Add option to Series.to_csv to omit the index (GH684)
• Add delimiter as an alternative to sep in read_csv and other parsing functions
• Substantially improved performance of groupby on DataFrames with many columns by aggregating blocks of
columns all at once (GH745)
• Can pass a file handle or StringIO to Series/DataFrame.to_csv (GH765)
• Can pass sequence of integers to DataFrame.irow(icol) and Series.iget, (GH GH654)
• Prototypes for some vectorized string functions
• Add float64 hash table to solve the Series.unique problem with NAs (GH714)
• Memoize objects when reading from file to reduce memory footprint
• Can get and set a column of a DataFrame with hierarchical columns containing “empty” (‘’) lower levels without
passing the empty levels (PR GH768)

37.31.4 Bug Fixes

• Raise exception in out-of-bounds indexing of Series instead of seg-faulting, regression from earlier releases
(GH495)
• Fix error when joining DataFrames of different dtypes within the same typeclass (e.g. float32 and float64)
(GH486)
• Fix bug in Series.min/Series.max on objects like datetime.datetime (GH GH487)
• Preserve index names in Index.union (GH501)

2116 Chapter 37. Release Notes

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Fix bug in Index joining causing subclass information (like DateRange type) to be lost in some cases (GH500)
• Accept empty list as input to DataFrame constructor, regression from 0.6.0 (GH491)
• Can output DataFrame and Series with ndarray objects in a dtype=object array (GH490)
• Return empty string from Series.to_string when called on empty Series (GH GH488)
• Fix exception passing empty list to DataFrame.from_records
• Fix Index.format bug (excluding name field) with datetimes with time info
• Fix scalar value access in Series to always return NumPy scalars, regression from prior versions (GH510)
• Handle rows skipped at beginning of file in read_* functions (GH505)
• Handle improper dtype casting in set_value methods
• Unary ‘-‘ / __neg__ operator on DataFrame was returning integer values
• Unbox 0-dim ndarrays from certain operators like all, any in Series
• Fix handling of missing columns (was combine_first-specific) in DataFrame.combine for general case (GH529)
• Fix type inference logic with boolean lists and arrays in DataFrame indexing
• Use centered sum of squares in R-square computation if entity_effects=True in panel regression
• Handle all NA case in Series.{corr, cov}, was raising exception (GH548)
• Aggregating by multiple levels with level argument to DataFrame, Series stat method, was broken (GH545)
• Fix Cython buf when converter passed to read_csv produced a numeric array (buffer dtype mismatch when
passed to Cython type inference function) (GH GH546)
• Fix exception when setting scalar value using .ix on a DataFrame with a MultiIndex (GH551)
• Fix outer join between two DateRanges with different offsets that returned an invalid DateRange
• Cleanup DataFrame.from_records failure where index argument is an integer
• Fix Data.from_records failure when passed a dictionary
• Fix NA handling in {Series, DataFrame}.rank with non-floating point dtypes
• Fix bug related to integer type-checking in .ix-based indexing
• Handle non-string index name passed to DataFrame.from_records
• DataFrame.insert caused the columns name(s) field to be discarded (GH527)
• Fix erroneous in monotonic many-to-one left joins
• Fix DataFrame.to_string to remove extra column white space (GH571)
• Format floats to default to same number of digits (GH395)
• Added decorator to copy docstring from one function to another (GH449)
• Fix error in monotonic many-to-one left joins
• Fix __eq__ comparison between DateOffsets with different relativedelta keywords passed
• Fix exception caused by parser converter returning strings (GH583)
• Fix MultiIndex formatting bug with integer names (GH601)
• Fix bug in handling of non-numeric aggregates in Series.groupby (GH612)
• Fix TypeError with tuple subclasses (e.g. namedtuple) in DataFrame.from_records (GH611)

37.31. pandas 0.7.0 2117

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Catch misreported console size when running IPython within Emacs

• Fix minor bug in pivot table margins, loss of index names and length-1 ‘All’ tuple in row labels
• Add support for legacy WidePanel objects to be read from HDFStore
• Fix out-of-bounds segfault in pad_object and backfill_object methods when either source or target array are
empty
• Could not create a new column in a DataFrame from a list of tuples
• Fix bugs preventing SparseDataFrame and SparseSeries working with groupby (GH666)
• Use sort kind in Series.sort / argsort (GH668)
• Fix DataFrame operations on non-scalar, non-pandas objects (GH672)
• Don’t convert DataFrame column to integer type when passing integer to __setitem__ (GH669)
• Fix downstream bug in pivot_table caused by integer level names in MultiIndex (GH678)
• Fix SparseSeries.combine_first when passed a dense Series (GH687)
• Fix performance regression in HDFStore loading when DataFrame or Panel stored in table format with datetimes
• Raise Exception in DateRange when offset with n=0 is passed (GH683)
• Fix get/set inconsistency with .ix property and integer location but non-integer index (GH707)
• Use right dropna function for SparseSeries. Return dense Series for NA fill value (GH730)
• Fix Index.format bug causing incorrectly string-formatted Series with datetime indexes (GH726, GH758)
• Fix errors caused by object dtype arrays passed to ols (GH759)
• Fix error where column names lost when passing list of labels to DataFrame.__getitem__, (GH662)
• Fix error whereby top-level week iterator overwrote week instance
• Fix circular reference causing memory leak in sparse array / series / frame, (GH663)
• Fix integer-slicing from integers-as-floats (GH670)
• Fix zero division errors in nanops from object dtype arrays in all NA case (GH676)
• Fix csv encoding when using unicode (GH705, GH717, GH738)
• Fix assumption that each object contains every unique block type in concat, (GH708)
• Fix sortedness check of multiindex in to_panel (GH719, 720)
• Fix that None was not treated as NA in PyObjectHashtable
• Fix hashing dtype because of endianness confusion (GH747, GH748)
• Fix SparseSeries.dropna to return dense Series in case of NA fill value (GH GH730)
• Use map_infer instead of np.vectorize. handle NA sentinels if converter yields numeric array, (GH753)
• Fixes and improvements to DataFrame.rank (GH742)
• Fix catching AttributeError instead of NameError for bottleneck
• Try to cast non-MultiIndex to better dtype when calling reset_index (GH726 GH440)
• Fix #1.QNAN0’ float bug on 2.6/win64
• Allow subclasses of dicts in DataFrame constructor, with tests
• Fix problem whereby set_index destroys column multiindex (GH764)

2118 Chapter 37. Release Notes

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Hack around bug in generating DateRange from naive DateOffset (GH770)

• Fix bug in DateRange.intersection causing incorrect results with some overlapping ranges (GH771)

37.31.5 Thanks

• Craig Austin
• Chris Billington
• Marius Cobzarenco
• Mario Gamboa-Cavazos
• Hans-Martin Gaudecker
• Arthur Gerigk
• Yaroslav Halchenko
• Jeff Hammerbacher
• Matt Harrison
• Andreas Hilboll
• Luc Kesters
• Adam Klein
• Gregg Lind
• Solomon Negusse
• Wouter Overmeire
• Christian Prinoth
• Jeff Reback
• Sam Reckoner
• Craig Reeson
• Jan Schulz
• Skipper Seabold
• Ted Square
• Graham Taylor
• Aman Thakral
• Chris Uga
• Dieter Vandenbussche
• Texas P.
• Pinxing Ye
• ... and everyone I forgot

37.31. pandas 0.7.0 2119

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

37.32 pandas 0.6.1

Release date: 12/13/2011

37.32.1 API Changes

• Rename names argument in DataFrame.from_records to columns. Add deprecation warning

• Boolean get/set operations on Series with boolean Series will reindex instead of requiring that the indexes be
exactly equal (GH429)

37.32.2 New Features

• Can pass Series to DataFrame.append with ignore_index=True for appending a single row (GH430)
• Add Spearman and Kendall correlation options to Series.corr and DataFrame.corr (GH428)
• Add new get_value and set_value methods to Series, DataFrame, and Panel to very low-overhead access to
scalar elements. df.get_value(row, column) is about 3x faster than df[column][row] by handling fewer cases
(GH437, GH438). Add similar methods to sparse data structures for compatibility
• Add Qt table widget to sandbox (GH435)
• DataFrame.align can accept Series arguments, add axis keyword (GH461)
• Implement new SparseList and SparseArray data structures. SparseSeries now derives from SparseArray
(GH463)
• max_columns / max_rows options in set_printoptions (GH453)
• Implement Series.rank and DataFrame.rank, fast versions of scipy.stats.rankdata (GH428)
• Implement DataFrame.from_items alternate constructor (GH444)
• DataFrame.convert_objects method for inferring better dtypes for object columns (GH302)
• Add rolling_corr_pairwise function for computing Panel of correlation matrices (GH189)
• Add margins option to pivot_table for computing subgroup aggregates (GH GH114)
• Add Series.from_csv function (GH482)

37.32.3 Improvements to existing features

• Improve memory usage of DataFrame.describe (do not copy data unnecessarily) (GH425)
• Use same formatting function for outputting floating point Series to console as in DataFrame (GH420)
• DataFrame.delevel will try to infer better dtype for new columns (GH440)
• Exclude non-numeric types in DataFrame.{corr, cov}
• Override Index.astype to enable dtype casting (GH412)
• Use same float formatting function for Series.__repr__ (GH420)
• Use available console width to output DataFrame columns (GH453)
• Accept ndarrays when setting items in Panel (GH452)
• Infer console width when printing __repr__ of DataFrame to console (PR GH453)

2120 Chapter 37. Release Notes

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Optimize scalar value lookups in the general case by 25% or more in Series and DataFrame
• Can pass DataFrame/DataFrame and DataFrame/Series to rolling_corr/rolling_cov (GH462)
• Fix performance regression in cross-sectional count in DataFrame, affecting DataFrame.dropna speed
• Column deletion in DataFrame copies no data (computes views on blocks) (GH GH158)
• MultiIndex.get_level_values can take the level name
• More helpful error message when DataFrame.plot fails on one of the columns (GH478)
• Improve performance of DataFrame.{index, columns} attribute lookup

37.32.4 Bug Fixes

• Fix O(K^2) memory leak caused by inserting many columns without consolidating, had been present since 0.4.0
(GH467)
• DataFrame.count should return Series with zero instead of NA with length-0 axis (GH423)
• Fix Yahoo! Finance API usage in pandas.io.data (GH419, GH427)
• Fix upstream bug causing failure in Series.align with empty Series (GH434)
• Function passed to DataFrame.apply can return a list, as long as it’s the right length. Regression from 0.4
(GH432)
• Don’t “accidentally” upcast scalar values when indexing using .ix (GH431)
• Fix groupby exception raised with as_index=False and single column selected (GH421)
• Implement DateOffset.__ne__ causing downstream bug (GH456)
• Fix __doc__-related issue when converting py -> pyo with py2exe
• Bug fix in left join Cython code with duplicate monotonic labels
• Fix bug when unstacking multiple levels described in GH451
• Exclude NA values in dtype=object arrays, regression from 0.5.0 (GH469)
• Use Cython map_infer function in DataFrame.applymap to properly infer output type, handle tuple return values
and other things that were breaking (GH465)
• Handle floating point index values in HDFStore (GH454)
• Fixed stale column reference bug (cached Series object) caused by type change / item deletion in DataFrame
(GH473)
• Index.get_loc should always raise Exception when there are duplicates
• Handle differently-indexed Series input to DataFrame constructor (GH475)
• Omit nuisance columns in multi-groupby with Python function
• Buglet in handling of single grouping in general apply
• Handle type inference properly when passing list of lists or tuples to DataFrame constructor (GH484)
• Preserve Index / MultiIndex names in GroupBy.apply concatenation step (GH GH481)

37.32. pandas 0.6.1 2121

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

37.32.5 Thanks

• Ralph Bean
• Luca Beltrame
• Marius Cobzarenco
• Andreas Hilboll
• Jev Kuznetsov
• Adam Lichtenstein
• Wouter Overmeire
• Fernando Perez
• Nathan Pinger
• Christian Prinoth
• Alex Reyfman
• Joon Ro
• Chang She
• Ted Square
• Chris Uga
• Dieter Vandenbussche

37.33 pandas 0.6.0

Release date: 11/25/2011

37.33.1 API Changes

• Arithmetic methods like sum will attempt to sum dtype=object values by default instead of excluding them
(GH382)

37.33.2 New Features

• Add melt function to pandas.core.reshape

• Add level parameter to group by level in Series and DataFrame descriptive statistics (GH313)
• Add head and tail methods to Series, analogous to to DataFrame (PR GH296)
• Add Series.isin function which checks if each value is contained in a passed sequence (GH289)
• Add float_format option to Series.to_string
• Add skip_footer (GH291) and converters (GH343) options to read_csv and read_table
• Add proper, tested weighted least squares to standard and panel OLS (GH GH303)
• Add drop_duplicates and duplicated functions for removing duplicate DataFrame rows and checking for dupli-
cate rows, respectively (GH319)

2122 Chapter 37. Release Notes

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Implement logical (boolean) operators &, |, ^ on DataFrame (GH347)

• Add Series.mad, mean absolute deviation, matching DataFrame
• Add QuarterEnd DateOffset (GH321)
• Add matrix multiplication function dot to DataFrame (GH65)
• Add orient option to Panel.from_dict to ease creation of mixed-type Panels (GH359, GH301)
• Add DataFrame.from_dict with similar orient option
• Can now pass list of tuples or list of lists to DataFrame.from_records for fast conversion to DataFrame (GH357)
• Can pass multiple levels to groupby, e.g. df.groupby(level=[0, 1]) (GH GH103)
• Can sort by multiple columns in DataFrame.sort_index (GH92, GH362)
• Add fast get_value and put_value methods to DataFrame and micro-performance tweaks (GH360)
• Add cov instance methods to Series and DataFrame (GH194, GH362)
• Add bar plot option to DataFrame.plot (GH348)
• Add idxmin and idxmax functions to Series and DataFrame for computing index labels achieving maximum and
minimum values (GH286)
• Add read_clipboard function for parsing DataFrame from OS clipboard, should work across platforms (GH300)
• Add nunique function to Series for counting unique elements (GH297)
• DataFrame constructor will use Series name if no columns passed (GH373)
• Support regular expressions and longer delimiters in read_table/read_csv, but does not handle quoted strings yet
(GH364)
• Add DataFrame.to_html for formatting DataFrame to HTML (GH387)
• MaskedArray can be passed to DataFrame constructor and masked values will be converted to NaN (GH396)
• Add DataFrame.boxplot function (GH368, others)
• Can pass extra args, kwds to DataFrame.apply (GH376)

37.33.3 Improvements to existing features

• Raise more helpful exception if date parsing fails in DateRange (GH298)

• Vastly improved performance of GroupBy on axes with a MultiIndex (GH299)
• Print level names in hierarchical index in Series repr (GH305)
• Return DataFrame when performing GroupBy on selected column and as_index=False (GH308)
• Can pass vector to on argument in DataFrame.join (GH312)
• Don’t show Series name if it’s None in the repr, also omit length for short Series (GH317)
• Show legend by default in DataFrame.plot, add legend boolean flag (GH GH324)
• Significantly improved performance of Series.order, which also makes np.unique called on a Series faster
(GH327)
• Faster cythonized count by level in Series and DataFrame (GH341)
• Raise exception if dateutil 2.0 installed on Python 2.x runtime (GH346)
• Significant GroupBy performance enhancement with multiple keys with many “empty” combinations

37.33. pandas 0.6.0 2123

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• New Cython vectorized function map_infer speeds up Series.apply and Series.map significantly when passed
elementwise Python function, motivated by GH355
• Cythonized cache_readonly, resulting in substantial micro-performance enhancements throughout the codebase
(GH361)
• Special Cython matrix iterator for applying arbitrary reduction operations with 3-5x better performance than
np.apply_along_axis (GH309)
• Add raw option to DataFrame.apply for getting better performance when the passed function only requires an
ndarray (GH309)
• Improve performance of MultiIndex.from_tuples
• Can pass multiple levels to stack and unstack (GH370)
• Can pass multiple values columns to pivot_table (GH381)
• Can call DataFrame.delevel with standard Index with name set (GH393)
• Use Series name in GroupBy for result index (GH363)
• Refactor Series/DataFrame stat methods to use common set of NaN-friendly function
• Handle NumPy scalar integers at C level in Cython conversion routines

37.33.4 Bug Fixes

• Fix bug in DataFrame.to_csv when writing a DataFrame with an index name (GH290)
• DataFrame should clear its Series caches on consolidation, was causing “stale” Series to be returned in some
corner cases (GH304)
• DataFrame constructor failed if a column had a list of tuples (GH293)
• Ensure that Series.apply always returns a Series and implement Series.round (GH314)
• Support boolean columns in Cythonized groupby functions (GH315)
• DataFrame.describe should not fail if there are no numeric columns, instead return categorical describe (GH323)
• Fixed bug which could cause columns to be printed in wrong order in DataFrame.to_string if specific list of
columns passed (GH325)
• Fix legend plotting failure if DataFrame columns are integers (GH326)
• Shift start date back by one month for Yahoo! Finance API in pandas.io.data (GH329)
• Fix DataFrame.join failure on unconsolidated inputs (GH331)
• DataFrame.min/max will no longer fail on mixed-type DataFrame (GH337)
• Fix read_csv / read_table failure when passing list to index_col that is not in ascending order (GH349)
• Fix failure passing Int64Index to Index.union when both are monotonic
• Fix error when passing SparseSeries to (dense) DataFrame constructor
• Added missing bang at top of setup.py (GH352)
• Change is_monotonic on MultiIndex so it properly compares the tuples
• Fix MultiIndex outer join logic (GH351)
• Set index name attribute with single-key groupby (GH358)

2124 Chapter 37. Release Notes

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Bug fix in reflexive binary addition in Series and DataFrame for non-commutative operations (like string con-
catenation) (GH353)
• setupegg.py will invoke Cython (GH192)
• Fix block consolidation bug after inserting column into MultiIndex (GH366)
• Fix bug in join operations between Index and Int64Index (GH367)
• Handle min_periods=0 case in moving window functions (GH365)
• Fixed corner cases in DataFrame.apply/pivot with empty DataFrame (GH378)
• Fixed repr exception when Series name is a tuple
• Always return DateRange from asfreq (GH390)
• Pass level names to swaplavel (GH379)
• Don’t lose index names in MultiIndex.droplevel (GH394)
• Infer more proper return type in DataFrame.apply when no columns or rows depending on whether the passed
function is a reduction (GH389)
• Always return NA/NaN from Series.min/max and DataFrame.min/max when all of a row/column/values are NA
(GH384)
• Enable partial setting with .ix / advanced indexing (GH397)
• Handle mixed-type DataFrames correctly in unstack, do not lose type information (GH403)
• Fix integer name formatting bug in Index.format and in Series.__repr__
• Handle label types other than string passed to groupby (GH405)
• Fix bug in .ix-based indexing with partial retrieval when a label is not contained in a level
• Index name was not being pickled (GH408)
• Level name should be passed to result index in GroupBy.apply (GH416)

37.33.5 Thanks

• Craig Austin
• Marius Cobzarenco
• Joel Cross
• Jeff Hammerbacher
• Adam Klein
• Thomas Kluyver
• Jev Kuznetsov
• Kieran O’Mahony
• Wouter Overmeire
• Nathan Pinger
• Christian Prinoth
• Skipper Seabold
• Chang She

37.33. pandas 0.6.0 2125

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Ted Square
• Aman Thakral
• Chris Uga
• Dieter Vandenbussche
• carljv
• rsamson

37.34 pandas 0.5.0

Release date: 10/24/2011

This release of pandas includes a number of API changes (see below) and cleanup of deprecated APIs from pre-0.4.0
releases. There are also bug fixes, new features, numerous significant performance enhancements, and includes a new
ipython completer hook to enable tab completion of DataFrame columns accesses and attributes (a new feature).
In addition to the changes listed here from 0.4.3 to 0.5.0, the minor releases 4.1, 0.4.2, and 0.4.3 brought some
significant new functionality and performance improvements that are worth taking a look at.
Thanks to all for bug reports, contributed patches and generally providing feedback on the library.

37.34.1 API Changes

• read_table, read_csv, and ExcelFile.parse default arguments for index_col is now None. To use one or more of
the columns as the resulting DataFrame’s index, these must be explicitly specified now
• Parsing functions like read_csv no longer parse dates by default (GH GH225)
• Removed weights option in panel regression which was not doing anything principled (GH155)
• Changed buffer argument name in Series.to_string to buf
• Series.to_string and DataFrame.to_string now return strings by default instead of printing to sys.stdout
• Deprecated nanRep argument in various to_string and to_csv functions in favor of na_rep. Will be removed in
0.6 (GH275)
• Renamed delimiter to sep in DataFrame.from_csv for consistency
• Changed order of Series.clip arguments to match those of numpy.clip and added (unimplemented) out argument
so numpy.clip can be called on a Series (GH272)
• Series functions renamed (and thus deprecated) in 0.4 series have been removed:
– asOf, use asof
– toDict, use to_dict
– toString, use to_string
– toCSV, use to_csv
– merge, use map
– applymap, use apply
– combineFirst, use combine_first
– _firstTimeWithValue use first_valid_index

2126 Chapter 37. Release Notes

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

– _lastTimeWithValue use last_valid_index

• DataFrame functions renamed / deprecated in 0.4 series have been removed:
– asMatrix method, use as_matrix or values attribute
– combineFirst, use combine_first
– getXS, use xs
– merge, use join
– fromRecords, use from_records
– fromcsv, use from_csv
– toRecords, use to_records
– toDict, use to_dict
– toString, use to_string
– toCSV, use to_csv
– _firstTimeWithValue use first_valid_index
– _lastTimeWithValue use last_valid_index
– toDataMatrix is no longer needed
– rows() method, use index attribute
– cols() method, use columns attribute
– dropEmptyRows(), use dropna(how=’all’)
– dropIncompleteRows(), use dropna()
– tapply(f), use apply(f, axis=1)
– tgroupby(keyfunc, aggfunc), use groupby with axis=1

37.34.2 Deprecations Removed

• indexField argument in DataFrame.from_records

• missingAtEnd argument in Series.order. Use na_last instead
• Series.fromValue classmethod, use regular Series constructor instead
• Functions parseCSV, parseText, and parseExcel methods in pandas.io.parsers have been removed
• Index.asOfDate function
• Panel.getMinorXS (use minor_xs) and Panel.getMajorXS (use major_xs)
• Panel.toWide, use Panel.to_wide instead

37.34.3 New Features

• Added DataFrame.align method with standard join options

• Added parse_dates option to read_csv and read_table methods to optionally try to parse dates in the index
columns

37.34. pandas 0.5.0 2127

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Add nrows, chunksize, and iterator arguments to read_csv and read_table. The last two return a new TextParser
class capable of lazily iterating through chunks of a flat file (GH242)
• Added ability to join on multiple columns in DataFrame.join (GH214)
• Added private _get_duplicates function to Index for identifying duplicate values more easily
• Added column attribute access to DataFrame, e.g. df.A equivalent to df[’A’] if ‘A’ is a column in the DataFrame
(GH213)
• Added IPython tab completion hook for DataFrame columns. (GH233, GH230)
• Implement Series.describe for Series containing objects (GH241)
• Add inner join option to DataFrame.join when joining on key(s) (GH248)
• Can select set of DataFrame columns by passing a list to __getitem__ (GH GH253)
• Can use & and | to intersection / union Index objects, respectively (GH GH261)
• Added pivot_table convenience function to pandas namespace (GH234)
• Implemented Panel.rename_axis function (GH243)
• DataFrame will show index level names in console output
• Implemented Panel.take
• Add set_eng_float_format function for setting alternate DataFrame floating point string formatting
• Add convenience set_index function for creating a DataFrame index from its existing columns

37.34.4 Improvements to existing features

• Major performance improvements in file parsing functions read_csv and read_table

• Added Cython function for converting tuples to ndarray very fast. Speeds up many MultiIndex-related opera-
tions
• File parsing functions like read_csv and read_table will explicitly check if a parsed index has duplicates and
raise a more helpful exception rather than deferring the check until later
• Refactored merging / joining code into a tidy class and disabled unnecessary computations in the float/object
case, thus getting about 10% better performance (GH211)
• Improved speed of DataFrame.xs on mixed-type DataFrame objects by about 5x, regression from 0.3.0 (GH215)
• With new DataFrame.align method, speeding up binary operations between differently-indexed DataFrame
objects by 10-25%.
• Significantly sped up conversion of nested dict into DataFrame (GH212)
• Can pass hierarchical index level name to groupby instead of the level number if desired (GH223)
• Add support for different delimiters in DataFrame.to_csv (GH244)
• Add more helpful error message when importing pandas post-installation from the source directory (GH250)
• Significantly speed up DataFrame __repr__ and count on large mixed-type DataFrame objects
• Better handling of pyx file dependencies in Cython module build (GH271)

2128 Chapter 37. Release Notes

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

37.34.5 Bug Fixes

• read_csv / read_table fixes

– Be less aggressive about converting float->int in cases of floating point representations of integers like
1.0, 2.0, etc.
– “True”/”False” will not get correctly converted to boolean
– Index name attribute will get set when specifying an index column
– Passing column names should force header=None (GH257)
– Don’t modify passed column names when index_col is not None (GH258)
– Can sniff CSV separator in zip file (since seek is not supported, was failing before)
• Worked around matplotlib “bug” in which series[:, np.newaxis] fails. Should be reported upstream to matplotlib
(GH224)
• DataFrame.iteritems was not returning Series with the name attribute set. Also neither was DataFrame._series
• Can store datetime.date objects in HDFStore (GH231)
• Index and Series names are now stored in HDFStore
• Fixed problem in which data would get upcasted to object dtype in GroupBy.apply operations (GH237)
• Fixed outer join bug with empty DataFrame (GH238)
• Can create empty Panel (GH239)
• Fix join on single key when passing list with 1 entry (GH246)
• Don’t raise Exception on plotting DataFrame with an all-NA column (GH251, GH254)
• Bug min/max errors when called on integer DataFrames (GH241)
• DataFrame.iteritems and DataFrame._series not assigning name attribute
• Panel.__repr__ raised exception on length-0 major/minor axes
• DataFrame.join on key with empty DataFrame produced incorrect columns
• Implemented MultiIndex.diff (GH260)
• Int64Index.take and MultiIndex.take lost name field, fix downstream issue GH262
• Can pass list of tuples to Series (GH270)
• Can pass level name to DataFrame.stack
• Support set operations between MultiIndex and Index
• Fix many corner cases in MultiIndex set operations - Fix MultiIndex-handling bug with GroupBy.apply when
returned groups are not indexed the same
• Fix corner case bugs in DataFrame.apply
• Setting DataFrame index did not cause Series cache to get cleared
• Various int32 -> int64 platform-specific issues
• Don’t be too aggressive converting to integer when parsing file with MultiIndex (GH285)
• Fix bug when slicing Series with negative indices before beginning

37.34. pandas 0.5.0 2129

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

37.34.6 Thanks

• Thomas Kluyver
• Daniel Fortunov
• Aman Thakral
• Luca Beltrame
• Wouter Overmeire

37.35 pandas 0.4.3

Release date: 10/9/2011

is is largely a bugfix release from 0.4.2 but also includes a handful of new d enhanced features. Also, pandas can now
be installed and used on Python 3 hanks Thomas Kluyver!).

37.35.1 New Features

• Python 3 support using 2to3 (GH200, Thomas Kluyver)

• Add name attribute to Series and added relevant logic and tests. Name now prints as part of Series.__repr__
• Add name attribute to standard Index so that stacking / unstacking does not discard names and so that indexed
DataFrame objects can be reliably round-tripped to flat files, pickle, HDF5, etc.
• Add isnull and notnull as instance methods on Series (GH209, GH203)

37.35.2 Improvements to existing features

• Skip xlrd-related unit tests if not installed

• Index.append and MultiIndex.append can accept a list of Index objects to concatenate together
• Altered binary operations on differently-indexed SparseSeries objects to use the integer-based (dense) alignment
logic which is faster with a larger number of blocks (GH205)
• Refactored Series.__repr__ to be a bit more clean and consistent

37.35.3 API Changes

• Series.describe and DataFrame.describe now bring the 25% and 75% quartiles instead of the 10% and 90%
deciles. The other outputs have not changed
• Series.toString will print deprecation warning, has been de-camelCased to to_string

37.35.4 Bug Fixes

• Fix broken interaction between Index and Int64Index when calling intersection. Implement
Int64Index.intersection
• MultiIndex.sortlevel discarded the level names (GH202)
• Fix bugs in groupby, join, and append due to improper concatenation of MultiIndex objects (GH201)

2130 Chapter 37. Release Notes

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Fix regression from 0.4.1, isnull and notnull ceased to work on other kinds of Python scalar objects like date-
time.datetime
• Raise more helpful exception when attempting to write empty DataFrame or LongPanel to HDFStore (GH204)
• Use stdlib csv module to properly escape strings with commas in DataFrame.to_csv (GH206, Thomas Kluyver)
• Fix Python ndarray access in Cython code for sparse blocked index integrity check
• Fix bug writing Series to CSV in Python 3 (GH209)
• Miscellaneous Python 3 bugfixes

37.35.5 Thanks

• Thomas Kluyver
• rsamson

37.36 pandas 0.4.2

Release date: 10/3/2011

is is a performance optimization release with several bug fixes. The new t64Index and new merging / joining Cython
code and related Python frastructure are the main new additions

37.36.1 New Features

• Added fast Int64Index type with specialized join, union, intersection. Will result in significant performance
enhancements for int64-based time series (e.g. using NumPy’s datetime64 one day) and also faster operations
on DataFrame objects storing record array-like data.
• Refactored Index classes to have a join method and associated data alignment routines throughout the codebase
to be able to leverage optimized joining / merging routines.
• Added Series.align method for aligning two series with choice of join method
• Wrote faster Cython data alignment / merging routines resulting in substantial speed increases
• Added is_monotonic property to Index classes with associated Cython code to evaluate the monotonicity of the
Index values
• Add method get_level_values to MultiIndex
• Implemented shallow copy of BlockManager object in DataFrame internals

37.36.2 Improvements to existing features

• Improved performance of isnull and notnull, a regression from v0.3.0 (GH187)

• Wrote templating / code generation script to auto-generate Cython code for various functions which need to be
available for the 4 major data types used in pandas (float64, bool, object, int64)
• Refactored code related to DataFrame.join so that intermediate aligned copies of the data in each DataFrame
argument do not need to be created. Substantial performance increases result (GH176)
• Substantially improved performance of generic Index.intersection and Index.union

37.36. pandas 0.4.2 2131

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Improved performance of DateRange.union with overlapping ranges and non-cacheable offsets (like Minute).
Implemented analogous fast DateRange.intersection for overlapping ranges.
• Implemented BlockManager.take resulting in significantly faster take performance on mixed-type DataFrame
objects (GH104)
• Improved performance of Series.sort_index
• Significant groupby performance enhancement: removed unnecessary integrity checks in DataFrame internals
that were slowing down slicing operations to retrieve groups
• Added informative Exception when passing dict to DataFrame groupby aggregation with axis != 0

37.36.3 API Changes

37.36.4 Bug Fixes

• Fixed minor unhandled exception in Cython code implementing fast groupby aggregation operations
• Fixed bug in unstacking code manifesting with more than 3 hierarchical levels
• Throw exception when step specified in label-based slice (GH185)
• Fix isnull to correctly work with np.float32. Fix upstream bug described in GH182
• Finish implementation of as_index=False in groupby for DataFrame aggregation (GH181)
• Raise SkipTest for pre-epoch HDFStore failure. Real fix will be sorted out via datetime64 dtype

37.36.5 Thanks

• Uri Laserson
• Scott Sinclair

37.37 pandas 0.4.1

Release date: 9/25/2011

is is primarily a bug fix release but includes some new features and improvements

37.37.1 New Features

• Added new DataFrame methods get_dtype_counts and property dtypes

• Setting of values using .ix indexing attribute in mixed-type DataFrame objects has been implemented (fixes
GH135)
• read_csv can read multiple columns into a MultiIndex. DataFrame’s to_csv method will properly write out a
MultiIndex which can be read back (GH151, thanks to Skipper Seabold)
• Wrote fast time series merging / joining methods in Cython. Will be integrated later into DataFrame.join and
related functions
• Added ignore_index option to DataFrame.append for combining unindexed records stored in a DataFrame

2132 Chapter 37. Release Notes

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

37.37.2 Improvements to existing features

• Some speed enhancements with internal Index type-checking function

• DataFrame.rename has a new copy parameter which can rename a DataFrame in place
• Enable unstacking by level name (GH142)
• Enable sortlevel to work by level name (GH141)
• read_csv can automatically “sniff” other kinds of delimiters using csv.Sniffer (GH146)
• Improved speed of unit test suite by about 40%
• Exception will not be raised calling HDFStore.remove on non-existent node with where clause
• Optimized _ensure_index function resulting in performance savings in type-checking Index objects

37.37.3 API Changes

37.37.4 Bug Fixes

• Fixed DataFrame constructor bug causing downstream problems (e.g. .copy() failing) when passing a Series as
the values along with a column name and index
• Fixed single-key groupby on DataFrame with as_index=False (GH160)
• Series.shift was failing on integer Series (GH154)
• unstack methods were producing incorrect output in the case of duplicate hierarchical labels. An exception will
now be raised (GH147)
• Calling count with level argument caused reduceat failure or segfault in earlier NumPy (GH169)
• Fixed DataFrame.corrwith to automatically exclude non-numeric data (GH GH144)
• Unicode handling bug fixes in DataFrame.to_string (GH138)
• Excluding OLS degenerate unit test case that was causing platform specific failure (GH149)
• Skip blosc-dependent unit tests for PyTables < 2.2 (GH137)
• Calling copy on DateRange did not copy over attributes to the new object (GH168)
• Fix bug in HDFStore in which Panel data could be appended to a Table with different item order, thus resulting
in an incorrect result read back

37.37.5 Thanks

• Yaroslav Halchenko
• Jeff Reback
• Skipper Seabold
• Dan Lovell
• Nick Pentreath

37.37. pandas 0.4.1 2133

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

37.38 pandas 0.4.0

Release date: 9/12/2011

37.38.1 New Features

• pandas.core.sparse module: “Sparse” (mostly-NA, or some other fill value) versions of Series, DataFrame, and
Panel. For low-density data, this will result in significant performance boosts, and smaller memory footprint.
Added to_sparse methods to Series, DataFrame, and Panel. See online documentation for more on these
• Fancy indexing operator on Series / DataFrame, e.g. via .ix operator. Both getting and setting of values is sup-
ported; however, setting values will only currently work on homogeneously-typed DataFrame objects. Things
like:
– series.ix[[d1, d2, d3]]
– frame.ix[5:10, [’C’, ‘B’, ‘A’]], frame.ix[5:10, ‘A’:’C’]
– frame.ix[date1:date2]
• Significantly enhanced groupby functionality
– Can groupby multiple keys, e.g. df.groupby([’key1’, ‘key2’]). Iteration with multiple groupings products
a flattened tuple
– “Nuisance” columns (non-aggregatable) will automatically be excluded from DataFrame aggregation op-
erations
– Added automatic “dispatching to Series / DataFrame methods to more easily invoke methods on groups.
e.g. s.groupby(crit).std() will work even though std is not implemented on the GroupBy class
• Hierarchical / multi-level indexing
– New the MultiIndex class. Integrated MultiIndex into Series and DataFrame fancy indexing, slicing,
__getitem__ and __setitem, reindexing, etc. Added level keyword argument to groupby to enable grouping
by a level of a MultiIndex
• New data reshaping functions: stack and unstack on DataFrame and Series
– Integrate with MultiIndex to enable sophisticated reshaping of data
• Index objects (labels for axes) are now capable of holding tuples
• Series.describe, DataFrame.describe: produces an R-like table of summary statistics about each data column
• DataFrame.quantile, Series.quantile for computing sample quantiles of data across requested axis
• Added general DataFrame.dropna method to replace dropIncompleteRows and dropEmptyRows, deprecated
those.
• Series arithmetic methods with optional fill_value for missing data, e.g. a.add(b, fill_value=0). If a location is
missing for both it will still be missing in the result though.
• fill_value option has been added to DataFrame.{add, mul, sub, div} methods similar to Series
• Boolean indexing with DataFrame objects: data[data > 0.1] = 0.1 or data[data> other] = 1.
• pytz / tzinfo support in DateRange
– tz_localize, tz_normalize, and tz_validate methods added
• Added ExcelFile class to pandas.io.parsers for parsing multiple sheets out of a single Excel 2003 document

2134 Chapter 37. Release Notes

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• GroupBy aggregations can now optionally broadcast, e.g. produce an object of the same size with the aggregated
value propagated
• Added select function in all data structures: reindex axis based on arbitrary criterion (function returning boolean
value), e.g. frame.select(lambda x: ‘foo’ in x, axis=1)
• DataFrame.consolidate method, API function relating to redesigned internals
• DataFrame.insert method for inserting column at a specified location rather than the default __setitem__ behav-
ior (which puts it at the end)
• HDFStore class in pandas.io.pytables has been largely rewritten using patches from Jeff Reback from others. It
now supports mixed-type DataFrame and Series data and can store Panel objects. It also has the option to query
DataFrame and Panel data. Loading data from legacy HDFStore files is supported explicitly in the code
• Added set_printoptions method to modify appearance of DataFrame tabular output
• rolling_quantile functions; a moving version of Series.quantile / DataFrame.quantile
• Generic rolling_apply moving window function
• New drop method added to Series, DataFrame, etc. which can drop a set of labels from an axis, producing a
new object
• reindex methods now sport a copy option so that data is not forced to be copied then the resulting object is
indexed the same
• Added sort_index methods to Series and Panel. Renamed DataFrame.sort to sort_index. Leaving
DataFrame.sort for now.
• Added skipna option to statistical instance methods on all the data structures
• pandas.io.data module providing a consistent interface for reading time series data from several different sources

37.38.2 Improvements to existing features

• The 2-dimensional DataFrame and DataMatrix classes have been extensively redesigned internally into a single
class DataFrame, preserving where possible their optimal performance characteristics. This should reduce
confusion from users about which class to use.
– Note that under the hood there is a new essentially “lazy evaluation” scheme within respect to adding
columns to DataFrame. During some operations, like-typed blocks will be “consolidated” but not before.
• DataFrame accessing columns repeatedly is now significantly faster than DataMatrix used to be in 0.3.0 due to
an internal Series caching mechanism (which are all views on the underlying data)
• Column ordering for mixed type data is now completely consistent in DataFrame. In prior releases, there was
inconsistent column ordering in DataMatrix
• Improved console / string formatting of DataMatrix with negative numbers
• Improved tabular data parsing functions, read_table and read_csv:
– Added skiprows and na_values arguments to pandas.io.parsers functions for more flexible IO
– parseCSV / read_csv functions and others in pandas.io.parsers now can take a list of custom NA values,
and also a list of rows to skip
• Can slice DataFrame and get a view of the data (when homogeneously typed), e.g. frame.xs(idx, copy=False)
or frame.ix[idx]
• Many speed optimizations throughout Series and DataFrame

37.38. pandas 0.4.0 2135

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Eager evaluation of groups when calling groupby functions, so if there is an exception with the grouping
function it will raised immediately versus sometime later on when the groups are needed
• datetools.WeekOfMonth offset can be parameterized with n different than 1 or -1.
• Statistical methods on DataFrame like mean, std, var, skew will now ignore non-numerical data. Before a
not very useful error message was generated. A flag numeric_only has been added to DataFrame.sum and
DataFrame.count to enable this behavior in those methods if so desired (disabled by default)
• DataFrame.pivot generalized to enable pivoting multiple columns into a DataFrame with hierarchical columns
• DataFrame constructor can accept structured / record arrays
• Panel constructor can accept a dict of DataFrame-like objects. Do not need to use from_dict anymore (from_dict
is there to stay, though).

37.38.3 API Changes

• The DataMatrix variable now refers to DataFrame, will be removed within two releases
• WidePanel is now known as Panel. The WidePanel variable in the pandas namespace now refers to the renamed
Panel class
• LongPanel and Panel / WidePanel now no longer have a common subclass. LongPanel is now a subclass of
DataFrame having a number of additional methods and a hierarchical index instead of the old LongPanelIndex
object, which has been removed. Legacy LongPanel pickles may not load properly
• Cython is now required to build pandas from a development branch. This was done to avoid continuing to check
in cythonized C files into source control. Builds from released source distributions will not require Cython
• Cython code has been moved up to a top level pandas/src directory. Cython extension modules have been
renamed and promoted from the lib subpackage to the top level, i.e.
– pandas.lib.tseries -> pandas._tseries
– pandas.lib.sparse -> pandas._sparse
• DataFrame pickling format has changed. Backwards compatibility for legacy pickles is provided, but it’s rec-
ommended to consider PyTables-based HDFStore for storing data with a longer expected shelf life
• A copy argument has been added to the DataFrame constructor to avoid unnecessary copying of data. Data is
no longer copied by default when passed into the constructor
• Handling of boolean dtype in DataFrame has been improved to support storage of boolean data with NA / NaN
values. Before it was being converted to float64 so this should not (in theory) cause API breakage
• To optimize performance, Index objects now only check that their labels are unique when uniqueness matters
(i.e. when someone goes to perform a lookup). This is a potentially dangerous tradeoff, but will lead to much
better performance in many places (like groupby).
• Boolean indexing using Series must now have the same indices (labels)
• Backwards compatibility support for begin/end/nPeriods keyword arguments in DateRange class has been re-
moved
• More intuitive / shorter filling aliases ffill (for pad) and bfill (for backfill) have been added to the functions that
use them: reindex, asfreq, fillna.
• pandas.core.mixins code moved to pandas.core.generic
• buffer keyword arguments (e.g. DataFrame.toString) renamed to buf to avoid using Python built-in name
• DataFrame.rows() removed (use DataFrame.index)

2136 Chapter 37. Release Notes

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Added deprecation warning to DataFrame.cols(), to be removed in next release

• DataFrame deprecations and de-camelCasing: merge, asMatrix, toDataMatrix, _firstTimeWithValue, _lastTime-
WithValue, toRecords, fromRecords, tgroupby, toString
• pandas.io.parsers method deprecations
– parseCSV is now read_csv and keyword arguments have been de-camelCased
– parseText is now read_table
– parseExcel is replaced by the ExcelFile class and its parse method
• fillMethod arguments (deprecated in prior release) removed, should be replaced with method
• Series.fill, DataFrame.fill, and Panel.fill removed, use fillna instead
• groupby functions now exclude NA / NaN values from the list of groups. This matches R behavior with NAs in
factors e.g. with the tapply function
• Removed parseText, parseCSV and parseExcel from pandas namespace
• Series.combineFunc renamed to Series.combine and made a bit more general with a fill_value keyword argument
defaulting to NaN
• Removed pandas.core.pytools module. Code has been moved to pandas.core.common
• Tacked on groupName attribute for groups in GroupBy renamed to name
• Panel/LongPanel dims attribute renamed to shape to be more conformant
• Slicing a Series returns a view now
• More Series deprecations / renaming: toCSV to to_csv, asOf to asof, merge to map, applymap to apply, toDict
to to_dict, combineFirst to combine_first. Will print FutureWarning.
• DataFrame.to_csv does not write an “index” column label by default anymore since the output file can be read
back without it. However, there is a new index_label argument. So you can do index_label='index'
to emulate the old behavior
• datetools.Week argument renamed from dayOfWeek to weekday
• timeRule argument in shift has been deprecated in favor of using the offset argument for everything. So you can
still pass a time rule string to offset
• Added optional encoding argument to read_csv, read_table, to_csv, from_csv to handle unicode in python 2.x

37.38.4 Bug Fixes

• Column ordering in pandas.io.parsers.parseCSV will match CSV in the presence of mixed-type data
• Fixed handling of Excel 2003 dates in pandas.io.parsers
• DateRange caching was happening with high resolution DateOffset objects, e.g. DateOffset(seconds=1). This
has been fixed
• Fixed __truediv__ issue in DataFrame
• Fixed DataFrame.toCSV bug preventing IO round trips in some cases
• Fixed bug in Series.plot causing matplotlib to barf in exceptional cases
• Disabled Index objects from being hashable, like ndarrays
• Added __ne__ implementation to Index so that operations like ts[ts != idx] will work
• Added __ne__ implementation to DataFrame

37.38. pandas 0.4.0 2137

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Bug / unintuitive result when calling fillna on unordered labels

• Bug calling sum on boolean DataFrame
• Bug fix when creating a DataFrame from a dict with scalar values
• Series.{sum, mean, std, ...} now return NA/NaN when the whole Series is NA
• NumPy 1.4 through 1.6 compatibility fixes
• Fixed bug in bias correction in rolling_cov, was affecting rolling_corr too
• R-square value was incorrect in the presence of fixed and time effects in the PanelOLS classes
• HDFStore can handle duplicates in table format, will take

37.38.5 Thanks

• Joon Ro
• Michael Pennington
• Chris Uga
• Chris Withers
• Jeff Reback
• Ted Square
• Craig Austin
• William Ferreira
• Daniel Fortunov
• Tony Roberts
• Martin Felder
• John Marino
• Tim McNamara
• Justin Berka
• Dieter Vandenbussche
• Shane Conway
• Skipper Seabold
• Chris Jordan-Squire

37.39 pandas 0.3.0

Release date: February 20, 2011

2138 Chapter 37. Release Notes

 pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

37.39.1 New features

• corrwith function to compute column- or row-wise correlations between two DataFrame objects
• Can boolean-index DataFrame objects, e.g. df[df > 2] = 2, px[px > last_px] = 0
• Added comparison magic methods (__lt__, __gt__, etc.)
• Flexible explicit arithmetic methods (add, mul, sub, div, etc.)
• Added reindex_like method
• Added reindex_like method to WidePanel
• Convenience functions for accessing SQL-like databases in pandas.io.sql module
• Added (still experimental) HDFStore class for storing pandas data structures using HDF5 / PyTables in pan-
das.io.pytables module
• Added WeekOfMonth date offset
• pandas.rpy (experimental) module created, provide some interfacing / conversion between rpy2 and pandas

37.39.2 Improvements to existing features

• Unit test coverage: 100% line coverage of core data structures

• Speed enhancement to rolling_{median, max, min}
• Column ordering between DataFrame and DataMatrix is now consistent: before DataFrame would not respect
column order
• Improved {Series, DataFrame}.plot methods to be more flexible (can pass matplotlib Axis arguments, plot
DataFrame columns in multiple subplots, etc.)

37.39.3 API Changes

• Exponentially-weighted moment functions in pandas.stats.moments have a more consistent API and accept a
min_periods argument like their regular moving counterparts.
• fillMethod argument in Series, DataFrame changed to method, FutureWarning added.
• fill method in Series, DataFrame/DataMatrix, WidePanel renamed to fillna, FutureWarning added to fill
• Renamed DataFrame.getXS to xs, FutureWarning added
• Removed cap and floor functions from DataFrame, renamed to clip_upper and clip_lower for consistency with
NumPy

37.39.4 Bug Fixes

• Fixed bug in IndexableSkiplist Cython code that was breaking rolling_max function
• Numerous numpy.int64-related indexing fixes
• Several NumPy 1.4.0 NaN-handling fixes
• Bug fixes to pandas.io.parsers.parseCSV
• Fixed DateRange caching issue with unusual date offsets
• Fixed bug in DateRange.union

37.39. pandas 0.3.0 2139

pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

• Fixed corner case in IndexableSkiplist implementation

2140 Chapter 37. Release Notes

 BIBLIOGRAPHY

[R9] https://docs.python.org/3/library/pickle.html
[R5] https://docs.python.org/3/library/pickle.html
[R7] https://docs.python.org/3/library/pickle.html

2141
pandas: powerful Python data analysis toolkit, Release 0.21.0

2142 Bibliography
 PYTHON MODULE INDEX

p
pandas, 1

2143