FUEL

Dr. Anant Kumar

H.O.D.
Department of Chemistry
B.C.E. Bakhtiyarpur
Dr.Anant Kumar, HOD Chemistry, B.C.E.
Bakhtiyarpur
 1. DEFINITION
A substance that produces useful energy when it undergoes
a chemical or nuclear reaction.
Examples:
• Coal, Wood, Oil, or Gas provides energy when burnt.
•Compounds in the body such as glucose are broken down
into compounds to provide energy for metabolic
processes
• Some radioactive substances, such
as plutonium and tritium, provide energy by
undergoing nuclear fission or fusion.
Dr.Anant Kumar, HOD Chemistry, B.C.E.
Bakhtiyarpur
 2. CLASSIFICATION

2.1 Based on Occurrence

(i) Natural or Primary Fuel

e.g. Wood, coal, peat, Petroleum etc

(i) Artificial or secondary Fuel

e.g. Coke, kerosene oil, petrol, coal Gas et

Dr.Anant Kumar, HOD Chemistry, B.C.E.

Bakhtiyarpur
 2. CLASSIFICATION

2.2 Based on the basis of Physical state of

aggregation
Solid, Liquid and Gas
Type of Natural or Primary Artificial or
Fuel Secondary
Solid Wood, Peat, Lignite, Dung, Charcoal, coke etc
Bituminous and Anthracite coal
Liquid Crude Oil Petrol, Diesel and
other fractions of
Petroleum
Gas Natural gas Coal gas, Oil gas, Bio
Gas, Water Gas.
Dr.Anant Kumar, HOD Chemistry, B.C.E.
Bakhtiyarpur
 2. CLASSIFICATION

2.2 Based on the basis of Physical state of

aggregation
Solid, Liquid and Gas
Type of Natural or Primary Artificial or
Fuel Secondary
Solid Wood, Peat, Lignite, Dung, Charcoal, coke etc
Bituminous and Anthracite coal
Liquid Crude Oil Petrol, Diesel and
other fractions of
Petroleum
Gas Natural gas Coal gas, Oil gas, Bio
Gas, Water Gas.
Dr.Anant Kumar, HOD Chemistry, B.C.E.
Bakhtiyarpur
 3. CHARECTERISTICS OF A GOOD FUEL
An ideal fuel should have the following properties:
High calorific value.
Moderate ignition temperature.
Low moisture content.
Low non -combustible matter.
Moderate velocity of combustion.
Products of combustion should not be harmful.
Low cost including storage cost
Easy to transport.
Uniform size
Should burn in air without much smoke
Dr.Anant Kumar, HOD Chemistry, B.C.E.
Bakhtiyarpur
 4. RELATIVES MERITS OF SOLID, LIQUID AND
GASEOUS FUEL
S.N. FUEL SOLID LIQUID GASEOUS
CHARECTERISTICS FUELS FUELS FUELS

1. Cost Cheap More costly Costly

than solid
fuel
2. Storage Easy In Closed In Leak
Container proof
only
voluminou
s storage
tanks
3. Risk of Fire Hazards Lowest Greater Very high
Dr.Anant Kumar, HOD Chemistry, B.C.E.
Bakhtiyarpur
 CONTD................

S.N. FUEL SOLID LIQUID GASEOUS

CHARECTERISTICS FUELS FUELS FUELS
4. Combustion Rate Slow Fast Very fast
5. Combustion Not easy Easy Possible by
Control controlling
air supply
6. Handling Cost High Low Low
7. W/W Calorific Least Higher Highest
Value
8. Thermal Efficiency Least Higher Highest
9. Ash Yes No No
Dr.Anant Kumar, HOD Chemistry, B.C.E.
Bakhtiyarpur
 CONTD..............
S.N. FUEL SOLID FUELS LIQUID GASEOUS
CHARECTERISTICS FUELS FUELS
10 Smoke Invariably High Carbon Not
produced and aromatic produced
liquid fuels
may produce
smoke
11. Thermal Efficiency Least Higher Highest

Dr.Anant Kumar, HOD Chemistry, B.C.E.

Bakhtiyarpur
 5. COMBUSTION

 Combustion is an exothermic chemical reaction.

C(s) + O2(g) = CO2(g) + 97 Kcal

 Ignition Temp: Minimum temperature required for ignition.

 Calculation of air quantities

(i) Air contains 23% O2 by mass 21% by volume

(ii) PV = nRT is used as per requirement

(iii) Nitrogen, Ash and CO2 present in the fuel or air are
incombustible. They do not consume any oxygen in combustion.
Dr.Anant Kumar, HOD Chemistry, B.C.E.
Bakhtiyarpur
 6. NUMERICALS (Q 1. & 2.)

A gas has the following composition by volume in percentage

N2 H2 CH4 CO CO2 O2

34 30 5 20 6 5

If 50% excess air is used find the wt. of air actually supplied per
m3 of this gas. The molar wt. of air is 29. (Ans: 2771gm)

45 20 5 20 5

If 50% excess air is used find the wt. of air actually supplied per
m3 of this gas. (Ans: 2768.4gm)

Dr.Anant Kumar, HOD Chemistry, B.C.E.

Bakhtiyarpur
 7. CALORIFIC VALUE
 The amount of heat released by a unit weight or unit volume of a
substance during complete combustion.

 Table of calorific value of fuels

Serial No. Fuel Calorific value

1. Hydrogen 150KJ/g
2. Methane 55 KJ/g
3. LPG 50 KJ/g
4. Kerosene oil 48 KJ/g
5. Charcoal 33 KJ/g
6. Wood 17KJ/g

Dr.Anant Kumar, HOD Chemistry, B.C.E.

Bakhtiyarpur
 8. UNITS OF HEAT
 B.Th.U - British Thermal Unit
The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one
pound of water through 1oF (58.5oF - 59.5oF) at sea level (30 inches
of mercury).
1 Btu (British thermal unit) = 1055.06 J = 0.252 kcal =252 cal

 Calorie
The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one gram
of water 1oC

 kilocalorie or Kilogram Centigrade Unit

The amount of energy required to raise the temperature of one
kilogram of water by one degree Celsius
 Centigrade Heat Unit (C.H.U.)
The amount of energy required to raise the temperature of one
pound of water by one degree Celsius.
1 kcal = 4186.8 J =3.9683Dr.Anant
B.Th.U = 1000
Kumar, HOD Chemistry,cal
B.C.E.= 2.2 C.H.U.
Bakhtiyarpur
 HIGHER AND LOWER CALORIFIC VALUE
 Higher calorific value (HCV) of a fuel portion is defined as the
amount of heat evolved when a unit weight (or volume in the case
of gaseous fuels) of the fuel is completely burnt and the products of
combustion cooled to the normal conditions (with water vapour
condensed as a result).

 If water vapour, as a product of combustion, is not condensed in

water form, the net energy obtained by complete combustion of
unit quantity of fuel is called lower calorific (LCV) or net calorific
value.
LCV = HCV- Latent heat of water vapour formed
= HCV- mass of hydrogen x 9x Latent heat of steam

 Latent heat of steam = 587 kcal/kg or 1060 B.Th.U/lb of of water

vapour formed at room temp. (i.e. 150C)
Dr.Anant Kumar, HOD Chemistry, B.C.E.
Bakhtiyarpur
 UNITS OF CALORIFIC VALUE
 For solid or liquid fuel :
• cal/gm 0r k.cal/kg
• B.Th.U./lb

 For gaseous fuel:

• k.cal/cubic meter (kcal/m3)
• B.Th.U./lb

 Relation between various units

1 kcal/kg = 1.8 x B.Th.U./lb
1 kcal/m3 = .1077 x B.Th.U./ft3
1 B.Th.U./ft3 = 9.3 kcal/m3

Dr.Anant Kumar, HOD Chemistry, B.C.E.

Bakhtiyarpur
 TO DETERMINE CALORIFIC VALUE
(i) Bomb Calorimeter for determination of Calorific Value of
solid and liquid fuel.

(ii) Boy’s Gas Calorimeter is an apparatus to determine the

calorific value of gaseous fuel and those liquid fuels
which vaporize easily.

(ii) Junker’s Calorimeter is used to determine calorific value

of gaseous fuel.

Dr.Anant Kumar, HOD Chemistry, B.C.E.

Bakhtiyarpur
 9. DETERMINATION OF CALORIFIC VALUE
(I) Bomb Calorimeter for determination of Calorific Value of solid and
liquid fuel
 Used to measure the calorific value (CV) of solid as well as liquid
fuel.
 To determine the CV of gas Junker's calorimeter is used
 Calorimeter contain thick walled cylindrical vessel with a lid which
supports two electrodes which are in contact with fuse and fuel
sample of known weight.
 Lid contains oxygen inlet valve through which high pressure oxygen
gas (at about 25 to 30 atm) is supplied.
 Entire lid with fuel sample is now held in a copper calorimeter
containing known weight of water. Mechanical stirrer is provided to
stirred well for uniform heating of water.
A thermometer is also provided to measure the change in
temperature of water due to combustion of fuel in Lid.

Dr.Anant Kumar, HOD Chemistry, B.C.E.

Bakhtiyarpur
(ii) BOMB CALORIMETER

Dr.Anant Kumar, HOD Chemistry, B.C.E.

Bakhtiyarpur
 (iii) BOMB CALORIMETER EXPERIMENT
 A known quantity of fuel sample is taken in crucible.

 Note the initial temperature of water.

 Start the stirrer

 Start current through crucible to burn fuel sample in presence

of O2.

 Heat released during combustion of fuel is absorbed by water

and temperature of water rises.

 Note final steady state temperature of water.

Dr.Anant Kumar, HOD Chemistry, B.C.E.
Bakhtiyarpur
 (iv) CALCULATION
W = Mass of water in calorimeter (gm)
w = Water equivalent in gms of calorimeter, stirrer,
thermometer, bomb, etc
= Wt. Of apparatus x sp. Heat = W’ x S
T1 = Initial temp. of water in calorimeter;
T2 = Final temp. of water in calorimeter;
L = Higher (Gross) Calorific value of fuel in cal/gm
So, Heat liberated by burning of fuel = x L Cal.
And, Heat absorbed by water = { W x S x (T2-T1)}
And heat absorbed by apparatus = { W’ x S x (T2-T1)} = w(T2-T1)
Hence, total heat absorbed by apparatus water etc
= { Wx 1 x (T2-T1) + w x1 x (T2-T1) } = {(W+w) x1x (T2-T1)} cal
Dr.Anant Kumar, HOD Chemistry, B.C.E.
Bakhtiyarpur
Contd.........
Sp. Heat of water = 1cal/gm0C and 1cal = 4.186J

 The water equivalent of the calorimeter(w) is determined by

burning a fuel of known calorific value.

 Fuel used for this purpose are benzoic acid (HCV= 6,325 kcal/kg)
and naphthalene (HCV = 9,688 kcal/kg)

 Heat taken by water in forming steam (or latent heat of water

vapour formed) = 0.09 H x 587 cal
LCV = (HCV – 0.09 H x 587) cal/gm

Dr.Anant Kumar, HOD Chemistry, B.C.E.

Bakhtiyarpur
Contd............
 Corrections to be made for accurate result
• Fuse wire correction
Heat liberated by ignition of fuse wire should be subtracted
• Acid correction
S + H2 + 2O2 = H2SO4 + Heat
2N + H2 + 3O2 = 2HNO3 + Heat
The correction for 1mg of S = 2.25 cal
1mL of N/10 HNO3 = 1.43 cal
Thus, these amount is also subtracted
• Cooling correction
(i) Time taken by water of calorimeter from maxm. to room temp is
noted
(ii) From the rate of cooling(dT0/min) and the actual time taken for
cooling , the cooling correction , dT x t is added to the rise in temp.
So, HCV
= [(W+w)(T2-T1+cooling correction)]-(Acid + Fuse) correction/Mass of
fuel (x)
Dr.Anant Kumar, HOD Chemistry, B.C.E.
Bakhtiyarpur
BOY’S CALORIMETER
• A gas burner with an arrangement to
measure gas flow at uniform rate
• The burner burns inside a specially
designed calorimeter container
containing a cooling coil with flowing
water.
• The water is provided with a rotameter
to measure flow of cooling water.
• Two thermometers are provided - one at
the inlet and one at the outlet of the
water flow through the coil.
• The heat from the burner flows up
through the center of the calorimeter
container and back down again inside
the container and back up again before
exhausting to ensure maximum heat
transfer to the cooling liquid and hence
accurate
Dr.Anant Kumar, HOD measurement of calorific value
Chemistry, B.C.E.
Bakhtiyarpur
of gas.
 CALCULATION
(i) Circulation of water and burning of gaseous fuel are continued
for 15 minutes to warm up the calorimeter.
(ii) Now, the rate of fuel burning and water circulation are adjusted
so that the exit water leaves the apparatus nearly at atm.
pressure.
(iii) Heat produced by burning of gaseous fuel is transferred to water
and the steam formed is condensed back into water which is
collected.
(iv) The readings are taken as:
(a) Vol. of gas burnt at STP in time “t” = V m3
(b) Wt. of water passed through the coil in time “t” = W kg
(c) Temp. of incoming water = T1 0C
(d) Temp. of outgoing water = T2 0C
(e) Wt. Of condensed steam = W kg
(f) Let, HCV of fuel = C kcal/m3
Dr.Anant Kumar, HOD Chemistry, B.C.E.
Bakhtiyarpur
Contd............
(g) Heat absorbed by circulating water= W(T2-T1) x 1kg 0C kcal/kg0C
(h) Heat produced by the combustion of fuel = V x C m3 x kcal/m3
(i) Heat produced = Heat absorbed
So, V x C = W(T2-T1)
C = W(T2-T1) kcal/m3
V
(j) Latent Heat of Water vapour = 587 cal/gm or k.cal/kg
(k) Wt. of water condensed from 1m3 of gas = W’/V kg/m3
So, Latent Heat of steam per m3 of gas
=587 kcal/kg x W’kg/Vm3
= 587W’ kcal /m3
V
(l) LCV of fuel = HCV- Latent Heat of steam per m3 of gas
LCV= C- 587W’
V
Dr.Anant Kumar, HOD Chemistry, B.C.E.
Bakhtiyarpur
JUNKER’S CALORIMETER
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
It works on the Junker's principle of
burning of a known volume of gas
and imparting the heat with
maximum efficiency to steadily
flowing water and finding out of the
rise in temperature of a measured
volume of water.
The formula, Calorific Value of Gas
X Volume of Gas = Volume of water
X Rise in Temperature, is then used
to determine the Calorific Value of
the Gas (assuming that heat
capacity of water is unity).

Dr.Anant Kumar, HOD Chemistry, B.C.E.

Bakhtiyarpur
 Contd................
The Calorimeter is fixed on a tripod stand having levelling screws
to keep the Calorimeter in perfectly vertical position. The
Calorimeter mainly consists of a gas combustion chamber, heat
exchanger and water flow system. Heat exchanger is designed for
maximum efficiency of heat transfer. The outer housing is of
powder coated stainless steel. The constant water level
attachment has an over flow device through which excess water
drains out. Water, while going up, absorbs the heat generated by
burning the gas in the burner located at the bottom of the central
chamber of the Calorimeter. Two thermometers are provided in
the water inlet and outlets ports. Temperature of the effluent gas
can be measured from the thermometer fixed at the exhaust gas
outlet. Provision for fixing the burner is provided at the
Calorimeter base. An outlet for collection of condensate is
provided at the bottom.
Pressure Governor has been provided to regulate the pressure of
gas before it enters the flow meter.
Dr.Anant Kumar, HOD Chemistry, B.C.E.
Bakhtiyarpur
Contd............
Let V = vol. of gas collected at S.T.P. In certain time ‘t’
W = Wt. of water collected in that time ‘t’
T1 = Temp. of incoming water
T1 = Temp. of outgoing water
HCV = W(T2-T1)/ V kcal/m3
m = Mass of steam condensed in certain time ‘t’ in
graduated cylinder from V m3 of gas.
Latent heat of steam = 587 kcal/kg
Thus, L.C.V. = [HCV –m x 587] kcal/m3
V

Dr.Anant Kumar, HOD Chemistry, B.C.E.

Bakhtiyarpur
 THEORETICAL CALCULATION OF CALORIFIC VALUE OF A
FUEL BY DULONG FORMULA
 Calorific value of a fuel is the sum of the calorific
values due to all the components present in the given
fuel.
Constituent (in percentage) C H S
GCV 8080 34500 2240

So, GCV = 1 [ 8080C + 34500 ( H- O ) + 2240S] cal/gm

100 8

Dr.Anant Kumar, HOD Chemistry, B.C.E.

Bakhtiyarpur
Contd...........
 The oxygen, present in the fuel, is assumed to be present in the
combined form with hydrogen i.e in form of H2O.
2H2 + O2 = 2H2O
1 8 9
 Fixed Hydrogen = Mass of oxygen in the fuel/8
Thus, amount of hydrogen available for combustion
= H- O/8
 Wt. Of H2O produced from 1gm H2 = 9gm
 Wt. Of H2O produced from H/100 gm H2 = 9 x H/100 gm =0.09Hgm
 Latent heat (LH) of steam = 587 cal/gm
 So, LH of water vapour formed = 0.09 H x 587 cal.
And, LCV = HCV – 0.09H x 587 cal/gm
Dr.Anant Kumar, HOD Chemistry, B.C.E.
Bakhtiyarpur
 NUMERICALS (Q. No. 3-5)
3. Calculate the gross and net calorific value of a coal sample having the
composition in percentage:
C= 80,H=7, O= 3, S= 3.5, N= 2.1, Ash= 4.4 (Ans: 8458kcal/kg)
4. A sample of coal containing 89% C: 8% H; 3% Ash. When this coal was
burnt in the laboratory for its calorific value in the bomb calorimeter ,
the following data were obtained:
Wt. Of burnt = 0.85g
Wt. Of water taken = 650g
Wt. Of equivalent of Bomb and calorimeter =2500g
Rise in temp. = 2.50C
Cooling correction = 0.030C
Fuse wire correction = 10 cal
Acid correction = 50 cal
Latent heat of condensation of steam = 580cal/g
Calculate the GCV and NCV of the coal in cal/gm?
(Ans: 9205.2 and 8787.6 cal/g
Dr.Anant Kumar, HOD Chemistry, B.C.E.
Bakhtiyarpur
Contd..........
5. A sample of coal contains 75% C: 5.2%H; 12.1% O; 3.2% N and
4.5% Ash.

(i) Calculate the minimum amount of O2 and air by wt. necessary

for complete combustion of 1kg of coal.

(i) Wt. of air required if 40% excess air is supplied.

(i) GCV and NCV of coal sample using Dulong’s formula

(Ans: 7332.2 and 7057.5 kcal/kg)

Dr.Anant Kumar, HOD Chemistry, B.C.E.

Bakhtiyarpur
 CLASSIFICATION OF GASEOUS FUELS
(A) Fuels naturally found in nature:
– Natural gas
– Methane from coal mines
(B) Fuel gases made from solid fuel:
-Gases derived from Coal
-Gases derived from waste and Biomass
-Other industrial processes (Blast furnace gas)
(C) Gases made from petroleum
-Liquefied Petroleum gas (LPG)
-Refinery gases
-Gases from oil gasification
(D) Gases from some fermentation process
Dr.Anant Kumar, HOD Chemistry, B.C.E.
Bakhtiyarpur
 TYPES OF GASEOUS FUEL
 Primary Fuels
• Natural gas

 Secondary Fuels
• Producer Gas
• Water Gas
• Carburetted Gas
• Coal gas

Dr.Anant Kumar, HOD Chemistry, B.C.E.

Bakhtiyarpur
 Natural Gas
• Naturally occurring gas found in oil fields and coal fields (Fire damp).
• It is also called ‘Marsh Gas’.
• The quantities of the constituents vary but the principal component is
methane. Other components include higher hydrocarbons. Some gases
also contain hydrogen sulphide.
• Terms used to describe gases:
 dry or lean - high methane content (less condensate)
 wet - high concentration of higher hydrocarbons (C5 - C10)
 sour - High concentration of H2S
 sweet - low conc. of H2S
 residue gas - gas remaining after the condensing process
 casing head gas - gas extracted from an oil well by extraction at the
surface.
 Calorific value is 8000-14000 kcal/m3
Dr.Anant Kumar, HOD Chemistry, B.C.E.
Bakhtiyarpur
Contd………..
• H2S can be removed by scrubbing with monoethanolamine
HO-CH2-CH2-NH2 + H2S = {HO-CH2-CH2-NH2}2.H2S
• Natural gases can be liquefied for distribution by tanker. Liquefied
natural gas (LNG) contains mostly methane, LPG (Liquefied
petroleum gas) mostly butane and propane.
• It is used as a raw material for manufacture of:
(i) Carbon Black and Hydrogen which in turn are used as filler for
rubber and ammonia.
(ii) Methanol, formaldehyde and chemicals
(iii) Synthetic proteins from microbiological fermentation of methane

Dr.Anant Kumar, HOD Chemistry, B.C.E.

Bakhtiyarpur
 Synthetic Gases
• These are gases which are chemically made by some process.
• Main methods of synthesis:
(i) Producer gas:
• A mixture 55% Nitrogen (from air), 30% CO (incomplete
combustion) and 3% CO2, 12% H2
• CO is combustible and nitrogen is incombustible.
• It is insoluble in water and is poisonous in nature.
• The gas is produced by blowing air and little steam over a bed of
red hot coal or coke in gas producer at ~ 11000C.
• The reaction with air is exothermic but insufficient air is added
hence CO is produced.
• Steam addition results in the formation of hydrogen by the water
gas reaction. This is endothermic and hence balances out the
exothermic air reaction.
Dr.Anant Kumar, HOD Chemistry, B.C.E.
Bakhtiyarpur
Dr.Anant Kumar, HOD Chemistry, B.C.E.
Bakhtiyarpur
• Ash zone: At the bottom. Ash will be there and a disposal of ash is
there at the bottom
• Combustion zone:
 This is the middle zone of gas producer. The steam and CO2
(produced in the combustion zone) moves up through the red hot
fuel bed and liberates free hydrogen and CO.
C + O2 = CO2 + 97 kcal
C+ ½ O2 = CO2 + 53 kcal
 Temp: 11000C
• Reduction zone:
C + CO2 = 2CO -36 kcal
C+ H2O = CO + H2 -29 kcal
C+ 2H2O = CO2 + 2H2 -19 kcal
 Temp: As these are endothermic reactions, so temp. falls to
10000C
Dr.Anant Kumar, HOD Chemistry, B.C.E.
Bakhtiyarpur
• Distillation zone
 Upper part of the fuel bed
 As the producer gas moves upward, it transfer some of the heat
to the down coming coal. This along with the heat radiated from
the lower part help to distil the fuel and as a result volatile matter
of coal is removed and comes out with outgoing gas.
 When steam is introduced with the air, the final gaseous product
contains hydrogen also.
• Features
 Producer gas has a low heating value because it is about 60% inert
nitrogen.
• Applications:
 It is widely used in industry because it can be made with cheap
fuel.
 When producer gas contains hydrogen, it is also a source material
for the manufacture of synthetic ammonia.
 Used as reducing agentDr.Anant
in metallurgical process
Kumar, HOD Chemistry, B.C.E.
Bakhtiyarpur
(ii) BLUE or WATER GAS OR SYNTHESIS GAS
• The bed of red hot coke or coal is blasted with air followed by steam.
• Air reaction is exothermic so the bed heats up
C + O2 = CO2 + 97kcal
2C + O2 = 2CO + 59kcal

• Steam reaction is endothermic so the bed cools down again.

C + H2O = CO + H2 - 29kcal

• The temp. is maintained at about 900-10000 by blowing the steam

and air alternatively.

• Calorific value is 2800kcal/m3

• Mixture of gas produced is higher in quality.

• Typical composition:
Dr.Anant Kumar, HOD Chemistry, B.C.E.
H2 = 49%; CO = 41%; CO 2 = 4.7%;
BakhtiyarpurN2 = 4.5%; CH4 = 0.8%
 • Applications:
(i) As a source of hydrogen gas

(ii) As a fuel gas

(iii) As a raw material for Fischer-

tropsch process

(iv) As an illuminating gas

Dr.Anant Kumar, HOD Chemistry, B.C.E.

Bakhtiyarpur
(iii) Oil Gas
 Features
• Golden Colour
• Burns with smoke
• The main constituents are CH4, H2 and CO.
• Calorific value is 4500-5400 kcal/m3.
 Preparation:
• Formed by the thermal cracking of crude oil.
• If oil is sprayed onto heated checker work (refractory) it
cracks to form lower gaseous hydrocarbons.
 Applications:
• Used as laboratory gas
• Used to improve the calorific value of water gas
• Mixture of water gas and oil gas is called carburetted
water gas. Dr.Anant Kumar, HOD Chemistry, B.C.E.
Bakhtiyarpur
(iv) Carbureted Water Gas -
 Features
• The main constituents are H2 and CO and other
components are saturated and unsaturated
hydrocarbons, N2, CO.
• Calorific value is 4500 kcal/m3.
 Preparation:
• Formed by mixing the water gas and gaseous
hydrocarbons produced due to thermal cracking of
crude oil.
 Applications:
• Used for illumination and heating papooses.
Dr.Anant Kumar, HOD Chemistry, B.C.E.
Bakhtiyarpur
(v) Coal and Coke Oven Gas
• Features
 It contains mainly H2 and CH4. The other components are CO,
C2H2, C2H4, N2 and CO2.
 Colorless and burns with smoky flame
 The calorific value is 4900 kcal/m3.
• Preparation:
From slury of
• Applications
 As a fuel
 As a reducing agent in many metallurgical processes
 As illuminant in cities and town

Dr.Anant Kumar, HOD Chemistry, B.C.E.

Bakhtiyarpur
(VI) Bio Gas
• Features
 The most easily available bio gas is Gober gas
 It mainly contains Methane
 Colorless and burns with blue flame
 The calorific value is 5300 kcal/m3.
• Preparation:
 From cattle dung in form of slurry
 Slurry is made by mixing equal part of water and cattle dung
 Unaerobic fermentation of slurry by bacteria present in the dung at 34-
48OC.
• Applications
 As a fuel
 For and power purposes
 As a manure because it contains 2% nitrogen as against 0.75% in farm
manure.
Dr.Anant Kumar, HOD Chemistry, B.C.E.
Bakhtiyarpur
• Advantages:
 One kg dry cattle dung produces 23.4 kcal but its bio gas produces
188 kcal

 It does not contain poisonous gas

 Free from smoke and dirt

 Utensils and environment remain comparatively clean

 Optimum utilization of waste

Dr.Anant Kumar, HOD Chemistry, B.C.E.

Bakhtiyarpur
 COAL
 Features
• Coal is the most abundant fossil fuel found on the planet.
• Fossil fuels are energy sources and considered as non-renewable
resources of energy.
• Coal is formed as:
Wood → Peat→Lignite → Bituminous → Anthracite
• Formed from ancient swamps and bogs. The vegetation found in these
areas eventually become buried beneath sediment and rock
called overburden.
• As more and more overburden is added, the buried vegetation
becomes compressed. The temperature and pressure are also
increasing as a result of the overburden. Under these conditions, the
buried vegetation is kept free of oxygen by the presence of mud and
acidic water. Slowly over time, the buried vegetation is 'cooked' to coal.
The process of turning dead carbon-rich vegetation to coal is
called carbonization.
• This is where the stages of coal formation begin, starting with peat and
moving up to anthracite. It takes millions of years for this process to
occur about 325 million Dr.Anant
yearsKumar,
ago.
HOD Chemistry, B.C.E.
Bakhtiyarpur
 TYPES OF COAL
The four types of coal are peat, lignite, bituminous, and
anthracite.
• Peat is the first step in coal formation. Peat is composed of
over 60% organic matter; typically, ferns and vegetation
found in swamps or bogs. As a result of the high water
content of this environment, peat contains a lot of water,
which limits its heat content or the amount of energy it
contains. It's a very soft brown coal. Its caolorific value is
4125- 5400 kcal/kg
• Eventually over time, with increasing pressures and
temperatures, peat is 'cooked' into coal's next stage,
lignite. Lignite is a soft brown coal that still contains a high
amount of water. Lignite has a higher heat content than
peat but is still not the most desired form of coal. However,
lignite makes up almost half of our known coal reserves. Its
caolorific value is 6500- 7100 kcal/kg

Dr.Anant Kumar, HOD Chemistry, B.C.E.

Bakhtiyarpur
• Bituminous coal is formed as more pressure is applied to lignite
coal. The greater the pressure applied, the more water is expelled,
which increases the amount of pure carbon present and increases
the heat content of the coal. Bituminous coal is often classified as
sub-bituminous or bituminous. The difference is that sub-
bituminous is the transition stage from lignite to bituminous coal.
Its calolrific is 8000- 8500 kcal/kg
• Anthracite coal is a metamorphic rock and is considered the
highest grade coal. It's hard and dark black in color. It has a very
light weight when compared to other forms of coal, as there is
very little water present in anthracite. As a result, anthracite has
the highest heat content. Anthracite is formed when bituminous
coal is subjected to great pressures, such as those associated with
the folding of rock during the creation of mountain ranges. Its
caolorific value is 8650- 8700 kcal/kg

Dr.Anant Kumar, HOD Chemistry, B.C.E.

Bakhtiyarpur
 FLUE GAS ANANLYSIS
• The mixture of gases, CO2, CO and O2 passing out of the
combustion chamber is called flue gas

• The analysis of flue gas indicates the efficiency of the

combustion.

• Excess CO gas indicates incomplete combustion.

• Excess O2 indicates too much air supply which causes loss of

heat.

• Normally, 50-100 % excess air is supplied

• Analysis of flue gas is done by Orsat’s apparatus

Dr.Anant Kumar, HOD Chemistry, B.C.E.
Bakhtiyarpur
ORSAT APPARATUS

Dr.Anant Kumar, HOD Chemistry, B.C.E.

Bakhtiyarpur
• Fused CaCl2 and Glass Wool:
For drying flue gas and avoiding incoming of any smoke particle

• KOH solution
Absorbs CO2 gas

• Alkaline Pyrogallic acid

Absorbs O2 and CO2.

• Ammonical Cuprous Chloride

Absorbs CO, O2 and CO2.

Dr.Anant Kumar, HOD Chemistry, B.C.E.

Bakhtiyarpur
 NUMERICALS (Q. No. 6-8)
From the following data:
Compone C H O S N CO CO2 N2 CH4 H2 Moisture Ash
nts
% for Q. 6 75.4 4.5 12.5 1.4 3.1 - - - - - - Y
Calculate the minimum weight of air necessary for complete combustion of 1 kg of
coal and percentage composition of the dry products of combustion by weights?
Ans: 9824.6 g air; CO2: 26.6% ; N2: 73.1%; SO2: 0.27%; Wt. Of dry products:
10388.6g
% for Q. 7 76.0 5.2 12.8 1.2 2.7 - - - - - - Y

Calculate the minimum weight and volume of air at NTP necessary for complete combustion
of 1 kg of coal. Also percentage composition of the dry products of combustion by weight if
50% excess air is supplied?
(Ans: Air=10.116kg and 7.83m3; %CO2,SO2,N2,O2=17.77,0.153,74.7, 7.417
% for Q. 8 81 5.0 8.5 1.0 1.0 - - - - - - Y

(Ans: Air & O2=10.8 & 2485g; %CO2,SO2,N2,O2=26.02,0.177,73.6; Total wt. Of dry products:
11319.4g Dr.Anant Kumar, HOD Chemistry, B.C.E.
Bakhtiyarpur
 ANALYSIS OF COAL

(i) Proximate analysis

(ii) Ultimate analysis

Dr.Anant Kumar, HOD Chemistry, B.C.E.

Bakhtiyarpur
 PROXIMATE ANANLYSIS
 Involves following determinations:

(i) Moisture Content

(i) Volatile Matter

(i) Ash

(i) Fixed Carbon

Dr.Anant Kumar, HOD Chemistry, B.C.E.

Bakhtiyarpur
 MOISTURE CONTENT
 Moisture causes:
(i) Increase in cost
(ii) Quenches the fire in furnace
(iii) Moisture carries away latent heat in form of vapour

 Estimation of moisture
(i) Known wt. of finely divided coal taken in silica crucible and
heated in an electric hot air oven at 105-110OC for about 1 hr.
(ii) Cooled in dessicator and weighed.
(iii) Process repeated till wt. Becomes costant
(iv) Loss in wt is calculated as:
% of moisture = Loss in wt X 100/Wt. of coal taken

Dr.Anant Kumar, HOD Chemistry, B.C.E.

Bakhtiyarpur
 VOLATILE MATTER
 Volatile matters
(i) Combustible matters
Hydrogen, CO, Methane and Lower hydrocarbons
(ii) Non- Combustible matters
CO2 and N2
 Volatile matters cause
(i) No addition toward value of heat
(ii) To occupy large volume in the furnace
(iii) Large amount of volatile matters distil over and escapes
unburnt.
(iv) A long flame, high smoke and low calorific value
Dr.Anant Kumar, HOD Chemistry, B.C.E.
Bakhtiyarpur
 Estimation of Volatile matters
(i) Known wt. of moisture free coal taken in silica
crucible covered with lid.
(ii) Heated in muffle furnace at about 950OC for
about 7 min.
(iii) Cooled inside indicator in open air and
weighed.
(iv) Process repeated till wt. Becomes constant
(v) Loss in wt is calculated as:
% of volatile matter = Loss in wt X 100/Wt. of coal

Dr.Anant Kumar, HOD Chemistry, B.C.E.

Bakhtiyarpur
 ASH
 Ash
(i) Combustible matters

 Ash causes
(i) Reduction in calorific value
(ii) Decrease in efficiency of fuel as it hinders flow of air and heat
(iii) Additional cause in its disposal
(iv) A long flame, high smoke and low calorific value

 Estimation of Volatile matters

(i) Known wt. of moisture free coal taken in silica crucible covered with lid.
(ii) Heated in muffle furnace at about 950OC for about 7 min.
(iii) Cooled inside indicator in open air and weighed.
(iv) Process repeated till wt. Becomes constant
(v) Loss in wt is calculated as:
(vi) % of ash = Loss of ash formed X 100/Wt. of dry coal taken

Dr.Anant Kumar, HOD Chemistry, B.C.E.

Bakhtiyarpur
 FIXED CARBON
 It is the quantity of carbon , in coal, that can be burnt by a
primary current of air drawn through the hot bed of fuel.

 After determination of moisture, volatile matter and ash

contents, the remaining material is fixed carbon.

 The % of fixed carbon helps in designing the furnace.

 Higher the % of fixed carbon better the quality of coal

% of fixed ‘C’ = 100 - % of (moisture + volatile matter + ash)

Dr.Anant Kumar, HOD Chemistry, B.C.E.

Bakhtiyarpur
 ULTIMATE ANALYSIS

 Determination of:
(i) Carbon

(i) Hydrogen

(i) Nitrogen

(i) Sulphur

(i) Oxygen

Dr.Anant Kumar, HOD Chemistry, B.C.E.

Bakhtiyarpur
ESTIMATION OF CARBON AND HYDROGEN

• Known quantity of coal is

burnt in presence of dry
O2.
• C & H are oxidized as:
CxHy + (y/4)O2 = xCO2 +
(y/2) H2O
• H2O is absorbed in U-tube
containing anhydrous CaCl2
and CO2 is absorbed in
another tube containing
KOH solution.
• From increase in wt. of
CaCl2 and KOH solution the
percentage of carbon and
hydrogen are calculated.
Dr.Anant Kumar, HOD Chemistry, B.C.E.
Bakhtiyarpur
ESTIMATION OF NITROGEN BY KJELDAHL’S METHOD
• Known wt of powdered coal ,
conc. H2SO4, K2SO4 and CuSO4
heated in kjeldahl’s flask to
convert nitrogen of O.C. into
(NH4)2SO4.
O.C. + H2SO4 = (NH4)2SO4
• Resulting acid mixture is the
heated with excess of NaOH and
liberated NH3 gas is absorbed in
excess standard soln of H2SO4.
• Unreacted H2SO4 is titrated with
standard solution of NaOH soln.
• Now, amt. of acid reacted with
NH3 is determined and then %
Dr.Anant Kumar, HOD Chemistry, B.C.E.
of ‘N’ is calculated.
Bakhtiyarpur
 ESTIMATION OF SULPHUR
• Known amt. of coal is burnt in a current of oxygen to oxidize ‘S’
to sulphate.

• The ash from the bomb calorimeter is extracted with dil. HCl.
The acid extract is then treated with BaCl2 solution to precipitate
BaSO4.

• The precipitate is then filtered, washed, dried and heated to

constant wt.

• From the wt. of BaSO4, the % of ‘S’ is determined

Dr.Anant Kumar, HOD Chemistry, B.C.E.

Bakhtiyarpur
 ESTIMATION OF OXYGEN
 Features
• Oxygen is present in combined form with hydrogen in coal thus
hydrogen available for combustion is lesser.

• More the oxygen content, lower the calorific value.

• An increase in 1% oxygen content decreases the calorific value by

1.7%

• Good quality coal should have low % of oxygen

 Determination
% of oxygen = 100 - % of (C + H+ N + S + Ash)
Dr.Anant Kumar, HOD Chemistry, B.C.E. Bakhtiyarpur
 NUMERICALS (Q. No. 9-11)
9. On complete combustion, 0.246 g of an organic compound(O.C)
gave 0.198 g of CO2 and 0.1014 g of of H2O. Determine the
percentage composition of carbon and hydrogen?
(Ans: 21.95 & 4.58%)

10. During estimation of nitrogen present in an O.C. by Kjeldahl’s

method, the ammonia evolved from 0.5 g of the compound
neutralized 10mL of 1M H2SO4. Find out the percentage of
nitrogen in the compound? (Ans: 56%)

11. In sulphur estimation, 0.157g of an O.C. gave 0.4813g of BaSO4.

Find the percentage of sulphur in given compound.

(Ans: 42.10%)
Dr.Anant Kumar, HOD Chemistry, B.C.E.
Bakhtiyarpur
 ANY QUESTION

Dr.Anant Kumar, HOD Chemistry, B.C.E.

Bakhtiyarpur
Thank You

Dr.Anant Kumar, HOD Chemistry, B.C.E.

Bakhtiyarpur