Renewable Energy

AC Transmission Lines

Courseware Sample
86365-F0

A
 RENEWABLE ENERGY

AC TRANSMISSION LINES

Courseware Sample

by
the staff
of
Lab-Volt Ltd.

Copyright © 2011 Lab-Volt Ltd.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be
reproduced, in any form or by any means, without the prior
written permission of Lab-Volt Ltd.

Printed in Canada
October 2011
 Safety Symbols
The following safety symbols may be used in this manual and on the Lab-Volt
equipment:

Symbol Description

DANGER indicates a hazard with a high level of risk which, if not

avoided, will result in death or serious injury.

WARNING indicates a hazard with a medium level of risk which,

if not avoided, could result in death or serious injury.

CAUTION indicates a hazard with a low level of risk which, if not

avoided, could result in minor or moderate injury.

CAUTION used without the Caution, risk of danger sign ,

indicates a hazard with a potentially hazardous situation which,
if not avoided, may result in property damage.

Caution, risk of electric shock

Caution, hot surface

Caution, risk of danger

Caution, lifting hazard

Caution, hand entanglement hazard

Direct current

Alternating current

Both direct and alternating current

Three-phase alternating current

Earth (ground) terminal

Protective conductor terminal

Frame or chassis terminal

A AC Transmission Lines v
 Safety Symbols

Symbol Description

Equipotentiality

On (supply)

Off (supply)

Equipment protected throughout by double insulation or

reinforced insulation

In position of a bi-stable push control

Out position of a bi-stable push control

vi AC Transmission Lines A
 Foreword
AC transmission lines are a vital element of any ac power network. They are
used to transfer electrical power from the power generating stations to the
distribution system, which then supplies the electrical power to the consumers.
As the power generating stations in an ac power network can be quite distanced
from the centers of energy consumption, ac transmission lines often have to
transfer electrical power over great distances. This particularity, coupled with the
fact that ac transmission lines are primarily inductive, has many effects on the
operation of ac transmission lines.

One of the main effects is that a significant voltage drop occurs at the receiver
end of ac transmission lines. This voltage drop must be continually compensated
in order to maintain the receiver voltage equal to the sender voltage. This is
commonly achieved using capacitors connected in parallel to the line. When an
ac transmission line is particularly long, substations containing parallel-
connected (shunt) capacitors must be added at regular intervals along the line.

When ac transmission lines are used to transfer electrical power in

interconnected power networks, the flow of active power and reactive power
between any two regions must be carefully controlled. This can be achieved
using special types of transformers which enable to adjust, firstly, the amount of
active power transferred from one region to the next, and, secondly, the
proportion of reactive power supplied by each of the two interconnected regions.

This course, AC Transmission Lines, teaches the basic concepts of

ac transmission lines. Students are introduced to the voltage regulation
characteristics of ac transmission lines. They learn how to maintain the voltage at
both ends of ac transmission lines equal using shunt capacitors, as well as how
to do so in long ac transmission lines by adding shunt capacitor substations
along the line. Students also learn how to determine the power transmission
capacity of ac transmission lines, and how to control the flow of active power and
reactive power in interconnected ac power networks.

Figure 1. AC transmission lines.

A AC Transmission Lines vii

 Table of Contents
Introduction  AC Transmission Lines ................................................ 1 
Introduction to ac transmission lines.

Exercise 1  Voltage Regulation Characteristics ............................. 5 

Equivalent circuit of an ac transmission line. Voltage
regulation characteristics of ac transmission lines for
resistive, inductive, and capacitive loads. Voltage
regulation of ac transmission lines. Introduction to the
Three-Phase Transmission Line module.

Exercise 2  Voltage Compensation ............................................... 25 

Voltage compensation at the receiver end of an ac
transmission line. Example of voltage compensation
calculations. Load loss in a compensated ac transmission
line.

Exercise 3  Power Transmission Capacity ................................... 41 

Active power flow in an ac transmission line.

Exercise 4  Voltage Compensation in Long AC Transmission

Lines ............................................................................. 53 
Adding shunt-capacitor substations to long ac transmission
lines. Drawbacks of using shunt-capacitor substations for
voltage compensation of long ac transmission lines.

Exercise 5  Control of Active and Reactive Power Flow ............. 69 

Control of active power flow in interconnected power
networks. Reactive power flow in ac transmission lines.
Control of reactive power flow in interconnected power
networks. Effect of the line resistance on the operation of
ac transmission lines. Introduction to the regulating
autotransformer.

Appendix A  Equipment Utilization Chart ..................................... 101 

Appendix B  Glossary of New Terms ............................................ 103 

Appendix C  Impedance Table for the Load Modules .................. 105 

Index of New Terms ........................................................................................... 107 

Bibliography ....................................................................................................... 109 
We Value Your Opinion! .................................................................................... 111 

A AC Transmission Lines ix
Sample Exercise
Extracted from
Student Manual
 Exercise 5

Control of Active and Reactive Power Flow

EXERCISE OBJECTIVE When you have completed this exercise, you will know how to control the flow of
active power in ac transmission lines used in interconnected power networks.
You will be familiar with the flow of reactive power in ac transmission lines. You
will also know how to control the flow of reactive power in ac transmission lines
used in interconnected power networks. You will be introduced to the operating
principles of regulating autotransformers.

DISCUSSION OUTLINE The Discussion of this exercise covers the following points:

 Control of active power flow in interconnected power networks 

 Reactive power flow in ac transmission lines 
 Control of reactive power flow in interconnected power networks 
 Effect of the line resistance on the operation of ac transmission lines 
 Introduction to the regulating autotransformer 

DISCUSSION Control of active power flow in interconnected power networks

In Exercise 3, you saw that, in order for active power to be transferred from the
sender end to the receiver end of a voltage-compensated ac transmission line, it
is necessary for the receiver voltage to lag behind the sender voltage . The
greater the phase shift between the receiver voltage and the sender
voltage , the greater the active power transferred by the ac transmission line.
You also saw that in a voltage-compensated ac transmission line, the phase
shift between the receiver voltage and the sender voltage naturally
increases as the active power flowing through the line increases, i.e., as the
load increases.

Controlling the active power transferred by an ac transmission line is relatively

easy in the simple ac transmission line circuits you have studied so far,
i.e., circuits where one end of the ac transmission line is always sender and the
other end, always receiver. It is basically a matter of limiting the maximum phase
shift to values ensuring that the maximum power . of the ac transmission
line is not exceeded and providing stable operation (i.e., phase shift values
generally well below 90°). However, this is not always the case in practice. This
is because most ac power networks consist of more than two regions
interconnected by a single ac transmission line. In such power networks, there
are no definite sender and receiver ends, as the active power transferred via
each ac transmission line in the power network does not flow in the same
direction at all times, depending on the power demand in each region. In these
conditions, it becomes increasingly difficult to coordinate the phase shifts
between the voltages at each region (node) of the power network with the
amounts of active power that need to be exchanged between the various
nodes of the power network.

A AC Transmission Lines 69
Exercise 5 – Control of Active and Reactive Power Flow  Discussion

For example, consider the diagram of the interconnected power network shown
in Figure 28. In this figure, each dot represents a region that can consume or
supply active power, and each line represents an ac transmission line.

To other node in the

power network

A (15°)

D (30°)

B (5°)
C (0°)

To other node in the

power network
F (15°)

E (0°)

To other node in the

power network

Figure 28. Diagram of an interconnected power network.

The portion of the interconnected power network illustrated in Figure 28

shows 6 regions that can be either receiver (the region consumes active power)
or sender (the region supplies active power). Since the active power
transferred via an ac transmission line is proportional to the phase shift
between the voltages at both ends, only the regions between which there is a
non-null phase shift exchange active power . This is the case for all regions in
the interconnected power network shown above except regions C and E which
have both a phase angle of 0°, leading to a phase shift of 0° and no active
power transfer. Also, a very limited amount of active power is exchanged
between regions B and C as well as between regions B and E as the phase
shift over the corresponding ac transmission lines (B-C and B-E) is of
only 5° (phase angle of 5° versus phase angle of 0°).

The polarity of the phase shift between the voltages at two regions of an
interconnected power network is also very important because it determines the
direction of the active power flow in the corresponding ac transmission line. The
direction of the flow of active power between two regions and the
corresponding phasor diagrams are illustrated in the figure below.

70 AC Transmission Lines A
Exercise 5 – Control of Active and Reactive Power Flow  Discussion

Region 1 ( ) ( ) Region 2 Region 1 ( ) ( ) Region 2

( )
-

( )

( )

-
( )

(a) lagging behind (negative phase shift) (b) leading (positive phase shift)

Figure 29. The direction of active power flow in an ac transmission line of an interconnected power network depends on the
polarity of the phase shift between the voltages at both ends of the line.

As Figure 29 shows, the direction of the flow of active power between two
interconnected regions is always from the region with the leading voltage to the
region with the lagging voltage. Thus, the region whose voltage sine wave leads
that of the other region is designated as the sender end of the ac transmission
line, while the region whose voltage sine wave lags behind that of the other
region is designated as the receiver end of the ac transmission line. Note that in
the equivalent circuits of the ac transmission line in Figure 29, the phase shift
has the same magnitude, but the polarity of the phase shift in one circuit is
opposite to the polarity of the phase shift in the other circuit. Consequently, the
same amount of active power is transferred between regions 1 and 2 in both
circuits. However, in the circuit of Figure 29a, the flow of active power is from
region 1 to region 2 since voltage is lagging behind voltage (negative phase
shift). Conversely, in the circuit of Figure 29b, the flow of active power is from
region 2 to region 1 since voltage is leading voltage (positive phase shift).

When the phase angles of the voltages at the various regions of an

interconnected power network are known, it is possible to determine the direction
of the flow of active power between all regions of the power network. Figure 30
shows the diagram of the interconnected power network in Figure 28 with the
direction of the flow of active power between each region. Notice that the
length of each arrow indicating the direction of active power flow is proportional
to the amount of active power transferred via the corresponding ac transmission
line. As you can see, the amount of active power exchanged between

A AC Transmission Lines 71
Exercise 5 – Control of Active and Reactive Power Flow  Discussion

regions B, C, and E is severely limited as the phase angles of their respective

voltages are equal or close to each other.
To other node in the
power network

A (15°)

D (30°)

B (5°)
C (0°)

To other node in the 0W

power network
F (15°)

E (0°)

To other node in the

power network

Figure 30. Diagram of the interconnected power network of Figure 28 with the direction of the
flow of active power between each region.

The figure above shows that, since the phase angle of the voltage at each region
of an interconnected power network is constant, no flexibility is allowed in the
flow of active power between the various regions of the network. This is highly
problematic when, in situations such as a power outage, the direction of active
power flow between two regions needs to be reversed, or when the active
power transferred between two regions needs to be adjusted due to a variation
in the power demand. Because of this, some means to control the flow of active
power in the ac transmission lines must be used in complex interconnected
power networks.

Such a means of active power flow control consists of using phase-shifting

transformers. Phase-shifting transformers are a special type of three-phase
power transformer that have the ability to introduce a phase shift (usually ranging
from about +30° to about -30°) between the incoming voltages and the outgoing
voltages. Phase-shifting transformers are connected in series with
ac transmission lines whenever the flow of active power between regions of an
interconnected power network needs to be controlled. Phase-shifting
transformers allow the phase angle of the voltage at one region of an
interconnected power network to be modified before it is applied to the
ac transmission line, without modifying the phase angle of the voltage at the
region. This way, it is possible to control the flow of active power between two
regions of an interconnected power network without modifying the phase angle at
any of the regions.

72 AC Transmission Lines A
Exercise 5 – Control of Active and Reactive Power Flow  Discussion

Figure 31 shows an example of how active power flow between two regions of an
interconnected power network can be modified using a phase-shifting
transformer. In this example, a phase-shifting transformer is added between the
power station at region E and the ac transmission line going to region C, in the
interconnected power network of Figure 30. Initially, when the phase-shifting
transformer is set to produce no phase shift, no active power flows between
regions E and C since the phase angle of the voltage at each of these two
regions is the same (0°). Adjusting the phase-shifting transformer so as to
advance the phase angle of the voltage applied to the ac transmission line (15° in
this example) causes active power to flow from region E to region C, as indicated
in the figure, without modifying the phase angle of the voltage at regions E
and C. Conversely, if the phase-shifting transformer is adjusted so as to delay
the phase angle of the voltage applied to the ac transmission line, this causes
active power to flow from region C to region E.
To other node in the
power network

A (15°)

D (30°)

B (5°)
C (0°)

To other node in the

power network
(15°) F (15°)
Phase-shifting
transformer
E (0°)

To other node in the

power network

Figure 31. Diagram of the interconnected power network of Figure 30 when a phase-shifting
transformer is added between region E and the ac transmission line going to region C.

A AC Transmission Lines 73
Exercise 5 – Control of Active and Reactive Power Flow  Discussion

Reactive power flow in ac transmission lines

It is generally accepted that The amount of reactive power absorbed by the equivalent inductor of a
inductive components ab- voltage-compensated ac transmission line depends on the current flowing in
sorb reactive power and the line. The greater the line current , the greater the amount of reactive
capacitive components power absorbed by the ac transmission line. When the value of the line
supply reactive power, current is known, the reactive power at the sender end and the reactive
although reactive compo- power at the receiver end of the ac transmission line can be calculated. The
nents in fact exchange difference between these two reactive power values is equal to the reactive
reactive power and neither power absorbed by the ac transmission line ( ).
absorb nor supply reactive
power. Consider for example the voltage-compensated 230 kV ac transmission
line (sender phase voltage 133 kV) having an inductive reactance of 120 Ω
shown in Figure 32. Since the ac transmission line is voltage compensated, the
receiver voltage is equal to the sender voltage . The receiver voltage ,
however, lags behind the sender voltage by 30°. The current flowing in the
line is equal to 574 A, and lags behind the sender voltage by 15°. The voltage
drop across the ac transmission line is equal to 69 kV, and leads the sender
voltage by 75°.

69 kV
(75°)

574 A
(-15°) 120 Ω

AC power source 133 kV 133 kV Load

(sender end) (0°) (-30°) (receiver end)

Figure 32. Voltage-compensated 230 kV ac transmission line.

The phasors of the voltages and current for one phase of the ac transmission line
in Figure 32 are illustrated in the phasor diagram of Figure 33.

Figure 33. Phasor diagram of the voltages and currents for one phase of the ac transmission
line in Figure 32.

74 AC Transmission Lines A
Exercise 5 – Control of Active and Reactive Power Flow  Discussion

The different values of active power and reactive power for one phase of the
ac transmission line are calculated below.

cos 133 000 V 574 A cos 15 73 741 kW

sin 133 000 V 574 A sin 15 19 759 kvar

cos 133 000 V 574 A cos 15 73 741 kW

sin 133 000 V 574 A sin 15 19 759 kvar

The above calculations show that active power is supplied from the sender end
of the ac transmission line to the receiver end. Since it is assumed that the
ac transmission line has no resistance, no active power is dissipated in the line.
Thus, the active power at the receiver end is equal to the active power at
the sender end. The total reactive power absorbed by each phase of the
ac transmission line is equal to 39 518 kvar [19 759 kvar 19 759 kvar ]. The
calculations also show that the reactive power absorbed by each phase of the
ac transmission line (39 518 kvar) is supplied equally by the sender end and the
receiver end (19 759 kvar each). In other words, the sender end and the receiver
end of the ac transmission line each supply 19 759 kvar to the line.

This example shows that, when the receiver voltage and the sender
voltage of a voltage-compensated ac transmission line are phase shifted one
another, active power is transferred via the line and reactive power is supplied in
equal amounts to the line by the sender end and the receiver end. The greater
the phase shift , the greater the amount of reactive power absorbed by the
line (and thus, the greater the amount of reactive power supplied by the sender
and receiver ends of the line). As long as the phase shift between the receiver
voltage and the sender voltage of the ac transmission line is less than
about 30°, the active power transferred via the line considerably exceeds the
reactive power absorbed by the line.

Control of reactive power flow in interconnected power networks

As seen in the previous section of this discussion, the amount of reactive

power absorbed by an ac transmission line and supplied by the sender and
receiver ends depends on the phase shift between the receiver voltage and
the sender voltage , just as for the active power . When the voltages at both
ends of the ac transmission line are equal, the sender and the receiver ends of
the line supply the same amount of reactive power to the line. In actual
ac transmission lines, however, this proportion is generally slightly unbalanced
due to the resistance in the wires of the line (this resistance is ignored in most
equivalent circuits of ac transmission lines shown in this manual). This is
demonstrated later in this discussion.

By increasing or decreasing the voltage at either end of an ac transmission line, it

is possible to control the amounts of reactive power which the sender and
receiver ends supply to the line. Using this technique, the reactive power that the
sender and receiver ends supply to the ac transmission line can be modified as
desired. For example, the voltage at one end of the ac transmission line can be
adjusted so that all the reactive power absorbed by the line is supplied by only
one end of the line. Adjusting the flow of reactive power modifies the

A AC Transmission Lines 75
Exercise 5 – Control of Active and Reactive Power Flow  Discussion

magnitude and phase angle of the voltage drop as well as those of the line
current , as is demonstrated later in this discussion.

The control of the flow of reactive power in an ac transmission line connecting

two regions of a power network can be achieved by adding a buck-boost
transformer (step-down/step-up transformer) at either end of the line. Buck-
boost transformers are a special type of three-phase power transformer (just as
phase-shifting transformers) that have the ability to decrease (buck) or
increase (boost) the value of incoming voltages by a variable proportion, thereby
enabling the control of the reactive power that the sender end and the receiver
end of the ac transmission line supply to the line. Just as for the control of the
flow of active power in interconnected power networks, the control of the flow
of reactive power can be necessary under certain conditions, e.g., when one
region of the ac power network is able to supply reactive power, while another
one is not. Note that, although a buck-boost transformer modifies the voltage at
one end of an ac transmission line, it has no effect on the actual voltages at the
regions connected by the ac transmission line. In other words, the voltages at the
regions connected by the line are maintained equal to the voltage of the
ac power network.

To better illustrate this, consider the addition of a buck-boost transformer at the

sender end of the voltage-compensated 230 kV ac transmission line in Figure 32,
as is shown in Figure 34. The voltage at the receiver end of the
ac transmission line is maintained equal to 133 kV. The voltage at the sender
end of the ac transmission line, however, is increased to 153 kV (15% boost) by
the buck-boost transformer. The current now flowing in the line is equal
to 638 A, and lags behind the sender voltage by 29.6°. The voltage drop
across the ac transmission line is equal to 76.5 kV, and leads the sender
voltage by 60.4°.

76.5 kV
(60.4°)

638 A
(-29.6°) 120 Ω Load
(receiver end)

Buck-boost ,
AC power source 133 kV 153 kV 133 kV
transformer
(sender end) (0°) (0°) (-30°)
(set to +15%)

Figure 34. Voltage-compensated 230 kV ac transmission line of Figure 32 with a buck-boost transformer added at the sender
end of the line.

76 AC Transmission Lines A
Exercise 5 – Control of Active and Reactive Power Flow  Discussion

The phasors of the voltages and current for one phase of the ac transmission line
in Figure 34 are illustrated in the phasor diagram of Figure 35.

Figure 35. Phasor diagram of the voltages and current for one phase of the voltage-
compensated 230 kV ac transmission line in Figure 34 when the sender voltage is
increased by 15%.

As the phasor diagram in Figure 35 shows, the magnitude and phase angle of
the voltage drop across the line is automatically modified due to the boosted
sender voltage when the line is properly voltage-compensated (i.e., when the
sender voltage before the modifications of the buck-boost transformer equals
the receiver voltage ). This causes the line current (which lags 90° behind
the voltage drop ) to be similarly phase shifted. In this particular case, the
phasor of the line current is virtually in phase with that of the receiver
voltage .

The different values of active power and reactive power for one phase of the
ac transmission line are calculated below.

cos 153 000 V 638 A  cos 29.6 84 875 kW

sin 153 000 V 638 A sin 29.6 48 216 kvar

cos 133 000 V 638 A cos 0.4 84 852 kW

sin 133 000 V 638 A sin 0.4 592 kvar

The above calculations show that the amount of active power transferred via
one phase of the ac transmission line increases slightly (from about 73 740 kW to
about 84 850 kW) as the sender voltage is increased by 15%. The active
power at the sender end of the ac transmission line is virtually equal to the
active power at the receiver end. However, the sender end now supplies
almost all the reactive power absorbed by the ac transmission line.
Increasing (boosting) the sender voltage by 15% thus has the effect of
adjusting the flow of reactive power in the ac transmission line so that almost
all reactive power is supplied by the sender end, and a negligible amount of
reactive power is supplied by the receiver end. Conversely, decreasing (bucking)
the sender voltage while maintaining the receiver voltage constant causes
the amount of active power transferred via the line to decrease slightly because
the voltage at the sender end of the line is lowered. It also causes the amount of
reactive power supplied to the ac transmission line by the receiver end to

A AC Transmission Lines 77
Exercise 5 – Control of Active and Reactive Power Flow  Discussion

increase, and the amount of reactive power supplied to the line by the sender
end to decrease.

By using a buck-boost transformer to decrease (buck) or increase (boost) the

voltage at the sender end or the receiver end of an ac transmission line
connecting two regions of a power network, it is thus possible to obtain virtually
any proportion of reactive power which the sender and receiver ends supply to
the line. When the flow of reactive power is controlled in such a way, the greater
portion of the reactive power supplied to the line always comes from the end
whose voltage is higher than that of the other end.

Effect of the line resistance on the operation of ac transmission

lines

In the ac transmission line circuits you have studied so far, the resistance of the
line was assumed to be negligible. In actual ac transmission lines, however, the
resistance of the line is generally high enough to have a significant effect on the
values of the voltage, current, and power in the circuit. To better illustrate this,
consider the voltage-compensated 230 kV ac transmission line of Figure 32, and
assume that it has a line resistance of 20 Ω. The resulting ac transmission line
is illustrated in Figure 36. The different voltage and current values in the
ac transmission line when a resistance is added to the line are indicated in the
figure. As the figure illustrates, the total voltage drop across the line is now
equal to the sum of the voltage drop caused by the equivalent resistance of
the line and the voltage drop caused by the equivalent inductance of the line.

AC transmission line

11.3 kV 67.9 kV
(-5.54°) (84.5°)

566 A
(-5.54°) 20 Ω 120 Ω

AC power source Load

133 kV 68.8 kV 133 kV
(sender end) (receiver end)
(0°) (75°) (-30°)

Figure 36. Voltage-compensated 230 kV ac transmission line of Figure 32 when the line resistance is assumed to be equal
to 20 Ω.

78 AC Transmission Lines A
Exercise 5 – Control of Active and Reactive Power Flow  Discussion

The phasors of the voltages and current for one phase of the ac transmission line
in Figure 36 are illustrated in the phasor diagram of Figure 37.

-
-

Figure 37. Phasor diagram of the voltages and currents for one phase of the voltage-compensated 230 kV ac transmission line
in Figure 36.

As Figure 37 shows, the phasor of the line current does not bisect the phase
angle between the receiver voltage and the sender voltage when the
resistance of the ac transmission line is taken into account.

The different values of active power and reactive power for one phase of the
ac transmission line are calculated below.

cos 133 000 V 566 A  cos 5.54 74 926 kW

sin 133 000 V 566 A sin 5.54 7267 kvar

cos 133 000 V 566 A cos 24.5 68 500 kW

sin 133 000 V 566 A sin 24.5 31 217 kvar

The above calculations show that the amount of active power at the receiver
end of the ac transmission line (68 500 kW) is slightly lower than the amount of
active power at the sender end of the line (74 926 kW). This is due to the fact
that some active power (74 926 kW 68 500 kW 6426 kW) is dissipated in the
equivalent resistance of the line. The calculations also show that the receiver end
of the ac transmission line supplies much more reactive power to the
line (31 217 kvar) than the sender end of the line (7267 kvar). This unbalance in
the proportion of reactive power supplied by the sender end and the receiver end
of the ac transmission line is due to the fact that the equivalent resistance of the
line is taken into account, thus modifying the phase angle of the line current .

A AC Transmission Lines 79
Exercise 5 – Control of Active and Reactive Power Flow  Discussion

Since the phase angle of the line current flowing in the line is much closer to
that of the sender voltage than to that of the receiver voltage , less reactive
power is supplied by the sender end than by the receiver end of the
ac transmission line when the line is voltage-compensated.

Note that the equivalent resistance of the ac transmission line in Figure 36 is

slightly exaggerated in order to better demonstrate the effects of the line
resistance on the operation of the ac transmission line. In actual ac transmission
lines, the equivalent resistance of the line has a lower value.

Introduction to the regulating autotransformer

A regulating autotransformer has the ability to act as either a phase-shifting

transformer, a buck-boost transformer, or both at the same time. This enables a
regulating autotransformer to control the flow of active power and reactive
power in an ac transmission line. Active power can be controlled by
decreasing or increasing the phase angle of the incoming voltages. Reactive
power , on the other hand, can be controlled by decreasing or increasing the
incoming voltages.

When a regulating autotransformer operates as a phase-shifting transformer, its

principles of operation can be understood by examining the equivalent circuit of
the regulating autotransformer shown in Figure 38.

Regulating autotransformer

A X

To receiver
region

Sender B Y
region

C Z

Figure 38. Equivalent circuit of a regulating autotransformer.

As the figure shows, the regulating autotransformer is equivalent to a three-

phase power transformer with primary windings ( , , and ) and secondary
windings ( , , and ) connected in a wye-wye configuration. The transformer
also has a set of tertiary windings ( , , and ) that can be connected to the
secondary windings. The phasor diagrams of the voltages at the primary,
secondary, and tertiary windings are shown in Figure 39.

80 AC Transmission Lines A
Exercise 5 – Control of Active and Reactive Power Flow  Discussion

( )

( )

( )

(a) Phasor diagram of the voltages at the primary windings

(b) Phasor diagram of the voltages at the secondary and tertiary windings

Figure 39. Phasor diagrams of the voltages at the primary, secondary, and tertiary windings of
the regulating autotransformer of Figure 38.

As you can see, the voltages related to windings of the same

phase (e.g., windings , , and ) are in phase with one another. When the
regulating autotransformer is set to 0° phase shift, the tertiary windings are not
used (i.e., the secondary windings , , and are connected directly to output
terminals X, Y, and Z of the regulating autotransformer), and thus, the outgoing
voltages ( , , and ) are in phase with the incoming voltages ( , ,
and ). However, when the tertiary windings are connected to the secondary
windings, the incoming voltages can be phase shifted, as shown in Figure 40.

A AC Transmission Lines 81
Exercise 5 – Control of Active and Reactive Power Flow  Discussion

Phase lag
(negative phase shift)
-
Phase advance -
(positive phase shift)

Phase advance
(positive phase shift)

Phase lag
(negative phase shift)

Phase lag
(negative phase shift) -
-
Phase advance
(positive phase shift)

Figure 40. Phasor diagrams of the regulating autotransformer when it acts as a phase-shifting
transformer.

As the figure shows, when the tertiary windings , , and of a regulating

autotransformer are connected in series-opposing with the secondary
windings , , and , respectively, the resulting outgoing voltages , ,
and lead the incoming voltages , , and . Conversely, when the tertiary
windings , , and of a regulating autotransformer are connected in series-
opposing with the secondary windings , , and , respectively, the resulting
outgoing voltages , , and lag behind the incoming voltages , ,
and .

By modifying the ratio between the voltage at the tertiary windings and the
voltage at the secondary windings of a regulating autotransformer (i.e., by
modifying the turns ratio), it is possible to adjust the magnitude of the phase shift
between the outgoing voltages , , and and the incoming voltages , ,
and . The higher the voltage at the tertiary windings in relation to the voltage at
the secondary windings, the greater the phase shift between the outgoing
voltages and the incoming voltages. In actual regulating autotransformers, the
phase shift between the outgoing voltages and the incoming voltages can
generally be adjusted between +30° and -30°.

Figure 40 also shows that the magnitude of the phase-shifted outgoing

voltages , , and across the regulating autotransformer is greater than that
of the incoming voltages , , and . To compensate for this increase in the
magnitude of the phase-shifted outgoing voltages, multiple taps are available on
the windings of the regulating autotransformer. Using these taps, it is possible to
adjust the magnitude of the phase-shifted outgoing voltages so that it is
maintained equal to the magnitude of the incoming voltages. The taps on the
windings of the regulating autotransformer can also be used to step-up or step-
down the incoming voltages. The ratio between the outgoing voltages and the
incoming voltages of the step-up autotransformer [i.e., the percentage of
decrease (buck) or increase (boost) of the outgoing voltages in relation to the

82 AC Transmission Lines A
Exercise 5 – Control of Active and Reactive Power Flow  Discussion

incoming voltages] can be adjusted by selecting the appropriate taps on the

windings of the regulating autotransformer.

A phasor diagram showing the various outgoing voltages possible at one phase
of a regulating autotransformer acting as both a phase-shifting transformer and a
buck-boost transformer is illustrated in the figure below.

Phase advance, buck

Phase advance, neutral

Phase advance, boost

No phase shift, buck

Phase advance
Phase lag No phase shift, boost

No phase shift, neutral

-

Phase lag, boost

Phase lag, neutral

Phase lag, buck

Figure 41. Phasor diagram of the outgoing voltages possible at one phase of a regulating autotransformer acting as both a
phase-shifting transformer and a buck-boost transformer.

A AC Transmission Lines 83
Exercise 5 – Control of Active and Reactive Power Flow  Procedure Outline

PROCEDURE OUTLINE The Procedure is divided into the following sections:

 Set up and connections 

 Reactive power flow in an ac transmission line 
 Control of active power flow in an interconnected power network 
 Control of active power and reactive power flow in an interconnected
power network 

PROCEDURE

High voltages are present in this laboratory exercise. Do not make or

modify any banana jack connections with the power on unless otherwise
specified.

Set up and connections

In this section, you will set up a circuit containing an ac transmission line

connected to a three-phase resistive load as well as to shunt capacitors for
voltage compensation. You will then set the measuring equipment to observe the
flow of reactive power in the ac transmission line.

1. Refer to the Equipment Utilization Chart in Appendix A to obtain the list of

equipment required to perform this exercise.

Install the required equipment in the Workstation.

If you are using the Three-Module Workstation, Model 8131, to perform this
exercise, do not install the Three-Phase Transformer Bank in the workstation
for the moment. This ensures that you have enough space in the workstation
in order to install the six half-modules required to perform the first part of this
exercise. The Three-Phase Transformer Bank module is only used later in
this exercise.

2. Make sure that the ac and dc power switches on the Power Supply are set to
the O (off) position, then connect the Power Supply to a three-phase
ac power outlet.

Connect the Power Input of the Data Acquisition and Control Interface to
a 24 V ac power supply. Turn the 24 V ac power supply on.

3. Connect the USB port of the Data Acquisition and Control Interface to a USB
port of the host computer.

4. Turn the host computer on, then start the LVDAC-EMS software.

In the LVDAC-EMS Start-Up window, make sure that the Data Acquisition
and Control Interface is detected. Make sure that the Computer-Based

84 AC Transmission Lines A
Exercise 5 – Control of Active and Reactive Power Flow  Procedure

Instrumentation function for the Data Acquisition and Control Interface is

available. Also, select the network voltage and frequency that correspond to
the voltage and frequency of your local ac power network, then click the OK
button to close the LVDAC-EMS Start-Up window.

5. Connect the equipment as shown in Figure 42.

Regulating Three-Phase
Autotransformer Transmission Line
module module

L1

L2

L3

Shunt capacitor bank Resistive load

L1
L2
L3

Local ac power network Line

inductive , , , ,
Voltage Frequency reactance (Ω) (Ω)
(V) (Hz) (Ω)
120 60 180 300 ∞
220 50 600 1100 ∞
240 50 600 1200 ∞

Figure 42. Circuit used to observe the flow of reactive power in an ac transmission line.

A AC Transmission Lines 85
Exercise 5 – Control of Active and Reactive Power Flow  Procedure

6. Make sure that the I/O toggle switch on the Three-Phase Transmission Line
is set to the I position.

On the Three-Phase Transmission Line, set the inductive reactance selector

to the value indicated in the table of Figure 42.

Make sure that the Buck-Boost and Phase Shift selectors on the Regulating
Autotransformer are set to 0% and 0°, respectively.

Make the necessary switch settings on the Resistive Load in order to obtain
the resistance value required.

Open all switches on the Capacitive Load so that the reactances , ,

and of the shunt capacitors are infinite.

7. In LVDAC-EMS, open the Metering window. Make the required settings in

order to measure the rms values (ac) of the modified
voltage , . (input E1) at the sender end of the ac transmission line, the
line current (input I1 or I2), and the voltage (input E2) at the receiver
end of the ac transmission line. Set two other meters to measure the three-
phase reactive power at the sender end of the ac transmission
line [metering function PQS1 (E1, I1) 3~] and the three-phase reactive
power at the receiver end of the ac transmission line [metering function
PQS2 (E2, I2) 3~]. Finally, set a meter to measure the rms value (ac) of the
voltage (input E3) at the sender end of the ac transmission line (i.e., the
voltage at the sender end of the line before modification by the Regulating
Autotransformer).

a Metering functions PQS1 (E1, I1) 3~ and PQS2 (E2, I2) 3~ allow three-phase
power measurement from the line voltage and current measured in one branch
of a three-phase circuit. The power measurements obtained using these
metering functions are only valid if the circuit to which the voltage and current
inputs are connected is balanced.

In the Option menu of the Metering window, select Acquisition Settings to

open the corresponding dialog box. Set the Sampling Window to 8 cycles
then click OK to close the dialog box. This enables a better accuracy when
measuring the reactive power in the ac transmission line.

Reactive power flow in an ac transmission line

In this section, you will compensate the voltage at the receiver end of the
ac transmission line, and measure the voltage and reactive power values at the
sender and receiver ends of the line. You will calculate the percentage of the
total reactive power that each end supplies to the line, and analyze the results.
You will then repeat the steps described above for the following two settings on
the Regulating Autotransformer: an increase (boost) of 15% and a
decrease (buck) of 15%.

8. Turn the three-phase ac power source in the Power Supply on.

86 AC Transmission Lines A
Exercise 5 – Control of Active and Reactive Power Flow  Procedure

9. On the Capacitive Load, adjust the reactances , , and of the shunt

capacitors so that the voltage at the receiver end of the ac transmission
line indicated in the Metering window is as close as possible to the voltage
at the sender end of the line.

10. In the Metering window, measure the following parameters. Record the
values below.

Sender voltage V

Modified sender voltage , . V

Receiver voltage V

Sender reactive power var

Receiver reactive power var

11. Using the reactive power values you recorded in the previous step, calculate
the percentage of the total reactive power supplied by each end of the
ac transmission line. Record the values below.

Percentage of reactive power supplied by the sender end %

Percentage of reactive power supplied by the receiver end %

Are the percentage values of reactive power supplied by each end of the
ac transmission line you just recorded relatively close to one another, as
expected when the voltage at the receiver end is virtually equal to the
voltage at the sender end? Explain briefly.

12. On the Regulating Autotransformer, set the Buck-Boost selector to +15%.

On the Capacitive Load, adjust the reactances , , and of the shunt

capacitors so that the voltage at the receiver end of the ac transmission
line indicated in the Metering window is as close as possible to the voltage
at the sender end of the ac transmission line.

A AC Transmission Lines 87
Exercise 5 – Control of Active and Reactive Power Flow  Procedure

13. In the Metering window, measure the following parameters. Record the
values below.

Sender voltage V

Modified sender voltage , . V

Receiver voltage V

Sender reactive power var

Receiver reactive power var

14. Using the reactive power values you recorded in the previous step, calculate
the percentage of the total reactive power supplied by each end of the
ac transmission line. Record the values below.

Percentage of reactive power supplied by the sender end %

Percentage of reactive power supplied by the receiver end %

Does increasing the voltage at the sender end of the ac transmission line
using a regulating autotransformer have any effect on the percentage of
reactive power supplied by each end of the line? Explain briefly.

15. On the Regulating Autotransformer, set the Buck-Boost selector to 0%.

On the Capacitive Load, adjust the reactances , , and of the shunt

capacitors so that the voltage at the receiver end of the ac transmission
line indicated in the Metering window is as close as possible to the voltage
at the sender end of the ac transmission line.

16. On the Regulating Autotransformer, set the Buck-Boost selector to -15%.

On the Capacitive Load, adjust the reactances , , and of the shunt

capacitors so that the voltage at the receiver end of the ac transmission
line indicated in the Metering window is as close as possible to the voltage
at the sender end of the ac transmission line.

88 AC Transmission Lines A
Exercise 5 – Control of Active and Reactive Power Flow  Procedure

17. In the Metering window, measure the following parameters. Record the
values below.

Sender voltage V

Modified sender voltage , . V

Receiver voltage V

Sender reactive power var

Receiver reactive power var

18. Using the reactive power values you recorded in the previous step, calculate
the percentage of the total reactive power supplied by each end of the
ac transmission line. Record the values below.

Percentage of reactive power supplied by the sender end %

Percentage of reactive power supplied by the receiver end %

Does decreasing the voltage at the sender end of the ac transmission line
using a regulating autotransformer have any effect on the percentage of
reactive power supplied by each end of the line? Explain briefly.

19. Based on your observations, is adding a buck-boost transformer in series

with an ac transmission line an effective way to control the amount of
reactive power supplied by each end of the line without modifying the
voltages at either end of the line?

 Yes  No

20. Turn the three-phase ac power source in the Power Supply off.

A AC Transmission Lines 89
Exercise 5 – Control of Active and Reactive Power Flow  Procedure

Control of active power flow in an interconnected power network

In this section, you will set up a circuit representing two regions (A and B) of a
power network that are interconnected via an ac transmission line and a
regulating autotransformer (located at region A). You will measure the three-
phase active power at regions A and B when the phase shift value on the
regulating autotransformer is 0°. You will observe in the Phasor Analyzer the
voltage at region A, the voltage at region A after modification by the regulating
autotransformer, and the voltage at region B, and analyze the results. You will
then repeat the steps described above for phase shift values on the regulating
autotransformer of 15° and -15°.

21. Connect the equipment as shown in Figure 43. This circuit represents the
ac transmission line between two regions (A and B) of an interconnected
ac power network. Region A and region B are identified on the circuit
diagram. Since the voltage at region A and the voltage at region B both come
from the same three-phase ac power source, the phase angle of the voltage
at region A is the same as that of the voltage at region B. In other words, the
phase shift between these two regions is zero when no phase shift is
introduced by the Regulating Autotransformer. Input E3 measures the
voltage . at region A, inputs E1 and I1 measure the voltage ′ . at
region A after modification by the Regulating Autotransformer and the line
current , and inputs E2 and I2 measure the voltage . at region B and
the line current .

90 AC Transmission Lines A
Exercise 5 – Control of Active and Reactive Power Flow  Procedure

Region A
Three-Phase
Regulating Transmission Line
Autotransformer module module
Region B

L1

L2

L3

Local ac power network Line

inductive
Voltage Frequency reactance
(V) (Hz) (Ω)
120 60 180
220 50 600
240 50 600

Figure 43. Circuit used to observe active power flow control in an ac transmission line of an interconnected ac power network.

22. On the Three-Phase Transmission Line, make sure that the inductive
reactance selector is set to the value indicated in the table of Figure 43.

On the Regulating Autotransformer, set the Buck-Boost selector to 0% and

make sure that the Phase Shift selector is set to 0°.

A AC Transmission Lines 91
Exercise 5 – Control of Active and Reactive Power Flow  Procedure

23. In the Metering window, keep all meter settings you made earlier in this
exercise, then set two other meters to measure the three-phase active
power . at region A (metering function PQS1 (E1, I1) 3~) and the three-
phase active power . at region B (metering function PQS2 (E2, I2) 3~).

24. Turn the three-phase ac power source in the Power Supply on.

25. In the Metering window, measure the active power . at region A, as well
as the active power . at region B. Record the results in the
corresponding cells of Table 14.

Table 14. Active power measured at regions A and B for different settings of the Regulating
Autotransformer.

Region A Region B
Phase
shift Active Active
(°) power . power .
(W) (W)
0
+15
-15

26. In LVDAC-EMS, open the Phasor Analyzer. Make the required settings in
order to observe the phasors of the voltage . at region A, the modified
voltage ′ . at region A, and the voltage . at region B. Set the phasor
of the voltage . as the reference phasor.

Observe the three voltage phasors. Are all voltage phasors in phase?

 Yes  No
Explain why no active power is transferred via the ac transmission line.

92 AC Transmission Lines A
Exercise 5 – Control of Active and Reactive Power Flow  Procedure

27. On the Regulating Autotransformer, set the Phase Shift selector successively
to +15° and -15°. For each of these two settings, repeat step 25. As you do
so, observe in the Phasor Analyzer the phasors of the voltage . at
region A, the modified voltage ′ . at region A, and the voltage . at
region B.

What happens to these voltage phasors when a phase shift of +15° or -15° is
introduced using the Regulating Autotransformer?

28. Using the results you recorded in Table 14, determine the relationship
between the phase shift between the voltages at both ends of the
ac transmission line and the amount of active power transferred via the
ac transmission line.

Does this confirm the theory presented in this exercise discussion?

 Yes  No

29. Do your observations thus far confirm that the Regulating Autotransformer
allows the phase shift between the voltages at the two ends of an
ac transmission line interconnecting two regions of an ac power network to
be adjusted (for active power flow control purposes) without modifying the
phase angle of the voltage at either region?

 Yes  No

30. Turn the three-phase ac power source in the Power Supply off.

A AC Transmission Lines 93
Exercise 5 – Control of Active and Reactive Power Flow  Procedure

Control of active power and reactive power flow in an

interconnected power network

In this section, you will add a three-phase transformer bank connected in a wye-
delta configuration in series with the three-phase ac power source in order to
introduce a phase shift of 30° between the voltage at region B and that at
region A. You will measure the active power and reactive power at regions A
and B when the Buck-Boost and Phase Shift selectors of the Regulating
Autotransformer are set to 0% and 0°, respectively. You will set the Phase Shift
selector of the Regulating Autotransformer to +15° to adjust the amount of active
power transferred via the ac transmission line and measure the active power and
reactive power at regions A and B. You will then set successively the Buck-Boost
selector of the Regulating Autotransformer to +15% and -15%, and measure for
each setting the active power and reactive power at regions A and B. As you do
so, you will also observe in the Metering window the magnitude of the voltage at
region A, modified voltage at region A, and voltage at region B. Finally, you will
analyze the results.

31. If you are using the Three-Module Workstation, Model 8131, to perform this
exercise, remove the Resistive Load and Capacitive Load modules from the
workstation. Then, install the Three-Phase Transformer Bank module in the
workstation.

If you are not using the Three-Module Workstation, Model 8131, to perform
this exercise, ignore the above manipulations.

32. Connect the equipment as shown in Figure 44. This circuit represents the
ac transmission line between two interconnected regions (A and B) in an
ac power network, just as the circuit used in the previous section of this
exercise. In the circuit of Figure 44, however, a three-phase transformer bank
connected in a wye-delta configuration is added in series with the three-
phase ac power source. This has the effect of delaying the phase angle of
the voltage at region B by 30°. In other words, the phase shift between
region B and region A is 30° when no phase shift is introduced using the
Regulating Autotransformer. Note that the turns ratio of the three-phase
transformer bank in Figure 44 is 1: √3. This is necessary to compensate for
the wye-delta configuration of the three-phase transformer bank, which
decreases incoming voltages by a ratio of √3: 1. Since both ratios cancel
each other, the resulting magnitude of the voltage . is equal to the
magnitude of the voltage . .

94 AC Transmission Lines A
Exercise 5 – Control of Active and Reactive Power Flow  Procedure

Region A
Three-Phase
Regulating Transmission Line
Autotransformer module module
Region B

L1

L2

L3

Three-Phase Transformer Bank module

L1 L1

4 5 1

12
2
L2 L2

9 10 6
11

7
L3 L3

14 15

Local ac power network Line

inductive
Voltage Frequency reactance
(V) (Hz) (Ω)
120 60 180
220 50 600
240 50 600

Figure 44. Circuit used to observe active power and reactive power flow control in an ac transmission line of an
interconnected ac power network.

A AC Transmission Lines 95
Exercise 5 – Control of Active and Reactive Power Flow  Procedure

33. On the Three-Phase Transmission Line, make sure that the inductive
reactance selector is set to the value indicated in the table of Figure 44.

On the Regulating Autotransformer, set the Phase Shift and Buck-Boost

selectors to 0° and 0%, respectively.

34. Turn the three-phase ac power source in the Power Supply on.

35. In the Metering window, measure the active power . and reactive
power . at region A, as well as the active power . and reactive
power . at region B. Record the results in the corresponding cells of
Table 15.

Table 15. Active power and reactive power measured at regions A and B for different
settings of the Regulating Autotransformer.

Region A Region B
Phase Buck-
shift boost Active Reactive Active Reactive
(°) (%) power . power . power . power .
(W) (var) (W) (var)
0 0
+15 0
+15 +15
+15 -15

36. Does the amount of active power transferred via the ac transmission line
indicate that the phase shift between the voltage at region B and the
voltage at region A is not equal to zero?

 Yes  No
Does this confirm that the Three-Phase Transformer Bank module introduces
a phase shift between the voltage at region B and the voltage at region A?

 Yes  No

37. On the Regulating Autotransformer, set the Phase Shift selector to +15°,
then repeat step 35.

38. On the Regulating Autotransformer, set the Buck-Boost selector successively

to +15° and -15°. For each of these two settings, repeat step 35. As you do
so, observe in the Metering window the values of the voltage . at
region A, the modified voltage ′ . at region A, and the voltage . at
region B.

96 AC Transmission Lines A
Exercise 5 – Control of Active and Reactive Power Flow  Procedure

What happens to these three voltage values depending on whether the

Regulating Autotransformer operates as a step-up (boost) or a step-
down (buck) transformer?

39. Turn the three-phase ac power source in the Power Supply off.

40. Using the results you recorded in Table 15, determine the relationship
between the difference in magnitude between the voltages at both ends of
the ac transmission line interconnecting regions A and B (i.e., the difference
between ′ . and . ), and the amount of reactive power which each
region supplies to the ac transmission line.

Does this confirm the theory presented in this exercise discussion?

 Yes  No

41. Do your observations in this exercise confirm that a regulating

autotransformer allows control of both the active power flow and reactive
power flow in an ac transmission line interconnecting two regions of an
ac power network without modifying the magnitude and phase angle of the
voltage at either region?

 Yes  No

42. Close LVDAC-EMS, then turn off all the equipment. Disconnect all leads and
return them to their storage location.

A AC Transmission Lines 97
Exercise 5 – Control of Active and Reactive Power Flow  Conclusion

CONCLUSION In this exercise, you learned how to control the flow of active power in
ac transmission lines used in interconnected power networks. You familiarized
yourself with the flow of reactive power in ac transmission lines. You also learned
how to control the flow of reactive power in ac transmission lines used in
interconnected power networks. You were introduced to the operating principles
of regulating autotransformers.

REVIEW QUESTIONS 1. How is it possible to determine the direction of the flow of active power
transferred by an ac transmission line connecting two regions of a power
network?

2. Explain how it is possible to control the flow of active power transferred by

an ac transmission line connecting two regions of a power network.

3. Explain how it is possible to control the flow of reactive power in an

ac transmission line connecting two regions of a power network.

98 AC Transmission Lines A
Exercise 5 – Control of Active and Reactive Power Flow  Review Questions

4. Briefly explain the operating principles of a regulating autotransformer when

it is used as a phase-shifting transformer.

5. Briefly explain the operating principles of a regulating autotransformer when

it is used as a step-down (buck) or step-up (boost) transformer.

A AC Transmission Lines 99
 Sample
Extracted from
Instructor Guide
Exercise 5 Control of Active and Reactive Power Flow

Exercise 5 Control of Active and Reactive Power Flow

ANSWERS TO 10. Sender voltage 207 V

PROCEDURE STEP
QUESTIONS Modified sender voltage , . 207 V

Receiver voltage 209 V

Sender reactive power 34.5 var

Receiver reactive power 77.1 var

11. The percentage values of the total reactive power supplied by each end of
the ac transmission line are calculated below.

34.5 var
Sender end 100% 31%
34.5 var 77.1 var

77.1 var
Receiver end 100% 69%
34.5 var 77.1 var

Percentage of reactive power supplied by the sender end 31%

Percentage of reactive power supplied by the receiver end 69%

No. Due to the resistance of the ac transmission line, there is a significant

unbalance in the reactive power supplied by each end of the line. Because
of this, the proportion of reactive power supplied by each end of the line
when the sender voltage and the receiver voltage are equal is not as
evenly distributed as is expected in theory ( is significantly higher than ).

13. Sender voltage 207 V

Modified sender voltage , . 237 V

Receiver voltage 215 V

Sender reactive power 58.4 var

Receiver reactive power 40.1 var

a The value of the receiver voltage which can be obtained with the available
shunt capacitors differs slightly from the value of the sender voltage .

A AC Transmission Lines 17
Exercise 5 Control of Active and Reactive Power Flow

14. The percentage values of the total reactive power supplied by each end of
the ac transmission line are calculated below.

58.4 var
Sender end 100% 59%
58.4 var 40.1 var

40.1 var
Receiver end 100% 41%
58.4 var 40.1 var

Percentage of reactive power supplied by the sender end 59%

Percentage of reactive power supplied by the receiver end 41%

Yes. Increasing the voltage at the sender end of the ac transmission line
using a regulating autotransformer increases the percentage of reactive
power which the sender end supplies to the line, and decreases the
percentage of reactive power which the receiver end supplies to the line.

17. Sender voltage 207 V

Modified sender voltage , . 175 V

Receiver voltage 216 V

Sender reactive power 26.0 var

Receiver reactive power 154 var

a The value of the receiver voltage which can be obtained with the available
shunt capacitors differs slightly from the value of the sender voltage .

18. The percentage values of the total reactive power supplied by each end of
the ac transmission line are calculated below.

26.0 var
Sender end 100% 14%
26.0 var 154 var

154 var
Receiver end 100% 86%
26.0 var 154 var

Percentage of reactive power supplied by the sender end 14%

Percentage of reactive power supplied by the receiver end 86%

Yes. Decreasing the voltage at the sender end of the ac transmission line
using a regulating autotransformer decreases the percentage of reactive
power which the sender end supplies to the line, and increases the
percentage of reactive power which the receiver end supplies to the line.

19. Yes

18 AC Transmission Lines A
Exercise 5 Control of Active and Reactive Power Flow

25. The results are presented in the following table.

Active power measured at regions A and B for different settings of the Regulating
Autotransformer.

Region A Region B
Phase
shift Active Active
(°) power . power .
(W) (W)
0 0.48 0.36
+15 64.3 62.6
-15 -60.3 -62.0

26. The resulting voltage phasors when the Regulating Autotransformer is set to
a 0° phase shift are shown in the following figure.

Phasor Analyzer Settings

Reference Phasor ................................ E3
Voltage Scale.............................100 V/div

Phasors of the voltage . at region A, the modified voltage ′ . at region A, and the
voltage . at region B when the Regulating Autotransformer is set to a 0° phase shift.

Yes

A AC Transmission Lines 19
Exercise 5 Control of Active and Reactive Power Flow

No active power is transferred via the ac transmission line because the

voltage at region A (before or after the Regulating Autotransformer) and the
voltage at region B are in phase and have the same magnitude (because the
line voltage is compensated). Consequently, the instantaneous values of the
voltage at both regions are equal at all times, no current can flow between
the two ends of the line, and thus, no active power is transferred.

27. The resulting voltage phasors when the Regulating Autotransformer is set to
a +15° phase shift are shown in the following figure.

Phasor Analyzer Settings

Reference Phasor ................................ E3
Voltage Scale.............................100 V/div

Phasors of the voltage . at region A, the modified voltage ′ . at region A, and the
voltage . at region B when the Regulating Autotransformer is set to a +15° phase shift.

20 AC Transmission Lines A
Exercise 5 Control of Active and Reactive Power Flow

The resulting voltage phasors when the Regulating Autotransformer is set to

a -15° phase shift are shown in the following figure.

Phasor Analyzer Settings

Reference Phasor ................................ E3
Voltage Scale.............................100 V/div

Phasors of the voltage . at region A, the modified voltage ′ . at region A, and the
voltage . at region B when the Regulating Autotransformer is set to a -15° phase shift.

The phasor of the modified voltage ′ . at region A is advanced 15° when

a phase shift of +15° is introduced using the Regulating Autotransformer.
Conversely, the phasor of the modified voltage ′ . at region A is
delayed 15° when a phase shift of -15° is introduced using the Regulating
Autotransformer. The phasors of the voltage . and the voltage . are
not affected and remain in phase with one another.

28. When the phase shift is positive (i.e., when ′ . leads . ), active
power is transferred from region A to region B (active power values are
positive). Conversely, when the phase shift is negative (i.e., when ′ .
lags behind . ), active power is transferred from region B to
region A (active power values are negative). In other words, active power
is transferred from the region whose voltage leads that of the other region.
When the phase angles at both regions are equal to one another, no active
power is transferred via the ac transmission line.

Yes

A AC Transmission Lines 21
Exercise 5 Control of Active and Reactive Power Flow

29. Yes

35. The results are presented in the following table.

Active power and reactive power measured at regions A and B for different settings of the
Regulating Autotransformer.

Region A Region B
Phase Buck-
shift boost Active Reactive Active Reactive
(°) (%) power . power . power . power .
(W) (var) (W) (var)
0 0 121 15.9 116 -46.2
+15 0 173 42.7 161 -95.7
+15 +15 206 89.0 191 -75.3
+15 -15 143 6.41 131 -117

36. Yes

Yes

38. The value of the modified voltage ′ . at region A increases by 15% when
the Regulating Autotransformer operates as a step-up (boost) transformer,
and decreases by 15% when the Regulating Autotransformer operates as a
step-down (buck) transformer. The values of the voltage . and the
voltage . are not affected and remain equal one another.

40. When the Regulating Autotransformer is set so as to neither increase nor

decrease voltage, the modified voltage ′ . at region A and the
voltage . at region B are equal and the reactive power in the
ac transmission line is supplied by both regions, being significantly higher
than . When the Regulating Autotransformer is set so as to increase
voltage, ′ . becomes higher than . and increases while
decreases. Conversely, when the Regulating Autotransformer is set so as to
decrease voltage, ′ . becomes lower than . and decreases
while increases. In other words, when the voltage at either region ( ′ .
or . ) is modified, reactive power is supplied primarily by the region
whose voltage has the highest value.

Yes

41. Yes

22 AC Transmission Lines A
Exercise 5 Control of Active and Reactive Power Flow

ANSWERS TO REVIEW 1. The direction of the flow of active power transferred by an ac transmission
QUESTIONS line connecting two regions of a power network depends on the phase angle
of the voltage at both regions. The direction of the flow of active power is
always from the region with the leading voltage to the region with the lagging
voltage.

2. It is possible to control the flow of active power transferred by an

ac transmission line connecting two regions of a power network by adding a
phase shifting transformer at either end of the line. By using the phase-
shifting transformer to vary the phase shift between the voltages at both
ends of the ac transmission line, the magnitude and direction of the flow of
active power transferred by the line can be adjusted as needed (within the
limits of the power transmission capacity of the ac transmission line).

3. It is possible to control the flow of reactive power in an ac transmission line

connecting two regions of a power network by adding a buck-boost
transformer at either end of the ac transmission line. By varying the voltage
at either end of the ac transmission line, the proportion of reactive power
supplied by each end of the line can be adjusted as needed. Increasing the
voltage at one end of the line increases the amount of reactive power which
this end of the line supplies, and vice versa.

4. When a regulating autotransformer is used as a phase shifting transformer, it

has the ability to phase shift the incoming voltages. This is achieved by
connecting each tertiary winding of the regulating autotransformer to a
secondary winding of a different phase (e.g., connecting tertiary windings ,
, and to secondary windings , , and , respectively). Consequently,
the voltages across the interconnected secondary and tertiary windings add
to produce outgoing voltages that are phase shifted with respect to the
incoming voltages. The higher the tertiary winding voltage with respect to the
secondary winding voltage, the greater the phase shift produced.

5. When a regulating autotransformer is used as a step-down (buck) or step-

up (boost) transformer, it has the ability to increase or decrease the value of
the incoming voltages. This is achieved by using multiples taps on the
windings of the regulating autotransformer so that the resulting turns ratio of
the transformer corresponds to the desired increase or decrease in voltage.

A AC Transmission Lines 23
 Bibliography
Boylestad, Robert L., Introductory Circuit Analysis, 11th ed., Upper Saddle River:
Prentice Hall, 2006, ISBN 978-0131730441.

Wildi, Theodore, Electrical Machines, Drives, and Power Systems, 6th ed., Upper
Saddle River: Prentice Hall, 2005, ISBN 978-0131776913.

A AC Transmission Lines 109