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Lab session 6
To study hardness of material by Brinell Hardness Test
Apparatus:
Brinell hardness test machine, weights, and sample.
Figure:

Theory:

Hardness:

The Metals Handbook defines hardness as

“Resistance of metal to plastic deformation, usually by indentation.”

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However, the term may also refer to stiffness or temper, or to resistance to scratching, abrasion,
or cutting. It is the property of a metal, which gives it the ability to resist being permanently,
deformed (bent, broken, or have its shape changed), when a load is applied. The greater the
hardness of the metal, the greater resistance it has to deformation.

In mineralogy the property of matter commonly described as the resistance of a substance to

being scratched by another substance.

In metallurgy hardness is defined as the ability of a material to resist plastic deformation.

The dictionary of Metallurgy defines the indentation hardness as the resistance of a material to
indentation. This is the usual type of hardness test, in which a pointed or rounded indenter is
pressed into a surface under a substantially static load.

Hardness testing types:

Hardness is usually defined as the resistance of a material to plastic penetration of its surface.
There are three main types of tests used to determine hardness:

 Scratch tests are the simplest form of hardness tests. In this test, various materials are
rated on their ability to scratch one another. Mohs hardness test is of this type. This test is
used mainly in mineralogy.
 In Dynamic Hardness tests, an object of standard mass and dimensions is bounced back
from a surface after falling by its own weight. The height of the rebound is indicated.
Shore hardness is measured by this method.
 Static Indentation tests are based on the relation of indentation of the specimen by a
penetrator under a given load. The relationship of total test force to the area or depth of
indentation provides a measure of hardness. The Rockwell, Brinell, Knoop, Vickers, and
ultrasonic hardness tests are of this type. For engineering purposes, mostly the static
indentation tests are used.

Hardness measurement:
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Hardness measurement can be defined as macro-, micro- or nano- scale according to the forces
applied and displacements obtained.

Measurement of the macro-hardness of materials:

Measurement of the macro-hardness of materials is a quick and simple method of obtaining

mechanical property data for the bulk material from a small sample. It is also widely used for the
quality control of surface treatments processes. However, when concerned with coatings and
surface properties of importance to friction and wear processes for instance, the macro-
indentation depth would be too large relative to the surface-scale features.

Where materials have a fine microstructure, are multi-phase, non-homogeneous or prone to

cracking, macro-hardness measurements will be highly variable and will not identify individual
surface features. It is here that micro-hardness measurements are appropriate.

Measurement of the micro-hardness of materials:

Micro-hardness is the hardness of a material as determined by forcing an indenter such as a

Vickers or Knoop indenter into the surface of the material under 15 to 1000 gf load; usually, the
indentations are so small that they must be measured with a microscope. Capable of determining
hardness of different micro constituents within a structure, or measuring steep hardness gradients
such as those encountered in casehardening. Conversions from micro hardness values to tensile
strength and other hardness scales (e.g. Rockwell) are available for many metals and alloys.

Micro-indenters works by pressing a tip into a sample and continuously measuring: applied load,
penetration depth and cycle time.

Measurement of the nano-hardness of materials:

Nano-indentation tests measure hardness by indenting using very small, on the order of 1 nano-
Newton, indentation forces and measuring the depth of the indention that was made. These tests
are based on new technology that allows precise measurement and control of the indenting forces
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and precise measurement of the indentation depths. By measuring the depth of the indentation,
progressive levels of forcing are measurable on the same piece. This allows the tester to
determine the maximum indentation load that is possible before the hardness is compromised
and the film is no longer within the testing ranges. This also allows a check to be completed to
determine if the hardness remains constant even after an indentation has been made.

There are various mechanisms and methods that have been designed to complete nano-
indentation hardness tests. One method of force application is using a coil and magnet assembly
on a loading column to drive the indenter downward. This method uses a capacitance
displacement gauge. Such gages detect displacements of 0.2 to 0.3 NM (nanometer) at the time
of force application. The loading column is suspended by springs, which damps external motion
and allows the load to be released slightly to recover the elastic portion of deformation before
measuring the indentation depth. This type of nano-indentation machine can be seen in Figure 1.

Figure 1

Another method of nano-indentation uses a long-range piezo driver and an elastic element as
shown in Figure 2. When the indenter is moved downward by the piezo driver, the elastic
element resists the movement and establishes a force. This force is measurable by knowing the
distance that the indenter moved downward after touching the film surface. An LVDT (linear
variable differential transform) records the position of the shaft, thereby measuring the
indentation depth and the spring force applied at one time.
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Figure 2

Hardness measurement methods:

There are three types of tests used with accuracy by the metals industry; they are the Brinell
hardness test, the Rockwell hardness test, and the Vickers hardness test. Since the
definitions of metallurgic ultimate strength and hardness are rather similar, it can generally be
assumed that a strong metal is also a hard metal. The way the three of these hardness tests
measure a metal's hardness is to determine the metal's resistance to the penetration of a non-
deformable ball or cone. The tests determine the depth which such a ball or cone will sink into
the metal, under a given load, within a specific period of time. The followings are the most
common hardness test methods used in today`s technology:

1. Rockwell hardness test

2. Brinell hardness
3. Vickers
4. Knoop hardness

Brinell hardness test:

The Brinell hardness test is an indentation hardness test that can provide useful information
about metallic materials. This information may correlate to tensile strength, wear resistance,
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ductility, or other physical characteristics of metallic materials, and may be useful in quality
control and selection of materials.
Brinell hardness is determined by forcing a hard steel or carbide sphere of a specified diameter
under a specified load into the surface of a material and measuring the diameter of the
indentation left after the test. The Brinell hardness number, or simply the Brinell number, is
obtained by dividing the load used, in kilograms, by the actual surface area of the indentation, in
square millimeters. The result is a pressure measurement, but the units are rarely stated.

The Brinell hardness test uses a desk top machine to press a 10mm diameter, hardened steel ball
into the surface of the test specimen. The machine applies a load of 500 kilograms for soft
metals such as copper, brass and thin stock. A 1500 kilogram load is used for aluminum
castings, and a 3000 kilogram load is used for materials such as iron and steel. The load is
usually applied for 10 to 15 seconds. After the impression is made, a measurement of the
diameter of the resulting round impression is taken. It is measured to plus or minus .05mm using
a low-magnification portable microscope. The hardness is calculated by dividing the load by the
area of the curved surface of the indention, (the area of a hemispherical surface is arrived at by
multiplying the square of the diameter by 3.14159 and then dividing by 2). To make it easier, a
calibrated chart is provided, so with the diameter of the indentation the corresponding hardness
number can be referenced.
A well-structured Brinell hardness number reveals the test conditions, and looks like this, "75
HB 10/500/30" which means that a Brinell Hardness of 75 was obtained using a 10mm diameter
hardened steel with a 500 kilogram load applied for a period of 30 seconds. On tests of extremely
hard metals a tungsten carbide ball is substituted for the steel ball. Among the three hardness
tests discussed, the Brinell ball makes the deepest and widest indentation, so the test averages the
hardness over a wider amount of material, which will more accurately account for multiple grain
structures, and any irregularities in the uniformity of the alloy.

The Brinell hardness test was one of the most widely used hardness tests during World War II.
For measuring armour plate hardness the test is usually conducted by pressing a tungsten carbide
sphere 10mm in diameter into the test surface for 10 seconds with a load of 3,000kg, then
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measuring the diameter of the resulting depression. The BHN is calculated according to the
following formula:

Where
BHN = the Brinell hardness number
F = the imposed load in kg
D = the diameter of the spherical indenter in mm
Di = diameter of the resulting indenter impression in mm

Several BHN tests are usually carried out over an area of armour plate. On a typical plate each
test would result in a slightly different number. This is due not only to minor variations in quality
of the armour plate (even homogenous armour is not absolutely uniform) but also because the
test relies on careful measurement of the diameter of the depression. Small errors in this
measurement will lead to small variations in BHN values. As a result, BHN is usually quoted as
a range of values (e.g. 210 to 245, or 210-245) rather than as a single value.

The BHN of face hardened armour uses a back slash to separate the value of the face hardened
surface from the value of the rear face. For example, a BHN of 555\353-382 indicates the surface
has a hardness of 555 and the rear face has a hardness of 353 to 382.
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The Brinell Hardness Test described above is called HB 10/3000 WC and was the type of test
used by the Germans in World War II. Other types of hardness tests use different materials for
the sphere and/or different loads. Softer materials deform at high BHN which is why tungsten
carbide (a very hard material) is used to measure armour plate. Even so, as the BHN goes above
650 the tungsten carbide ball begins to flatten out and the BHN values indicate a greater
difference in hardness than there actually is, while above 739 the ball flattens out so badly that it
cannot be used.

ASTM E-10 is a standard test for determining the Brinell hardness of metallic materials. The
load applied in this test is usually 3,000, 1,500, or 500 kgf, so that the diameter of the indentation
is in the range 2.5 to 6.0 mm. The load is applied steadily without a jerk. The full test load is
applied for 10 to 15 seconds. Two diameters of impression at right angles are measured, and the
mean diameter is used as a basis for calculating the Brinell hardness number (BHN), which is
done using the conversion table given in the standard. [3]

Approximate loads and Brinell Hardness Numbers:

Brinell Hardness Number Load (kg)

160 - 600 3000

80 - 300 1500

26 - 100 500
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Typical Brinell hardness Numbers for Metals: [4]

Material Brinell Hardness Number

Soft brass 60

Mild steel 130

Annealed chisel steel 235

White cast iron 415

Nitrided surface 750

Errors in Brinell hardness test:

Typically the greatest source of error in Brinell testing is the measurement of the indentation.
Due to disparities in operators making the measurements, the results will vary even under perfect
conditions. Less than perfect conditions can cause the variation to increase greatly. Frequently
the test surface is prepared with a grinder to remove surface conditions. The jagged edge makes
interpretation of the indentation difficult. Furthermore, when operators know the specifications
limits for rejects, they may often be influenced to see the measurements in a way that increases
the percentage of “good” tests and less re-testing.
Remedies:
Two types of technological remedies for countering Brinell measurement error problems have
been developed over the years. Automatic optical Brinell scopes use computers and image
analysis to read the indentations in a consistent manner. This standardization helps eliminate
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operator subjectivity so operators are less-prone to automatically view in-tolerance results when
the sample’s result may be out-of-tolerance. [5]

Applications
Because of the wide test force range the Brinell test can be used on almost any metallic material.
The part size is only limited by the testing instrument's capacity. Brinell hardness tests are
considered satisfactory for acceptance testing of commercial shipments, and have been used
extensively in industry for this purpose.

Strengths:
1. One scale covers the entire hardness range, although comparable results can only be
obtained if the ball size and test force relationship is the same
2. A wide range of test forces and b all sizes to suit every application
3. Nondestructive, sample can normally be reused

Weaknesses:
1. The main drawback of the Brinell test is the need to optically measure the indent size.
This requires that the test point be finished well enough to make an accurate
measurement
2. Slow Testing can take 30 seconds not counting the sample preparation time[2]

Limitations:
• However, because of the large ball diameter the test cannot be used to determine the
hardness variations in a welded joint for which the Vickers test is preferred.
• Very hard metals, over 450BHN may also cause the ball to deform resulting in an
inaccurate reading. To overcome this limitation a tungsten carbide ball is used instead of
the hardened steel ball but there is also a hardness limit of 600BHN with this indenter.
• The oxide layer should be remove from the sample by using sand paper or grinders
otherwise it would cause variation in hardness number.
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• We cannot perform this operation on a very thin sheet of metal usually having thickness
less than 10mm.For this we need to pile few sheets accurately without any impurity or
oxide layer.[6]

Procedure:
1. The indenter of Diameter (D) 10mm is pressed into the sample
by an accurately controlled test force.
2. The force of 3000kg is maintained for a specific dwell time,
normally 15 - 30 seconds. After the dwell time is complete, the
indenter is removed leaving a round indent in the sample.
3. The size of the indent is determined optically by measuring two
diagonals of the round indent using either a portable microscope
or one that is integrated with the load application device.
4. The Brinell hardness number is a function of the test force
divided by the curved surface area of the indent. The indentation
is considered to be spherical with a radius equal to half the diameter of the ball. The
average of the two diagonals is used in the following formula to calculate the Brinell
hardness:

Where:
P= applied force (kgf)
D= diameter of indenter (mm)
d = diameter of indentation (mm)
Observation:
F = 3000 kg
D = 10 mm
Di = d = 4.6 mm
B.H.N=170.4
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Comments:
• This hardness test is very useful to measure hardness of any material
• Ratio of load to surface area will give hardness number
• Brinell hardness number give us idea about hardness of material
• More the radius of indentation softer the material is
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References:
[1] http://www.calce.umd.edu/TSFA/Hardness_ad_.htm
[2] http://www.instron.com/en/our-company/library/test-types/hardness-test/brinell-hardness-test
[3] Standard Test Method for Brinell hardness of Metallic Materials Active Standard ASTM E10
Developed by Subcommittee: E28.06
[4] http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/bhn-brinell-hardness-number-d_1365.html
[5] http://www.hardnesstesters.com/Applications/Brinell-Hardness-Testing.aspx
[6] http://www.scribd.com/doc/23740306/Brinell-Hardness-Test#scribd