Contents

Articles
Astronomy 1
Galaxy 18
Star 35

References
Article Sources and Contributors 59
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 61

Article Licenses
License 62
Astronomy 1

Astronomy
Astronomy is a natural science that deals with the
study of celestial objects (such as stars, planets, comets,
nebulae, star clusters and galaxies) and phenomena that
originate outside the Earth's atmosphere (such as the
cosmic background radiation). It is concerned with the
evolution, physics, chemistry, meteorology, and motion
of celestial objects, as well as the formation and
development of the universe.

Astronomy is one of the oldest sciences. Prehistoric

cultures left behind astronomical artifacts such as the
Egyptian monuments and Stonehenge, and early
civilizations such as the Babylonians, Greeks, Chinese,
and Indians performed methodical observations of the
night sky. However, the invention of the telescope was
required before astronomy was able to develop into a
modern science. Historically, astronomy has included A giant Hubble mosaic of the Crab Nebula, a supernova remnant
disciplines as diverse as astrometry, celestial
navigation, observational astronomy, the making of calendars, and even astrology, but professional astronomy is
nowadays often considered to be synonymous with astrophysics.

During the 20th century, the field of professional astronomy split into observational and theoretical branches.
Observational astronomy is focused on acquiring data from observations of celestial objects, which is then analyzed
using basic principles of physics. Theoretical astronomy is oriented towards the development of computer or
analytical models to describe astronomical objects and phenomena. The two fields complement each other, with
theoretical astronomy seeking to explain the observational results, and observations being used to confirm theoretical
results.

Amateur astronomers have contributed to many important astronomical discoveries, and astronomy is one of the few
sciences where amateurs can still play an active role, especially in the discovery and observation of transient
phenomena.
Ancient astronomy is not to be confused with astrology, the belief system which claims that human affairs are
correlated with the positions of celestial objects. Although the two fields share a common origin and a part of their
methods (namely, the use of ephemerides), they are distinct.[1]

Lexicology
The word astronomy (from the Greek words astron (ἄστρον), "star" and -nomy from nomos (νόμος), "law" or
"culture") literally means "law of the stars" (or "culture of the stars" depending on the translation).

Use of terms "astronomy" and "astrophysics"

Generally, either the term "astronomy" or "astrophysics" may be used to refer to this subject.[2] [3] [4] Based on strict
dictionary definitions, "astronomy" refers to "the study of objects and matter outside the Earth's atmosphere and of
their physical and chemical properties"[5] and "astrophysics" refers to the branch of astronomy dealing with "the
behavior, physical properties, and dynamic processes of celestial objects and phenomena".[6] In some cases, as in the
introduction of the introductory textbook The Physical Universe by Frank Shu, "astronomy" may be used to describe
Astronomy 2

the qualitative study of the subject, whereas "astrophysics" is used to describe the physics-oriented version of the
subject.[7] However, since most modern astronomical research deals with subjects related to physics, modern
astronomy could actually be called astrophysics.[2] Various departments that research this subject may use
"astronomy" and "astrophysics", partly depending on whether the department is historically affiliated with a physics
department,[3] and many professional astronomers actually have physics degrees.[4] One of the leading scientific
journals in the field is named Astronomy and Astrophysics.

History
In early times, astronomy only comprised the observation and
predictions of the motions of objects visible to the naked eye. In some
locations, such as Stonehenge, early cultures assembled massive
artifacts that likely had some astronomical purpose. In addition to their
ceremonial uses, these observatories could be employed to determine
the seasons, an important factor in knowing when to plant crops, as
well as in understanding the length of the year.[8]

Before tools such as the telescope were invented early study of the
A celestial map from the 17th century, by the
stars had to be conducted from the only vantage points available,
Dutch cartographer Frederik de Wit.
namely tall buildings and high ground using the naked eye. As
civilizations developed, most notably in Mesopotamia, China, Egypt,
Greece, India, and Central America, astronomical observatories were assembled, and ideas on the nature of the
universe began to be explored. Most of early astronomy actually consisted of mapping the positions of the stars and
planets, a science now referred to as astrometry. From these observations, early ideas about the motions of the
planets were formed, and the nature of the Sun, Moon and the Earth in the universe were explored philosophically.
The Earth was believed to be the center of the universe with the Sun, the Moon and the stars rotating around it. This
is known as the geocentric model of the universe.

A particularly important early development was the beginning of mathematical and scientific astronomy, which
began among the Babylonians, who laid the foundations for the later astronomical traditions that developed in many
other civilizations.[9] The Babylonians discovered that lunar eclipses recurred in a repeating cycle known as a
saros.[10]
Astronomy 3

Following the Babylonians, significant advances in astronomy

were made in ancient Greece and the Hellenistic world. Greek
astronomy is characterized from the start by seeking a rational,
physical explanation for celestial phenomena.[11] In the 3rd
century BC, Aristarchus of Samos calculated the size of the Earth,
and measured the size and distance of the Moon and Sun, and was
the first to propose a heliocentric model of the solar system. In the
2nd century BC, Hipparchus discovered precession, calculated the
size and distance of the Moon and invented the earliest known
astronomical devices such as the astrolabe.[12] Hipparchus also
created a comprehensive catalog of 1020 stars, and most of the
constellations of the northern hemisphere derive are taken from
Greek astronomy.[13] The Antikythera mechanism (c. 150–80 BC)
was an early analog computer designed to calculating the location
of the Sun, Moon, and planets for a given date. Technological Greek equatorial sun dial, Alexandria on the Oxus,
present-day Afghanistan 3rd-2nd century BCE.
artifacts of similar complexity did not reappear until the 14th
century, when mechanical astronomical clocks appeared in
Europe.[14]

During the Middle Ages, astronomy was mostly stagnant in medieval Europe, at least until the 13th century.
However, astronomy flourished in the Islamic world and other parts of the world. This led to the emergence of the
first astronomical observatories in the Muslim world by the early 9th century.[15] [16] [17] In 964, the Andromeda
Galaxy, the nearest galaxy to the Milky Way, was discovered by the Persian astronomer Azophi and first described
in his Book of Fixed Stars.[18] The SN 1006 supernova, the brightest apparent magnitude stellar event in recorded
history, was observed by the Egyptian Arabic astronomer Ali ibn Ridwan and the Chinese astronomers in 1006.
Some of the prominent Islamic (mostly Persian and Arab) astronomers who made significant contributions to the
science include Al-Battani, Thebit, Azophi, Albumasar, Biruni, Arzachel, Al-Birjandi, and the astronomers of the
Maragheh and Samarkand observatories. Astronomers during that time introduced many Arabic names now used for
individual stars.[19] [20] It is also believed that the ruins at Great Zimbabwe and Timbuktu[21] may have housed an
astronomical observatory.[22] Europeans had previously believed that there had been no astronomical observation in
pre-colonial Middle Ages sub-Saharan Africa but modern discoveries show otherwise.[23] [24] [25]
Astronomy 4

Scientific revolution
During the Renaissance, Nicolaus Copernicus proposed a heliocentric model of
the solar system. His work was defended, expanded upon, and corrected by
Galileo Galilei and Johannes Kepler. Galileo innovated by using telescopes to
enhance his observations.[26]
Kepler was the first to devise a system that described correctly the details of the
motion of the planets with the Sun at the center. However, Kepler did not
succeed in formulating a theory behind the laws he wrote down.[27] It was left to
Newton's invention of celestial dynamics and his law of gravitation to finally
explain the motions of the planets. Newton also developed the reflecting
telescope.[26]

Further discoveries paralleled the improvements in the size and quality of the
telescope. More extensive star catalogues were produced by Lacaille. The Galileo's sketches and observations
astronomer William Herschel made a detailed catalog of nebulosity and clusters, of the Moon revealed that the surface

and in 1781 discovered the planet Uranus, the first new planet found.[28] The was mountainous.

distance to a star was first announced in 1838 when the parallax of 61 Cygni was
measured by Friedrich Bessel.[29]

During the 18–19th centuries, attention to the three body problem by Euler, Clairaut, and D'Alembert led to more
accurate predictions about the motions of the Moon and planets. This work was further refined by Lagrange and
Laplace, allowing the masses of the planets and moons to be estimated from their perturbations.[30]
Significant advances in astronomy came about with the introduction of new technology, including the spectroscope
and photography. Fraunhofer discovered about 600 bands in the spectrum of the Sun in 1814–15, which, in 1859,
Kirchhoff ascribed to the presence of different elements. Stars were proven to be similar to the Earth's own Sun, but
with a wide range of temperatures, masses, and sizes.[19]
The existence of the Earth's galaxy, the Milky Way, as a separate group of stars, was only proved in the 20th century,
along with the existence of "external" galaxies, and soon after, the expansion of the Universe, seen in the recession
of most galaxies from us.[31] Modern astronomy has also discovered many exotic objects such as quasars, pulsars,
blazars, and radio galaxies, and has used these observations to develop physical theories which describe some of
these objects in terms of equally exotic objects such as black holes and neutron stars. Physical cosmology made huge
advances during the 20th century, with the model of the Big Bang heavily supported by the evidence provided by
astronomy and physics, such as the cosmic microwave background radiation, Hubble's law, and cosmological
abundances of elements.
Astronomy 5

Observational astronomy
In astronomy, the main source of information about celestial
bodies and other objects is the visible light or more
generally electromagnetic radiation.[32] Observational
astronomy may be divided according to the observed region
of the electromagnetic spectrum. Some parts of the
spectrum can be observed from the Earth's surface, while
other parts are only observable from either high altitudes or
space. Specific information on these subfields is given
below.

Radio astronomy
The Very Large Array in New Mexico, an example of a radio
Radio astronomy studies radiation with wavelengths greater telescope
[33]
than approximately one millimeter. Radio astronomy is
different from most other forms of observational astronomy in that the observed radio waves can be treated as waves
rather than as discrete photons. Hence, it is relatively easier to measure both the amplitude and phase of radio waves,
whereas this is not as easily done at shorter wavelengths.[33]
Although some radio waves are produced by astronomical objects in the form of thermal emission, most of the radio
emission that is observed from Earth is seen in the form of synchrotron radiation, which is produced when electrons
oscillate around magnetic fields.[33] Additionally, a number of spectral lines produced by interstellar gas, notably the
hydrogen spectral line at 21 cm, are observable at radio wavelengths.[7] [33]
A wide variety of objects are observable at radio wavelengths, including supernovae, interstellar gas, pulsars, and
active galactic nuclei.[7] [33]

Infrared astronomy
Infrared astronomy deals with the detection and analysis of infrared radiation (wavelengths longer than red light).
Except at wavelengths close to visible light, infrared radiation is heavily absorbed by the atmosphere, and the
atmosphere produces significant infrared emission. Consequently, infrared observatories have to be located in high,
dry places or in space. The infrared spectrum is useful for studying objects that are too cold to radiate visible light,
such as planets and circumstellar disks. Longer infrared wavelengths can also penetrate clouds of dust that block
visible light, allowing observation of young stars in molecular clouds and the cores of galaxies.[34] Some molecules
radiate strongly in the infrared. This can be used to study chemistry in space; more specifically it can detect water in
comets.[35]
Astronomy 6

Optical astronomy
Historically, optical astronomy, also called visible light
astronomy, is the oldest form of astronomy.[36] Optical
images were originally drawn by hand. In the late 19th
century and most of the 20th century, images were made
using photographic equipment. Modern images are made
using digital detectors, particularly detectors using
charge-coupled devices (CCDs). Although visible light
itself extends from approximately 4000 Å to 7000 Å (400
nm to 700 nm),[36] the same equipment used at these
wavelengths is also used to observe some near-ultraviolet
and near-infrared radiation.
The Subaru Telescope (left) and Keck Observatory (center) on
Mauna Kea, both examples of an observatory that operates at
Ultraviolet astronomy near-infrared and visible wavelengths. The NASA Infrared
Telescope Facility (right) is an example of a telescope that
Ultraviolet astronomy is generally used to refer to operates only at near-infrared wavelengths.
observations at ultraviolet wavelengths between
approximately 100 and 3200 Å (10 to 320 nm).[33] Light at these wavelengths is absorbed by the Earth's atmosphere,
so observations at these wavelengths must be performed from the upper atmosphere or from space. Ultraviolet
astronomy is best suited to the study of thermal radiation and spectral emission lines from hot blue stars (OB stars)
that are very bright in this wave band. This includes the blue stars in other galaxies, which have been the targets of
several ultraviolet surveys. Other objects commonly observed in ultraviolet light include planetary nebulae,
supernova remnants, and active galactic nuclei.[33] However, as ultraviolet light is easily absorbed by interstellar
dust, an appropriate adjustment of ultraviolet measurements is necessary.[33]

X-ray astronomy
X-ray astronomy is the study of astronomical objects at X-ray wavelengths. Typically, objects emit X-ray radiation
as synchrotron emission (produced by electrons oscillating around magnetic field lines), thermal emission from thin
gases above 107 (10 million) kelvins, and thermal emission from thick gases above 107 Kelvin.[33] Since X-rays are
absorbed by the Earth's atmosphere, all X-ray observations must be performed from high-altitude balloons, rockets,
or spacecraft. Notable X-ray sources include X-ray binaries, pulsars, supernova remnants, elliptical galaxies, clusters
of galaxies, and active galactic nuclei.[33]
According to NASA's official website, X-rays were first observed and documented in 1895 by Wilhelm Conrad
Röntgen, a German scientist who found them quite by accident when experimenting with vacuum tubes. Through a
series of experiments, including the infamous X-ray photograph he took of his wife's hand with a wedding ring on it,
Röntgen was able to discover the beginning elements of radiation. The "X", in fact, holds its own significance, as it
represents Röntgen's inability to identify exactly what type of radiation it was.
Furthermore, according to the website, in some German speaking countries, X-rays are still sometimes referred to as
Röntgen rays, in honor of the man who discovered them.

Gamma-ray astronomy
Gamma ray astronomy is the study of astronomical objects at the shortest wavelengths of the electromagnetic
spectrum. Gamma rays may be observed directly by satellites such as the Compton Gamma Ray Observatory or by
specialized telescopes called atmospheric Cherenkov telescopes.[33] The Cherenkov telescopes do not actually detect
the gamma rays directly but instead detect the flashes of visible light produced when gamma rays are absorbed by
the Earth's atmosphere.[37]
Astronomy 7

Most gamma-ray emitting sources are actually gamma-ray bursts, objects which only produce gamma radiation for a
few milliseconds to thousands of seconds before fading away. Only 10% of gamma-ray sources are non-transient
sources. These steady gamma-ray emitters include pulsars, neutron stars, and black hole candidates such as active
galactic nuclei.[33]

Fields not based on the electromagnetic spectrum

In addition to electromagnetic radiation, a few other events originating from great distances may be observed from
the Earth.
In neutrino astronomy, astronomers use special underground facilities such as SAGE, GALLEX, and Kamioka II/III
for detecting neutrinos. These neutrinos originate primarily from the Sun but also from supernovae.[33] Cosmic rays,
which consist of very high energy particles that can decay or be absorbed when they enter the Earth's atmosphere,
result in a cascade of particles which can be detected by current observatories.[38] Additionally, some future neutrino
detectors may also be sensitive to the particles produced when cosmic rays hit the Earth's atmosphere.[33]
Gravitational wave astronomy is an emerging new field of astronomy which aims to use gravitational wave detectors
to collect observational data about compact objects. A few observatories have been constructed, such as the Laser
Interferometer Gravitational Observatory LIGO, but gravitational waves are extremely difficult to detect.[39]
Planetary astronomers have directly observed many of these phenomena through spacecraft and sample return
missions. These observations include fly-by missions with remote sensors, landing vehicles that can perform
experiments on the surface materials, impactors that allow remote sensing of buried material, and sample return
missions that allow direct laboratory examination.

Astrometry and celestial mechanics

One of the oldest fields in astronomy, and in all of science, is the measurement of the positions of celestial objects.
Historically, accurate knowledge of the positions of the Sun, Moon, planets and stars has been essential in celestial
navigation and in the making of calendars.
Careful measurement of the positions of the planets has led to a solid understanding of gravitational perturbations,
and an ability to determine past and future positions of the planets with great accuracy, a field known as celestial
mechanics. More recently the tracking of near-Earth objects will allow for predictions of close encounters, and
potential collisions, with the Earth.[40]
The measurement of stellar parallax of nearby stars provides a fundamental baseline in the cosmic distance ladder
that is used to measure the scale of the universe. Parallax measurements of nearby stars provide an absolute baseline
for the properties of more distant stars, because their properties can be compared. Measurements of radial velocity
and proper motion show the kinematics of these systems through the Milky Way galaxy. Astrometric results are also
used to measure the distribution of dark matter in the galaxy.[41]
During the 1990s, the astrometric technique of measuring the stellar wobble was used to detect large extrasolar
planets orbiting nearby stars.[42]
Astronomy 8

Theoretical astronomy
Theoretical astronomers use a wide variety of tools which include analytical models (for example, polytropes to
approximate the behaviors of a star) and computational numerical simulations. Each has some advantages.
Analytical models of a process are generally better for giving insight into the heart of what is going on. Numerical
models can reveal the existence of phenomena and effects that would otherwise not be seen.[43] [44]
Theorists in astronomy endeavor to create theoretical models and figure out the observational consequences of those
models. This helps observers look for data that can refute a model or help in choosing between several alternate or
conflicting models.
Theorists also try to generate or modify models to take into account new data. In the case of an inconsistency, the
general tendency is to try to make minimal modifications to the model to fit the data. In some cases, a large amount
of inconsistent data over time may lead to total abandonment of a model.
Topics studied by theoretical astronomers include: stellar dynamics and evolution; galaxy formation; large-scale
structure of matter in the Universe; origin of cosmic rays; general relativity and physical cosmology, including string
cosmology and astroparticle physics. Astrophysical relativity serves as a tool to gauge the properties of large scale
structures for which gravitation plays a significant role in physical phenomena investigated and as the basis for black
hole (astro)physics and the study of gravitational waves.
Some widely accepted and studied theories and models in astronomy, now included in the Lambda-CDM model are
the Big Bang, Cosmic inflation, dark matter, and fundamental theories of physics.
A few examples of this process:

Physical process Experimental tool Theoretical model Explains/predicts

Gravitation Radio telescopes Self-gravitating system Emergence of a star system

Nuclear fusion Spectroscopy Stellar evolution How the stars shine and how metals formed

The Big Bang Hubble Space Telescope, Expanding universe Age of the Universe
COBE

Quantum fluctuations Cosmic inflation Flatness problem

Gravitational collapse X-ray astronomy General relativity Black holes at the center of Andromeda
galaxy

CNO cycle in stars

Dark matter and dark energy are the current leading topics in astronomy,[45] as their discovery and controversy
originated during the study of the galaxies.
Astronomy 9

Specific subfields

Solar astronomy
At a distance of about eight light-minutes, the most frequently studied
star is the Sun, a typical main-sequence dwarf star of stellar class G2
V, and about 4.6 Gyr in age. The Sun is not considered a variable star,
but it does undergo periodic changes in activity known as the sunspot
cycle. This is an 11-year fluctuation in sunspot numbers. Sunspots are
regions of lower-than- average temperatures that are associated with
intense magnetic activity.[46]

The Sun has steadily increased in luminosity over the course of its life,
increasing by 40% since it first became a main-sequence star. The Sun
has also undergone periodic changes in luminosity that can have a
significant impact on the Earth.[47] The Maunder minimum, for
example, is believed to have caused the Little Ice Age phenomenon An ultraviolet image of the Sun's active
during the Middle Ages.[48] photosphere as viewed by the TRACE space
telescope. NASA photo
The visible outer surface of the Sun is called the photosphere. Above
this layer is a thin region known as the chromosphere. This is surrounded by a transition region of rapidly increasing
temperatures, then by the super-heated corona.
At the center of the Sun is the core region, a volume of sufficient temperature and pressure for nuclear fusion to
occur. Above the core is the radiation zone, where the plasma conveys the energy flux by means of radiation. The
outer layers form a convection zone where the gas material transports energy primarily through physical
displacement of the gas. It is believed that this convection zone creates the magnetic activity that generates sun
spots.[46]
A solar wind of plasma particles constantly streams outward from the Sun until it reaches the heliopause. This solar
wind interacts with the magnetosphere of the Earth to create the Van Allen radiation belts, as well as the aurora
where the lines of the Earth's magnetic field descend into the atmosphere.[49]

Planetary science
This astronomical field examines the assemblage of planets, moons, dwarf planets, comets, asteroids, and other
bodies orbiting the Sun, as well as extrasolar planets. The solar system has been relatively well-studied, initially
through telescopes and then later by spacecraft. This has provided a good overall understanding of the formation and
evolution of this planetary system, although many new discoveries are still being made.[50]
The solar system is subdivided into the inner planets, the asteroid belt,
and the outer planets. The inner terrestrial planets consist of Mercury,
Venus, Earth, and Mars. The outer gas giant planets are Jupiter, Saturn,
Uranus, and Neptune.[51] Beyond Neptune lies the Kuiper Belt, and
finally the Oort Cloud, which may extend as far as a light-year.
The planets were formed in the protoplanetary disk that surrounded the
The black spot at the top is a dust devil climbing early Sun. Through a process that included gravitational attraction,
a crater wall on Mars. This moving, swirling
collision, and accretion, the disk formed clumps of matter that, with
column of Martian atmosphere (comparable to a
terrestrial tornado) created the long, dark streak.
time, became protoplanets. The radiation pressure of the solar wind
NASA image. then expelled most of the unaccreted matter, and only those planets
Astronomy 10

with sufficient mass retained their gaseous atmosphere. The planets continued to sweep up, or eject, the remaining
matter during a period of intense bombardment, evidenced by the many impact craters on the Moon. During this
period, some of the protoplanets may have collided, the leading hypothesis for how the Moon was formed.[52]
Once a planet reaches sufficient mass, the materials with different densities segregate within, during planetary
differentiation. This process can form a stony or metallic core, surrounded by a mantle and an outer surface. The core
may include solid and liquid regions, and some planetary cores generate their own magnetic field, which can protect
their atmospheres from solar wind stripping.[53]
A planet or moon's interior heat is produced from the collisions that created the body, radioactive materials (e.g.
uranium, thorium, and 26Al), or tidal heating. Some planets and moons accumulate enough heat to drive geologic
processes such as volcanism and tectonics. Those that accumulate or retain an atmosphere can also undergo surface
erosion from wind or water. Smaller bodies, without tidal heating, cool more quickly; and their geological activity
ceases with the exception of impact cratering.[54]

Stellar astronomy
The study of stars and stellar evolution is fundamental to our
understanding of the universe. The astrophysics of stars has been
determined through observation and theoretical understanding; and
from computer simulations of the interior.[55]
Star formation occurs in dense regions of dust and gas, known as giant
molecular clouds. When destabilized, cloud fragments can collapse
under the influence of gravity, to form a protostar. A sufficiently
dense, and hot, core region will trigger nuclear fusion, thus creating a
The Ant planetary nebula. Ejecting gas from the
main-sequence star.[56] dying central star shows symmetrical patterns
unlike the chaotic patterns of ordinary explosions.
Almost all elements heavier than hydrogen and helium were created
inside the cores of stars.[55]
The characteristics of the resulting star depend primarily upon its starting mass. The more massive the star, the
greater its luminosity, and the more rapidly it expends the hydrogen fuel in its core. Over time, this hydrogen fuel is
completely converted into helium, and the star begins to evolve. The fusion of helium requires a higher core
temperature, so that the star both expands in size, and increases in core density. The resulting red giant enjoys a brief
life span, before the helium fuel is in turn consumed. Very massive stars can also undergo a series of decreasing
evolutionary phases, as they fuse increasingly heavier elements.[57]

The final fate of the star depends on its mass, with stars of mass greater than about eight times the Sun becoming
core collapse supernovae;[58] while smaller stars form planetary nebulae, and evolve into white dwarfs.[59] The
remnant of a supernova is a dense neutron star, or, if the stellar mass was at least three times that of the Sun, a black
hole.[60] Close binary stars can follow more complex evolutionary paths, such as mass transfer onto a white dwarf
companion that can potentially cause a supernova.[61] Planetary nebulae and supernovae are necessary for the
distribution of metals to the interstellar medium; without them, all new stars (and their planetary systems) would be
formed from hydrogen and helium alone.[62]
Astronomy 11

Galactic astronomy
Our solar system orbits within the Milky Way, a barred spiral galaxy
that is a prominent member of the Local Group of galaxies. It is a
rotating mass of gas, dust, stars and other objects, held together by
mutual gravitational attraction. As the Earth is located within the dusty
outer arms, there are large portions of the Milky Way that are obscured
from view.

In the center of the Milky Way is the core, a bar-shaped bulge with
what is believed to be a supermassive black hole at the center. This is
surrounded by four primary arms that spiral from the core. This is a
region of active star formation that contains many younger, population
Observed structure of the Milky Way's spiral
I stars. The disk is surrounded by a spheroid halo of older, population
arms
II stars, as well as relatively dense concentrations of stars known as
globular clusters.[63] [64]

Between the stars lies the interstellar medium, a region of sparse matter. In the densest regions, molecular clouds of
molecular hydrogen and other elements create star-forming regions. These begin as a compact pre-stellar core or
dark nebulae, which concentrate and collapse (in volumes determined by the Jeans length) to form compact
protostars.[56]
As the more massive stars appear, they transform the cloud into an H II region of glowing gas and plasma. The
stellar wind and supernova explosions from these stars eventually serve to disperse the cloud, often leaving behind
one or more young open clusters of stars. These clusters gradually disperse, and the stars join the population of the
Milky Way.[65]
Kinematic studies of matter in the Milky Way and other galaxies have demonstrated that there is more mass than can
be accounted for by visible matter. A dark matter halo appears to dominate the mass, although the nature of this dark
matter remains undetermined.[66]
Astronomy 12

Extragalactic astronomy
The study of objects outside our galaxy is a branch of astronomy
concerned with the formation and evolution of Galaxies; their
morphology and classification; and the examination of active galaxies,
and the groups and clusters of galaxies. The latter is important for the
understanding of the large-scale structure of the cosmos.
Most galaxies are organized into distinct shapes that allow for
classification schemes. They are commonly divided into spiral,
elliptical and Irregular galaxies.[67]
As the name suggests, an elliptical galaxy has the cross-sectional shape
of an ellipse. The stars move along random orbits with no preferred
direction. These galaxies contain little or no interstellar dust; few
This image shows several blue, loop-shaped
star-forming regions; and generally older stars. Elliptical galaxies are
objects that are multiple images of the same
more commonly found at the core of galactic clusters, and may be galaxy, duplicated by the gravitational lens effect
formed through mergers of large galaxies. of the cluster of yellow galaxies near the middle
of the photograph. The lens is produced by the
A spiral galaxy is organized into a flat, rotating disk, usually with a
cluster's gravitational field that bends light to
prominent bulge or bar at the center, and trailing bright arms that spiral magnify and distort the image of a more distant
outward. The arms are dusty regions of star formation where massive object.
young stars produce a blue tint. Spiral galaxies are typically
surrounded by a halo of older stars. Both the Milky Way and the Andromeda Galaxy are spiral galaxies.
Irregular galaxies are chaotic in appearance, and are neither spiral nor elliptical. About a quarter of all galaxies are
irregular, and the peculiar shapes of such galaxies may be the result of gravitational interaction.
An active galaxy is a formation that is emitting a significant amount of its energy from a source other than stars, dust
and gas; and is powered by a compact region at the core, usually thought to be a super-massive black hole that is
emitting radiation from in-falling material.
A radio galaxy is an active galaxy that is very luminous in the radio portion of the spectrum, and is emitting
immense plumes or lobes of gas. Active galaxies that emit high-energy radiation include Seyfert galaxies, Quasars,
and Blazars. Quasars are believed to be the most consistently luminous objects in the known universe.[68]
The large-scale structure of the cosmos is represented by groups and clusters of galaxies. This structure is organized
in a hierarchy of groupings, with the largest being the superclusters. The collective matter is formed into filaments
and walls, leaving large voids in between.[69]

Cosmology
Cosmology (from the Greek κόσμος "world, universe" and λόγος "word, study") could be considered the study of
the universe as a whole.
Observations of the large-scale structure of the universe, a branch known as physical cosmology, have provided a
deep understanding of the formation and evolution of the cosmos. Fundamental to modern cosmology is the
well-accepted theory of the big bang, wherein our universe began at a single point in time, and thereafter expanded
over the course of 13.7 Gyr to its present condition.[70] The concept of the big bang can be traced back to the
discovery of the microwave background radiation in 1965.[70]
In the course of this expansion, the universe underwent several evolutionary stages. In the very early moments, it is
theorized that the universe experienced a very rapid cosmic inflation, which homogenized the starting conditions.
Thereafter, nucleosynthesis produced the elemental abundance of the early universe.[70] (See also
nucleocosmochronology.)
Astronomy 13

When the first atoms formed, space became transparent to radiation, releasing the energy viewed today as the
microwave background radiation. The expanding universe then underwent a Dark Age due to the lack of stellar
energy sources.[71]
A hierarchical structure of matter began to form from minute variations in the mass density. Matter accumulated in
the densest regions, forming clouds of gas and the earliest stars. These massive stars triggered the reionization
process and are believed to have created many of the heavy elements in the early universe which tend to decay back
to the lighter elements extending the cycle.[72]
Gravitational aggregations clustered into filaments, leaving voids in the gaps. Gradually, organizations of gas and
dust merged to form the first primitive galaxies. Over time, these pulled in more matter, and were often organized
into groups and clusters of galaxies, then into larger-scale superclusters.[73]
Fundamental to the structure of the universe is the existence of dark matter and dark energy. These are now thought
to be the dominant components, forming 96% of the mass of the universe. For this reason, much effort is expended
in trying to understand the physics of these components.[74]

Interdisciplinary studies
Astronomy and astrophysics have developed significant interdisciplinary links with other major scientific fields.
Archaeoastronomy is the study of ancient or traditional astronomies in their cultural context, utilizing archaeological
and anthropological evidence. Astrobiology is the study of the advent and evolution of biological systems in the
universe, with particular emphasis on the possibility of non-terrestrial life.
The study of chemicals found in space, including their formation, interaction and destruction, is called
astrochemistry. These substances are usually found in molecular clouds, although they may also appear in low
temperature stars, brown dwarfs and planets. Cosmochemistry is the study of the chemicals found within the Solar
System, including the origins of the elements and variations in the isotope ratios. Both of these fields represent an
overlap of the disciplines of astronomy and chemistry. As "forensic astronomy", finally, methods from astronomy
have been used to solve problems of law and history.

Amateur astronomy
Astronomy is one of the sciences to which amateurs can contribute the most.[75]
Collectively, amateur astronomers observe a variety of celestial objects and
phenomena sometimes with equipment that they build themselves. Common
targets of amateur astronomers include the Moon, planets, stars, comets, meteor
showers, and a variety of deep-sky objects such as star clusters, galaxies, and
nebulae. One branch of amateur astronomy, amateur astrophotography, involves
the taking of photos of the night sky. Many amateurs like to specialize in the
observation of particular objects, types of objects, or types of events which
interest them.[76] [77]

Most amateurs work at visible wavelengths, but a small minority experiment

with wavelengths outside the visible spectrum. This includes the use of infrared
Amateur astronomers can build their
filters on conventional telescopes, and also the use of radio telescopes. The own equipment, and can hold star
pioneer of amateur radio astronomy was Karl Jansky, who started observing the parties and gatherings, such as
sky at radio wavelengths in the 1930s. A number of amateur astronomers use Stellafane.

either homemade telescopes or use radio telescopes which were originally built
for astronomy research but which are now available to amateurs (e.g. the One-Mile Telescope).[78] [79]
Astronomy 14

Amateur astronomers continue to make scientific contributions to the field of astronomy. Indeed, it is one of the few
scientific disciplines where amateurs can still make significant contributions. Amateurs can make occultation
measurements that are used to refine the orbits of minor planets. They can also discover comets, and perform regular
observations of variable stars. Improvements in digital technology have allowed amateurs to make impressive
advances in the field of astrophotography.[80] [81] [82]

Major problems
Although the scientific discipline of astronomy has made tremendous strides in understanding the nature of the
universe and its contents, there remain some important unanswered questions. Answers to these may require the
construction of new ground- and space-based instruments, and possibly new developments in theoretical and
experimental physics.
• What is the origin of the stellar mass spectrum? That is, why do astronomers observe the same distribution of
stellar masses – the initial mass function – apparently regardless of the initial conditions?[83] A deeper
understanding of the formation of stars and planets is needed.
• Is there other life in the Universe? Especially, is there other intelligent life? If so, what is the explanation for the
Fermi paradox? The existence of life elsewhere has important scientific and philosophical implications.[84] [85] Is
the Solar System normal or atypical?
• What caused the Universe to form? Is the premise of the Fine-tuned universe hypothesis correct? If so, could this
be the result of cosmological natural selection? What caused the cosmic inflation that produced our homogeneous
universe? Why is there a baryon asymmetry?
• What is the nature of dark matter and dark energy? These dominate the evolution and fate of the cosmos, yet their
true nature remains unknown.[86] What will be the ultimate fate of the universe?[87]
• How did the first galaxies form? How did supermassive black holes form?
• What is creating the ultra-high-energy cosmic rays?

International Year of Astronomy 2009

During the 62nd General Assembly of the UN, 2009 was declared to be the International Year of Astronomy
(IYA2009), with the resolution being made official on 20 December 2008. A global scheme laid out by the
International Astronomical Union (IAU), it was also endorsed by UNESCO – the UN body responsible for
Educational, Scientific and Cultural matters. IYA2009 was intended to be a global celebration of astronomy and its
contributions to society and culture, stimulating worldwide interest not only in astronomy but science in general,
with a particular slant towards young people.

See also
Astronomy 15

• Astrology and astronomy • Extragalactic Distance Scale • Astronomy Camp

• Astronomer • International Year of Astronomy
• Astrophysics Data System • List of astronomy acronyms
• Category:Ancient astronomy • Solar System
• Category:Astronomical observatories • Space exploration
• Category:Astronomy organizations • Space science
• Category:Astronomy timelines • Star
• Constellation • Telescope
• Cosmogony • Universe: The Infinite Frontier (television series)

Bibliography
• Forbes, George (1909). History of Astronomy. London: Plain Label Books. ISBN 1603031596. Available at
Project Gutenberg [88],Google books [89]
• Harpaz, Amos (1994). Stellar Evolution [90]. A K Peters, Ltd. ISBN 9781568810126.

External links
• International Year of Astronomy 2009 [91] IYA2009 Main website
• Cosmic Journey: A History of Scientific Cosmology [92] from the American Institute of Physics
• Southern Hemisphere Astronomy [93]
• Celestia Motherlode [94] Educational site for Astronomical journeys through space
• Astronomy – A History – G. Forbes – 1909 (eLibrary Project – eLib Text) [95]
• Prof. Sir Harry Kroto, NL [96], Astrophysical Chemistry Lecture Series. 8 Freeview Lectures provided by the
Vega Science Trust.
• Core books [97] and core journals [98] in Astronomy, from the Smithsonian/NASA Astrophysics Data System

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Galaxy
A galaxy is a massive, gravitationally bound
system that consists of stars and stellar remnants,
an interstellar medium of gas and dust, and an
important but poorly understood component
tentatively dubbed dark matter.[1] [2] The name is
from the Greek root galaxias [γαλαξίας],
meaning "milky," a reference to the Milky Way
galaxy. Typical galaxies range from dwarfs with
as few as ten million[3] (107) stars up to giants
with a hundred trillion[4] (1014) stars, all orbiting
the galaxy's center of mass. Galaxies may
contain many multiple star systems, star clusters,
and various interstellar clouds. The Sun is one of
the stars in the Milky Way galaxy; the Solar
System includes the Earth and all the other
NGC 4414, a typical spiral galaxy in the constellation Coma Berenices, is
objects that orbit the Sun. about 17,000 parsecs in diameter and approximately 20 million parsecs
distant.
Historically, galaxies have been categorized
according to their apparent shape (usually
referred to as their visual morphology). A common form is the elliptical galaxy,[5] which has an ellipse-shaped light
profile. Spiral galaxies are disk-shaped assemblages with dusty, curving arms. Galaxies with irregular or unusual
shapes are known as irregular galaxies, and typically result from disruption by the gravitational pull of neighboring
galaxies. Such interactions between nearby galaxies, which may ultimately result in galaxies merging, may induce
episodes of significantly increased star formation, producing what is called a starburst galaxy. Small galaxies that
lack a coherent structure could also be referred to as irregular galaxies.[6]

There are probably more than 170 billion (1.7 × 1011) galaxies in the observable universe.[7] [8] Most galaxies are
1,000 to 100,000[9]  parsecs in diameter and are usually separated by distances on the order of millions of parsecs (or
megaparsecs).[10] Intergalactic space (the space between galaxies) is filled with a tenuous gas of an average density
less than one atom per cubic meter. The majority of galaxies are organized into a hierarchy of associations called
clusters, which, in turn, can form larger groups called superclusters. These larger structures are generally arranged
into sheets and filaments, which surround immense voids in the universe.[11]
Although it is not yet well understood, dark matter appears to account for around 90% of the mass of most galaxies.
Observational data suggests that supermassive black holes may exist at the center of many, if not all, galaxies. They
Galaxy 19

are proposed to be the primary cause of active galactic nuclei found at the core of some galaxies. The Milky Way
galaxy appears to harbor at least one such object within its nucleus.[12]

Etymology
The word galaxy derives from the Greek term for our own galaxy, galaxias (γαλαξίας), or kyklos galaktikos,
meaning "milky circle" for its appearance in the sky. In Greek mythology, Zeus places his son born by a mortal
woman, the infant Heracles, on Hera's breast while she is asleep so that the baby will drink her divine milk and will
thus become immortal. Hera wakes up while breastfeeding and then realizes she is nursing an unknown baby: she
pushes the baby away and a jet of her milk sprays the night sky, producing the faint band of light known as the
Milky Way.[13]
In the astronomical literature, the capitalized word 'Galaxy' is used to refer to our galaxy, the Milky Way, to
distinguish it from the billions of other galaxies. The term Milky Way first appeared in the English language in a
poem by Chaucer.
"See yonder, lo, the Galaxyë
 Which men clepeth the Milky Wey,
 For hit is whyt."
—Geoffrey Chaucer. The House of Fame, c. 1380.[14]
When William Herschel constructed his catalog of deep sky objects, he used the name spiral nebula for certain
objects such as M31. These would later be recognized as immense conglomerations of stars, when the true distance
to these objects began to be appreciated, and they would be termed island universes. However, the word Universe
was understood to mean the entirety of existence, so this expression fell into disuse and the objects instead became
known as galaxies.[15]

Observation history
The realization that we live in a galaxy, and that there were, in fact, many other galaxies, parallels discoveries that
were made about the Milky Way and other nebulae in the night sky.

The Milky Way

The Greek philosopher Democritus (450–370 B.C.)
proposed that the bright band on the night sky known
as the Milky Way might consist of distant stars.[16]
Aristotle (384–322 B.C.), however, believed the Milky
Way to be caused by "the ignition of the fiery
exhalation of some stars which were large, numerous
and close together" and that the "ignition takes place in
the upper part of the atmosphere, in the region of the
world which is continuous with the heavenly
motions."[17] The Neoplatonist philosopher
Olympiodorus the Younger (c. 495-570 A.D.) criticized
Galactic Center of Milky Way and a meteor
this view, arguing that if the Milky Way were
sublunary it should appear different at different times
and places on the Earth, and that it should have parallax, which it does not. In his view, the Milky Way was celestial.
This idea would be influential later in the Islamic world.[18]
Galaxy 20

The Arabian astronomer, Alhazen (965–1037), made the first attempt at observing and measuring the Milky Way's
parallax,[19] and he thus "determined that because the Milky Way had no parallax, it was very remote from the Earth
and did not belong to the atmosphere."[20] The Persian astronomer Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī (973–1048) proposed the
Milky Way galaxy to be "a collection of countless fragments of the nature of nebulous stars."[21] The Andalusian
astronomer Ibn Bajjah ("Avempace", d. 1138) proposed that the Milky Way was made up of many stars that almost
touch one another and appear to be a continuous image due to the effect of refraction from sublunary material,[17] [22]
citing his observation of the conjunction of Jupiter and Mars as evidence of this occurring when two objects are
near.[17] The Syrian-born Ibn Qayyim Al-Jawziyya (1292–1350) proposed the Milky Way galaxy to be "a myriad of
tiny stars packed together in the sphere of the fixed stars".[23]
Actual proof of the Milky Way consisting of many stars came in 1610 when Galileo Galilei used a telescope to study
the Milky Way and discovered that it is composed of a huge number of faint stars.[24] In 1750 Thomas Wright, in his
An original theory or new hypothesis of the Universe, speculated (correctly) that the galaxy might be a rotating body
of a huge number of stars held together by gravitational forces, akin to the solar system but on a much larger scale.
The resulting disk of stars can be seen as a band on the sky from our perspective inside the disk.[25] In a treatise in
1755, Immanuel Kant elaborated on Wright's idea about the structure of the Milky Way.
The first attempt to describe the shape of the Milky
Way and the position of the Sun in it was carried out by
William Herschel in 1785 by carefully counting the
number of stars in different regions of the sky. He
produced a diagram of the shape of the galaxy with the
The shape of the Milky Way as deduced from star counts by William solar system close to the center.[26] [27] Using a refined
Herschel in 1785; the solar system was assumed to be near the approach, Kapteyn in 1920 arrived at the picture of a
center.
small (diameter about 15 kiloparsecs) ellipsoid galaxy
with the Sun close to the center. A different method by
Harlow Shapley based on the cataloguing of globular clusters led to a radically different picture: a flat disk with
diameter approximately 70 kiloparsecs and the Sun far from the center.[25] Both analyses failed to take into account
the absorption of light by interstellar dust present in the galactic plane, but after Robert Julius Trumpler quantified
this effect in 1930 by studying open clusters, the present picture of our galaxy, the Milky Way, emerged.[28]

Distinction from other nebulae

In the 10th century, the Persian astronomer, Abd
al-Rahman al-Sufi (known in the West as Azophi),
made the earliest recorded observation of the
Andromeda Galaxy, describing it as a "small cloud".[29]
Al-Sufi also identified the Large Magellanic Cloud,
which is visible from Yemen, though not from Isfahan;
it was not seen by Europeans until Magellan's voyage
in the 16th century.[30] [31] These were the first galaxies
other than the Milky Way to be observed from Earth.
Al-Sufi published his findings in his Book of Fixed
Stars in 964.

In 1750 Thomas Wright, in his An original theory or

new hypothesis of the Universe, speculated (correctly)
Sketch of the Whirlpool Galaxy by Lord Rosse in 1845
that Milky Way was a flattened disk of stars, and that
Galaxy 21

some of the nebulae visible in the night sky might be separate Milky Ways.[25] [32]
In 1755 Immanuel Kant
introduced the term "island universe" for these distant nebulae.
Toward the end of the 18th century, Charles Messier compiled a catalog containing the 109 brightest nebulae
(celestial objects with a nebulous appearance), later followed by a larger catalog of 5,000 nebulae assembled by
William Herschel.[25] In 1845, Lord Rosse constructed a new telescope and was able to distinguish between elliptical
and spiral nebulae. He also managed to make out individual point sources in some of these nebulae, lending credence
to Kant's earlier conjecture.[33]
In 1912, Vesto Slipher made spectrographic studies of the brightest spiral nebulae to determine if they were made
from chemicals that would be expected in a planetary system. However, Slipher discovered that the spiral nebulae
had high red shifts, indicating that they were moving away at rate higher than the Milky Way's escape velocity. Thus
they were not gravitationally bound to the Milky Way, and were unlikely to be a part of the galaxy.[34] [35]
In 1917, Heber Curtis had observed a nova S Andromedae within the "Great Andromeda Nebula" (Messier object
M31). Searching the photographic record, he found 11 more novae. Curtis noticed that these novae were, on average,
10 magnitudes fainter than those that occurred within our galaxy. As a result he was able to come up with a distance
estimate of 150,000 parsecs. He became a proponent of the so-called "island universes" hypothesis, which holds that
spiral nebulae are actually independent galaxies.[36]
In 1920 the so-called Great Debate took place between
Harlow Shapley and Heber Curtis, concerning the
nature of the Milky Way, spiral nebulae, and the
dimensions of the Universe. To support his claim that
the Great Andromeda Nebula was an external galaxy,
Curtis noted the appearance of dark lanes resembling
the dust clouds in the Milky Way, as well as the
significant Doppler shift.[37]

The matter was conclusively settled in the early 1920s.

In 1922, astronomer Ernst Öpik gave a distance
Photograph of the "Great Andromeda Nebula" from 1899, later determination which supported the theory that the
identified as the Andromeda Galaxy
Andromeda Nebula is indeed a distant extra-galactic
object.[38] Using the new 100 inch Mt. Wilson
telescope, Edwin Hubble was able to resolve the outer parts of some spiral nebulae as collections of individual stars
and identified some Cepheid variables, thus allowing him to estimate the distance to the nebulae: they were far too
distant to be part of the Milky Way.[39] In 1936 Hubble produced a classification system for galaxies that is used to
this day, the Hubble sequence.[40]

Modern research
Galaxy 22

In 1944 Hendrik van de Hulst predicted microwave radiation at a

wavelength of 21 cm resulting from interstellar atomic hydrogen
gas;[41] this radiation was observed in 1951. The radiation allowed for
much improved study of the Milky Way Galaxy, since it is not affected
by dust absorption and its Doppler shift can be used to map the motion
of the gas in the Galaxy. These observations led to the postulation of a
rotating bar structure in the center of the Galaxy.[42] With improved
radio telescopes, hydrogen gas could also be traced in other galaxies. Rotation curve of a typical spiral galaxy:
predicted (A) and observed (B). The distance is
In the 1970s it was discovered in Vera Rubin's study of the rotation from the galactic core.
speed of gas in galaxies that the total visible mass (from the stars and
gas) does not properly account for the speed of the rotating gas. This galaxy rotation problem is thought to be
explained by the presence of large quantities of unseen dark matter.[43] [44]
Beginning in the 1990s, the Hubble Space Telescope yielded improved observations. Among other things, it
established that the missing dark matter in our galaxy cannot solely consist of inherently faint and small stars.[45] The
Hubble Deep Field, an extremely long exposure of a relatively empty part of the sky, provided evidence that there
are about 125 billion (1.25×1011) galaxies in the universe.[46] Improved technology in detecting the spectra invisible
to humans (radio telescopes, infrared cameras, and x-ray telescopes) allow detection of other galaxies that are not
detected by Hubble. Particularly, galaxy surveys in the zone of avoidance (the region of the sky blocked by the
Milky Way) have revealed a number of new galaxies.[47]

Types and morphology

Galaxies come in three main types:
ellipticals, spirals, and irregulars. A
slightly more extensive description of
galaxy types based on their appearance
is given by the Hubble sequence. Since
the Hubble sequence is entirely based
upon visual morphological type, it may
miss certain important characteristics
of galaxies such as star formation rate
(in starburst galaxies) and activity in
the core (in active galaxies).[6]
Types of galaxies according to the Hubble classification scheme. An E indicates a type of
[48]
Ellipticals elliptical galaxy; an S is a spiral; and SB is a barred-spiral galaxy.

The Hubble classification system rates elliptical galaxies on the basis of their ellipticity, ranging from E0, being
nearly spherical, up to E7, which is highly elongated. These galaxies have an ellipsoidal profile, giving them an
elliptical appearance regardless of the viewing angle. Their appearance shows little structure and they typically have
relatively little interstellar matter. Consequently these galaxies also have a low portion of open clusters and a
reduced rate of new star formation. Instead they are dominated by generally older, more evolved stars that are
orbiting the common center of gravity in random directions. In this sense they have some similarity to the much
smaller globular clusters.[49]

The largest galaxies are giant ellipticals. Many elliptical galaxies are believed to form due to the interaction of
galaxies, resulting in a collision and merger. They can grow to enormous sizes (compared to spiral galaxies, for
example), and giant elliptical galaxies are often found near the core of large galaxy clusters.[50] Starburst galaxies are
Galaxy 23

the result of such a galactic collision that can result in the formation of an elliptical galaxy.[49]

Spirals
Spiral galaxies consist of a rotating disk of stars and interstellar
medium, along with a central bulge of generally older stars. Extending
outward from the bulge are relatively bright arms. In the Hubble
classification scheme, spiral galaxies are listed as type S, followed by a
letter (a, b, or c) that indicates the degree of tightness of the spiral arms
and the size of the central bulge. An Sa galaxy has tightly wound,
poorly defined arms and possesses a relatively large core region. At the
other extreme, an Sc galaxy has open, well-defined arms and a small
core region.[51] The Whirlpool Galaxy (on left), an example of an
unbarred spiral galaxy.
In spiral galaxies, the spiral arms do have the shape of approximate
logarithmic spirals, a pattern that can be theoretically shown to result
from a disturbance in a uniformly rotating mass of stars. Like the stars, the spiral arms rotate around the center, but
they do so with constant angular velocity. The spiral arms are thought to be areas of high density matter, or "density
waves". As stars move through an arm, the space velocity of each stellar system is modified by the gravitational
force of the higher density. (The velocity returns to normal after the stars depart on the other side of the arm.) This
effect is akin to a "wave" of slowdowns moving along a highway full of moving cars. The arms are visible because
the high density facilitates star formation, and therefore they harbor many bright and young stars.

A majority of spiral galaxies have a linear,

bar-shaped band of stars that extends
outward to either side of the core, then
merges into the spiral arm structure.[52] In
the Hubble classification scheme, these are
designated by an SB, followed by a
lower-case letter (a, b or c) that indicates the
form of the spiral arms (in the same manner
as the categorization of normal spiral
galaxies). Bars are thought to be temporary
structures that can occur as a result of a
NGC 1300, an example of a barred spiral galaxy. density wave radiating outward from the
core, or else due to a tidal interaction with
[53]
another galaxy. Many barred spiral galaxies are active, possibly as a result of gas being channeled into the core
[54]
along the arms.

Our own galaxy is a large disk-shaped barred-spiral galaxy[55] about 30 kiloparsecs in diameter and a kiloparsec in
thickness. It contains about two hundred billion (2×1011)[56] stars and has a total mass of about six hundred billion
(6×1011) times the mass of the Sun.[57]
Galaxy 24

Other morphologies
Peculiar galaxies are galactic formations that develop unusual
properties due to tidal interactions with other galaxies. An example of
this is the ring galaxy, which possesses a ring-like structure of stars and
interstellar medium surrounding a bare core. A ring galaxy is thought
to occur when a smaller galaxy passes through the core of a spiral
galaxy.[58] Such an event may have affected the Andromeda Galaxy, as
it displays a multi-ring-like structure when viewed in infrared
radiation.[59]

A lenticular galaxy is an intermediate form that has properties of both

elliptical and spiral galaxies. These are categorized as Hubble type S0,
and they possess ill-defined spiral arms with an elliptical halo of
stars.[60] (Barred lenticular galaxies receive Hubble classification Hoag's Object, an example of a ring galaxy.

SB0.)

In addition to the classifications mentioned above, there are a

number of galaxies that can not be readily classified into an
elliptical or spiral morphology. These are categorized as irregular
galaxies. An Irr-I galaxy has some structure but does not align
cleanly with the Hubble classification scheme. Irr-II galaxies do
not possess any structure that resembles a Hubble classification,
and may have been disrupted.[61] Nearby examples of (dwarf)
irregular galaxies include the Magellanic Clouds.

Dwarfs
Despite the prominence of large elliptical and spiral galaxies, most
galaxies in the universe appear to be dwarf galaxies. These
galaxies are relatively small when compared with other galactic
formations, being about one hundredth the size of the Milky Way,
NGC 5866, an example of a lenticular galaxy. Credit: containing only a few billion stars. Ultra-compact dwarf galaxies
NASA/ESA.
have recently been discovered that are only 100 parsecs across.[62]

Many dwarf galaxies may orbit a single larger galaxy; the Milky
Way has at least a dozen such satellites, with an estimated 300–500 yet to be discovered.[63] Dwarf galaxies may
also be classified as elliptical, spiral, or irregular. Since small dwarf ellipticals bear little resemblance to large
ellipticals, they are often called dwarf spheroidal galaxies instead.
A study of 27 Milky Way neighbors found that dwarf galaxies were all approximately 10 million solar masses,
regardless of whether they have thousands or millions of stars. This has led to the suggestion that galaxies are largely
formed by dark matter, and that the minimum size may indicate a form of warm dark matter incapable of
gravitational coalescence on a smaller scale.[64]
Galaxy 25

Unusual dynamics and activities

Interacting
The average separation between galaxies within a cluster is a little over an order of magnitude larger than their
diameter. Hence interactions between these galaxies are relatively frequent, and play an important role in their
evolution. Near misses between galaxies result in warping distortions due to tidal interactions, and may cause some
exchange of gas and dust.[65] [66]
Collisions occur when two galaxies pass directly
through each other and have sufficient relative
momentum not to merge. The stars within these
interacting galaxies will typically pass straight
through without colliding. However, the gas and
dust within the two forms will interact. This can
trigger bursts of star formation as the interstellar
medium becomes disrupted and compressed. A
collision can severely distort the shape of one or
both galaxies, forming bars, rings or tail-like
structures.[65] [66]

At the extreme of interactions are galactic

mergers. In this case the relative momentum of
the two galaxies is insufficient to allow the
galaxies to pass through each other. Instead, they
gradually merge together to form a single, larger
galaxy. Mergers can result in significant changes
The Antennae Galaxies are undergoing a collision that will result in their
to morphology, as compared to the original
eventual merger.
galaxies. In the case where one of the galaxies is
much more massive, however, the result is
known as cannibalism. In this case the larger galaxy will remain relatively undisturbed by the merger, while the
smaller galaxy is torn apart. The Milky Way galaxy is currently in the process of cannibalizing the Sagittarius Dwarf
Elliptical Galaxy and the Canis Major Dwarf Galaxy.[65] [66]
Galaxy 26

Starburst
Stars are created within galaxies from a reserve
of cold gas that forms into giant molecular
clouds. Some galaxies have been observed to
form stars at an exceptional rate, known as a
starburst. Should they continue to do so,
however, they would consume their reserve of
gas in a time frame lower than the lifespan of the
galaxy. Hence starburst activity usually lasts for
only about ten million years, a relatively brief
period in the history of a galaxy. Starburst
galaxies were more common during the early
history of the universe,[68] and, at present, still
contribute an estimated 15% to the total star
production rate.[69] [67]
M82, the archetype starburst galaxy, has experienced a 10-fold increase
Starburst galaxies are characterized by dusty in star formation rate as compared to a "normal" galaxy.

concentrations of gas and the appearance of

newly formed stars, including massive stars that ionize the surrounding clouds to create H II regions.[70] These
massive stars produce supernova explosions, resulting in expanding remnants that interact powerfully with the
surrounding gas. These outbursts trigger a chain reaction of star building that spreads throughout the gaseous region.
Only when the available gas is nearly consumed or dispersed does the starburst activity come to an end.[68]

Starbursts are often associated with merging or interacting galaxies. The prototype example of such a
starburst-forming interaction is M82, which experienced a close encounter with the larger M81. Irregular galaxies
often exhibit spaced knots of starburst activity.[71]

Active nucleus
A portion of the galaxies we can observe are classified as active. That is, a significant portion of the total energy
output from the galaxy is emitted by a source other than the stars, dust and interstellar medium.
The standard model for an active galactic nucleus is based upon an accretion disc that forms around a supermassive
black hole (SMBH) at the core region. The radiation from an active galactic nucleus results from the gravitational
energy of matter as it falls toward the black hole from the disc.[72] In about 10% of these objects, a diametrically
opposed pair of energetic jets ejects particles from the core at velocities close to the speed of light. The mechanism
for producing these jets is still not well understood.[73]
Galaxy 27

Active galaxies that emit high-energy radiation

in the form of x-rays are classified as Seyfert
galaxies or quasars, depending on the
luminosity. Blazars are believed to be an active
galaxy with a relativistic jet that is pointed in the
direction of the Earth. A radio galaxy emits radio
frequencies from relativistic jets. A unified
model of these types of active galaxies explains
their differences based on the viewing angle of
the observer.[73]

Possibly related to active galactic nuclei (as well

as starburst regions) are low-ionization nuclear
emission-line regions (LINERs). The emission
from LINER-type galaxies is dominated by
weakly ionized elements.[74] Approximately
one-third of nearby galaxies are classified as
containing LINER nuclei.[72] [74] [75]

A jet of particles is being emitted from the core of the elliptical radio galaxy
M87. Formation and evolution
The study of galactic formation and evolution
attempts to answer questions regarding how galaxies formed and their evolutionary path over the history of the
universe. Some theories in this field have now become widely accepted, but it is still an active area in astrophysics.

Formation
Current cosmological models of the early Universe are based on the Big Bang theory. About 300,000 years after this
event, atoms of hydrogen and helium began to form, in an event called recombination. Nearly all the hydrogen was
neutral (non-ionized) and readily absorbed light, and no stars had yet formed. As a result this period has been called
the "Dark Ages". It was from density fluctuations (or anisotropic irregularities) in this primordial matter that larger
structures began to appear. As a result, masses of baryonic matter started to condense within cold dark matter
halos.[76] These primordial structures would eventually become the galaxies we see today.
Evidence for the early appearance of galaxies was found in 2006, when it was discovered that the galaxy IOK-1 has
an unusually high redshift of 6.96, corresponding to just 750 million years after the Big Bang and making it the most
distant and primordial galaxy yet seen.[77] While some scientists have claimed other objects (such as Abell 1835
IR1916) have higher redshifts (and therefore are seen in an earlier stage of the Universe's evolution), IOK-1's age
and composition have been more reliably established. The existence of such early protogalaxies suggests that they
must have grown in the so-called "Dark Ages".[76]
The detailed process by which such early galaxy formation occurred is a major open question in astronomy. Theories
could be divided into two categories: top-down and bottom-up. In top-down theories (such as the
Eggen–Lynden-Bell–Sandage [ELS] model), protogalaxies form in a large-scale simultaneous collapse lasting about
one hundred million years.[78] In bottom-up theories (such as the Searle-Zinn [SZ] model), small structures such as
globular clusters form first, and then a number of such bodies accrete to form a larger galaxy.[79] Modern theories
must be modified to account for the probable presence of large dark matter halos.
Once protogalaxies began to form and contract, the first halo stars (called Population III stars) appeared within them.
These were composed almost entirely of hydrogen and helium, and may have been massive. If so, these huge stars
would have quickly consumed their supply of fuel and became supernovae, releasing heavy elements into the
Galaxy 28

interstellar medium.[80] This first generation of stars re-ionized the surrounding neutral hydrogen, creating expanding
bubbles of space through which light could readily travel.[81]

Evolution
Within a billion years of a galaxy's formation,
key structures begin to appear. Globular clusters,
the central supermassive black hole, and a
galactic bulge of metal-poor Population II stars
form. The creation of a supermassive black hole
appears to play a key role in actively regulating
the growth of galaxies by limiting the total
amount of additional matter added.[84] During
this early epoch, galaxies undergo a major burst
of star formation.[85]

During the following two billion years, the

accumulated matter settles into a galactic
disc.[86] A galaxy will continue to absorb
infalling material from high velocity clouds and
dwarf galaxies throughout its life.[87] This matter
is mostly hydrogen and helium. The cycle of
stellar birth and death slowly increases the [82] [83]
I Zwicky 18 (lower left) resembles a newly formed galaxy.
abundance of heavy elements, eventually
allowing the formation of planets.[88]

The evolution of galaxies can be significantly affected by interactions and collisions. Mergers of galaxies were
common during the early epoch, and the majority of galaxies were peculiar in morphology.[89] Given the distances
between the stars, the great majority of stellar systems in colliding galaxies will be unaffected. However,
gravitational stripping of the interstellar gas and dust that makes up the spiral arms produces a long train of stars
known as tidal tails. Examples of these formations can be seen in NGC 4676[90] or the Antennae Galaxies.[91]
As an example of such an interaction, the Milky Way galaxy and the nearby Andromeda Galaxy are moving toward
each other at about 130 km/s, and—depending upon the lateral movements—the two may collide in about five to six
billion years. Although the Milky Way has never collided with a galaxy as large as Andromeda before, evidence of
past collisions of the Milky Way with smaller dwarf galaxies is increasing.[92]
Such large-scale interactions are rare. As time passes, mergers of two systems of equal size become less common.
Most bright galaxies have remained fundamentally unchanged for the last few billion years, and the net rate of star
formation probably also peaked approximately ten billion years ago.[93]

Future trends
At present, most star formation occurs in smaller galaxies where cool gas is not so depleted.[89] Spiral galaxies, like
the Milky Way, only produce new generations of stars as long as they have dense molecular clouds of interstellar
hydrogen in their spiral arms.[94] Elliptical galaxies are already largely devoid of this gas, and so form no new
stars.[95] The supply of star-forming material is finite; once stars have converted the available supply of hydrogen
into heavier elements, new star formation will come to an end.[96]
The current era of star formation is expected to continue for up to one hundred billion years, and then the "stellar
age" will wind down after about ten trillion to one hundred trillion years (1013–1014 years), as the smallest,
longest-lived stars in our astrosphere, tiny red dwarfs, begin to fade. At the end of the stellar age, galaxies will be
Galaxy 29

composed of compact objects: brown dwarfs, white dwarfs that are cooling or cold ("black dwarfs"), neutron stars,
and black holes. Eventually, as a result of gravitational relaxation, all stars will either fall into central supermassive
black holes or be flung into intergalactic space as a result of collisions.[96] [97]

Larger-scale structures
Deep sky surveys show that galaxies are often found in relatively close association with other galaxies. Solitary
galaxies that have not significantly interacted with another galaxy of comparable mass during the past billion years
are relatively scarce. Only about 5% of the galaxies surveyed have been found to be truly isolated; however, these
isolated formations may have interacted and even merged with other galaxies in the past, and may still be orbited by
smaller, satellite galaxies. Isolated galaxies[98] can produce stars at a higher rate than normal, as their gas is not being
stripped by other, nearby galaxies.[99]
On the largest scale, the universe is continually expanding, resulting in an average increase in the separation between
individual galaxies (see Hubble's law). Associations of galaxies can overcome this expansion on a local scale
through their mutual gravitational attraction. These associations formed early in the universe, as clumps of dark
matter pulled their respective galaxies together. Nearby groups later merged to form larger-scale clusters. This
on-going merger process (as well as an influx of infalling gas) heats the inter-galactic gas within a cluster to very
high temperatures, reaching 30–100 megakelvins.[100] About 70–80% of the mass in a cluster is in the form of dark
matter, with 10–30% consisting of this heated gas and the remaining few percent of the matter in the form of
galaxies.[101]
Most galaxies in the universe are gravitationally
bound to a number of other galaxies. These form
a fractal-like hierarchy of clustered structures,
with the smallest such associations being termed
groups. A group of galaxies is the most common
type of galactic cluster, and these formations
contain a majority of the galaxies (as well as
most of the baryonic mass) in the universe.[102]
[103]
To remain gravitationally bound to such a
group, each member galaxy must have a
sufficiently low velocity to prevent it from
escaping (see Virial theorem). If there is
insufficient kinetic energy, however, the group
may evolve into a smaller number of galaxies
through mergers.[104]

Larger structures containing many thousands of

Seyfert's Sextet is an example of a compact galaxy group.
galaxies packed into an area a few megaparsecs
across are called clusters. Clusters of galaxies
are often dominated by a single giant elliptical galaxy, known as the brightest cluster galaxy, which, over time,
tidally destroys its satellite galaxies and adds their mass to its own.[105]
Superclusters contain tens of thousands of galaxies, which are found in clusters, groups and sometimes individually.
At the supercluster scale, galaxies are arranged into sheets and filaments surrounding vast empty voids.[106] Above
this scale, the universe appears to be isotropic and homogeneous.[107]
The Milky Way galaxy is a member of an association named the Local Group, a relatively small group of galaxies
that has a diameter of approximately one megaparsec. The Milky Way and the Andromeda Galaxy are the two
brightest galaxies within the group; many of the other member galaxies are dwarf companions of these two
Galaxy 30

galaxies.[108] The Local Group itself is a part of a cloud-like structure within the Virgo Supercluster, a large,
extended structure of groups and clusters of galaxies centered around the Virgo Cluster.[109]

Multi-wavelength observation
After galaxies external to the Milky Way were found to exist, initial observations were made mostly using visible
light. The peak radiation of most stars lies here, so the observation of the stars that form galaxies has been a major
component of optical astronomy. It is also a favorable portion of the spectrum for observing ionized H II regions,
and for examining the distribution of dusty arms.
The dust present in the interstellar medium is opaque to visual light. It is more transparent to far-infrared, which can
be used to observe the interior regions of giant molecular clouds and galactic cores in great detail.[110] Infrared is
also used to observe distant, red-shifted galaxies that were formed much earlier in the history of the universe. Water
vapor and carbon dioxide absorb a number of useful portions of the infrared spectrum, so high-altitude or
space-based telescopes are used for infrared astronomy.
The first non-visual study of galaxies, particularly active galaxies, was made using radio frequencies. The
atmosphere is nearly transparent to radio between 5 MHz and 30 GHz. (The ionosphere blocks signals below this
range.)[111] Large radio interferometers have been used to map the active jets emitted from active nuclei. Radio
telescopes can also be used to observe neutral hydrogen (via 21 centimetre radiation), including, potentially, the
non-ionized matter in the early universe that later collapsed to form galaxies.[112]
Ultraviolet and X-ray telescopes can observe highly energetic galactic phenomena. An ultraviolet flare was observed
when a star in a distant galaxy was torn apart from the tidal forces of a black hole.[113] The distribution of hot gas in
galactic clusters can be mapped by X-rays. The existence of super-massive black holes at the cores of galaxies was
confirmed through X-ray astronomy.[114]

See also
• Galactic orientation
• List of galaxies
• List of nearest galaxies
• Luminous infrared galaxy
• Supermassive black hole
• Timeline of knowledge about galaxies, clusters of galaxies, and large-scale structure
• Galaxy formation and evolution
• Dark galaxy

Bibliography
• Dickinson, Terence (2004). The Universe and Beyond (4th ed.). Firefly Books Ltd.. ISBN 1552979016.
OCLC 55596414.
• James Binney, Michael Merrifield (1998). Galactic Astronomy. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0691004021.
OCLC 39108765.

External links
• Galaxies, SEDS Messier pages [115]
• An Atlas of The Universe [116]
• Galaxies — Information and amateur observations [117]
• The Oldest Galaxy Yet Found [118]
• Galaxies — discussed on BBC Radio 4's "In Our Time" programme [119]
Galaxy 31

• Galaxy classification project, harnessing the power of the internet and the human brain [120]
• How many galaxies are in our universe? [121]

References
[1] Sparke, L. S.; Gallagher III, J. S. (2000). Galaxies in the Universe: An Introduction. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
ISBN 0-521-59704-4.
[2] Hupp, E.; Roy, S.; Watzke, M. (2006-08-12). "NASA Finds Direct Proof of Dark Matter" (http:/ / www. nasa. gov/ home/ hqnews/ 2006/ aug/
HQ_06297_CHANDRA_Dark_Matter. html). NASA. . Retrieved 2007-04-17.
[3] "Unveiling the Secret of a Virgo Dwarf Galaxy" (http:/ / www. eso. org/ outreach/ press-rel/ pr-2000/ pr-12-00. html). ESO. 2000-05-03. .
Retrieved 2007-01-03.
[4] Wilford, John Noble (1990-10-26). "Sighting of Largest Galaxy Hints Clues on the Clustering of Matter" (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 1990/
10/ 26/ us/ sighting-of-largest-galaxy-hints-clues-on-the-clustering-of-matter. html). New York Times. . Retrieved 2010-05-06.
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[115] http:/ / www. seds. org/ messier/ galaxy. html
[116] http:/ / www. atlasoftheuniverse. com/
[117] http:/ / www. nightskyinfo. com/ galaxies
[118] http:/ / science. nasa. gov/ headlines/ y2002/ 08feb_gravlens. htm
[119] http:/ / www. bbc. co. uk/ radio4/ history/ inourtime/ inourtime_20060629. shtml
Galaxy 35

[120] http:/ / www. galaxyzoo. org

[121] http:/ / www. physics. org/ facts/ sand-galaxies. asp

Star
A star is a massive, luminous ball of plasma
held together by gravity. The nearest star to
Earth is the Sun, which is the source of most
of the energy on Earth. Other stars are
visible in the night sky, when they are not
outshone by the Sun. Historically, the most
prominent stars on the celestial sphere were
grouped together into constellations and
asterisms, and the brightest stars gained
proper names. Extensive catalogues of stars
have been assembled by astronomers, which
provide standardized star designations.
A star-forming region in the Large Magellanic Cloud. NASA/ESA image.
For at least a portion of its life, a star shines
due to thermonuclear fusion of hydrogen in
its core releasing energy that traverses the star's interior and then radiates into outer space. Almost all naturally
occurring elements heavier than helium were created by stars, either via stellar nucleosynthesis during their lifetimes
or by supernova nucleosynthesis when stars explode. Astronomers can determine the mass, age, chemical
composition and many other properties of a star by observing its spectrum, luminosity and motion through space.
The total mass of a star is the principal determinant in its evolution and eventual fate. Other characteristics of a star
are determined by its evolutionary history, including diameter, rotation, movement and temperature. A plot of the
temperature of many stars against their luminosities, known as a Hertzsprung-Russell diagram (H–R diagram),
allows the age and evolutionary state of a star to be determined.

A star begins as a collapsing cloud of material composed primarily of hydrogen, along with helium and trace
amounts of heavier elements. Once the stellar core is sufficiently dense, some of the hydrogen is steadily converted
into helium through the process of nuclear fusion.[1] The remainder of the star's interior carries energy away from the
core through a combination of radiative and convective processes. The star's internal pressure prevents it from
collapsing further under its own gravity. Once the hydrogen fuel at the core is exhausted, those stars having at least
0.4 times the mass of the Sun[2] expand to become a red giant, in some cases fusing heavier elements at the core or in
shells around the core. The star then evolves into a degenerate form, recycling a portion of the matter into the
interstellar environment, where it will form a new generation of stars with a higher proportion of heavy elements.[3]
Binary and multi-star systems consist of two or more stars that are gravitationally bound, and generally move around
each other in stable orbits. When two such stars have a relatively close orbit, their gravitational interaction can have
a significant impact on their evolution.[4] Stars can form part of a much larger gravitationally bound structure, such
as a cluster or a galaxy.
Star 36

Observation history
Historically, stars have been important to civilizations
throughout the world. They have been part of religious
practices and used for celestial navigation and orientation.
Many ancient astronomers believed that stars were
permanently affixed to a heavenly sphere, and that they were
immutable. By convention, astronomers grouped stars into
constellations and used them to track the motions of the
planets and the inferred position of the Sun.[5] The motion of
the Sun against the background stars (and the horizon) was
used to create calendars, which could be used to regulate
agricultural practices.[7] The Gregorian calendar, currently People have seen patterns in the stars since ancient times.
[5]

used nearly everywhere in the world, is a solar calendar based This 1690 depiction of the constellation of Leo, the lion, is
[6]
on the angle of the Earth's rotational axis relative to its local by Johannes Hevelius.

star, the Sun.

The oldest accurately dated star chart appeared in ancient Egyptian astronomy in 1534 BC.[8] The earliest known star
catalogues were compiled by the ancient Babylonian astronomers of Mesopotamia in the late 2nd millennium BC,
during the Kassite Period (ca. 1531-1155 BC).[9]
The first star catalogue in Greek astronomy was created by Aristillus in approximately 300 BC, with the help of
Timocharis.[10] The star catalog of Hipparchus (2nd century BC) included 1020 stars and was used to assemble
Ptolemy's star catalogue.[11] Hipparchus is known for the discovery of the first recorded nova (new star).[12] Many of
the constellations and star names in use today derive from Greek astronomy.
In spite of the apparent immutability of the heavens, Chinese astronomers were aware that new stars could
appear.[13] In 185 AD, they were the first to observe and write about a supernova, now known as the SN 185.[14] The
brightest stellar event in recorded history was the SN 1006 supernova, which was observed in 1006 and written about
by the Egyptian astronomer Ali ibn Ridwan and several Chinese astronomers.[15] The SN 1054 supernova, which
gave birth to the Crab Nebula, was also observed by Chinese and Islamic astronomers.[16] [17] [18]
Medieval Islamic astronomers gave Arabic names to many stars that are still used today, and they invented numerous
astronomical instruments that could compute the positions of the stars. They built the first large observatory research
institutes, mainly for the purpose of producing Zij star catalogues.[19] Among these, the Book of Fixed Stars (964)
was written by the Persian astronomer Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi, who discovered a number of stars, star clusters
(including the Omicron Velorum and Brocchi's Clusters) and galaxies (including the Andromeda Galaxy).[20] In the
11th century, the Persian polymath scholar Abu Rayhan Biruni described the Milky Way galaxy as a multitude of
fragments having the properties of nebulous stars, and also gave the latitudes of various stars during a lunar eclipse
in 1019.[21]
The Andalusian astronomer Ibn Bajjah proposed that the Milky Way was made up of many stars which almost
touched one another and appeared to be a continuous image due to the effect of refraction from sublunary material,
citing his observation of the conjunction of Jupiter and Mars on 500 AH (1106/1107 AD) as evidence.[22]
Early European astronomers such as Tycho Brahe identified new stars in the night sky (later termed novae),
suggesting that the heavens were not immutable. In 1584 Giordano Bruno suggested that the stars were actually
other suns, and may have other planets, possibly even Earth-like, in orbit around them,[23] an idea that had been
suggested earlier by the ancient Greek philosophers, Democritus and Epicurus,[24] and by medieval Islamic
cosmologists[25] such as Fakhr al-Din al-Razi.[26] By the following century, the idea of the stars as distant suns was
reaching a consensus among astronomers. To explain why these stars exerted no net gravitational pull on the solar
system, Isaac Newton suggested that the stars were equally distributed in every direction, an idea prompted by the
Star 37

theologian Richard Bentley.[27]

The Italian astronomer Geminiano Montanari recorded observing variations in luminosity of the star Algol in 1667.
Edmond Halley published the first measurements of the proper motion of a pair of nearby "fixed" stars,
demonstrating that they had changed positions from the time of the ancient Greek astronomers Ptolemy and
Hipparchus. The first direct measurement of the distance to a star (61 Cygni at 11.4 light-years) was made in 1838
by Friedrich Bessel using the parallax technique. Parallax measurements demonstrated the vast separation of the
stars in the heavens.[23]
William Herschel was the first astronomer to attempt to determine the distribution of stars in the sky. During the
1780s, he performed a series of gauges in 600 directions, and counted the stars observed along each line of sight.
From this he deduced that the number of stars steadily increased toward one side of the sky, in the direction of the
Milky Way core. His son John Herschel repeated this study in the southern hemisphere and found a corresponding
increase in the same direction.[28] In addition to his other accomplishments, William Herschel is also noted for his
discovery that some stars do not merely lie along the same line of sight, but are also physical companions that form
binary star systems.
The science of stellar spectroscopy was pioneered by Joseph von Fraunhofer and Angelo Secchi. By comparing the
spectra of stars such as Sirius to the Sun, they found differences in the strength and number of their absorption
lines—the dark lines in a stellar spectra due to the absorption of specific frequencies by the atmosphere. In 1865
Secchi began classifying stars into spectral types.[29] However, the modern version of the stellar classification
scheme was developed by Annie J. Cannon during the 1900s.
Observation of double stars gained increasing importance during the 19th century. In 1834, Friedrich Bessel
observed changes in the proper motion of the star Sirius, and inferred a hidden companion. Edward Pickering
discovered the first spectroscopic binary in 1899 when he observed the periodic splitting of the spectral lines of the
star Mizar in a 104 day period. Detailed observations of many binary star systems were collected by astronomers
such as William Struve and S. W. Burnham, allowing the masses of stars to be determined from computation of the
orbital elements. The first solution to the problem of deriving an orbit of binary stars from telescope observations
was made by Felix Savary in 1827.[30]
The twentieth century saw increasingly rapid advances in the scientific study of stars. The photograph became a
valuable astronomical tool. Karl Schwarzschild discovered that the color of a star, and hence its temperature, could
be determined by comparing the visual magnitude against the photographic magnitude. The development of the
photoelectric photometer allowed very precise measurements of magnitude at multiple wavelength intervals. In 1921
Albert A. Michelson made the first measurements of a stellar diameter using an interferometer on the Hooker
telescope.[31]
Important conceptual work on the physical basis of stars occurred during the first decades of the twentieth century.
In 1913, the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram was developed, propelling the astrophysical study of stars. Successful
models were developed to explain the interiors of stars and stellar evolution. The spectra of stars were also
successfully explained through advances in quantum physics. This allowed the chemical composition of the stellar
atmosphere to be determined.[32]
With the exception of supernovae, individual stars have primarily been observed in our Local Group of galaxies,[33]
and especially in the visible part of the Milky Way (as demonstrated by the detailed star catalogues available for our
galaxy[34] ). But some stars have been observed in the M100 galaxy of the Virgo Cluster, about 100 million light
years from the Earth.[35] In the Local Supercluster it is possible to see star clusters, and current telescopes could in
principle observe faint individual stars in the Local Cluster—the most distant stars resolved have up to hundred
million light years away[36] (see Cepheids). However, outside the Local Supercluster of galaxies, neither individual
stars nor clusters of stars have been observed. The only exception is a faint image of a large star cluster containing
hundreds of thousands of stars located one billion light years away[37] —ten times the distance of the most distant
star cluster previously observed.
Star 38

Designations
The concept of the constellation was known to exist during the Babylonian period. Ancient sky watchers imagined
that prominent arrangements of stars formed patterns, and they associated these with particular aspects of nature or
their myths. Twelve of these formations lay along the band of the ecliptic and these became the basis of astrology.[38]
Many of the more prominent individual stars were also given names, particularly with Arabic or Latin designations.
As well as certain constellations and the Sun itself, stars as a whole have their own myths.[39] To the Ancient Greeks,
some "stars," known as planets (Greek πλανήτης (planētēs), meaning "wanderer"), represented various important
deities, from which the names of the planets Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn were taken.[39] (Uranus and
Neptune were also Greek and Roman gods, but neither planet was known in Antiquity because of their low
brightness. Their names were assigned by later astronomers).
Circa 1600, the names of the constellations were used to name the stars in the corresponding regions of the sky. The
German astronomer Johann Bayer created a series of star maps and applied Greek letters as designations to the stars
in each constellation. Later a numbering system based on the star's right ascension was invented and added to John
Flamsteed's star catalogue in his book "Historia coelestis Britannica" (the 1712 edition), whereby this numbering
system came to be called Flamsteed designation or Flamsteed numbering.[40] [41]
Under space law, the only internationally recognized authority for naming celestial bodies is the International
Astronomical Union (IAU).[42] A number of private companies sell names of stars, which the British Library calls an
unregulated commercial enterprise.[43] [44] However, the IAU has disassociated itself from this commercial practice,
and these names are neither recognized by the IAU nor used by them.[45] One such star naming company is the
International Star Registry, which, during the 1980s, was accused of deceptive practice for making it appear that the
assigned name was official. This ISR practice has been informally labeled a scam and a fraud,[46] [47] [48] [49] and the
New York City Department of Consumer Affairs issued a violation against ISR for engaging in a deceptive trade
practice.[50] [51]

Units of measurement
Most stellar parameters are expressed in SI units by convention, but CGS units are also used (e.g., expressing
luminosity in ergs per second). Mass, luminosity, and radii are usually given in solar units, based on the
characteristics of the Sun:

solar mass: [52]

 kg

solar [52]
 watts
luminosity:

solar radius: [53]

m

Large lengths, such as the radius of a giant star or the semi-major axis of a binary star system, are often expressed in
terms of the astronomical unit (AU)—approximately the mean distance between the Earth and the Sun (150 million
km or 93 million miles).

Formation and evolution

Stars are formed within extended regions of higher density in the interstellar medium, although the density is still
lower than the inside of an earthly vacuum chamber. These regions are called molecular clouds and consist mostly of
hydrogen, with about 23–28% helium and a few percent heavier elements. One example of such a star-forming
region is the Orion Nebula.[54] As massive stars are formed from molecular clouds, they powerfully illuminate those
clouds. They also ionize the hydrogen, creating an H II region.
Star 39

Protostar formation
The formation of a star begins with a gravitational instability inside a molecular cloud, often triggered by shock
waves from supernovae (massive stellar explosions) or the collision of two galaxies (as in a starburst galaxy). Once a
region reaches a sufficient density of matter to satisfy the criteria for Jeans instability it begins to collapse under its
own gravitational force.[55]
As the cloud collapses, individual
conglomerations of dense dust and gas form
what are known as Bok globules. As a
globule collapses and the density increases,
the gravitational energy is converted into
heat and the temperature rises. When the
protostellar cloud has approximately
reached the stable condition of hydrostatic
equilibrium, a protostar forms at the core.[56]
These pre-main sequence stars are often
surrounded by a protoplanetary disk. The
period of gravitational contraction lasts for
about 10–15 million years.

Early stars of less than 2 solar masses are

Artist's conception of the birth of a star within a dense molecular cloud. NASA
called T Tauri stars, while those with greater image
mass are Herbig Ae/Be stars. These newly
born stars emit jets of gas along their axis of rotation, which may reduce the angular momentum of the collapsing
star and result in small patches of nebulosity known as Herbig-Haro objects.[57] [58] These jets, in combination with
radiation from nearby massive stars, may help to drive away the surrounding cloud in which the star was formed.[59]

Main sequence
Stars spend about 90% of their lifetime fusing hydrogen to produce helium in high-temperature and high-pressure
reactions near the core. Such stars are said to be on the main sequence and are called dwarf stars. Starting at zero-age
main sequence, the proportion of helium in a star's core will steadily increase. As a consequence, in order to maintain
the required rate of nuclear fusion at the core, the star will slowly increase in temperature and luminosity[60] –the
Sun, for example, is estimated to have increased in luminosity by about 40% since it reached the main sequence 4.6
billion years ago.[61]
Every star generates a stellar wind of particles that causes a continual outflow of gas into space. For most stars, the
amount of mass lost is negligible. The Sun loses 10−14 solar masses every year,[62] or about 0.01% of its total mass
over its entire lifespan. However very massive stars can lose 10−7 to 10−5 solar masses each year, significantly
affecting their evolution.[63] Stars that begin with more than 50 solar masses can lose over half their total mass while
they remain on the main sequence.[64]
Star 40

The duration that a star spends on the

main sequence depends primarily on
the amount of fuel it has to fuse and
the rate at which it fuses that fuel, i.e.
its initial mass and its luminosity. For
the Sun, this is estimated to be about
1010 years. Large stars consume their
fuel very rapidly and are short-lived.
Small stars (called red dwarfs)
consume their fuel very slowly and last
tens to hundreds of billions of years.
At the end of their lives, they simply
become dimmer and dimmer.[2]
However, since the lifespan of such
stars is greater than the current age of
the universe (13.7 billion years), no red
dwarfs are expected to have yet
reached this state.

Besides mass, the portion of elements

heavier than helium can play a
significant role in the evolution of
stars. In astronomy all elements
An example of a Hertzsprung-Russell diagram for a set of stars that includes the Sun
heavier than helium are considered a
(center). (See "Classification" below.)
"metal", and the chemical
concentration of these elements is
called the metallicity. The metallicity can influence the duration that a star will burn its fuel, control the formation of
magnetic fields[65] and modify the strength of the stellar wind.[66] Older, population II stars have substantially less
metallicity than the younger, population I stars due to the composition of the molecular clouds from which they
formed. (Over time these clouds become increasingly enriched in heavier elements as older stars die and shed
portions of their atmospheres.)

Post-main sequence
As stars of at least 0.4 solar masses[2] exhaust their supply of hydrogen at their core, their outer layers expand greatly
and cool to form a red giant. For example, in about 5 billion years, when the Sun is a red giant, it will expand out to a
maximum radius of roughly 1 AU (150000000 km), 250 times its present size. As a giant, the Sun will lose roughly
30% of its current mass.[61] [67]
In a red giant of up to 2.25 solar masses, hydrogen fusion proceeds in a shell-layer surrounding the core.[68]
Eventually the core is compressed enough to start helium fusion, and the star now gradually shrinks in radius and
increases its surface temperature. For larger stars, the core region transitions directly from fusing hydrogen to fusing
helium.[69]
After the star has consumed the helium at the core, fusion continues in a shell around a hot core of carbon and
oxygen. The star then follows an evolutionary path that parallels the original red giant phase, but at a higher surface
temperature.
Star 41

Massive stars

During their helium-burning phase, very high mass stars with more
than nine solar masses expand to form red supergiants. Once this fuel
is exhausted at the core, they can continue to fuse elements heavier
than helium.
The core contracts until the temperature and pressure are sufficient to
fuse carbon (see carbon burning process). This process continues, with
the successive stages being fueled by neon (see neon burning process),
oxygen (see oxygen burning process), and silicon (see silicon burning
process). Near the end of the star's life, fusion can occur along a series
of onion-layer shells within the star. Each shell fuses a different
element, with the outermost shell fusing hydrogen; the next shell
Betelgeuse is a red supergiant star approaching fusing helium, and so forth.[70]
the end of its life cycle
The final stage is reached when the star begins producing iron. Since
iron nuclei are more tightly bound than any heavier nuclei, if they are
fused they do not release energy—the process would, on the contrary, consume energy. Likewise, since they are
more tightly bound than all lighter nuclei, energy cannot be released by fission.[68] In relatively old, very massive
stars, a large core of inert iron will accumulate in the center of the star. The heavier elements in these stars can work
their way up to the surface, forming evolved objects known as Wolf-Rayet stars that have a dense stellar wind which
sheds the outer atmosphere.

Collapse
An evolved, average-size star will now shed its outer layers as a planetary nebula. If what remains after the outer
atmosphere has been shed is less than 1.4 solar masses, it shrinks to a relatively tiny object (about the size of Earth)
that is not massive enough for further compression to take place, known as a white dwarf.[71] The
electron-degenerate matter inside a white dwarf is no longer a plasma, even though stars are generally referred to as
being spheres of plasma. White dwarfs will eventually fade into black dwarfs over a very long stretch of time.
In larger stars, fusion continues until the iron core has grown so
large (more than 1.4 solar masses) that it can no longer support its
own mass. This core will suddenly collapse as its electrons are
driven into its protons, forming neutrons and neutrinos in a burst
of inverse beta decay, or electron capture. The shockwave formed
by this sudden collapse causes the rest of the star to explode in a
supernova. Supernovae are so bright that they may briefly outshine
the star's entire home galaxy. When they occur within the Milky
Way, supernovae have historically been observed by naked-eye
observers as "new stars" where none existed before.[72]

Most of the matter in the star is blown away by the supernova

explosion (forming nebulae such as the Crab Nebula[72] ) and what
remains will be a neutron star (which sometimes manifests itself as The Crab Nebula, remnants of a supernova that was
a pulsar or X-ray burster) or, in the case of the largest stars (large first observed around 1050 AD

enough to leave a stellar remnant greater than roughly 4 solar

masses), a black hole.[73] In a neutron star the matter is in a state known as neutron-degenerate matter, with a more
exotic form of degenerate matter, QCD matter, possibly present in the core. Within a black hole the matter is in a
state that is not currently understood.
Star 42

The blown-off outer layers of dying stars include heavy elements which may be recycled during new star formation.
These heavy elements allow the formation of rocky planets. The outflow from supernovae and the stellar wind of
large stars play an important part in shaping the interstellar medium.[72]

Distribution
In addition to isolated stars, a multi-star system can
consist of two or more gravitationally bound stars that
orbit around each other. The most common multi-star
system is a binary star, but systems of three or more
stars are also found. For reasons of orbital stability,
such multi-star systems are often organized into
hierarchical sets of co-orbiting binary stars.[74] Larger
groups called star clusters also exist. These range from
loose stellar associations with only a few stars, up to
enormous globular clusters with hundreds of thousands
of stars.

It has been a long-held assumption that the majority of

A white dwarf star in orbit around Sirius (artist's impression). NASA
image stars occur in gravitationally bound, multiple-star
systems. This is particularly true for very massive O
and B class stars, where 80% of the systems are believed to be multiple. However the portion of single star systems
increases for smaller stars, so that only 25% of red dwarfs are known to have stellar companions. As 85% of all stars
are red dwarfs, most stars in the Milky Way are likely single from birth.[75]

Stars are not spread uniformly across the universe, but are normally grouped into galaxies along with interstellar gas
and dust. A typical galaxy contains hundreds of billions of stars, and there are more than 100 billion (1011) galaxies
in the observable universe.[76] While it is often believed that stars only exist within galaxies, intergalactic stars have
been discovered.[77] Astronomers estimate that there are at least 70 sextillion (7×1022) stars in the observable
universe.[78]
The nearest star to the Earth, apart from the Sun, is Proxima Centauri, which is 39.9 trillion (1012) kilometres, or 4.2
light-years away. Light from Proxima Centauri takes 4.2 years to reach Earth. Travelling at the orbital speed of the
Space Shuttle (5 miles per second—almost 30,000 kilometres per hour), it would take about 150,000 years to get
there.[79] Distances like this are typical inside galactic discs, including in the vicinity of the solar system.[80] Stars
can be much closer to each other in the centres of galaxies and in globular clusters, or much farther apart in galactic
halos.
Due to the relatively vast distances between stars outside the galactic nucleus, collisions between stars are thought to
be rare. In denser regions such as the core of globular clusters or the galactic center, collisions can be more
common.[81] Such collisions can produce what are known as blue stragglers. These abnormal stars have a higher
surface temperature than the other main sequence stars with the same luminosity in the cluster .[82]
Star 43

Characteristics
Almost everything about a star is determined by its initial mass,
including essential characteristics such as luminosity and size, as well
as the star's evolution, lifespan, and eventual fate.

Age
Most stars are between 1 billion and 10 billion years old. Some stars
may even be close to 13.7 billion years old—the observed age of the
universe. The oldest star yet discovered, HE 1523-0901, is an
estimated 13.2 billion years old.[83] [84] The Sun is the nearest star to Earth.

The more massive the star, the shorter its lifespan, primarily because
massive stars have greater pressure on their cores, causing them to burn hydrogen more rapidly. The most massive
stars last an average of about one million years, while stars of minimum mass (red dwarfs) burn their fuel very
slowly and last tens to hundreds of billions of years.[85] [86]

Chemical composition
When stars form in the present Milky Way galaxy they are composed of about 71% hydrogen and 27% helium,[87] as
measured by mass, with a small fraction of heavier elements. Typically the portion of heavy elements is measured in
terms of the iron content of the stellar atmosphere, as iron is a common element and its absorption lines are relatively
easy to measure. Because the molecular clouds where stars form are steadily enriched by heavier elements from
supernovae explosions, a measurement of the chemical composition of a star can be used to infer its age.[88] The
portion of heavier elements may also be an indicator of the likelihood that the star has a planetary system.[89]
The star with the lowest iron content ever measured is the dwarf HE1327-2326, with only 1/200,000th the iron
content of the Sun.[90] By contrast, the super-metal-rich star μ Leonis has nearly double the abundance of iron as the
Sun, while the planet-bearing star 14 Herculis has nearly triple the iron.[91] There also exist chemically peculiar stars
that show unusual abundances of certain elements in their spectrum; especially chromium and rare earth
elements.[92]

Diameter
Due to their great distance from the Earth, all stars except the Sun
appear to the human eye as shining points in the night sky that twinkle
because of the effect of the Earth's atmosphere. The Sun is also a star,
but it is close enough to the Earth to appear as a disk instead, and to
provide daylight. Other than the Sun, the star with the largest apparent
size is R Doradus, with an angular diameter of only 0.057
arcseconds.[93]

Stars vary widely in size The disks of most stars are much too small in angular size to be
observed with current ground-based optical telescopes, and so
interferometer telescopes are required in order to produce images of these objects. Another technique for measuring
the angular size of stars is through occultation. By precisely measuring the drop in brightness of a star as it is
occulted by the Moon (or the rise in brightness when it reappears), the star's angular diameter can be computed.[94]
Stars range in size from neutron stars, which vary anywhere from 20 to 40 km in diameter, to supergiants like
Betelgeuse in the Orion constellation, which has a diameter approximately 650 times larger than the Sun—about 0.9
billion kilometres. However, Betelgeuse has a much lower density than the Sun.[95]
Star 44

Kinematics
The motion of a star relative to the Sun can
provide useful information about the origin
and age of a star, as well as the structure and
evolution of the surrounding galaxy. The
components of motion of a star consist of
the radial velocity toward or away from the
Sun, and the traverse angular movement,
which is called its proper motion.

Radial velocity is measured by the doppler

shift of the star's spectral lines, and is given
in units of km/s. The proper motion of a star
is determined by precise astrometric
measurements in units of milli-arc seconds
(mas) per year. By determining the parallax The Pleiades, an open cluster of stars in the constellation of Taurus. These stars
[96]
of a star, the proper motion can then be share a common motion through space. NASA photo.

converted into units of velocity. Stars with

high rates of proper motion are likely to be relatively close to the Sun, making them good candidates for parallax
measurements.[97]

Once both rates of movement are known, the space velocity of the star relative to the Sun or the galaxy can be
computed. Among nearby stars, it has been found that population I stars have generally lower velocities than older,
population II stars. The latter have elliptical orbits that are inclined to the plane of the galaxy.[98] Comparison of the
kinematics of nearby stars has also led to the identification of stellar associations. These are most likely groups of
stars that share a common point of origin in giant molecular clouds. [99]

Magnetic field
The magnetic field of a star is generated within regions of the
interior where convective circulation occurs. This movement
of conductive plasma functions like a dynamo, generating
magnetic fields that extend throughout the star. The strength
of the magnetic field varies with the mass and composition of
the star, and the amount of magnetic surface activity depends
upon the star's rate of rotation. This surface activity produces
starspots, which are regions of strong magnetic fields and
lower than normal surface temperatures. Coronal loops are
arching magnetic fields that reach out into the corona from
active regions. Stellar flares are bursts of high-energy particles
that are emitted due to the same magnetic activity.[100]

Young, rapidly rotating stars tend to have high levels of

surface activity because of their magnetic field. The magnetic
Surface magnetic field of SU Aur (a young star of T Tauri
field can act upon a star's stellar wind, however, functioning type), reconstructed by means of Zeeman-Doppler imaging
as a brake to gradually slow the rate of rotation as the star
grows older. Thus, older stars such as the Sun have a much slower rate of rotation and a lower level of surface
Star 45

activity. The activity levels of slowly rotating stars tend to vary in a cyclical manner and can shut down altogether
for periods.[101] During the Maunder minimum, for example, the Sun underwent a 70-year period with almost no
sunspot activity.

Mass
One of the most massive stars known is Eta Carinae,[102] with 100–150 times as much mass as the Sun; its lifespan is
very short—only several million years at most. A study of the Arches cluster suggests that 150 solar masses is the
upper limit for stars in the current era of the universe.[103] The reason for this limit is not precisely known, but it is
partially due to the Eddington luminosity which defines the maximum amount of luminosity that can pass through
the atmosphere of a star without ejecting the gases into space. However, a star named R136a1 in the RMC 136a star
cluster has been measured at 265 solar masses, putting this limit into question.[104]
The first stars to form after the Big Bang may have
been larger, up to 300 solar masses or more,[105] due to
the complete absence of elements heavier than lithium
in their composition. This generation of supermassive,
population III stars is long extinct, however, and
currently only theoretical.

With a mass only 93 times that of Jupiter, AB Doradus

C, a companion to AB Doradus A, is the smallest
known star undergoing nuclear fusion in its core.[106]
For stars with similar metallicity to the Sun, the
theoretical minimum mass the star can have, and still
undergo fusion at the core, is estimated to be about 75
times the mass of Jupiter.[107] [108] When the
metallicity is very low, however, a recent study of the
faintest stars found that the minimum star size seems to
be about 8.3% of the solar mass, or about 87 times the
The reflection nebula NGC 1999 is brilliantly illuminated by V380
mass of Jupiter.[108] [109] Smaller bodies are called Orionis (center), a variable star with about 3.5 times the mass of the
brown dwarfs, which occupy a poorly defined grey area Sun. The black patch of sky is a vast hole of empty space and not a
between stars and gas giants. dark nebula as previously thought.NASA image

The combination of the radius and the mass of a star determines the surface gravity. Giant stars have a much lower
surface gravity than main sequence stars, while the opposite is the case for degenerate, compact stars such as white
dwarfs. The surface gravity can influence the appearance of a star's spectrum, with higher gravity causing a
broadening of the absorption lines.[32]

Rotation
The rotation rate of stars can be approximated through spectroscopic measurement, or more exactly determined by
tracking the rotation rate of starspots. Young stars can have a rapid rate of rotation greater than 100 km/s at the
equator. The B-class star Achernar, for example, has an equatorial rotation velocity of about 225 km/s or greater,
giving it an equatorial diameter that is more than 50% larger than the distance between the poles. This rate of
rotation is just below the critical velocity of 300 km/s where the star would break apart.[110] By contrast, the Sun
only rotates once every 25 – 35 days, with an equatorial velocity of 1.994 km/s. The star's magnetic field and the
stellar wind serve to slow down a main sequence star's rate of rotation by a significant amount as it evolves on the
main sequence.[111]
Star 46

Degenerate stars have contracted into a compact mass, resulting in a rapid rate of rotation. However they have
relatively low rates of rotation compared to what would be expected by conservation of angular momentum—the
tendency of a rotating body to compensate for a contraction in size by increasing its rate of spin. A large portion of
the star's angular momentum is dissipated as a result of mass loss through the stellar wind.[112] In spite of this, the
rate of rotation for a pulsar can be very rapid. The pulsar at the heart of the Crab nebula, for example, rotates 30
times per second.[113] The rotation rate of the pulsar will gradually slow due to the emission of radiation.

Temperature
The surface temperature of a main sequence star is determined by the rate of energy production at the core and the
radius of the star and is often estimated from the star's color index.[114] It is normally given as the effective
temperature, which is the temperature of an idealized black body that radiates its energy at the same luminosity per
surface area as the star. Note that the effective temperature is only a representative value, however, as stars actually
have a temperature gradient that decreases with increasing distance from the core.[115] The temperature in the core
region of a star is several million kelvins.[116]
The stellar temperature will determine the rate of energization or ionization of different elements, resulting in
characteristic absorption lines in the spectrum. The surface temperature of a star, along with its visual absolute
magnitude and absorption features, is used to classify a star (see classification below).[32]
Massive main sequence stars can have surface temperatures of 50,000 K. Smaller stars such as the Sun have surface
temperatures of a few thousand K. Red giants have relatively low surface temperatures of about 3,600 K, but they
also have a high luminosity due to their large exterior surface area.[117]

Radiation
The energy produced by stars, as a by-product of nuclear fusion, radiates into space as both electromagnetic radiation
and particle radiation. The particle radiation emitted by a star is manifested as the stellar wind[118] (which exists as a
steady stream of electrically charged particles, such as free protons, alpha particles, and beta particles, emanating
from the star’s outer layers) and as a steady stream of neutrinos emanating from the star’s core.
The production of energy at the core is the reason why stars shine so brightly: every time two or more atomic nuclei
of one element fuse together to form an atomic nucleus of a new heavier element, gamma ray photons are released
from the nuclear fusion reaction. This energy is converted to other forms of electromagnetic energy, including
visible light, by the time it reaches the star’s outer layers.
The color of a star, as determined by the peak frequency of the visible light, depends on the temperature of the star’s
outer layers, including its photosphere.[119] Besides visible light, stars also emit forms of electromagnetic radiation
that are invisible to the human eye. In fact, stellar electromagnetic radiation spans the entire electromagnetic
spectrum, from the longest wavelengths of radio waves and infrared to the shortest wavelengths of ultraviolet,
X-rays, and gamma rays. All components of stellar electromagnetic radiation, both visible and invisible, are typically
significant.
Using the stellar spectrum, astronomers can also determine the surface temperature, surface gravity, metallicity and
rotational velocity of a star. If the distance of the star is known, such as by measuring the parallax, then the
luminosity of the star can be derived. The mass, radius, surface gravity, and rotation period can then be estimated
based on stellar models. (Mass can be measured directly for stars in binary systems. The technique of gravitational
microlensing will also yield the mass of a star.[120] ) With these parameters, astronomers can also estimate the age of
the star.[121]
Star 47

Luminosity
In astronomy, luminosity is the amount of light, and other forms of radiant energy, a star radiates per unit of time.
The luminosity of a star is determined by the radius and the surface temperature. However, many stars do not radiate
a uniform flux—the amount of energy radiated per unit area—across their entire surface. The rapidly rotating star
Vega, for example, has a higher energy flux at its poles than along its equator.[122]
Surface patches with a lower temperature and luminosity than average are known as starspots. Small, dwarf stars
such as the Sun generally have essentially featureless disks with only small starspots. Larger, giant stars have much
bigger, much more obvious starspots,[123] and they also exhibit strong stellar limb darkening. That is, the brightness
decreases towards the edge of the stellar disk.[124] Red dwarf flare stars such as UV Ceti may also possess prominent
starspot features.[125]

Magnitude
The apparent brightness of a star is measured by its apparent magnitude, which is the brightness of a star with respect
to the star’s luminosity, distance from Earth, and the altering of the star’s light as it passes through Earth’s
atmosphere. Intrinsic or absolute magnitude is directly related to a star’s luminosity and is what the apparent
magnitude a star would be if the distance between the Earth and the star were 10 parsecs (32.6 light-years).

Number of stars brighter than magnitude

Apparent Number 
magnitude of Stars[126]

0 4

1 15

2 48

3 171

4 513

5 1,602

6 4,800

7 14,000

Both the apparent and absolute magnitude scales are logarithmic units: one whole number difference in magnitude is
equal to a brightness variation of about 2.5 times[127] (the 5th root of 100 or approximately 2.512). This means that a
first magnitude (+1.00) star is about 2.5 times brighter than a second magnitude (+2.00) star, and approximately 100
times brighter than a sixth magnitude (+6.00) star. The faintest stars visible to the naked eye under good seeing
conditions are about magnitude +6.
On both apparent and absolute magnitude scales, the smaller the magnitude number, the brighter the star; the larger
the magnitude number, the fainter. The brightest stars, on either scale, have negative magnitude numbers. The
variation in brightness (ΔL) between two stars is calculated by subtracting the magnitude number of the brighter star
(mb) from the magnitude number of the fainter star (mf), then using the difference as an exponent for the base
number 2.512; that is to say:

Relative to both luminosity and distance from Earth, absolute magnitude (M) and apparent magnitude (m) are not
equivalent for an individual star;[127] for example, the bright star Sirius has an apparent magnitude of −1.44, but it
has an absolute magnitude of +1.41.
Star 48

The Sun has an apparent magnitude of −26.7, but its absolute magnitude is only +4.83. Sirius, the brightest star in
the night sky as seen from Earth, is approximately 23 times more luminous than the Sun, while Canopus, the second
brightest star in the night sky with an absolute magnitude of −5.53, is approximately 14,000 times more luminous
than the Sun. Despite Canopus being vastly more luminous than Sirius, however, Sirius appears brighter than
Canopus. This is because Sirius is merely 8.6 light-years from the Earth, while Canopus is much farther away at a
distance of 310 light-years.
As of 2006, the star with the highest known absolute magnitude is LBV 1806-20, with a magnitude of −14.2. This
star is at least 5,000,000 times more luminous than the Sun.[128] The least luminous stars that are currently known
are located in the NGC 6397 cluster. The faintest red dwarfs in the cluster were magnitude 26, while a 28th
magnitude white dwarf was also discovered. These faint stars are so dim that their light is as bright as a birthday
candle on the Moon when viewed from the Earth.[129]

Classification

Surface Temperature Ranges for

Different Stellar Classes[130]
Class Temperature Sample star

O 33,000 K or more Zeta Ophiuchi

B 10,500–30,000 K Rigel

A 7,500–10,000 K Altair

F 6,000–7,200 K Procyon A

G 5,500–6,000 K Sun

K 4,000–5,250 K Epsilon Indi

M 2,600–3,850 K Proxima
Centauri

The current stellar classification system originated in the early 20th century, when stars were classified from A to Q
based on the strength of the hydrogen line.[131] It was not known at the time that the major influence on the line
strength was temperature; the hydrogen line strength reaches a peak at over 9000 K, and is weaker at both hotter and
cooler temperatures. When the classifications were reordered by temperature, it more closely resembled the modern
scheme.[132]
There are different single-letter classifications of stars according to their spectra, ranging from type O, which are
very hot, to M, which are so cool that molecules may form in their atmospheres. The main classifications in order of
decreasing surface temperature are: O, B, A, F, G, K, and M. A variety of rare spectral types have special
classifications. The most common of these are types L and T, which classify the coldest low-mass stars and brown
dwarfs. Each letter has 10 sub-divisions, numbered from 0 to 9, in order of decreasing temperature. However, this
system breaks down at extreme high temperatures: class O0 and O1 stars may not exist.[133]
In addition, stars may be classified by the luminosity effects found in their spectral lines, which correspond to their
spatial size and is determined by the surface gravity. These range from 0 (hypergiants) through III (giants) to V
(main sequence dwarfs); some authors add VII (white dwarfs). Most stars belong to the main sequence, which
consists of ordinary hydrogen-burning stars. These fall along a narrow, diagonal band when graphed according to
their absolute magnitude and spectral type.[133] Our Sun is a main sequence G2V yellow dwarf, being of intermediate
temperature and ordinary size.
Star 49

Additional nomenclature, in the form of lower-case letters, can follow the spectral type to indicate peculiar features
of the spectrum. For example, an "e" can indicate the presence of emission lines; "m" represents unusually strong
levels of metals, and "var" can mean variations in the spectral type.[133]
White dwarf stars have their own class that begins with the letter D. This is further sub-divided into the classes DA,
DB, DC, DO, DZ, and DQ, depending on the types of prominent lines found in the spectrum. This is followed by a
numerical value that indicates the temperature index.[134]

Variable stars
Variable stars have periodic or random changes in luminosity
because of intrinsic or extrinsic properties. Of the intrinsically
variable stars, the primary types can be subdivided into three
principal groups.
During their stellar evolution, some stars pass through phases
where they can become pulsating variables. Pulsating variable
stars vary in radius and luminosity over time, expanding and
contracting with periods ranging from minutes to years, depending
on the size of the star. This category includes Cepheid and
cepheid-like stars, and long-period variables such as Mira.[135]

Eruptive variables are stars that experience sudden increases in

luminosity because of flares or mass ejection events.[135] This
The asymmetrical appearance of Mira, an oscillating group includes protostars, Wolf-Rayet stars, and Flare stars, as
variable star. NASA HST image well as giant and supergiant stars.
Cataclysmic or explosive variables undergo a dramatic change in
their properties. This group includes novae and supernovae. A binary star system that includes a nearby white dwarf
can produce certain types of these spectacular stellar explosions, including the nova and a Type 1a supernova.[4] The
explosion is created when the white dwarf accretes hydrogen from the companion star, building up mass until the
hydrogen undergoes fusion.[136] Some novae are also recurrent, having periodic outbursts of moderate
amplitude.[135]

Stars can also vary in luminosity because of extrinsic factors, such as eclipsing binaries, as well as rotating stars that
produce extreme starspots.[135] A notable example of an eclipsing binary is Algol, which regularly varies in
magnitude from 2.3 to 3.5 over a period of 2.87 days.

Structure
The interior of a stable star is in a state of hydrostatic equilibrium: the forces on any small volume almost exactly
counterbalance each other. The balanced forces are inward gravitational force and an outward force due to the
pressure gradient within the star. The pressure gradient is established by the temperature gradient of the plasma; the
outer part of the star is cooler than the core. The temperature at the core of a main sequence or giant star is at least on
the order of 107 K. The resulting temperature and pressure at the hydrogen-burning core of a main sequence star are
sufficient for nuclear fusion to occur and for sufficient energy to be produced to prevent further collapse of the
star.[137] [138]
As atomic nuclei are fused in the core, they emit energy in the form of gamma rays. These photons interact with the
surrounding plasma, adding to the thermal energy at the core. Stars on the main sequence convert hydrogen into
helium, creating a slowly but steadily increasing proportion of helium in the core. Eventually the helium content
becomes predominant and energy production ceases at the core. Instead, for stars of more than 0.4 solar masses,
Star 50

fusion occurs in a slowly expanding shell around the degenerate helium core.[139]
In addition to hydrostatic equilibrium, the interior of a stable star will also maintain an energy balance of thermal
equilibrium. There is a radial temperature gradient throughout the interior that results in a flux of energy flowing
toward the exterior. The outgoing flux of energy leaving any layer within the star will exactly match the incoming
flux from below.
The radiation zone is the region within
the stellar interior where radiative
transfer is sufficiently efficient to
maintain the flux of energy. In this
region the plasma will not be perturbed
and any mass motions will die out. If
this is not the case, however, then the
plasma becomes unstable and
convection will occur, forming a
convection zone. This can occur, for
example, in regions where very high
energy fluxes occur, such as near the
core or in areas with high opacity as in
the outer envelope.[138]

This diagram shows a cross-section of a solar-type star. NASA image The occurrence of convection in the
outer envelope of a main sequence star
depends on the mass. Stars with several times the mass of the Sun have a convection zone deep within the interior
and a radiative zone in the outer layers. Smaller stars such as the Sun are just the opposite, with the convective zone
located in the outer layers.[140] Red dwarf stars with less than 0.4 solar masses are convective throughout, which
prevents the accumulation of a helium core.[2] For most stars the convective zones will also vary over time as the star
ages and the constitution of the interior is modified.[138]

The portion of a star that is visible to an observer is called the photosphere. This is the layer at which the plasma of
the star becomes transparent to photons of light. From here, the energy generated at the core becomes free to
propagate out into space. It is within the photosphere that sun spots, or regions of lower than average temperature,
appear.
Above the level of the photosphere is the stellar atmosphere. In a main sequence star such as the Sun, the lowest
level of the atmosphere is the thin chromosphere region, where spicules appear and stellar flares begin. This is
surrounded by a transition region, where the temperature rapidly increases within a distance of only 100 km. Beyond
this is the corona, a volume of super-heated plasma that can extend outward to several million kilometres.[141] The
existence of a corona appears to be dependent on a convective zone in the outer layers of the star.[140] Despite its
high temperature, the corona emits very little light. The corona region of the Sun is normally only visible during a
solar eclipse.
From the corona, a stellar wind of plasma particles expands outward from the star, propagating until it interacts with
the interstellar medium. For the Sun, the influence of its solar wind extends throughout the bubble-shaped region of
the heliosphere.[142]
Star 51

Nuclear fusion reaction pathways

A variety of different nuclear fusion reactions take place inside the
cores of stars, depending upon their mass and composition, as part
of stellar nucleosynthesis. The net mass of the fused atomic nuclei
is smaller than the sum of the constituents. This lost mass is
released as electromagnetic energy, according to the mass-energy
equivalence relationship E = mc².[1]

The hydrogen fusion process is temperature-sensitive, so a

moderate increase in the core temperature will result in a
significant increase in the fusion rate. As a result the core
temperature of main sequence stars only varies from 4 million K
for a small M-class star to 40 million K for a massive O-class
star.[116]

In the Sun, with a 10 million K core, hydrogen fuses to form The carbon-nitrogen-oxygen cycle

helium in the proton-proton chain reaction:[143]

41H → 22H + 2e+ + 2νe (4.0 MeV + 1.0 MeV)
21H + 22H → 23He + 2γ (5.5 MeV)
23He → 4He + 21H (12.9 MeV)
These reactions result in the overall reaction:
41H → 4He + 2e+ + 2γ + 2νe (26.7 MeV)
where e+ is a positron, γ is a gamma ray photon, νe is a neutrino, and H and He are isotopes of hydrogen and helium,
respectively. The energy released by this reaction is in millions of electron volts, which is actually only a tiny
amount of energy. However enormous numbers of these reactions occur constantly, producing all the energy
necessary to sustain the star's radiation output.

Minimum stellar mass required for fusion

Element Solar
masses

Hydrogen 0.01

Helium 0.4

Carbon [144]
5

Neon 8

In more massive stars, helium is produced in a cycle of reactions catalyzed by carbon—the carbon-nitrogen-oxygen
cycle.[143]
In evolved stars with cores at 100 million K and masses between 0.5 and 10 solar masses, helium can be transformed
into carbon in the triple-alpha process that uses the intermediate element beryllium:[143]
4
He + 4He + 92 keV → 8*Be
4
He + 8*Be + 67 keV → 12*C
12*
C → 12C + γ + 7.4 MeV
For an overall reaction of:
34He → 12C + γ + 7.2 MeV
Star 52

In massive stars, heavier elements can also be burned in a contracting core through the neon burning process and
oxygen burning process. The final stage in the stellar nucleosynthesis process is the silicon burning process that
results in the production of the stable isotope iron-56. Fusion can not proceed any further except through an
endothermic process, and so further energy can only be produced through gravitational collapse.[143]
The example below shows the amount of time required for a star of 20 solar masses to consume all of its nuclear
fuel. As an O-class main sequence star, it would be 8 times the solar radius and 62,000 times the Sun's
luminosity.[145]

Temperature Burn
Fuel (million Density duration
material kelvins) (kg/cm³) (τ in years)

H 37 0.0045 8.1 million

He 188 0.97 1.2 million

C 870 170 976

Ne 1,570 3,100 0.6

O 1,980 5,550 1.25

S/Si 3,340 33,400 [146]

0.0315

See also
• List of star related topics
• List of largest stars
• Sidereal clock
• Star clocks
• Star count
• Stellar astronomy
• Nursery rhyme Twinkle twinkle little star
• Stars and planetary systems in fiction

Further reading
• Pickover, Cliff (2001). The Stars of Heaven. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-514874-6.
• Gribbin, John; Mary Gribbin (2001). Stardust: Supernovae and Life—The Cosmic Connection. Yale University
Press. ISBN 0-300-09097-8.
• Hawking, Stephen (1988). A Brief History of Time. Bantam Books. ISBN 0-553-17521-1.

External links
• Green, Paul J (2005). "Star" [147]. World Book Online Reference Center. World Book, Inc. Retrieved 2010-08-20.
• Kaler, James. "Portraits of Stars and their Constellations" [148]. University of Illinois. Retrieved 2010-08-20.
• "Query star by identifier, coordinates or reference code" [149]. SIMBAD. Centre de Données astronomiques de
Strasbourg. Retrieved 2010-08-20.
• "How To Decipher Classification Codes" [150]. Astronomical Society of South Australia. Retrieved 2010-08-20.
• "Live Star Chart" [151]. Dobsonian Telescope Community. Retrieved 2010-08-20. View the stars above your
location
• Prialnick, Dina; Wood, Kenneth; Bjorkman, Jon; Whitney, Barbara; Wolff, Michael; Gray, David; Mihalas,
Dimitri (2001). "Stars: Stellar Atmospheres, Structure, & Evolution" [152]. University of St. Andrews. Retrieved
Star 53

2010-08-20.

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Article Sources and Contributors

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Article Sources and Contributors 60

NuclearWarfare, Nyh, Obradovic Goran, Oliphaunt, Olivier, Omicronpersei8, OnePt618, Palica, Panser Born, Patilsagar09, Pdcook, Pedia wiki, Peter Delmonte, Peter Isotalo, PeterisP, Petr
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Qlwinsor, Quaoar, Qxz, RJHall, RJaguar3, RL0919, RL579, Random astronomer, Ranveig, Raven4x4x, Recognizance, Reconsider the static, RepodudexDXDxD, Reverendgraham, RexNL,
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iffy, A.Alapini, ABF, AOEU, Abce2, AbsolutDan, Adam Bishop, AdamSolomon, Adashiel, Ageekgal, Agquarx, Ahoerstemeier, Aishe zq, Aitias, Aksi great, Alan Peakall, Alansohn, Alanyst,
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1416 anonymous edits
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 61

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors

File:Crab Nebula.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Crab_Nebula.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: NASA
File:Planisphæri cœleste.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Planisphæri_cœleste.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Jan Arkesteijn, Jay2332, STyx, 1
anonymous edits
File:AiKhanoumSunDial.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:AiKhanoumSunDial.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors: Green fr,
JuergenG, Kilom691, TcfkaPanairjdde, World Imaging
File:Galileo moon phases.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Galileo_moon_phases.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Galileo
File:USA.NM.VeryLargeArray.02.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:USA.NM.VeryLargeArray.02.jpg  License: GNU General Public License  Contributors:
user:Hajor
File:The Keck Subaru and Infrared obervatories.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:The_Keck_Subaru_and_Infrared_obervatories.JPG  License: Creative Commons
Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors: User:Sasquatch
File:Uvsun trace big.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Uvsun_trace_big.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: ComputerHotline, Olegivvit, Panther, Pmsyyz,
Sebman81, Yann, 1 anonymous edits
File:dust.devil.mars.arp.750pix.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Dust.devil.mars.arp.750pix.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Bdamokos, Ruslik0,
Saperaud, TheDJ
File:Ant Nebula.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ant_Nebula.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: NASA, ESA & the Hubble Heritage Team (STScI/AURA).
Acknowledgment: R. Sahai (Jet Propulsion Lab), B. Balick (University of Washington
File:Milky Way Spiral Arm.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Milky_Way_Spiral_Arm.svg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: User:Surachit
File:grav.lens1.arp.750pix.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Grav.lens1.arp.750pix.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: STScl/NASA
File:Telescope trailer 22.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Telescope_trailer_22.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Halfblue
Image:NGC 4414 (NASA-med).jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:NGC_4414_(NASA-med).jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: NASA Headquarters - Greatest
Images of NASA (NASA-HQ-GRIN)
Image:Milky Way Galaxy and a meteor.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Milky_Way_Galaxy_and_a_meteor.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Mila Zinkova
Image:Herschel-Galaxy.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Herschel-Galaxy.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: BRUTE, FredA, H.Seldon, 5 anonymous edits
Image:M51Sketch.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:M51Sketch.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Juiced lemon, Szdori, Winiar
Image:Pic iroberts1.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Pic_iroberts1.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Isaac Roberts (d. 1904)
Image:GalacticRotation2.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:GalacticRotation2.svg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0  Contributors:
User:PhilHibbs
Image:Hubble sequence photo.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hubble_sequence_photo.png  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Harp,
KGyST, Mdd, Wikiborg
File:Messier51.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Messier51.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: NASA, ESA, S. Beckwith (STScI), and The Hubble Heritage Team
STScI/AURA)
Image:Hubble2005-01-barred-spiral-galaxy-NGC1300.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hubble2005-01-barred-spiral-galaxy-NGC1300.jpg  License: unknown
 Contributors: NASA, ESA, and The Hubble Heritage Team STScI/AURA)
Image:Hoag's object.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hoag's_object.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Black Moon, Centaurus, Cody escadron delta,
KGyST, Kalki, 1 anonymous edits
File:File-Ngc5866 hst big.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:File-Ngc5866_hst_big.png  License: unknown  Contributors: NASA, ESA, and The Hubble Heritage Team
(STScI/AURA)
Image:Antennae galaxies xl.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Antennae_galaxies_xl.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: NASA, ESA, and the Hubble Heritage
Team (STScI/AURA)-ESA/Hubble Collaboration
Image:M82 HST ACS 2006-14-a-large web.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:M82_HST_ACS_2006-14-a-large_web.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: NASA,
ESA, and The Hubble Heritage Team (STScI/AURA)
Image:M87 jet.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:M87_jet.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Original uploader was Dan Gardner at en.wikipedia Later versions were
uploaded by Joseph Dwayne, Ylai at en.wikipedia.
Image:Hubble - infant galaxy.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hubble_-_infant_galaxy.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: NASA, ESA, Y. Izotov (Main
Astronomical Observatory, Kyiv, UA) and T. Thuan (University of Virginia)
Image:Seyfert Sextet full.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Seyfert_Sextet_full.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: NASA
File:Starsinthesky.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Starsinthesky.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: European Space Agency
(ESA/Hubble). Credit ESA/Hubble in any reuse of this image. Full details at http://www.spacetelescope.org/copyright.html
Image:Dibuix de Leo.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Dibuix_de_Leo.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Juiced lemon, Mattes, Mo-Slimy, Pérez, Shakko,
Wolfmann, 1 anonymous edits
Image:123107main image feature 371 ys 4.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:123107main_image_feature_371_ys_4.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:
NASA/JPL-Caltech/R. Hurt (SSC)
Image:H-R diagram -edited-3.gif  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:H-R_diagram_-edited-3.gif  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors:
User:Penubag
Image:Betelgeuse star (Hubble).jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Betelgeuse_star_(Hubble).jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Duesentrieb, Duffman, Glenn, John
Vandenberg, Juiced lemon, Lars Lindberg Christensen, Nikm, RHorning, Zwergelstern, 3 anonymous edits
Image:Crab Nebula.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Crab_Nebula.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: NASA
Image:Sirius A and B artwork.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sirius_A_and_B_artwork.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: NASA, ESA Credit: G. Bacon
(STScI)
Image:The sun1.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:The_sun1.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: DrKiernan, Halfdan, Patricka, Sebman81, Tom, 2 anonymous edits
Image:Star-sizes.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Star-sizes.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0  Contributors: Dave Jarvis
File:Pleiades large.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Pleiades_large.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: NASA, ESA, AURA/Caltech, Palomar Observatory
Image:suaur.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Suaur.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: User:Pascalou petit
Image:Ngc1999.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ngc1999.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: ComputerHotline, Eleferen, Lars Lindberg Christensen, Martin H.,
Mo-Slimy, Ruslik0, Takabeg, The viewer, TheDJ, Vesta, Waldir, 2 anonymous edits
Image:Mira 1997.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mira_1997.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Margarita Karovska (Harvard-Smithsonian Center for
Astrophysics) and NASA
Image:Sun parts big.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sun_parts_big.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Project leader: Dr. Jim Lochner; Curator: Meredith
Gibb; Responsible NASA Official:Phil Newman
Image:CNO Cycle.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:CNO_Cycle.svg  License: unknown  Contributors: ABF, Aezay, Borb, CWitte, Elkman, Ephemeronium, Harp,
Homonihilis, Nagy, Njaelkies Lea, Zanhsieh, 10 anonymous edits
License 62

License
Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported
http:/ / creativecommons. org/ licenses/ by-sa/ 3. 0/