Introduction To Internet Working
Introduction To Internet Working
When networks first came into being, computers could typically communicate only
with computers from the same manufacturer. For example, companies ran either a
complete DECnet solution or an IBM solution—not both together. In the late
1970s, the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model was created by
the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) to break this barrier.
The OSI model was meant to help vendors create interoperable network devices
and software in the form of protocols so that different vendor networks could work
with each other. The OSI model is the primary architectural model for networks. It
describes how data and network information are communicated from an
application on one computer through the network media to an application on
another computer. The OSI reference model breaks this approach into layers.
The OSI model is hierarchical, and the same benefits and advantages can apply to
any layered model. The primary purpose of all such models, especially the OSI
model, is to allow different vendors’ networks to interoperate
It prevents changes in one layer from affecting other layers, so it does not
hamper development.
The OSI reference model has seven layers and divided into two groups:
Application layer (layer 7)
Presentation layer (layer 6)
Session layer (layer 5)
Transport layer (layer 4)
Network layer (layer 3)
Data Link layer (layer 2)
Physical layer (layer 1)
Figure below shows the three upper layers and their functions.
The upper layers tells us that the user interfaces with the computer at the
Application layer and also that the upper layers are responsible for applications
communicating between hosts. Remember that none of the upper layers knows
anything about networking or network addresses. That’s the responsibility of the
four bottom layers.
Figure below shows the four lower layers and their functions.
The four lower layers that define how data is transferred through a physical wire or
through switches and routers.
Application Layer
Mail services
The Presentation Layer
The Presentation layer presents data to the Application layer and is responsible for
data translation and code formatting. This layer is essentially a translator and
provides coding and conversion functions. By providing translation services, the
Presentation layer ensures that data transferred from the Application layer of one
system can be read by the Application layer of another one. The OSI has protocol
standards that define how standard data should be formatted. Tasks like data
compression, decompression, encryption, and decryption are associated with this
layer.
The Session Layer
The Session layer is responsible for setting up, managing, and then tearing down
sessions between Presentation layer entities. This layer also provides dialog control
between devices, or nodes. It coordinates communication between systems and
serves to organize their communication by offering three different modes: simplex,
half duplex, and full duplex.
The Transport layer segments and reassembles data into a data stream. The
Transport layer is responsible for providing mechanisms for multiplexing upper-
layer applications, establishing sessions, and tearing down virtual circuits. It also
hides details of any network-dependent information from the higher layers by
providing transparent data transfer.
Process To Process Delivery
The Network layer manages device addressing, tracks the location of devices
on the network, and determines the best way to move data, which means that the
Network layer must transport traffic between devices that aren’t locally attached.
Logical Addressing
Routing
Data Link Layer
The Data Link layer provides the physical transmission of the data and handles
error notification, network topology, and flow control. This means that the Data
Link layer will ensure that messages are delivered to the proper device on a LAN
using hardware addresses and will translate messages from the Network layer into
bits for the Physical layer to transmit
The Physical layer does two things: It sends bits and receives bits. The Physical
layer communicates directly with the various types of actual communication
media. Different kinds of media represent these bit values in different ways. The
Physical layer specifies the electrical, mechanical, functional requirements.
Physical layer is concerned with the following:
Representation of bits
Data rate : transmission rate
Synchronization of bits
Line configuration
Physical topology
Transmission mode
CSMA/CD
When a host wants to transmit over the network, it first checks for the presence of
a digital signal on the wire. If all is clear, the host will then proceed with its
transmission. The transmitting host constantly monitors the wire to make sure no
other hosts begin transmitting. If the host detects another signal on the wire, it
sends out an extended jam signal that causes all nodes on the segment to stop
sending data. The nodes respond to that jam signal by waiting a while before
attempting to transmit again. Back off algorithms determine when the colliding
stations can retransmit. If collisions keep occurring after 15 tries, the nodes
attempting to transmit will then timeout.
The following are the effects of having a CSMA/CD network sustaining heavy
collisions:
Delay
Low throughput
Congestion
Ethernet at the Data Link layer is responsible for Ethernet addressing, referred to
as hardware addressing or MAC addressing. Ethernet is also responsible for
framing packets received from the Network layer and preparing them for
transmission on the local network through the Ethernet contention media access
method.
Ethernet Addressing
Ethernet Frames
The Data Link layer is responsible for combining bits into bytes and bytes into
frames. Frames are used at the Data Link layer to encapsulate packets handed
down from the Network layer for transmission on a type of media access.
Ethernet was first implemented by a group called DIX (Digital, Intel, and Xerox).
They created and implemented the first Ethernet LAN specification. This was a
10Mbps network that ran on coax and then eventually twisted pair and fiber
physical media. Figure below shows the IEEE 802.3 and original Ethernet Physical
layer specifications.
ETHERNET CABLING
Three types of Ethernet cables are available:
Straight-through cable
Crossover cable
Rolled cable
Straight-Through Cable:-
Rolled Cable:-
When a host transmits data across a network to another device, the data goes
through encapsulation: It is wrapped with protocol information at each layer of the
OSI model. To communicate and exchange information, each layer uses Protocol
Data Units (PDUs). These hold the control information attached to the data at each
layer of the model. Each PDU attaches to the data by encapsulating it at each layer
of the OSI model, and each has a specific name depending on the information
provided in each header.
Data Encapsulation
At a transmitting device, the data encapsulation method works like this: