Chapter 2

BFC 10403
FLUID MECHANICS
Noor Aliza Ahmad
[email protected]
BFC10403‐ FLUID MECHANICS Noor Aliza
1
Ahmad , [email protected]
Learning Outcome
• At the end of this chapter, students should be able
to:
– Understand and analyze hydrostatic pressure and
buoyancy
– List out and apply equation of hydrostatic pressure and
buoyancy
BFC10403‐ FLUID MECHANICS
2
Noor Aliza Ahmad , [email protected]
Chapter 2:
Fluid In Relative Equilibrium
HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE AND
BUOYANCY
3
Pressure
Pressure is defined as a normal force
exerted by a fluid per unit area. Pressure is
defined as force perunit area, it has the unit
of newtons per square meter (N/m2),
which is called a pascal (Pa). That is,
1 Pa = 1 N/m2
4
Pressure
Three other pressure units are bar, standard
atmosphere, and kilogram‐force per square
centimeter:
1 bar = 105 Pa = 0.1 Mpa = 100kPa

1 atm = 101, 325 Pa = 101.325 kPa = 1.01325 bars
1 kgf/cm2 = 9.807 N/cm2 = 9.807 x 104 N/m2
= 9.807 x 104 Pa
= 0.9807 bar
= 0.9679 atm
5
Pressure
The normal stress (or

“pressure”) on the
feet of a chubby
person is much
greater than on the
feet of a slim person.
6
Pressure
• The actual pressure at a given position is called
the absolute pressure, and it is measured
relative to absolute vacuum (i.e., absolute zero
pressure)
• Most pressure‐measuring devices, however, are
calibrated to read zero in the atmosphere and so
they indicate the difference between the
absolute pressure and the local atmospheric
pressure.
• This difference is called the gage pressure.
7
Pressure
• Pressures below atmospheric pressure are called
vacuum pressures and are measured by vacuum
gages that indicate the difference between the
atmospheric pressure and the absolute pressure.
Pgage = Pabs- Patm
Pvac = Patm- Pabs
8
Pressure
#Activity 1#
Absolute Pressure of a Vacuum Chamber
A vacuum gage connected to a chamber reads 5.8 psi at a
location where the atmospheric pressure is 14.5 psi.
Determine the absolute pressure in the chamber.
Analysis The absolute pressure is easily determined.
Discussion Note that the local value of the atmospheric
pressure is used when determining the absolute pressure.
Pabs = Patm ‐ Pvac

= 14.5 ‐ 5.8
= 8.7 psi
9
Pressure
• Pressure in a fluid increases
with depth because more
fluid rests on deeper layers,
and the effect of this “extra
weight” on a deeper layer is
balanced by an increase in
pressure
The pressure of a fluid at rest
increases with depth (as a
result of added weight).
10
Variation of Pressure with Depth
• To obtain a relation
for the variation of
pressure with
depth, consider a
rectangular fluid
element in
equilibrium,
Assuming the density of the
fluid r to be constant, a force balance in the
vertical z-direction gives
11
If we take point 1 to be at the
free surface of a liquid open to
the atmosphere
where the pressure is the
atmospheric pressure Patm, then
the pressure at a depth h from
the free surface becomes P2
P = Patm + gh or Pgage = gh
12
13
• Pressure in a fluid at rest is independent of
the shape or cross section of the container. It
changes with the vertical distance, but
remains constant in other directions.
Therefore, the pressure is the same at all
points on a horizontal plane in a given fluid.
14
Since there can be no
shearing forces for a fluid at
rest, and there will be no
accelerating forces, the sum
of the forces in any direction
must therefore, be zero. The
forces acting are due to the
pressures on the surrounding
and the gravity force.
15
• Force due to Px = Px x Area ABEF = Pxdydz
• Horizontal component of force due to Ps = ‐
(Ps x Area ABCD) sin(q) = ‐ Psdsdz dy/ds = ‐
Psdydz
• As Py has no component in the x direction,
the element will be in equilibrium, if
Pxdydz + (‐Psdydz) = 0,i.e. Px = Ps
16
• Similarly in the y direction, force due to Py
= Pydxdz Since dx, dy, and dz are very
small quantities, dxdydz is negligible in
comparison with other two vertical force
terms, and the equation reduces to,
• Component of force due to Ps = ‐ (Ps x
Area ABCD) cos() = ‐ Psdsdz dx/ds = ‐
Psdxdz
17
• Force due to weight of element
= ‐ mg
= ‐ rVg
= ‐ r (dxdydz/2) g
• Since dx, dy, and dz are very small quantities, dxdydz
is negligible in comparison with other two vertical
force terms, and the equation reduces to,Py = Ps.
Therefore, Px = Py = Ps
• i.e. pressure at a point is same in all directions. This is
Pascal's law. This applies to fluid at rest.
18
Lifting of a large weight by a
small force by the application of
Pascal’s Law
19
# Activity 2 #
What is the pressure difference in 1m of sea water
compared with 100m of sea water (  = 1 x 103 kgm-3)
P1 = atmospheric pressure = 1.013 x 105Pa
At 1m
P2 = P1 + gh
= 1.013 x 105Pa + 1 x 103 kgm-3(9.81 ms-2) (1m)
= 1.11 x 105Pa
20
At 100m
P2 = P1 + gh
= 1.013 x 105Pa + 1 x 103 kgm-3(9.81 ms-2) (100m)
= 1.08 x 106Pa
Pressure difference = 1.08 x 106Pa - 1.11 x 105Pa
= 9.75 105Pa
21
PRESSURE MEASUREMENT
Manometer Plastic / glass u-tube
P2= P1
P2 = Patm + gh
Water, oil,
mercury, alcohol
22
# Activity 3 #
Measuring Pressure with a

Manometer
A manometer is used to measure the

pressure in a tank. The fluid used has
a specific gravity of 0.85, and the
manometer column height is 55 cm,
as shown. If the local atmospheric
pressure is 96 kPa, determine the
absolute pressure within the tank.
23
Assumptions The fluid in the tank is a gas whose density is
much lower than the density of manometer fluid.
Properties The specific gravity of the manometer fluid is
given to be 0.85.We take the standard density of water
to be 1000 kg/m3.
Analysis The density of the fluid is obtained by multiplying
its specific gravity by the density of water, which is taken
to be 1000 kg/m3:
24
fluid =SG (H2O) = (0.85)(1000 kgm3) = 850 kgm3
then using
PA  PB
....  Patm   gh
  
 1N  1kPa 
 3 2

96kPa  850kgm 9.81ms 0.55m    
 1kg.1 m  1000 N 
  
 s2  m2 
PA= 100.6 kPa
25
In stacked-up fluid layers, the

pressure change across a fluid
layer of density, and height,
h is gh.
Patm + 1gh1 + 2gh2 + 3gh3 = P1
26
A relation for the pressure
difference P1 - P2 can be
obtained by starting at point 1
with P1, moving along the tube by
adding or subtracting the gh
terms until we reach point 2, and
setting the result equal to P2:
Assume that , PA=PB, so

P1 +1g(a+h) = P2
P1 – P2 = (2- 1) gh
27
# Activity 4 #
Measuring Pressure with a Multi fluid Manometer
The water in a tank is pressurized by air, and the pressure is
measured by a multi fluid manometer as shown in. The
tank is located on a mountain at an altitude of 1400 m
where the atmospheric pressure is 85.6 kPa.
Determine the air pressure in the tank if h1 = 0.1 m, h2 =
0.2 m, and h3= 0.35 m. Take the densities of water, oil, and
mercury to be 1000 kg/m3,850 kg/m3, and 13,600 kg/m3,
respectively.
28
29
Assumption
The air pressure in the tank is uniform (i.e.,its variation with
elevation is negligible due to its low density), and thus we can
determine the pressure at the air–water interface.
Analysis
Starting with the pressure at point 1 at the air–water
interface,moving along the tube by adding or subtracting the
gh terms until we reach point 2, and setting the result equal
to Patm since the tube is open to the atmosphere gives
30
PA  PB
P1   water gh 2   oil gh 1   mercury gh 3  P atm
P1  P atm   water gh 2   oil gh 1   mercury gh 3
So…
P  g
atm h  waterh1  oilh2 
mercury 3
       1N  1kPa 
85.6kPa 9.81m/ s2 13600kg/ m3 0.35m  1000kg/ m3 (0.1m  850kg/ m3 0.2m   
2 
 2
 1kg.m / s  1000N / m 
= 130 kPa
31
Discussion
Note that jumping horizontally from one tube
to the next and realizing that pressure
remains the same in the same fluid simplifies
the analysis considerably. Also note that
mercury is a toxic fluid, and mercury
manometers and thermometers are being
replaced by ones with safer fluids because of
the risk of exposure to mercury vapor during
an accident.
32
Barometer Atmospheric pressure is

measured by a device called a
barometer; thus, the
atmospheric pressure is often
referred to as the barometric
pressure.
Writing a force balance

in the vertical direction gives
Patm = gh
33
# Activity 5 #
Measuring Atmospheric Pressure with a
Barometer
Determine the atmospheric pressure at a location
where the barometric reading is 740 mm Hg and
the gravitational acceleration is g 9.81 m/s2.
Assume the temperature of mercury to be 10°C,
at which its density is 13,570 kg/m3.
34
Analysis From equation , the atmospheric
pressure is determined to be
Patm = gh
= (13,570 kgm3)(9.81 ms2)(0.74 m)
( 1 N/ kg. ms2)( 1kPa/1000 Nm
= 98.5 kPa
Discussion Note that density changes with
temperature, and thus this effect should be
considered in calculations.
35
POP QUIZ
Consider a double‐fluid manometer as shown in
Figure Q2(b). If h1 = 50 cm, h2 = 120 cm, A =
1000 kg/m3 dan B =13560 kg/m3.Calculate the
pressure at A B P B

in kN/m 2 P
A
A h
(air) 1
A
h2
x x
B
mercury
36
HYDROSTATIC FORCES
ON SUBMERGED PLANE SURFACES
• A plate exposed to a liquid, such as a gate valve in
a dam, the wall of a liquid storage tank, or the hull
of a ship at rest, is subjected to fluid pressure
distributed over its surface
• On a plane surface, the hydrostatic forces form a
system of parallel forces, and we often need to
determine the magnitude of the force and its
point of application, which is called the center of
pressure.
37
HYDROSTATIC FORCES
When analyzing
hydrostatic forces on
submerged surfaces, the
atmospheric pressure
can be subtracted for
simplicity when it acts on
both sides of the
structure.
38
HYDROSTATIC FORCES
Hydrostatic force on an inclined plane surface completely

submerged in a liquid.
39
HYDROSTATIC FORCES
Based on the diagram above,
P = P0 + gh = P0 gy sin
FR = (P0 gyC sin )A

= (P0 ghC)A
= PC A
= Pave A
The pressure at the centroid of a

surface is equivalent to the average
pressure on the surface.
40
HYDROSTATIC FORCES
41
HYDROSTATIC FORCES
• The magnitude of the
resultant force acting on
a plane surface of a
completely submerged
plate in homogeneous
(constant density) fluid is
equal to the product of
the pressure PC at the
centroid of the surface
and the area A of the
surface
42
HYDROSTATIC FORCES
• Pressure acts normal to the surface, and the
hydrostatic forces acting on a flat plate of any shape
form a volume whose base is the plate area and
whose height is the linearly varying pressure, as
shown below . This virtual pressure prism has an
interesting physical interpretation: its volume is
equal to the magnitude of the resultant hydrostatic
force acting on the plate since V P dA, and the line
of action of this force passes through the centroid of
this homogeneous prism.
43
HYDROSTATIC FORCES
The projection of the centroid

on the plate is the pressure
center. Therefore, with the
concept of pressure prism, the
problem of describing the
resultant hydrostatic force on a
plane surface reduces to
finding the volume and the two
coordinates of the centroid
of this pressure prism.
44
HYDROSTATIC FORCES
Special Case: Submerged Rectangular Plate
• The resultant hydrostatic
force on the upper surface
is equal to the average
pressure, which is the
pressure at the midpoint of
the surface, times the
surface area A. That is,
FR = PC A
= [P 0g(s + b/2) sin ]ab
45
HYDROSTATIC FORCES
When the upper edge of the plate is at the free surface

and thus s = 0,
Tilted rectangular plate (s = 0),
FR = [P0 g(b sin )/2]ab
46
HYDROSTATIC FORCES
# Activity 6 #
Hydrostatic Force Acting on the Door of a
Submerged Car
A heavy car plunges into a lake during an accident
and lands at the Bottom of the lake on its wheels
as shown. The door is 1.2 m high and 1 m wide,
and the top edge of the door is 8 m below the free
surface of the water. Determine the hydrostatic
force on the door and the location of the pressure
center, and discuss if the driver can open the door.
47
HYDROSTATIC FORCES
Assumptions 1 The bottom surface of
the lake is horizontal. 2 The passenger
cabin is well‐sealed so that no water
leaks inside. 3 The door can be
approximated as a vertical rectangular
plate. 4 The pressure in the passenger
cabin remains at atmospheric value
since there is no water leaking in, and
thus no compression of the air inside.
Therefore, atmospheric pressure
cancels out in the calculations since it
acts on both sides of the door. 5 The
weight of the car is larger than the
buoyant force acting on it.
48
HYDROSTATIC FORCES
Analysis The average pressure on the door is the

pressure value at the centroid (midpoint) of the door
and is determined to be. Then the resultant hydrostatic
force on the door becomes
Pave = PC = ghC =g(s + b/2)

= (1000 kg/m3)(9.81 ms2)(8+ 1.2/2 m)
(1 kN/1000 kg.ms2)
= 84.4 kNm2
49
HYDROSTATIC FORCES
Then the resultant hydrostatic force on the door
becomes
FR = PaveA = (84.4 kN/m2) (1 m x1.2 m)
= 101.3 kN
The pressure center is directly under the midpoint of the
door, assume P0 = 0
50
BUOYANCY & STABILITY
The force that tends to
lift the body is called
the buoyant force and
is denoted by FB. The
buoyant force is
caused by the increase
of pressure in a fluid
with depth.
51
BUOYANCY
The difference between these two forces is a net
upward force, which is the buoyant force,
FB = F bottom – F top
= fg(s +h)A ‐ fgsA
= fghA
= fgV
52
BUOYANCY
Where V = hA is the volume of the plate. But the
relation f gV is simply the weight of the liquid
whose volume is equal to the volume of the plate.
Thus, we conclude that the buoyant force acting on
the plate is equal to the weight of the liquid
displaced by the plate. Note that the buoyant force
is independent of the distance of the body from the
free surface. It is also independent of the density of
the solid body.
53
BUOYANCY
Consider an arbitrarily shaped solid body submerged in
a fluid at rest and compare it to a body of fluid of the
same shape indicated by dotted lines at the same
distance from the free surface as shown below.
The buoyant forces acting on these two bodies are the
same since the pressure distributions, which depend
only on depth, are the same at the boundaries of both.
The imaginary fluid body is in static equilibrium, and
thus the net force and net moment acting on it are
zero.
54
BUOYANCY
Therefore,the upward buoyant
force must be equal to the
weight of the imaginary fluid
body whose volume is equal to
the volume of the solid body.
Further, the weight and the
buoyant force must have the
same line of action to have a
zero moment. This is known as
Archimedes’ principle,
55
BUOYANCY
For floating bodies, the weight of the entire body must be
equal to the buoyant force, which is the weight of the fluid
whose volume is equal to the volume of the submerged
portion of the floating
body. That is, of uniform density, its weight Ws
also acts through the centroid, but its
FB = W
fgV sub = ave,bodygV total
V sub /V total = ave,body/f
56
BUOYANCY
# Activity 7 #
Weight Loss of an Object in Seawater
A crane is used to lower weights into the sea (density 1025
kg/m3) for an underwater construction project as shown.
Determine the tension in the rope of the crane due to a
rectangular 0.4‐m x 0.4‐m x 3‐m concrete block (density =
2300 kg/m3) when it is (a) suspended in the air and (b)
completely immersed in water.
57
BUOYANCY
58
BUOYANCY
Assumptions 1 The buoyancy of air is negligible.
2 The weight of the ropes is negligible.
Properties The densities are given to be 1025 kg/m3 for
seawater and 2300 kg/m3 for concrete.
Analysis (a) Consider the free‐body diagram of the
concrete block. The forces acting on the concrete block in
air are its weight and the upward pull action (tension) by
the rope. These two forces must balance each other, and
thus the tension in the rope must be equal to the weight
of the block:
59
BUOYANCY
V = (0.4 m)(0.4 m)(3 m) = 0.48 m3
FT,air = W = concrete gV
= (2300kg/m3)(9.81m/s2)(0.48m3)=10830N
(b) When the block is immersed in water, there is the
additional force of buoyancy acting upward. The force
balance in this case gives
FB = fgV
= (1025)(9.81)(0.48) = 4827N
60
BUOYANCY
F T ,water = W – FB = 10.8 -4.8 = 6.0 kN
Discussion Note that the weight of the concrete block,
and thus the tension of the rope, decreases by (10.8
6.0)/10.8 55 percent in water.
61
STABILITY
Stability of Immersed and Floating Bodies
For floating bodies

such as ships,
stability is an
important
consideration for
safety.
62
STABILITY
The rotational stability criteria are similar for
floating bodies. Again, if the floating body is
bottom‐heavy and thus the center of gravity G is
directly below the center of buoyancy B, the
body is always stable. But unlike immersed
bodies, a floating body may still be stable when
G is directly above B as shown before.
63
STABILITY
64
STABILITY
This is because the centroid of the displaced volume shifts to
the side to a point B’ during a rotational disturbance while the
center of gravity G of the body remains unchanged. If point B
is sufficiently far, these two forces create a restoring moment
and return the body to the original position
A measure of stability for floating bodies is the metacentric
height GM, which is the distance between the center of gravity
G and the metacenter M—the intersection point of the lines of
action of the buoyant force through the body before and after
rotation. The metacenter may be considered to be a fixed point
for most hull shapes for small rolling angles up to about 20°.
65
STABILITY
A floating body is stable if point M is above
point G, and thus GM is positive, and unstable
if point M is below point G, and thus GM is
negative. In the latter case, the weight and the
buoyant force acting on the tilted body
generate an overturning moment instead of a
restoring moment,causing the body to capsize.
The length of the metacentric height GM
above G is a measure of the stability: the
larger it is, the more stable is the floating body.
66
STABILITY
A floating body is stable if the

body is bottom-heavy and thus
the center of gravity G is below
the centroid B of the body, or if the
metacenter, M is above point G.
However, the body is unstable if
point M is below point G.
67
REFERENCES
1. Cengel, Y. A. and Cimbala, J. M. (2006). Fluid Mechanics:
Fundamentals and Applications. McGraw-Hill.
2. Fox R. W. and McDonald A. T. (2004). Introduction to Fluid Mechanics,
6th ed. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
3. Douglas, J. F. (2005). Fluid Mechanics, 5th ed. Pearson.
4. White, Frank M. (2013). Fluid Mechanics, 6th ed. McGraw-Hill.
5. Gupta, S. C. (2006). Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulic Machines. Pearson.
68
ASSIGNMENT 1
BFC10403‐ FLUID MECHANICS Noor Aliza
69
Ahmad , [email protected]

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BFC 10403

1 bar = 105 Pa = 0.1 Mpa = 100kPa

The normal stress (or

Pabs = Patm ‐ Pvac

P = Patm + gh or Pgage = gh

Measuring Pressure with a

A manometer is used to measure the

In stacked-up fluid layers, the

Patm + 1gh1 + 2gh2 + 3gh3 = P1

Assume that , PA=PB, so

Barometer Atmospheric pressure is

Writing a force balance

Hydrostatic force on an inclined plane surface completely

FR = (P0 gyC sin )A

The pressure at the centroid of a

The projection of the centroid

When the upper edge of the plate is at the free surface

Analysis The average pressure on the door is the

Pave = PC = ghC =g(s + b/2)

For floating bodies

A floating body is stable if the

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