A The H EAVISIDE and D IRAC Functions

The H EAVISIDE unit function , also called the unit step function, is defined
according to ⎧
7 ⎪
⎨ 1 for t > a,
1 for t ≥ a,
H(t − a) := or H(t − a) : 12 for t = a, (A.1a,b)
0 for t < a, ⎪
⎩
0 for t < a,

where t is the time variable and t = a denotes a time at which a step change
has been occured (Fig.A.1).

H (t-a ) H (t-a )
1 1

1
2

0 a t 0 a t

Fig. A.1 H EAVISIDE functions (A.1a,b)

A step change in shear stress from τ = 0 to τ = τ0 at t = a may be

expressed by
τ (t) = τ0 H(t − a) . (A.2)
Another step function is shown in Fig. 11.1, which can be represented as
follows

σ(t) = σ0 H(t) + Δσ1 H(t − Θ1 ) + Δσ2 H(t − Θ2 ) + . . . (A.3a)

.
n
σ(t) = σ0 H(t) + Δσi H(t − Θi ) , (A.3b)
i=1
286 A The H EAVISIDE and D IRAC Functions

if we use the H EAVISIDE function H(t − a) defined in (A.1).

Similarly to (A.3) and Fig.11.1 the step function

h(t) = H(t − a) + 2H(t − 2a) + 3H(t − 4a) (A.4)

is drawn in Fig. A.2.

6
h (t)

0 a 2 a 4 a t
Fig. A.2 Several steps

Adding and subtracting unit step functions at times t equal to a, 2a, 3a, ...
we arrive at the square wave
.N
h(t) = H(t) + 2 (−1)n H(t − na) (A.5)
n=1

illustrated in Fig. A.3.

0
a 2 a 3 a 4 a 5 a t

-1

Fig. A.3 Square wave (A.5)

 A The H EAVISIDE and D IRAC Functions 287

The unit step function (A.1) is defined in M APLE under the name Heavi-
side. For example, the influence of the H EAVISIDE function on sin(t) and
cos2 (t) is illustrated in Fig. A.4a. 
A 1.mws
> alias(H=Heaviside,th=thickness):
> plot1:=plot(H(t-1),t=0..Pi,th=3):
> plot2:=plot(sin(t)*H(t-1), t=0..Pi, th=3):
> plot3:=plot((cos(t))ˆ2*H(t-1),
> t=0..Pi,th=3):
> plots[display]({plot1,plot2,plot3});

1
H(t−1)
0.8 H(t−1)sin(t)

0.6

0.4
H(t−1)cos2 (t)

0.2

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3
tt
Fig. A.4a Influence of the H EAVISIDE function on sin(t) and cos2 (t)

Another example is illustrated in Fig. A.4b, where the vertical lines have
been produced by H EAVISIDE functions. 
A 2.mws
> alias(H=Heaviside,th=thickness):
> plot1:=plot({-1,1,2,3,4,5}, X=0..5,-1..5,
> scaling=constrained, color=black,th=2):
> plot2:=plot({5*H(x-1)+5*H(x-1.001),
> -H(x-1)-H(x-1.001), 5*H(x-2)+5*H(x-2.001),
> 2+H(x-3.5)+3*H(x-3.501),5*H(x-5)+
> 5*H(x-5),-H(x-5)-H(x-5.001)},
> x=0..5.00001, -1..5, color=black, th=3):
> plots[display]({plot1,plot2});
288 A The H EAVISIDE and D IRAC Functions

0 1 2 3 4 5

–1

Fig. A.4b Vertical lines generated by H EAVISIDE functions

In some Figures, for instance in Fig. B.1, H EAVISIDE functions have been
used in order to generate vertical lines.
Besides the H EAVISIDE unit function (A.1) the D IRAC delta function,
also called the unit impulse function, plays a central role in creep mechanics,
for instance in (11.11b), and is defined according to
7
0 for t = a,
δ(t − a) := (A.6)
∞ for t = a .

This function has the properties

&∞
δ(t − a)dt = 1 (A.7)
0

and
 A The H EAVISIDE and D IRAC Functions 289

&∞
δ(t − a) f (t)dt = f (a) (A.8)
0

for every continuous function f (t) and also valid for a = 0.

The property (A.7) of the delta function can geometrically interpreted as
illustrated in Fig. A.5.

@ A (t - a )

1
A
1 /A

a t
Fig. A.5 D IRAC delta function with ε > 0

In Fig. A.5 the ”modified”delta function

7
1/ε for a < t < a + ε
δε (t − a) := (A.9)
0 for t < a and t > a + ε

is represented,which tends to (A.6) as ε tends to zero, where the hatched area

in Fig. A.5 is always unity. Hence, the property (A.7) is valid.
If any continuous function f (t) is multiplied by the D IRAC delta function
δ(t − a) the product vanishes everywhere except at t = a, while the value
f (a) is independent of t and can therefore be written outside the integral.
Thus, considering (A.7), we arrive at the result (A.8), which is also applied
in the collocation method according to

&L
!
δ(x − xi )R(x)dx = R(Xi ) = 0 , (A.10)
0

where R(x) is the residuum of an approximation, for instance ΔΦ − g(x) =

R(x) = 0, and Xi is an optimal selected collocation point. The integral in
(A.10) is setting over a domain L considered.
290 A The H EAVISIDE and D IRAC Functions

The collocation method can be shown to be a special case of the weighted-

residual method
&L
!
Wi (x)R(x)dx = 0 , (A.11)
0

where Wi (x) are weight functions (B ETTEN, 2004).

A relation between the unit step function (A.1) and the unit impulse func-
tion (A.6) is given by

d
δ(t − a) = H(t − a) ≡ Ḣ(t − a) (A.12)
dt
and may be deduced in the following way. The modified delta function (A.9)
can be represented by the H EAVISIDE function (A.1) as
1
δε (t − a) = [H(t − a) − H(t − a − ε)] (A.13a)
ε
or for a = 0 according to
1
δε (t) = [H(t) − H(t − ε)] . (A.13b)
ε
Then, we immediately find the D IRAC delta function by forming the follow-
ing limit
H(t) − H(t − ε)
δ(t) = lim δε (t) = lim = Ḣ(t) (A.14)
ε→0 ε→0 ε
in accordance with (A.12), that is, the D IRAC delta function is the deriva-
tion of the H EAVISIDE function. This relation is illustrated in Fig. A.6a,b by
comparing Fig. A.1 with Fig. A.5. 
A 3.mws
> with(stats):
> with(statevalf):
> H:=statevalf[pdf,normald[1,0.2]]:
> delta:=statevalf[cdf,normald[1,0.2]]:
> plot({H(t),delta(t)},t=0..2,thickness=3);
> H:=statevalf[pdf,normald[1,0.03]]:
> delta:=statevalf[cdf,normald[1,0.03]]:
> plot({H(t),delta(t)},
> t=0..2,0..2,thickness=3);
 A The H EAVISIDE and D IRAC Functions 291

δ (t−1; 0.2)

1.5

H(t−1; 0.2)

0.5

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 11t 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2

t

Fig. A.6a Relation between the modified H EAVISIDE function (A.16) and the modified
D IRAC function (A.15); parameters: a = 1, σ = 0.2

2
1.8 δ (t−1; 0.03)
1.6

1.4

1.2 H(t−1; 0.03)

1

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 11t 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2

t
Fig. A.6b Relation between the modified H EAVISIDE function (A.16) and the modified
D IRAC function (A.15); parameters: a = 1, σ = 0.03
292 A The H EAVISIDE and D IRAC Functions

As an example, the normal distribution (G AUSS distribution)

:   ;
1 1 t−a 2 −∞ < t < ∞,
δ(t − a; σ) := √ exp − (A.15)
σ 2π 2 σ σ>0

is considered in Fig. A.6 as a modified D IRAC delta function, and is, ac-
cording to (A.14), the derivative of the modified (continuous) H EAVISIDE
function

&t :  2 ;
1 1 x−a
H(t − a; σ) := √ exp − dx . (A.16)
σ 2π 2 σ
−∞

The parameter σ in (A.16) regulates the continuous transition of the H EAVI -

SIDE function at the position t = a of the step.
The G AUSS distribution (A.15) has the property (A.7) or

&∞
δ(t − a; σ)dt = 1 , (A.17)
−∞

as can be shown by utilizing the M APLE software, hence, it is a suitable

impulse function. 
A 4.mws
> delta(t):=(1/sigma/sqrt(2*Pi))*
> exp((-1/2)*((t-a)/sigma)ˆ2);
√ (t−a)2
1 2 e(− 2 σ2 )
δ(t) := √
2 σ π
> Int(delta,t=0..infinity)=int(subs(a=1,
> sigma=1./10, delta(t)),t=0..infinity);
& ∞
δ dt = 1.000000000
0

In the following, let us discuss the modified (continuous) H EAVISIDE

function
1 2Dt
H(t − a; D) := arctan 2 , (A.18)
π a − t2
where the parameter D ≥ 0 regulates the continuous transition at the posi-
tion t = a of the step, (Fig. A.7). For D = 0, we arrive at the ”original”
H EAVISIDE function (Fig. A.7).
 A The H EAVISIDE and D IRAC Functions 293

Remark: The formula (A.18) remembers us at the phase difference ϕ between

the impressed force or impressed support movement and the resulting steady-state
vibration of a damped system. In that case the parameter D is the damping factor,
while the variable t is interpreted as the frequency ratio Ω/ω.

> y(t):=2*D*t; x(t):=1-tˆ2; A 5.mws

y(t) := 2 D t

x(t) := 1 − t2

> H(t):=(1/Pi)*arctan(y(t),x(t));
arctan(2 D t, 1 − t2 )
H(t) :=
π
> plot1:=plot(subs(D=infinity,H(t)),
> t=0..3,0..1):
> plot2:=plot(subs(D=0.5,H(t)),t=0..3,0..1):
> plot3:=plot(subs(D=0.1,H(t)),t=0..3,0..1):
> plot4:=plot(subs(D=0.05,H(t)),t=0..3,0..1):
> plot5:=plot(subs(D=0,H(t)),t=0..3,0..1):
> plots[display]({plot1,plot2,plot3,
> plot4,plot5});

D=0
1

H(t−1; D) D=0.1
0.8
D=0.5

0.6
D=
8

0.4

0.2

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3
tt

Fig. A.7 Modified H EAVISIDE function (A.18)

294 A The H EAVISIDE and D IRAC Functions

From (A.18) we deduce the corresponding D IRAC delta functions:

2D a2 + t2
δ(t − a; D) := Ḣ(t − a; D) = , (A.19)
π (a2 − t2 )2 + 4D2 t2

which are graphically represented in Fig. A.8 as M APLE-plot.


A 6.mws
> delta(t):=(2*D/Pi)*(1+tˆ2)/
> ((1-tˆ2)ˆ2+4*(Dˆ2)*tˆ2);
2 D (1 + t2 )
δ(t) :=
π ((1 − t2 )2 + 4 D2 t2 )
> plot1:=plot(subs(D=0.5,delta(t)),t=0..3):
> plot2:=plot(subs(D=0.1,delta(t)),t=0..3):
> plot3:=plot(subs(D=0.01,delta(t)),
> t=0..3,0..2):
> plots[display]({plot1,plot2,plot3});

1.8
δ (t−1; D)
1.6

1.4
1.2

1 D=0.01

0.8
D=0.1
0.6

0.4
D=0.5
0.2

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3
tt
Fig. A.8 Modified D IRAC delta functions (A.19)

As we can see in the M APLE output (Fig. A.8), the ”modified” D IRAC
delta functions (A.19) have the property (A.7) for all D > 0. For D = 0 the
delta function (A.19) is a vertical line at t = a = 1 with an area identi-
cal to zero in contrast to the G AUSS distribution (A.15), which satisfies the
condition (A.7) also for σ identical to zero.
B The L APLACE Transformation

The L APLACE transformation is an elegant procedure, which can be used,

for instance, to solve ordinary and partial differential equations or integral
equations. It often yields results more readily than other techniques. Es-
pecially in the theory of viscoelasticity (Chapter 11), operational calculus,
electricity, etc., many authors utilize this convenient tool.
The general two-sided L APLACE transformation is defined as
&∞
F (s) := f (t)e−st dt , (B.1)
−∞

where the function f (t) of t is mapped into a function F (s) of the trans-
formed variable s, which may be real or complex. In the following, the lower
limit of the integral in (B.1) is fixed at t = 0, i.e., the one-side (right side)
L APLACE transformation
&∞
L{f (t)} ≡ fˆ(s) := f (t)e−st dt (B.2)
0

is taken into consideration (Chapter 11).

A function f (t) is transformable according to (B.2), if it is piecewise
continuous with at most exponential growth, i.e.,

| f (t) |≤ M eat or | e−at f (t) |≤ M with M, a ∈ IR . (B.3)

Then, the L APLACE transform L{f (t)} exists for all s > a, and the function
f (t) is of exponential order a.

Proof:
&∞ &∞
−st M
| L{f (x)} |≤ | f (t) | e dt ≤ M e−(s−a)t dt = . (B.4)
s−a
0 0
296 B The L APLACE Transformation

Since M/(s − a) has a finite value for s > a, the integral in (B.2) is
bounded. This establishes the absolute convergence of the integral defining
L{f (t)}. The convergence is uniform, if s ≥ α0 > a, where α0 is fixed. If
s is complex, the above integral converges absolutely, provided the real part
Re(s) ≥ α0 > a.
Due to the theorem (B.3) the class of admissible functions f (t), for which
the L APLACE transform (B.2) exists, is large enough for practical applica-
tions. A lot of L APLACE transform pairs, fˆ(s) ⇐⇒ f (t), is listed in a table
at the end of this appendix. Further examples can be found in the M APLE
program. The exponential function exp(at) is admissible as has been shown
in (B.4) for M = 1. Any periodic function that is piecewise continuous on
its periodic is transformable. Polynomials are also admissible.
Let f (t) = exp(at) with a = iωt. Then, the L APLACE transformation
(B.2) yields
1 s + iω
L{eiωt } = L{cos ωt + i sin ωt} = ≡ 2 . (B.5)
s − iω s + ω2
Since the operator L{} is linear,

L{αf (t) + βg(t)} = αL{f (t)} + βL{g(t)} , (B.6)

we arrive from (B.5) at the decomposition

s ω
L{cos ωt} + iL{sin ωt} = +i 2 , (B.7)
s2 +ω 2 s + ω2
hence:
s ω
L{cos ωt} = and L{sin ωt} = (B.8a,b)
s2 + ω2 s2 + ω2
for all real s and ω.
The linearity (B.6) immediately follows from the definiton (B.2). Differ-
entiation of the transforms (B.8a,b) with respect to ω yields
2sω s2 − ω 2
L{t sin ωt} = and L{t cos ωt} = . (B.9a,b)
(s2 + ω 2 )2 (s2 + ω 2 )2
Another example is f (t) = tp . Introducing the substitution st ≡ x, we
obtain the following L APLACE transform:
&∞ &∞   &∞
p −st x p −x dx 1
L{t } ≡
p
t e dt = e = p+1 xp e−x dx , (B.10)
s s s
0 0 0
 B The L APLACE Transformation 297

where the latter integral is convergent for p > −1 and represents the G AMMA
function (11.33) defined as
&∞
Γ (p + 1) := xp e−x dx with p > −1 (B.11a)
0

or
&∞
Γ (r) := xr−1 e−x dx with r > 0 . (B.11b)
0

Partial integration of the latter integral yields

&∞
1 1
Γ (r) := xr e−x dx ≡ Γ (r + 1). (B.12)
r r
0

The G AMMA function (B.11b) is drawn with MAPLE in Fig. B.1, where
some integer points are marked.

B 1.mws
> alias(H=Heaviside, th=thickness):
> plot1:=plot({6,6*H(r-4)},r=0..4.001):
> plot2:=plot(GAMMA(r),r=0..4,0..6,th=3):
> plots[display]({plot1, plot2});
6

5
Γ (r)
4

3 Γ (n+1)=n!

0 1 2 3 4
r

Fig. B.1 GAMMA function

298 B The L APLACE Transformation

For r = 1 we obtain from (B.11b)

&∞
Γ (1) = e−x dx = 1
0

and then by considering (B.12) for the following integers:

Γ (2) = 1 · Γ (1) ≡ 1!, Γ (3) = 2 · Γ (2) ≡ 2!, Γ (4) = 3 · Γ (3) ≡ 3!,

and finally
Γ (n + 1) = n! , (B.13)

where n ≥ 0 is an integer. Because of this connection with n! the function

Γ (n + 1) may be called the factorial function.
Comparing (B.11a) or (B.13) with (B.10), we obtain the following alter-
native L APLACE transforms

Γ (p + 1) n!
L{tp } = or L{tn } = , (B.14a,b)
sp+1 sn+1

where s > 0 and p > −1, while n ≥ 0 is an integer.

For p = −1 the condition (B.3) is not satisfied, and for the function
f (t) = 1/t the L APLACE transform L{1/t} does not exist, since the inte-
gral (B.2) is divergent in that case. However, there may be transformable
functions, which do not satisfy the criterion (B.3). Thus, the condition is suf-
ficient, but not necessary.
The essential advantage and usefulness of the L APLACE transformation is
that it is necessary to know only some simple rules for solving practical prob-
lems. Therefore, the most important properties and rules of the L APLACE
transformation should be collected in the following.

B.1 Linearity

The linearity according to (B.6) of the operator L{} immediately follows

from the definition (B.2) and has been utilized in order to find the L APLACE
transforms (B.8a,b), for instance. Another example is:
1 1 ω
L{sinh ωt} = L{eωt } − L{e−ωt } = 2 , (B.15)
2 2 s − ω2
where s > ω.
 B.4 Shift Rule 299

B.2 Inverse L APLACE Transforms

The inverse L APLACE transform of (B.2) is written in the form

f (t) = L−1 {fˆ(s)} (B.16)

and is unique, if f (t) satisfies the condition (B.3).

Example:
3 + 2s −5 7
fˆ(s) = = + = L{−5et + 7e2t } . (B.17)
2 − 3s + s2 s−1 s−2
Its inverse form according to (B.16) yields
f (t) = −5et + 7e2t . (B.18)
Note, we have used the partial fraction expansion and the linearity (B.6) and
the transform L{eωt } = 1/(s − ω) in the decomposition (B.17).

B.3 Similarity Rule

The similarity rule

 
1 ˆ 1
L{f (ωt)} = f s with ω > 0 (B.19)
ω ω

can be proofed by substituting ϕ = ωt in (B.2). The rule (B.19) is also valid

for ω = 1/α.

B.4 Shift Rule

The shift rule

L{f (t − a)} = e−as fˆ(s) (B.20a)

or
&a
L{f (t + a)} = eas [fˆ(s) − f (t)dt] (B.20b)
0

with a > 0 can be proofed by substituting τ = t − a or τ = t + a,

respectively, in (B.2).
300 B The L APLACE Transformation

B.5 Damping Rule

The damping rule

L{f (t)e−at } = fˆ(s + a) (B.21a)

immediately follows from (B.2):

&∞
L{f (t)e−at } := f (t)e−(s+a)t dt ≡ fˆ(s + a) , (B.21b)
0

where the parameter a is real and positiv.

B.6 L APLACE Transforms of Derivatives

In order to utilize the L APLACE transformation for solving ordinary differ-

ential equations we need the transform of the derivative f (n) (t), which is
given by the rule

L{f (n) (t)} = sn L{f (t)} − sn−1 f (0+ ) − sn−2 f  (0+ )

. (B.22)
−sn−3 f  (0+ ) − . . . − f (n−1) (0+ )

It is assumed that f (n) (t) is admissible in the sense of (B.3) and that all the
lower derivatives are continuous for t > 0. The values at 0+ are limits as
t → 0 from the right.
The derivative rule (B.22) can be deduced by induction in the following
way.
Assuming that f (t) is a continuous function which an admissible deriva-
tive f  (t), integration by parts yields:
&∞ &∞
 ∞

L{f (t)} = 
f (t)e −st
dt = f (t)e−st  + s
0
f (t)e−st dt ,
0 0

where the upper limit of the first term on the right-hand side vanishes, while
the lower limit is equal to f (0+ ). Thus, we obtain the following fundamental
result:
L{f  (t)} = sL{f (t)} − f (0+ ) . (B.23)
 B.7 Differentiation of L APLACE Transforms 301

Substituting f (t) ≡ g  (t), we arrive from (B.23) at the following relations:


L{g  (t)} = s L {g  (t)} − g  (0+ )
⇒
L {g  (t)} = sL{g(t)} − g(0+ )

L{g  (t)} = s2 L{g(t)} − sg(0+ ) − g  (0+ ) . (B.24)

Continuing this process, we finally arrive at the derivative rule (B.22).

As an example, let us solve the initial-value problem

ẍ + 6ẋ + 5x = 0 with x(0) = 1 and ẋ(0) = −2. (B.25)

Taking into consideration (B.23) and (B.24), the differential equation (B.25)
with the initial values transforms according to

(s2 L{x(t)} − s + 2) + 6(sL{x(t)} − 1) + 5L{x(t)} = 0 ,

hence
s+4 s+4 3 1
L{x(t)} = = = +
s2 + 6s + 5 (s + 1)(s + 5) 4(s + 1) 4(s + 5)
and, similar to (B.17), the inverse transform, taken from the table of trans-
forms, is the solution
3 1
x(t) = e−t + e−5t (B.26)
4 4
of the initial-value problem (B.25).

B.7 Differentiation of L APLACE Transforms

The differentiation of the transform fˆ(s) with respect to the transformed

variable s yields

d(n) fˆ(s)
fˆ(n) (s) = = (−1)n L{tn f (t)} . (B.27)
dsn

This rule can be obtained as follows. The first derivative of (B.2) with respect
to s is:
&∞
dfˆ(s)
= − tf (t)e−st dt ≡ −L{tf (t)} ,
ds
0
302 B The L APLACE Transformation

the second one is:

&∞
d2 fˆ(s)
=− t2 f (t)e−st dt ≡ +L{t2 f (t)} .
ds2
0

Following this way, we finally arrive at the rule (B.27).

For f (t) = cos ωt we obtain from (B.27) by considering (B.8a) the fol-
lowing result
d s2 − ω 2
L{t cos ωt} = − L{cos ωt} = 2 ,
ds (s + ω 2 )2
which is identical to (B.9b).
Another example is f (t) = eωt with L{eωt } = 1/(s − ω), hence
d2 2
L{t2 eωt } = + 2
L{eωt } = .
ds (s − ω)3
Continuing this procedure, we finally obtain the following result:

n!
L{tn eωt } = . (B.28)
(s − ω)n+1

B.8 L APLACE Transform of an Integral

The L APLACE transform of an integral,

⎧ t ⎫ ⎡ t ⎤
⎨& ⎬ &∞ &
1
L f (τ )dτ := e−st ⎣ f (τ )dτ ⎦ dt = L{f (t)} , (B.29)
⎩ ⎭ s
0 0 0

can be obtained in the following way. Bearing in mind that

&t
d
f (τ )dτ = f (t)
dt
0

and integrating by parts, we arrive at

⎡ t ⎤
&∞ & &t ∞ &∞
1  1
e−st ⎣
f (τ )dτ ⎦ dt = − e −st
f (τ )dτ  + e−st f (t)dt ,
s t=0 s
0 0 0 0
 B.9 Convolution Theorem 303

where the first term on the right-hand side is zero at both limits, t = 0 and
D∞
t = ∞, if the integral f (τ )dτ converges. Thus, the integration rule (B.29)
0
has been proofed.
As an example, we find
⎧ t ⎫
⎨& ⎬ 1 ω
L sin ωτ dτ = L{sin ωt} ≡ , (B.30)
⎩ ⎭ s s(s2 + ω 2 )
0

where (B.8b) has been taken into account.

B.9 Convolution Theorem

The convolution is of major importance, for instance, in the study of heat

conduction, wave motion, plastic flow, creep, and, especially, in the theory
of viscoelasticity (Section 11.1).
Based upon B OLTZMANN’s superposition principle, the creep response
of linear viscoelastic materials can be described by the hereditary integral
(11.3) or, starting in the history at time Θ = 0, by the constitutive equation
&t
∂σ(Θ)
Eε(t) = κ(t − Θ)dΘ . (B.31)
∂Θ
0

The integral in (B.31) can be interpreted as a convolution integral.

Definition: The convolution of two functions, say f1 (t) and f2 (t), is de-
fined according to

&t
ϕ(t) := f1 (Θ)f2 (t − Θ)dΘ ≡ f1 ∗ f2 . (B.32a)
0
Introducing the substitution τ = t − Θ, the definition (B.32a) can alterna-
tively be expressed in the form
&t
ϕ(t) := f2 (τ )f1 (t − τ )dτ ≡ f2 ∗ f1 . (B.32b)
0

Comparing both forms, we see that the convolution of two functions is com-
mutative, i.e.,
304 B The L APLACE Transformation

f1 ∗ f2 = f2 ∗ f1 . (B.33)

Applying the L APLACE transform (B.2) to the convolution integral ϕ(t),

we arrive at the convolution theorem

ϕ̂(s) ≡ L{f1 ∗ f2 } = L{f1 (t)}L{f2 (t)} = fˆ1 (s)fˆ2 (s) , (B.34)

which states that the convolution in the original region corresponds to the
usual multiplication in the transformed region. In other words:
The L APLACE transform of the convolution of two functions is
identical with the product of the L APLACE transforms of these
two functions.
This theorem can be proofed in the following way. For
&∞ &∞
−su
fˆ1 (s) = e f1 (u)du and fˆ2 (s) = e−sv f2 (v)dv , (B.35a,b)
0 0

the right-hand side in (B.34) can be written as:

⎡ ⎤
&∞ &∞ &∞
fˆ1 (s)fˆ2 (s) = e−su fˆ2 (s)f1 (u)du = ⎣ f2 (v)e−s(u+v) dv ⎦ f1 (u)du .
0 0 0
(B.36)
To make this integral applicable to a L APLACE transformation, let us
introduce a substitution
 7
u = u(t, w) t = t(u, v)
⇐⇒ (B.37)
v = v(t, w) w = w(u, v)

according to the linear form

 7
u=t−w t =u+v
⇐⇒ (B.38)
v= w w= v

where the JACOBI determinant is given by:

   
 ∂u ∂v   ∂t ∂w 
   
 ∂t  = 1 or J (−1) :=  ∂u ∂u  = 1 .
J :=  ∂t    (B.39)
 ∂u ∂v   ∂t ∂w 
   
∂w ∂w ∂v ∂v
 B.9 Convolution Theorem 305

Thus, the area element dtdw in the mapped t-w-plane is equal to the corre-
sponding area element dudv in the u-v-plane (Fig. B.2). Then, the double
integral in (B.36) can be expressed as
⎡ ⎤
&∞ &t
fˆ1 (s)fˆ2 (s) = ⎣ f2 (w)f1 (t − w)dw⎦ e−st dt ≡ L{f2 ∗ f1 } (B.40)
0 0

in accordance with (B.34) and (B.33). The ranges of integration of the double
integrals in (B.36) and (B.40) are illustrated in Fig. B.2.

v w u=0
3 3 u=1

=t
2 2 u=2
w

1 1 u=3

u t
1 2 3 1 2 3
Fig. B.2 Ranges of integration in the u-v- and t-w-plane

Utilizing the convolution theorem (B.34) it is easy to proof the associative

property
(f1 ∗ f2 ) ∗ f3 = f1 ∗ (f2 ∗ f3 ) , (B.41a)

which can alternatively be expressed as

g ∗ f3 = f1 ∗ h (B.41b)

by substituting
g ≡ f1 ∗ f2 and h ≡ f2 ∗ f3 . (B.42a,b)
Applying the convolution theorem to the left-hand side and right-hand side
of (B.41b), we obtain

L{g ∗ f3 } = ĝ fˆ3 = L{f1 ∗ f2 }fˆ3 = (fˆ1 fˆ2 )fˆ3 (B.43a)

306 B The L APLACE Transformation

and
L{f1 ∗ h} = fˆ1 ĥ = fˆ1 L{f2 ∗ f3 } = fˆ1 (fˆ2 fˆ3 ) , (B.43b)
respectively. Since the ordinary multiplication on the right-hand sides in
(B.43a,b) is associative,

(fˆ1 fˆ2 )fˆ3 = fˆ1 (fˆ2 fˆ3 ) , (B.44)

it follows that the convolution of three functions is associative according to

(B.41a,b).
In a similar way, the distributive property,

f1 ∗ (f2 + f3 ) = f1 ∗ f2 + f1 ∗ f3 (B.45)

can be proofed: Substituting k ≡ f2 + f3 and considering the linearity (B.6),

we obtain the following relations

L{f1 ∗ k} = fˆ1 k̂ = fˆ1 L{f2 + f3 } = fˆ1 (L{f2 } + L{f3 }) =

= fˆ1 (fˆ2 + fˆ3 ) = fˆ1 fˆ2 + fˆ1 fˆ3 (B.46)
L{f1 ∗ (f2 + f3 )} = L{f1 ∗ f2 } + L{f1 ∗ f3 }

in accordance with (B.46).

To illustrade the convolution theorem, let us consider the equation of mo-
tion
mẍ + kx = F (t) (B.47a)
or
ẍ + ω 2 x = ω 2 f (t) with x(0) = ẋ(0) = 0 , (B.47b)
where the abbreviations ω 2 = k/m and f (t) = F (t)/k have been intro-
duced. The L APLACE transformation
&∞ &∞
2 −st 2
(ẍ + ω x)e dt = ω f (t)e−st dt (B.48)
0 0

carried out on both sides of the equation of motion (B.47b) by taking the
transform (B.24) into account yields

s2 L{x(t)} − sx(0) − ẋ(0) + ω 2 L{x(t)} = ω 2 L{f (t)} .

Inserting the initial values x(0) = ẋ(0) = 0, we obtain

 B.9 Convolution Theorem 307

ω2
L{x(t)} = L{f (t)} ≡ L{g(t)}L{f (t)} . (B.49)
s2 + ω 2
Thus, applying the convolution theorem (B.34), the solution of the problem
(B.47b) can be represented as (B.32a,b), i.e.:
&t
x(t) = g(t) ∗ f (t) = f (Θ)g(t − Θ)dΘ , (B.50)
0

and because of (B.8b), we finally arrive at the solution

&t
x(t) = ω f (Θ) sin ω(t − Θ)dΘ (B.51)
0

with an arbitrary forcing function F (t) = kf (t) and with the assumed initial
values x(0) = 0 and ẋ(0) = 0.
If the system is subjected to an external harmonic function of magnitude
F (t) = F0 sin Ωt, we obtain the following special solution:

&t
F0
x(t) = ω sin ΩΘ sin ω(t − Θ)dΘ ,
k
0

&t
F0
x(t) = ω Im eiΩΘ sin ω(t − Θ)dΘ ,
k
0
 
F0 /k Ω
F (t) = F0 sin Ωt =⇒ x(t) = 2
sin Ωt − sin ωt .
1 − (Ωω)
ω

(B.52a)
If the external harmonic function has a magnitude of F (t) = F0 cos Ωt, we
find in a similar way the following solution of the initial-value problem
(B.47b):
 
F0 /k
F (t) = F0 cos Ωt =⇒ x(t) = 2
cos Ωt − cos ωt .
1 − (Ωω)

(B.52b)
308 B The L APLACE Transformation

B.10 L APLACE Transforms of the H EAVISIDE and

D IRAC Functions

The H EAVISIDE and D IRAC functions (Appendix A) play a central role, for
instance, in the theory of viscoelasticity (Chapter 11).
The L APLACE transform of the H EAVISIDE function (A.1a) is given by

1
L{H(t − a)} = e−as , (B.53a)
s

since
&∞ &a &∞
1
L{H(t − a)} = H(t − a)e dt = 0 · e dt + 1 · e−st dt ≡ e−sa .
−st −st
s
0 0 a

Similarly, we find the following transform

f(t)
1 1  −as 
L{H(t − a) − H(t − b)} = e − e−bs ,
s
a b t
(B.53b)
which is utilized, when the response of the K ELVIN model subjected to the
shear stress
τ (t) = τ0 [H(t − a) − H(t − b)] (B.54)
should be analysed. The differential equation (11.19) of the K ELVIN model
can be written as

γ̇ + γ/λ = τ /η with λ ≡ η/G . (B.55)

Applying the L APLACE transformation with (B.23) and taking the loading
(B.54) with its transform (B.53b) into account, we arrive at the L APLACE
transform
τ0 e−as − e−bs
L{γ(t)} = , (B.56)
G s(1 + λs)
the inverse of which is the response γ = γ(t) of the K ELVIN model. First let
us find the inverse of the transform
e−as
L{ϕ(s)} = ≡ fˆ1 (s)fˆ2 (s) , (B.57)
s(1 + λs)
 B.10 L APLACE Transforms of the H EAVISIDE and D IRAC Functions 309

where
e−as 1
fˆ1 (s) ≡ and fˆ2 (s) ≡ (B.58a,b)
s 1 + λs
have been introduced. Because of (B.53a) and by considering (B.28) with
n = 0 and ω = −1/λ, the inverse forms of (B.58a,b) are given by

L−1 {fˆ1 (s)} ≡ f1 (t) = H(t − a) (B.59a)

and
1
L−1 {fˆ2 (s)} ≡ f2 (t) = e−t/λ . (B.59b)
λ
Applying the convolution theorem (B.34) with (B.32a) and (B.57) to
(B.59a, b), we find the inverse of (B.57) according to
&t
1
ϕ(t) = f1 ∗ f2 = H(Θ − a) e−(t−Θ)/λ dΘ (B.60a)
λ
0

or
&t
1 −(t−Θ)/λ
ϕ(t) = e dΘ = 1 − e−(t−a)/λ . (B.60b)
λ
a

Thus, the solution γ = γ(t) of (B.56), i.e., the creep behavior of the K ELVIN
model subjected to a step loading (B.54) can be expressed by the following
creep function:

G / 0 / 0
γ(t) = H(t − a) 1 − e−(t−a)/λ − H(t − b) 1 − e−(t−b)/λ
τ0

(B.61)
This function and the H EAVISIDE function (B.54) are illustrated in Fig. B.3.


B 2.mws
> alias(H=Heaviside, th=thickness):
> plot1:=plot(H(t-1)-H(t-6),t=0..12,th=3):
> plot2:=plot(H(t-1)*(1-exp(-(1/2)*(t-1))-
> H(t-6)*(1-exp(-(1/2)*(t-6))),t=0..12,th=3):
> plots[display]({plot1,plot2});
310 B The L APLACE Transformation

HEAVISIDE
1

0.8
λ= 2

0.6

0.4
KELVIN

0.2

0 2 4 6 8 10 12
t

Fig. B.3 Creep behavior of a K ELVIN model subjected to a constand load between
t = 1 and t = 6

The L APLACE transform of the D IRAC function (A.6) is given by

L{δ(t − a)} = e−as and L{δ(t)} = 1 . (B.62a,b)

This can be deduced as follows. The L APLACE transform of the modified

distribution (A.9), represented in Fig. A.5, is
&∞ &
a+ε
1 −st 1
L{δε (t − a)} = e dt = e−st dt =
ε ε
0
1 / −s(a+ε) 0
a
=− e − e−sa .
sε
Then, by forming the limit ε → 0 and applying the L’H OSPITAL rule, we
obtain:
L{δ(t − a)} = lim L{δε (t − a)} = e−as
ε→0
in accordance with (B.62a), and for a → 0 identical to (B.62b).
One can find the transform (B.62a) also in the following way. Since
δ(t − a) = Ḣ(t − a)
according to (A.12) and because of (B.23) together with H(0) = 0 and
(B.53a), we immediately arrive at the result
 B.10 L APLACE Transforms of the H EAVISIDE and D IRAC Functions 311

L{δ(t − a)} = L{Ḣ(t − a)} = sL{H(t − a)} ≡ e−as , (B.63)

which agrees with (B.62a).

As an example, in which the transform (B.62b) is taken into account, let
us discuss the response of an undamped vibration-system to a unit impulse
at time t = 0. This initial-value problem is described according to the differ-
ential equation
F0
ẍ + ω 2 x = ωδ(t) with x(0) = 0 and ẋ(0) = 0 . (B.64)
k
Because of (B.24), (B.62b), and (B.8b) we obtain:

F0 ω F0
L{x(t)} = ⇒ x(t) = sin ωt (B.65)
k s2 + ω 2 k

for t > 0. The initial value ẋ(0) = 0 assumed in (B.64) is not satisfied.
Because of
F0 F0
ẋ(t) = ω cos ωt → ẋ(0) = ω,
k k
the unit D IRAC impuls produces a jump of magnitude ωF0 /k in the velocity
ẋ(0) at time t = 0. Thus, the function x(t) is continuous indeed, but not
differentiable at t = 0.
Another example is concerned with the deflection curve of a statically in-
determinate beam rigidly clamped at both ends and loaded by a concentrated
Force F as schown in Fig. B.4.

F
EI

x
a

y
Fig. B.4 Statically interdeterminate beam

This problem can easily be solved by applying the L APLACE transforma-

tion to the differential equation
312 B The L APLACE Transformation

d4 y F
4
= δ(x − a) (B.66)
dx EI
taking the following boundary conditions into account:

y(0) = 0, y  (0) = 0, y() = 0, y  () = 0 . (B.67a-d)

Because of (B.22) and (B.62a) we obtain

F −as
s4 L{y(x)} − s3 y(0) − s2 y  (0) − sy  (0) − y  (0) = e ,
EI
and with (B.67a,b) and y  (0) ≡ C1 and y  (0) = C2 we find:

C1 C2 F e−as
L{y(x)} = 3
+ 4 + . (B.68)
s s EI s4
From (B.28) we read the inverse transforms
x2 x3
L−1 {1/s3 } = and L−1 {1/s4 } = . (B69a,b)
2! 3!
The third term on the right-hand side in (B.68) can be decomposed according
to
exp(−as)
= fˆ1 (s)fˆ2 (s) , (B.70)
s4
where the transforms
1 exp(−as)
fˆ1 (s) := 3 and fˆ2 (s) := , (B.71a,b)
s s
have been introduced. The inverse transforms can be read from (B.69a) and
(B.53a), respectively,

x2
f1 (x) := L−1 {fˆ1 (s)} = (B.72a)
2!
and

f2 (x) := L−1 {fˆ2 (s)} = H(x − a) . (B.72b)

Thus, utilizing the convolution theorem (B.34) and considering (B.32b), we

arrive at the inverse transform of the product (B.70):
&x
−1 (x − τ )2
L {fˆ1 (s)fˆ2 (s)} = f1 (x) ∗ f2 (x) = H(τ − a)dτ
2!
0
 B.10 L APLACE Transforms of the H EAVISIDE and D IRAC Functions 313

or
  &x
−1 1 (x − τ )2 (x − a)3
L exp(−as) = dτ = . (B.73)
s4 2! 3!
a
Adding the parts (B.69a,b) and (B.73) we obtain from (B.68) the deflection
curve of the statically indeterminate beam (Fig. B.4) according to
C1 2 C2 3 F (x − a)3
y(x) = x + x + H(x − a) , (B.74)
2! 3! EI 3!
where the constants C1 and C2 can be determined by inserting the end con-
ditions (B.67c,d) into (B.74) as:
F F
C1 = α(1 − α)2 and C2 = −(1 + 2α)(1 − α)2 , (B.75a,b)
EI EI
respectively. Thus, the final solution in dimensionless representation is given
by

EI , -
192 3
y(ξ) ≡ η(ξ; α) = 96(1 − α)2 α − 13 (1 + 2α)ξ ξ 2
F (B.76)
+32(ξ − α)3 H(ξ − α)

where ξ ≡ x/ and α ≡ a/. The deflection curve (B.76) has a maximum at
ξopt = 1/(3 − 2α) for α ≤ 1/2 (B.77a)

and

ξopt = 2α/(1 + 2α) for α ≥ 1/2 (B.77b)

as can be seen in Fig. B.5.

B 3.mws
> alias(H=Heaviside):
> eta(xi):=96*((1-alpha)ˆ2)*(alpha-(1+2*alpha)*
> xi/3)*(xiˆ2)+32*((xi-alpha)ˆ3)*H(xi-alpha);

1
η(ξ) := 96 (1 − α)2 (α − (1 + 2 α) ξ) ξ 2 + 32 (ξ − α)3 H(ξ − α)
3

> plot1:=plot(subs(alpha=1/4,-eta(xi)),xi=0..1):
> plot2:=plot(subs(alpha=1/2,-eta(xi)),xi=0..1):
> plot3:=plot(subs(alpha=2/3,-eta(xi)),xi=0..1):
> plots[display]({plot1,plot2,plot3});
314 B The L APLACE Transformation

ξ
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
0

–0.2
α =2/3 α =1/4

–0.4

–0.6

–0.8
α =1/2

–1

Fig. B.5 Deflection curve (B.76) of a beam clamped at both ends according to Fig. B4

B.11 L APLACE Transformation for Integral Equations

Integral equations, for instance,
&b
y(t) = f (t) + K(Θ, t) y(Θ)d(Θ) , (B.78)
a

where the function f (t) and the kernel function K(Θ, t) are known, while
y(t) is unknown, can easily be solved by utilizing the L APLACE transforma-
tion: We differentiate the following types:
❒ If a and b are constant, then equation (B.78) is called a F RED -
HOLM integral equation.
❒ If a is constant and b = t we have a VOLTERRA integral equation.
❒ If a = 0 and b = t, the equation (B.78) is an integral equation of
a convolution type.
The last type,
&t
y(t) = f (t) + K(t − Θ)y(Θ)d(Θ) , (B.79)
0
 B.11 L APLACE Transformation for Integral Equations 315

can be written as
y(t) = f (t) + K(t) ∗ y(t) , (B.80)
since the integral in (B.79) is the convolution of the kernel function K(t) and
the unknown function y(t) according to the definition (B.32a,b).
Applying the L APLACE transformation to (B.80) and taking the convolu-
tion theorem (B.34) into account, we arrive at the transforms:

L{y(t)} = L{f (t)} + L{K(t)}L{y(t)}

or
L{y(t)} = L{f (t)}/ [1 − L{K(t)}] , (B.81)
from which we find the solution by forming the inverse:
= / 0>
y(t) = L−1 {ŷ(s)} = L−1 fˆ(s) 1 − K̂(s) . (B.82)

To find the creep function (11.7) of a M AXWELL fluid, if the relaxation

function (11.11a) is assumed to be known, then we have to solve the integral
equation
&t
∂r(t − Θ)
κ(Θ)dΘ + r(0)κ(t) = 1 , (B.83)
∂t
0

which follows from (11.15b) by differentiation with respect to time t. In-

serting (11.11a), i.e., r(t) = exp(−t/λ), into (B.83), we obtain the integral
equation of the convolution type (B.79) according to

&t
1
κ(t) = 1 + e−(t−Θ)/λ κ(Θ)dΘ . (B.84)
λ
0

The Laplace transformation yields

1 1 1 + λs
κ̂(s) = + κ(s) =⇒ κ̂(s) = . (B.85)
2 1 + λs λs2
Using a table of transforms, we obtain the inverse of (B.85), i.e. the creep
function
κ(t) = 1 + t/λ (B.86)

of the M AXWELL fluid in accordance with (11.7).

Similar to (B.83) we arrive from (11.15b) at the integral equation
316 B The L APLACE Transformation

&t
∂κ(t − Θ)
r(Θ)d(Θ) + κ(0)r(t) = 1 , (B.87)
∂t
0

which takes the form

&t
1
e−(t−Θ)/λ r(Θ)d(Θ) = 1 (B.88)
λ
0

for the K ELVIN creep function (11.8). The L APLACE transformation yields
1 1 1
r̂(s) = =⇒ r̂(s) = + λ. (B.89)
1 + λs s s
Using a table of transforms, we obtain the inverse of (B.89), i.e. the relax-
ation function
r(t) = 1 + λδ(t) (B.90)

of the K ELVIN model in accordance with (11.11b).

Another example is the integral equation

&t
−t/λ 1
y(t) = 1 − e + e−(t−Θ)/λ y(Θ)d(Θ) , (B.91)
λ
0

the L APLACE transform of which is given by

1 1 1
ŷ(s) = + ŷ(s) ⇒ ŷ(s) = 2 . (B.92)
s(1 + λs) 1 + λs λs

Thus, from a table of transforms we read the solution

y(t) = t/λ . (B.93)

This solution satisfies the integral equation (B.91).

The integral equation

&t
y(t) = ωt + ω sin ω(t − θ)y(θ)dθ (B.94)
0

has the L APLACE transform

 B.11 L APLACE Transformation for Integral Equations 317

 
ω ω2 1 ω2
ŷ(s) = 2 + 2 ŷ(s) ⇒ ŷ(s) = ω + , (B.95)
s s + ω2 s2 s4

hence the solution can be taken from a table of transforms:

( )
1
y(t) = ωt 1 + (ωt)2 . (B.96)
6

This result has been checked by utilizing the following M APLE program:

B 4.mws
> int_eqn:=y(t)-
> omega*int((sin(omega*(t-Theta))*y(Theta),
> Theta=0..t))=omega*t;
& t
int eqn := y(t) − ω sin(ω (t − Θ)) y(Θ) dΘ = ω t
0

> with(inttrans):
> laplace(int_eqn,t,s);

ω 2 laplace(y(t), t, s) ω
laplace(y(t), t, s) − = 2
s2 + ω 2 s
> readlib(isolate)(%,laplace(y(t),t,s)):
> simplify(%);

ω (s2 + ω 2 )
laplace(y(t), t, s) =
s4
> invlaplace(%,s,t):
> y(t,omega):=simplify(rhs(%));

ω t (6 + ω 2 t2 )
y(t, ω) :=
6
> Y(Theta,omega):=subs(t=Theta, y(t,omega));

ω Θ (6 + ω 2 Θ2 )
Y(Θ, ω) :=
6
318 B The L APLACE Transformation

> # check:
> int_eqn:=simplify(y(t,omega)-
> omega*int(sin(omega*(t-Theta))*
> Y(Theta,omega),Theta=0..t));
int eqn := ω t
> # Thus, the solution (B.96) is correct.
Further integral equations are solved in the next M APLE programs.

B 5.mws
> int_eqn:=y(t)+
> omega*integrate((sin(omega*(t-Theta))*
> y(Theta),Theta=0..t))=1;
& t
int eqn := y(t) + ω sin(ω (t − Θ)) y(Θ) dΘ = 1
0

> with(inttrans):
> laplace(int_eqn,t,s);

ω 2 laplace(y(t), t, s) 1
laplace(y(t), t, s) + 2 2
=
s +ω s
> readlib(isolate)(%,laplace(y(t),t,s)):
> simplify(%);

s2 + ω 2
laplace(y(t), t, s) =
s (s2 + 2 ω 2 )
> invlaplace(%,s,t):
> y(t,omega):=simplify(rhs(%));
1 1 √
y(t, ω) :=
+ cos( 2 ω t)
2 2
> Y(Theta,omega):=subs(t=Theta,y(t,omega));
1 1 √
Y(Θ, ω) := + cos( 2 ω Θ)
2 2
> # check
> int_eqn:=y(t,omega)+
> omega*int(sin(omega*(t-Theta))
> *Y(Theta,omega),Theta=0..t);
int eqn := 1
 B.11 L APLACE Transformation for Integral Equations 319


B 6.mws
> int_eqn:=
> y(t)+omega*integrate((cos(omega*(t-Theta))
> *y(Theta),Theta=0..t))=1;
& t
int eqn := y(t) + ω cos(ω (t − Θ)) y(Θ) dΘ = 1
0

> with(inttrans):
> laplace(int_eqn,t,s);
ω laplace(y(t), t, s) s 1
laplace(y(t), t, s) + 2 2
=
s +ω s
> readlib(isolate)(%,laplace(y(t),t,s)):
> simplify(%);

s2 + ω 2
laplace(y(t), t, s) =
s (s2 + ω 2 + ω s)
> evalc(invlaplace(%,s,t)):
> y(t,omega):=simplify(rhs(%));
√
2 (− ω t ) √ t 3ω
y(t, ω) := 1 − e 2 3 sin( )
3 2
> Y(Theta,omega):=subs(t=Theta,%);
√
2 (− ω Θ ) √ Θ 3ω
Y(Θ, ω) := 1 − e 2 3 sin( )
3 2
> # check:
> int_eqn:=y(t,omega)+
> omega*int(cos(omega*(t-Theta))*
> Y(Theta,omega),Theta=0..t);
int eqn := 1
> # Thus, the solution is correct.
> y(t,1/2):=subs(omega=1/2,y(t,omega));
√
1 2 (− t ) √ t 3
y(t, ) := 1 − e 4 3 sin( )
2 3 4
> y(t,2):=subs(omega=2,y(t,omega));
320 B The L APLACE Transformation

2 (−t) √ √
y(t, 2) := 1 − e 3 sin(t 3)
3
> alias(H=Heaviside, th=thickness,c=color):
> plot1:=plot({1,1.1,1.1*H(t-8*Pi/sqrt(3))},
> t=0..8.001*Pi/sqrt(3),c=black):
> plot2:=plot({y(t,1/2),y(t,2)},
> t=0..8.001*Pi/sqrt(3),0.4..1.1001,c=black):
> plots[display]({plot1,plot2});

1.1

0.9
ω =2 ω =1/2
0.8

0.7

0.6

0.5

0.4 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
t
Fig. B.6 Solution of the above integral equation for ω = 1/2 and ω = 2


B 7.mws
> VOLTERRA:=y(t)-omega*integrate((t-Theta)*
> y(Theta),Theta=0..t)=exp(I*omega*t);
& t
VOLTERRA := y(t) − ω (t − Θ) y(Θ) dΘ = e(ω t I)
0
VOLTERRA:=convert(%,‘trig‘);
>
& t
VOLTERRA := y(t) − ω (t − Θ) y(Θ) dΘ = cos(ω t) + sin(ω t) I
0
> with(inttrans):
> laplace(VOLTERRA,t,s);
ω laplace(y(t), t, s) s ωI
laplace(y(t), t, s) − 2
= 2 2
+ 2
s s +ω s + ω2
> readlib(isolate)(%,laplace(y(t),t,s)):
 B.11 L APLACE Transformation for Integral Equations 321

> simplify(%);
(s + ω I) s2
laplace(y(t), t, s) =
(s2 + ω 2 ) (s2 − ω)
> invlaplace(%,s,t):
> y(t,omega):=simplify(rhs(%));
√ √ √
ω cos(ω t) + cosh( ω t) + ω sinh( ω t) I + ω sin(ω t) I
y(t, ω) :=
1+ω
> y[re](t,omega):=(omega*cos(omega*t)+

> cosh(sqrt(omega)*t))/(1+omega);
√
ω cos(ω t) + cosh( ω t)
yre (t, ω) :=
1+ω
> y[im](t,omega):=(omega*sin(omega*t)+
> sqrt(omega)*sinh(sqrt(omega)*t))/(1+omega);
√ √
ω sin(ω t) + ω sinh( ω t)
yim (t, ω) :=
1+ω
> # check of the real part:
> Y[re](t,omega):=subs(t=Theta,%%);
√
ω cos(ω Θ) + cosh( ω Θ)
Yre (t, ω) :=
1+ω
> VOLTERRA[re]:=simplify(y[re](t,omega)-

> omega*int((t-Theta)*%,Theta=0..t)):
> VOLTERRA[re]:=simplify(convert(%,‘trig‘));
VOLTERRAre := cos(ω t)
> # Thus the real part of the above solution
> is correct.
> # In a similar way one can check the
> imiginary part.
322 B The L APLACE Transformation


B 8.mws
> volterra:=y(t)-int((t-Theta)ˆ3*y(Theta),
Theta=0..t)=1-t+tˆ2-tˆ3;
& t
volterra := y(t) − (t − Θ)3 y(Θ) dΘ = 1 − t + t2 − t3
0
> with(inttrans):
> laplace(volterra,t,s);
6 laplace(y(t), t, s) 1 1 2 6
laplace(y(t), t, s) − 4
= − 2+ 3− 4
s s s s s
> simplify(readlib(isolate)
> (%,laplace(y(t),t,s)));

s3 − s2 + 2 s − 6
laplace(y(t), t, s) =
s4 − 6
> Digits:=4;
> evalf(invlaplace(%%,s,t));
Digits := 4

y(t) = 0.9082 cosh(1.565 t) + 0.0918 cos(1.565 t)

− 1.102 sinh(1.565 t) + 0.4631 sin(1.565 t)
> 0.9082=convert(0.9082,‘rational‘):
> 0.0918=convert(0.0918,‘rational‘):
> 1.102=convert(1.102,‘rational‘):
> 0.4631=convert(0.4631,‘rational‘):
> 1.565=convert(1.565,‘rational‘):
> macro(a=36/23):
> Y(t):=(10/11)*cosh(a*t)+(9/98)*cos(a*t)-
> (54/49)*sinh(a*t)+(19/41)*sin(a*t);
10 36 t 9 36 t 54 36 t 19 36 t
Y(t) := cosh( )+ cos( )− sinh( )+ sin( )
11 23 98 23 49 23 41 23
> Y[i](Theta):=subs(t=Theta,%);

10 36 Θ 9 36 Θ 54 36 Θ
Yi (Θ) := cosh( )+ cos( )− sinh( )
11 23 98 23 49 23
19 36 Θ
+ sin( )
41 23
> volterra:=Y(t)-int((t-Theta)ˆ3*Y[i](Theta),
> Theta=0..t):DELTA(t):=1-t+tˆ2-tˆ3-%:
 B.11 L APLACE Transformation for Integral Equations 323

> error_norm:=
> L[2]=evalf(sqrt(int(%ˆ2,t=0..1)),15);
error norm := L2 = 0.00142880337743571
For Digits:=10 the error-norm is given by L2 = 0.2246731 10−6 as

shown on the CD-ROM B 9.mws .

B 10.mws
> ABEL:=int((1/sqrt(t-Theta))*y(Theta),
> Theta=0..t)=T;
& t
y(Θ)
ABEL := √ dΘ = T
0 t−Θ
This is a singular integral equation. For the special case of
the tautochrone the right hand side T is independent of t.
> with (inttrans):
> laplace(ABEL,t,s);
& t 
y(Θ) T
laplace √ dΘ, t, s =
0 t−Θ s

# appliction of the convolution theorem:

> laplace(1/sqrt(t),t,s)*laplace(y(t),t,s)=
> laplace(T,t,s);
√
π laplace(y(t), t, s) T
√ =
s s
> readlib(isolate)(%,laplace(y(t),t,s));
T
laplace(y(t), t, s) = √ √
s π
> invlaplace(%,s,t);
T
y(t) = √
π t
# check:

> ABEL:=Int(T/Pi/sqrt(Theta)/sqrt(t-Theta),
> Theta=0..t)=int(T/Pi/sqrt(Theta)/
> sqrt(t-Theta),Theta=0..t);
324 B The L APLACE Transformation

& t
T
ABEL := √ √ dΘ = T
0 π Θ t−Θ

# Thus, the solution is correct.

Further results are listed in the following Table:

√
T const. at at2 at3/2 a t ln(at)
T 2 a√ 8 a 3/2 3a a 1
y(t) √ t t t √ ln(4at)
π t π 3π 4 2 π t

The last result in the table is explained in more detail in the following
MAPLE-program. 
B 11.mws
> abel:=int((1/sqrt(t-Theta))*y(Theta),
Theta=0..t)=ln(a*t);
& t
y(Θ)
abel := √ dΘ = ln(a t)
0 t−Θ
This is a singular integral equation.
> with (inttrans):
> laplace(abel,t,s);
& t 
y(Θ) γ + ln(s) ln(a)
laplace √ dΘ, t, s = − +
0 t−Θ s s
appliction of the convolution theorem:
> laplace(1/sqrt(t),t,s)*laplace(y(t),t,s)=

> laplace(ln(a*t),t,s);
√
π laplace(y(t), t, s) γ + ln(s) ln(a)
√ =− +
s s s
> readlib(isolate)(%,laplace(y(t),t,s));
γ + ln(s) ln(a) √
(− + ) s
laplace(y(t), t, s) = s √ s
π
> invlaplace(%,s,t);
2 ln(2) ln(t) ln(a)
√ √ +√ √ +√ √
π t π t t π
y(t) = √
π
> simplify(%);
 B.11 L APLACE Transformation for Integral Equations 325

2 ln(2) + ln(t) + ln(a)

y(t) = √
π t
> y(t):=ln(4*a*t)/Pi/sqrt(t);
ln(4 a t)
y(t) := √
π t
> # check:
> Int(ln(4*a*Theta)/Pi/sqrt(Theta)/
> sqrt(t-Theta),Theta=0..t)=
> simplify(int(ln(4*a*Theta)/Pi/sqrt(Theta)/
> sqrt(t-Theta),Theta=0..t));
& t
ln(4 a Θ)
√ √ dΘ = ln(t) + ln(a)
0 π Θ t−Θ
> # Thus, the solution is correct.

B 12.mws
> integro_diff_eqn:=
> diff(y(t),t)+int(cos(omega*(t-Theta))*
> y(Theta),Theta=0..t)=sin(omega*t);
& t
d
integro diff eqn := ( dt y(t)) + cos(ω (t − Θ)) y(Θ) dΘ = sin(ω t)
0
> # initial value y(0)
> with(inttrans):
> laplace(integro_diff_eqn,t,s);
laplace(y(t), t, s) s ω
s laplace(y(t), t, s) − y(0) + 2 2
= 2
s +ω s + ω2
> simplify(readlib(isolate)
> (%,laplace(y(t),t,s)));
ω + y(0) s2 + y(0) ω 2
laplace(y(t), t, s) =
s (s2 + ω 2 + 1)
> invlaplace(%,s,t);
√
(y(0) − ω) cosh( −ω 2 − 1 t) + ω (1 + y(0) ω)
y(t) =
ω2 + 1
> # example: y(0)=1, omega = 4
> subs (y(0)=1, omega=4,%);
3 √ 20
y(t) = − cosh( −17 t) +
17 17
> simplify(%);
326 B The L APLACE Transformation

3 √ 20
y(t) = − cos( 17 t) +
17 17
> # check:
>
> Diff(y(t),t)+Int(cos(4*(t-Theta))*(20/17-(3/17)*
> cos(sqrt(17)*Theta)),Theta=0..t)=(3/sqrt(17))*
> sin(sqrt(17)*t)+int(cos(4*(t-Theta))*
> (20/17-(3/17)*cos(sqrt(17)*Theta)),Theta=0..t):
> Delta:=rhs(%)-sin(4*t);
Δ := 8 sin(t) cos(t)3 − 4 sin(t) cos(t) − sin(4 t)
> Delta:=simplify(%);
Δ := 0
> # Thus, the solution is correct.

B.12 Periodic Functions

A function f (x) is said to be periodic if f (x + L) = f (x) for all x ∈ IR,

where L is a nonzero constant. Any number L with this property is a period
of the function f (x). For instance, sin x has the periods 2π, −2π, 4π, ...
In the following we take into consideration a periodic function with a
period T > 0 and defined as
7
f (t + nT ), where t > 0 and n ∈ IN
f (t) = (B.97)
0 for t < 0.

Its L APLACE transform can be calculated by the fundamental formula

&T
1
L{f (t)} = f (t) exp (−st) dt , (B.98)
1 − exp (−sT )
0

which can be deduced in the following way.

We represent the L APLACE transformation (B.2) as an infinite series ac-
cording to
 B.12 Periodic Functions 327

&∞
L{f (t)} = f (t)e−st dt =
0
&T &2T (n+1)T
&
= f (t)e−st dt + f (t)e−st dt + ... f (t)e−st dt + ...
0 T nT
(n+1)T
&
∞
.
L{f (t)} = f (t)e−st dt .
n=0 nT
(B.99)

Substituting t ≡ τ + nT yields

∞ &
.
T

L{f (t)} = f (t + nT )e−s(τ +nT ) dτ =

n=0 0
(B.100)
∞
. &T
= e−snT f (τ + nT )e−sτ dτ ,
n=0 0

where the geometric series converges to:

∞
. 1 − exp (−snT ) 1
e−snT = lim = (B.101)
n→∞ 1 − exp(−sT ) 1 − exp(−sT )
n=0

since | exp(−sT )| < 1, and because f (τ + nT ) = f (τ ) by periodicity

(B.97), we finally obtain from (B.100) the formula (B.98).
As an example, let us consider the periodic function
∞
.
f (t) = H(t) + 2 (−1)n H(t − na) (B.102)
n=1

illustrated in Fig. B.7.


> alias(H=Heaviside,th=thickness): B 13.mws
> f:=H(t)+2*sum(((-1)ˆn)*H(t-n*a),
> n=1..infinity);
∞
.
f := H(t) + 2 ( (−1)n H(t − n a))
n=1
328 B The L APLACE Transformation

> assume(a>0):
> f[1]:=H(t)+2*sum(((-1)ˆn)*H(t-n*a),n=1..5):
> plot(subs(a=1,f[1]),t=0..5,th=3,scaling=
> constrained,style=point,numpoints=10000);

1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0 1 2 3 4 5
–0.2 t
–0.4
–0.6
–0.8
–1

Fig. B.7 Periodic function (B.102) with a = 1

The function (B.102) has a period of T = 2a. Thus, we have to insert into
the formula (B.98) only the following part of the periodic function(B.102),

f (t) = H(t) − 2H(t − a) + H(t − 2a) , (B.103)

which represents (B.102) within the first period 0 ≤ t < 2a. The result is
given by

1 1 − exp (−as) 1  as 
L{f (t)} = ≡ tanh , (B.104)
s 1 + exp (−as) s 2

which has been calculated by using the following MAPLE programm.


B 14.mws
> LAPLACE(f(t)):=(1/(1-exp(-s*T)))*Int(f(t)*
> exp(-s*t),t=0..T);
& T
f(t) e(−s t) dt
0
LAPLACE(f(t)) := (B.98)
1 − e(−s T )

> alias(H=Heaviside):
> f:=H(t)-2*H(t-a)+H(t-2*a);
 B.13 Application to Partial Differential Equations 329

f := H(t) − 2 H(t − a) + H(t − 2 a) (B.103)

> LAPLACE:=simplify((1/(1-exp(-2*a*s)))*
> int(f*exp(-s*t),t=0..2*a));
−e(−a s) + 2 H(a) e(−a s) − 2 H(a) + 1
LAPLACE := −
s (e(−a s) + 1)

> LAPLACE:=subs(H(a)=1,%);
e(−a s) − 1
LAPLACE := − (B.104)
s (e(−a s) + 1)

>
Alternatitively, we can find the L APLACE transform (B.104) in the fol-
lowing way.
Because of the L APLACE transform (B.53a) and taking the linearity rule
(B.6) into account, we immediately arrive at the L APLACE transform
: ∞
;
1 .
n
L{f (t)} = 1+2 (−1) exp (−nas) (B.105)
s
n=1

of the periodic function (B.102), where the infinite series can be expressed
as
∞
. ∞
.
(−1)n exp (−nas) = (−1)n exp (−nas) − 1 . (B.106)
n=1 n=0

The first term on the right-hand side in (B.106) is a geometric series, which
converges to the limit
1 − (−1)n exp (−nas) 1
lim = . (B.107)
n→∞ 1 + exp(−as) 1 + exp (−as)
Hence, the L APLACE transform (B.105) yields the result (B.104).
Another example is f (t) = sin(ωt) with a period of T = 2π/ω. The
formula (B.98) immediately furnishes the L APLACE transform (B.8b).

B.13 Application to Partial Differential Equations

The L APLACE transformation is also suitable to solve partial differential

equations.
330 B The L APLACE Transformation

In creep mechanics the diffusion equation

∂c ∂2c
=D 2 with t ≥ 0 and x ≥ 0 (B.108)
∂t ∂x

plays an important role, since creep of metals, for instance, at temperatures

in the range 0.4 ≤ T /TM ≤ 0.5 can be interpreted as a diffusion controlled
process (B ETTEN, 1971).The diffusion coefficient D in (B.108) according
to (11.42) is assumed to be independent on distance x and on concentration
c = c(x, t). The usual integration method has been discussed in section
11.3.3 in more detail. In the following the L APLACE transformation should
be applied to the diffusion equation (B.108).
Because of (B.23) the L APLACE transform of the left-hand side in (B.108)
is given by
L{∂c(x, t)/∂t} = sL{c(x, t)} − c(x, 0) . (B.109)
In contrast to this, we find:
∂ ∂
L{∂c(x, t)/∂x} = L{c(x, t)} = ĉ(x, s) , (B.110)
∂x ∂x
∂ ∂2
L{∂ 2 c(x, t)/∂x2 } = L{∂c(x, t)/∂x} = ĉ(x, s) . (B.111)
∂x ∂x2
Note that the L APLACE operator L{...} in (B.109) to (B.111) is taken with
respect to the transformed variable t:
&∞
L{c(x, t)} = ĉ(x, s) := c(x, t) exp(−st)dt. (B.112)
0

We call ĉ(x, s) the time transform of c(x, t). Thus, the L APLACE transforma-
tion in (B.110) and (B.111) is assumed to be interchangeable with the partial
derivative ∂/∂x with respect to the non-transformed spatial variable x.
Assuming the conditions

c(x, 0) = 0 and c(0, t) = c0 (B.113a,b)

we arrive from the partial differential equation (B.108) by considering the

L APLACE transforms (B.109), (B.111) and (B.112) at the ordinary differen-
tial equation
∂ 2 ĉ(x, s)
D − sĉ(x, s) = 0 , (B.114)
∂x2
 B.13 Application to Partial Differential Equations 331

where s > 0 and D > 0 are constant. Its solution is given by

 
ĉ(x, s) = A exp(−x s/D) + B exp(x s/D) . (B.115)

Since the growth of ĉ(x, s) is restricted, the second constant B in (B.115)

must be equal to zero, while the first constant A follows from the condition
(B.113b) to
A = ĉ(0, s) = L{c0 } = c0 /s , (B.116)
hence
1 
ĉ(x, s) = c0 exp(−x s/D) . (B.117)
s
From a table of transforms or using the M APLE software we find the inverse
of (B.117), i.e. the solution
 
x
c(x, t) = c0 erfc √ ≡ c0 erfc(ξ) , (B.118a)
2 Dt
where the mixed dimensionless variable ξ has already been introduced in
(11.44). Instead of the complementary error function erfc(ξ) in (B.118a) one
can use the G AUSS error function erf(ξ). Hence, the solution (B.118a) can
be written as

x
c(ξ, t) = c0 [1 − erf(ξ)] with ξ ≡ √ (B.118b)
2 Dt

in accordance with (11.48a,b).

Some details about the best approximation to the error function erf(ξ) on
[0, r] by tanh(aξ) and the corresponding inverse function are explained in
the following MAPLE program. 
B 15.mws

Best approximation to the error function erf(xi) on [0, r] by tanh(a*xi)

and the corresponding inverse function:
> approximant:=tanh(a*xi);
approximant := tanh(a ξ)
This function is suitable because it is similar to erf(xi). Furthermore, the
inverse can easily be determined:
> inverse:=(1/a)*arctanh(xi);
arctanh(ξ)
inverse :=
a
332 B The L APLACE Transformation

Note that the Area Tangent, artanh(...), is indicated as arctanh(...) in

MAPLE. The best approximation by the hyperbolic tangent is guaranteed
by an optimal parameter a which minimizes the L-two error norm:
> L[2][r]:=sqrt((1/r)*int((erf(xi)-
> tanh(a*xi))ˆ2,xi=0..r))=minimum;
< & r
1
L2r := (erf(ξ) − tanh(a ξ))2 dξ = minimum
r 0
Thus, the derivative of the integral with respect to the parameter a should
be equal to zero.
> derivative[r]:=
> diff(int((erf(xi)-tanh(a*xi))ˆ2, xi=0..r),a);
& r
derivative r := − 2 (erf(ξ) − tanh(a ξ)) (1 − tanh(a ξ)2 ) ξ dξ
0
Depending on the range [0, r] considered, we obtain the following opti-
mal parameters:
> for r in [1,2,3,4,5,infinity] do
> a[optimal][r]:= fsolve(int(xi*(erf(xi)-
> tanh(a_*xi))*(1-(tanh(a_*xi))ˆ2),
> xi=0..r)=0,a_) od;

aoptimal 1 := 1.172868316

aoptimal 2 := 1.201270935

aoptimal 3 := 1.202760580

aoptimal 4 := 1.202782281

aoptimal 5 := 1.202782515

aoptimal ∞ := 1.202782517
The corresponding L-two error norms are given as:
> for r in [1,2,3,4,5,infinity] do
> L[2][r]:=evalf(sqrt((1/r)*int((erf(xi)-
> tanh(a[optimal][r]*xi))ˆ2,xi=0..r)))
> od;

L21 := 0.008219954058
 B.13 Application to Partial Differential Equations 333

L22 := 0.01428838030

L23 := 0.01216051374

L24 := 0.01053649880

L25 := 0.009424169402

L2∞ := 0.
Depending on the range [0, r] we obtain the following inverse functions:
> for r in [1,2,3,4,5,infinity] do
> inverse[r]:=(1/a[optimal][r])*arctanh(xi)
> od;

inverse 1 := 0.8526106353 arctanh(ξ)

inverse 2 := 0.8324516734 arctanh(ξ)

inverse 3 := 0.8314206640 arctanh(ξ)

inverse 4 := 0.8314056632 arctanh(ξ)

inverse 5 := 0.8314055014 arctanh(ξ)

inverse ∞ := 0.8314055001 arctanh(ξ)

In the following some examples should be plotted:
> alias(H=Heaviside,th=thickness,
> con=constrained):
> plot({1,H(xi-2),erf(xi),tanh(a[optimal][2]*
> xi)},xi=0..2.001,color=black);

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0 0.5 1 1.5 2
xi
Fig. B.8 Error function and approximant on [0, 2]
334 B The L APLACE Transformation

> Delta(xi):=erf(xi)-tanh(a[optimal][2]*xi);
Δ(ξ) := erf(ξ) − tanh(1.201270935 ξ)
> for i from 1 to 3 do
> zero[i-1]:=fsolve(Delta(xi)=0,
> xi,(i-1)/2..i/2) od;
zero 0 := 0.
zero 1 := 0.8439158081
3
zero 2 := fsolve(erf(ξ) − tanh(1.201270935 ξ) = 0, ξ, 1.. )
2
> plot1:=
> plot({-0.02,0.02,0.02*H(xi-5),-0.02*H(xi-5)},
> xi=0..5.001,color=black):
> plot2:=
> plot(erf(xi)-tanh(a[optimal][5]*xi),
> xi=0..5,color=black,th=3):
> plots[display]({plot1,plot2});

0.02

0.01

0 1 2 3 4 5
xi

–0.01

–0.02

Fig. B.9 Deviation between erf(ξ) and tanh(a, ξ) on [0, 5]

> L[2][5]:=sqrt((1/5)*Int((Delta)ˆ2,xi=0..5))=
> evalf(sqrt((1/5)*int((erf(xi)-
> tanh(a[optimal][5]*xi))ˆ2,xi=0..5)));
3&
1√ 5
L25 := 5 Δ2 dξ = 0.009424169402
5 0
The following Figures illustrate the erro function erf(xi) and some inverse
approximations (1/a)*arctanh(xi):
> plot1:=plot({1,xi,H(xi-1)},xi=0..1.001,
> scaling=con,color=black):
 B.13 Application to Partial Differential Equations 335

> plot2:=plot({erf(xi),(1/a[optimal][1])*
> arctanh(xi)},xi=0..1,0..1,color=black,th=2):
> plots[display]({plot1,plot2});

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

xi

Fig. B.10a erf(ξ) and (1/a) arctanh(ξ) on [0, 1]

> plot1:=plot({1,2,xi,2*H(xi-2),2*H(xi-1),
> -2*H(xi-1.002)},xi=0..2.001,scaling=con):
> plot2:=plot({erf(xi),(1/a[optimal][2])*
> arctanh(xi)},xi=0..2,0..2,th=2):
> plots[display]({plot1,plot2});

2
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
xi

Fig. B.10b erf(ξ) and (1/a) arctanh(ξ) on [0, 2]

336 B The L APLACE Transformation

> plot1:=plot({1,5,xi,5*H(xi-5),
> 5*H(xi-1),-5*H(xi-1.002)},
> xi=0..5.001,scaling=con,color=black):
> plot2:=plot({erf(xi),
> (1/a[optimal][5])*arctanh(xi)},
> xi=0..5,0..5,color=black,th=2):
> plots[display]({plot1,plot2});

0 1 2 3 4 5
xi

Fig. B.10c erf(ξ) and (1/a) arctanh(ξ) on [0, 5]

The results show that the approximant tanh(aξ) furnishes a suitable ap-
proximation to the error function erf(xi). In view of the inverse (1/a) tanh(ξ)
and the approximant tanh(aξ) the influence of the range [0, r] on the param-
eter a is less important.
In the following tables some pairs of L APLACE transforms are listed. Ad-
ditional examples can be found in many textbooks, for instance in the books
of A MELING (1984), B RONSTEIN et al.(2000; 2004), D OETSCH (1971-73),
to name just a few. Furthermore, it is very convenient to use modern com-
puter algebra systems, for instance M ATHEMATICA or M APLE, which are
powerful tools indispensable in modern pure and applied scientific research
and education.
 B.13 Application to Partial Differential Equations 337

Table B.1: L APLACE transform pairs

D∞
f (t) for t>0 L{f (t)} ≡ fˆ(s) = f (t)e−st dt
0

a a/s

at a/s2

(1/2!)t2 1/s3

(1/3!)t3 1/s4
1
(1/n!)tn ; (n ≥ 0, integer)
sn+1
(n − 1)!
tn−1 exp(at) ; (n ≥ 1, integer)
(s − a)n
n!
tn n+1
; (n ≥ 0, integer)
s
Γ (p + 1)
tp ; (p > −1)
sp+1
δ(t) D IRAC 1

δ(t − a) exp(−as)
1
exp(at)
s−a
1 1
exp(−t/λ)
λ 1 + λs
1
1 − exp(−t/λ)
s(1 + λs)
1
t exp(at)
(s − a)2
1 1
t exp(−t/a)
a2 (1 + as)2

continued on next page

338 B The L APLACE Transformation

Table B.1: L APLACE transform pairs

D∞
f (t) for t>0 L{f (t)} ≡ fˆ(s) = f (t)e−st dt
0

exp(at) − exp(bt) 1
a−b (s − a)(s − b)
a exp(at) − b exp(bt) s
a−b (s − a)(s − b)
s
(1 + at) exp(at)
(s − a)2
1 2 1
t exp(at)
2 (s − a)3
 
1 2 s
t + at exp(at)
2 (s − a)3
1 s + iω
exp(iωt) ≡ 2
s − iω s + ω2
ω
sin ωt
s + ω2
2

s
cos ωt
s2 + ω 2
2ω 2
sin2 ωt
s(s2 + 4ω 2 )
s2 + 2ω 2
cos2 ωt
s(s2 + 4ω 2 )
s sin ϕ + ω cos ϕ
sin(ωt + ϕ)
s2 + ω 2
s cos ϕ − ω sin ϕ
cos(ωt + ϕ)
s2 + ω 2
ω
exp(αt) sin ωt
(s − α)2 + ω 2
s−α
exp αt cos ωt
(s − α)2 + ω 2

continued on next page

 B.13 Application to Partial Differential Equations 339

Table B.1: L APLACE transform pairs

D∞
f (t) for t>0 L{f (t)} ≡ fˆ(s) = f (t)e−st dt
0

ω
sinh ωt
s2 − ω2
s
cosh ωt
s − ω2
2

2ω 2
sinh2 ωt
s(s2 − 4ω 2 )
s2 − 2ω 2
cosh2 ωt
s(s2 − 4ω 2 )
ω
exp(αt) sinh ωt
(s − α)2 − ω 2
s−α
exp(αt) cosh ωt
(s − α)2 − ω 2
t ωs
sin ωt
2 (s + ω 2 )2
2

s2 − ω 2
t cos ωt
(s2 + ω 2 )2
t ωs
sinh ωt
2 (s − ω 2 )2
2

s2 + ω 2
t cosh ωt
(s2 − ω 2 )2
t2 sinh ωt 3s2 + ω 2
2ω (s2 − ω 2 )3
1 2 s3 + 3ω 2 s
t cosh ωt
2 (s2 − ω 2 )3
1 1
√ √
πt s
<
t 1
2 √
π s s

continued on next page

340 B The L APLACE Transformation

Table B.1: L APLACE transform pairs

D∞
f (t) for t>0 L{f (t)} ≡ fˆ(s) = f (t)e−st dt
0
<
4 t 1
t √
3 π s2 s
exp(−at) 1
√ √
πt s+a
√
erf at 1
√ √
a s s+a
t ν−1 1
exp(−at)
Γ (ν) (s + a)ν
a a2 √
√ exp(− ) exp(−a) s
2 πt3 4t
a2 √
exp(− ) exp(−a s)
√ 4t √
πt s
  / 0
x 1 
erf √ 1 − exp(−x s/D)
2 Dt s
    
x 1
erfc √ exp −x s/D
2 Dt s
1 − exp(at) s−a
ln
t s
exp(bt) − exp(at) s+a
ln
t s−a
 
a 1 1
a + b [1 − exp(−ct)] +b −
s s s+c
 2  
√ c c
bc π exp erfc √
, √ - a 1 4s 2 s
a + b 1 − exp(−c t) +
s 2 s3/2
exp(s2 /4) erfc(s/2)
erf(t)
s
 B.13 Application to Partial Differential Equations 341

Table B.2: L APLACE transfrom of H EAVISIDE functions

H EAVISIDE H(t) 1/s

1 1
H (t−a) exp(−as)
s
a t

1
1 [exp(−as) − exp(−bs)]
H (t−a) − H (t−b) s

a b t

H(t − a) + 2H(t − 2a) + 3H(t − 4a)

6
1
[exp(−as) + 2 exp(−2as)
s
3 +3 exp(−4as)]
1

a 2a 4a t

.
N
: (geometrical series) ;
H(t) + 2 (−1)n H(t − na) 1 .N
n=1 1+2 (−1)n exp(−nas)
s
n=1
1
for N → ∞
a 2a 3a 4a t ⇓
−1 1 1 − exp(−as)
·
s 1 + exp(−as)

continued on next page

342 B The L APLACE Transformation

Table B.2: L APLACE transfrom of H EAVISIDE functions

H EAVISIDE H(t) 1/s

: ;
1 .
N
.
N
1− (−1)n exp(−nas)
H(t) − (−1)n H(t − na) s
n=0
n=0

1 for N → ∞
⇓
4a
1
a 2a 3a t
s(1 + exp(as))

H(t−a)−H(t−b)−H(t−c)+H(t−d)
1
1 [exp(−as) − exp(−bs)
s
− exp(−cs) + exp(−ds)]
a b c d t

−1

(t − a)H(t − a) − (t − b)H(t − b)

1 1
[exp(−as) − exp(−bs)]
s2

a b t

exp [−(t − a)/λ] H(t − a)

1 λ
exp(−as)
1 + λs

a a+ λ t

{1 − exp [−(t − a)/λ]} H(t − a)

λ
1 1
exp(−as)
s(1 + λs)

a a+ λ t
 B.13 Application to Partial Differential Equations 343

Table B.3: L APLACE transfrom of periodic functions

&T
1
f (t) = f (t + nT ) n ∈ IN f (t)e(−st) dt
1 − e(−sT )
0

H(t) − 2H(t − a) + 2H(t − 2a)

1 T = 2a
1 1 − exp(−as)  as 
· ≡ tanh
s 1 + exp(−as) 2
a 2a 3a t

H(t − a) − 2H(t − 2a)

1
1 T = 2a
s [1 + exp(as)]

a 2a 3a t

cos ωt; T = 2π/ω

1
s
s2 + ω 2
π/ω 2π/ω t

−1

sin ωt; T = 2π/ω

1
ω
s2 + ω2
π/ω 2π/ω t

−1
References

A DAMS , B., B OEHLER , J., G UIDI , M. and O NAT, E. (1992). Group theory and represen-
tation of microstructure, and Mechanical behavior of polycrystals, J. Mech. Phys. Solids
40: 723–747.
A IMEDIEU , P. (2004). Contributation à la biomécanique de tissues mous intrácraniens,
PhD Thesis of Université de Picardie Jules Vernes, Faculte de medicine, Amiens Cedex,
France.
A L -G ADHIB , A., BALUCH , M., S HAALAN , A. and K HAN , A. (2000). Damage Model for
Monotonic and Fatigue Response of High Strength Concrete, Int. Journal of Damage
Mechnics 9: 57–78.
A LTENBACH , H., A LTENBACH , J. and S CHIESSE , P. (1990). Konzept der Schädigungs-
mechanik und ihre Anwendung bei der werkstoffmechanischen Bauteilanalyse, Tech
Mech 11: 81–93.
A LTENBACH , H., M ORACHKOVSKY, O., NAUMENKO , K. and S YCHOV A. (1997). Geomet-
rically nonlinear bending of thin-walled shells and plates under creep damage conditions,
Arch Appl Mech 67: 339–352.
A LTENBACH , J., A LTENBACH , H. and NAUMENKO , K. (1997). Lebensdauerabschätzung
dünnwandiger Flächentragwerke auf der Grundlage phenomenologischer Materialmod-
elle für Kriechen und Schädigung, Tech Mech 12: 353–364.
A LTENBACH , J., A LTENBACH , H. and Z OLOCHEVSKY, A. (1995). Erweiterte Deformation-
smodelle und Versagenskriterien der Werkstoffmechanik, Deutscher Verlag für Grund-
stoffindustrie, Stuttgart.
A MELING , W. (1984). Laplace Transformation, 3. edn, Vieweg-Verlag, Braunschweig /
Wiesbaden.
A NAND , L. (1982). Constitutive Equations for the Rate-Dependent Deformation of Metals
at Elevated Temperatures, Transactions of the ASME 104: 12–17.
A NAND , L. (1985). Constitutive Equations for Hot-Working of Metals, Intern. J. of Plasticity
1: 213–231.
A NDRADE , E. (1910). The viscous flow in metals and allied phenomena, Proc. R. Soc.
London A 84: 1–12.
A NDRADE , E. (1914). Flow of Metals under large constant Stress, Proc. Roy. Soc. A 90: 329–
342.
A RGON , A. (1982). Mechanism and mechanics of fracture in creeping alloys, in
B. W ILSHIRE and D. OWEN (eds), Recent Advantages in Creep and Fracture of En-
gineering Materials and Structures, Pinerage Press, Swansea, pp. 1–52.
A RONS , R. and T IEN , J. (1980). Creep and strain recovery in hot-pressed silicon nitride, J.
of Materials Science 15: 2046–2058.
A SHARE , E. (1968). Rheological properties of narrow distribution polystyrene solutions,
Trans. Soc. Rheol. 12: 535–557.
A SHBY, M. and J ONES , D. (1980). Engineering Materials 1, Pergamon Press, Oxford/New
York/.../ Toronto. reprinted 1989.
346 References

A STARITA , G. and M ARRUCCI , G. (1974). Principles of Non-Newtonian Fluid Mechanics,

McGraw-Hill Book Company, Berkshire.
A STRARITA , G. (1979). Why do we search for constitutive equations? Presented at the
Golden Jubilee Meeting of the Society of Rheology, Boston, MA.
AVULA , X. (1987). Mathematical Modelling, Encyclopedia of Physical Science and Tech-
nology 7: 719–728.
BAILEY, R. (1935). The utilization of creep test data in engineering design, Proceeding, Inst.
Mech. Eng. 131: 131–349.
BALLMANN , R. (1965). Extensional Flow of Polystyrene Melt, Rheologia Acta 4: 137–140.
BASAR , Y. and W EICHERT, D. (2000). Nonlinear Continuum Mechanics of Solids, Springer-
Verlag, Berlin/Heidelberg.
B ECKER , E. and B ÜRGER , W. (1975). Kontinuumsmechanik, Leitfäden der angewandten
Mathematik und Mechanik, Vol. 20, Teubner Studienbücher, Stuttgart.
B ELL , J. (1973). The experimental Foundations of Solid Mechanics, in S. F L ÜGGE (ed.),
Encyclopedia of Physics, Vol. VIa/1, Springer Verlag, Berlin / New York.
B ERTRAM , A. (2005). Elasticity and Plasticity of Large Deformations, Springer-Verlag,
Berlin/Heidlberg/New York.
B ERTRAM , A. and O LSCHEWSKI , J. (1996). Anisotropic creep modeling of the single crystal
superalloy SRR 99, J. Comp. Math. Sci. 5: 12–16.
B ESSELING , J. (1962). Investigation of transient creep in thick-walled tubes under axi-
ally symmetric loading, IUTAM Colloquium on Creep in Structures, Stanford University
1960, Springer, Berlin, pp. 174–194.
B ETTEN , J. (1969). Mathematische Modelle in der Werkstoffkunde. Vorlesung an der RWTH
Aachen seit SS 1969.
B ETTEN , J. (1971). Lösung von Festigkeitsproblemen unter Berücksichtigung des Kriechens.
Habilitationsschrift, RWTH Aachen 1971.
B ETTEN , J. (1972). Zur Ermittlung der mechanischen Hysterese rheologischer Körper,
Zeitschrift für Naturforschung 27a: 718–719.
B ETTEN , J. (1973). Die Traglasttheorie der Statik als mathematisches Modell, Schweiz-
erische Bauzeitung 91: 6–9. Habilitationsvortrag am 30.11.1971.
B ETTEN , J. (1974). Tensorrechnung für Ingenieure II. Vorlesung an der RWTH-Aachen seit
SS1974.
B ETTEN , J. (1975a). Beitrag zum isotropen kompressiblen plastischen Fliessen, Arch.
Eisenhüttenwes. 46: 317–323.
B ETTEN , J. (1975b). Bemerkungen zum Versuch von Hohenemser, Z. Angew. Math. Mech.
55: 149–158.
B ETTEN , J. (1975c). Zum Traglastverfahren bei nichtlinearem Stoffgesetz, Ing.-Archiv
44: 199–207.
B ETTEN , J. (1975d). Zur Verallgemeinerung der Invariantentheorie in der Kriechmechanik,
Rheol. Acta 14: 715–720.
B ETTEN , J. (1976a). Ein Beitrag zur Invariantentheorie in der Plastomechanik anisitroper
Werkstoffe, ZAMM 56: 557–559.
B ETTEN , J. (1976b). Plastische Anisotropie und Bauschinger-Effekt; allgemeine For-
mulierung und Vergleich mit experimentell ermittelten Fließortkurven, Acta Mechanica
25: 75–94.
B ETTEN , J. (1977). Plastische Stoffgleichungen inkompressibler anisotroper Werkstoffe, Z.
angew. Math. Mech. (ZAMM) 57: 671–673.
B ETTEN , J. (1979a). Theory of Invariants in Creep Mechanics of Anisotropic Materi-
als, in J. P. B OEHLER (ed.), Euromech Colloquium 115 on ”Mechanical Behaviour of
Anisotropic Solids”, Grenoble, pp. 65–80.
B ETTEN , J. (1979b). Über die Konvexität von Fliesskörpern isotroper und anisotroper Stoffe,
Acta Mechanica 32: 233–247.
 References 347

B ETTEN , J. (1980). Zur Kriechaufweitung zylindrischer Hochdruckbehälter, Rheol. Acta

19: 517–524. Vorgetragen auf der Jahrestagung d. Deutschen Rheologischen Gesellschaft
in Aachen, März 1979.
B ETTEN , J. (1981a). Creep theory of anisotropic solids, J. Rheol. 25: 565–581. Presented at
the Golden Jubilee Meeting of the Society of Rheology, Boston, MA, 1979.
B ETTEN , J. (1981b). Representation of constitutive equations in creep mechanics of isotropic
and anisotropic materials, pp. 179–201. In: Ponter ARS, Hayhurst DR (ed), Creep in
Structures, Berlin, Heidelberg, New York: Springer-Verlag. Presented at the third IUATM
Syposium on Creep in Structures in Leicester, UK, Sept. 1980.
B ETTEN , J. (1982a). Integrity basis for a second-order and a fourth-order tensor, Int. J. Math.
Math. Sci. 5: 87–96.
B ETTEN , J. (1982b). Net-stress analysis in creep mechanics, Ing.-Archiv 52: 405–419. Pre-
sented at the second Symposium on Inelastic Solids and Structures in Bad Honnef, Ger-
many, 24.09.1981.
B ETTEN , J. (1982c). On the Creep Behaviour of an Elastic-Plastic Thick-Walled Cir-
cular Cylindrical Tube subjected to internal Pressure, in O. M AHRENHOLTZ and
A. S AWCZUK (eds), Mechanics of inelastic Media and Structures, Polish Academy of
Sciences, Warszawa, Poznan, pp. 51–72. Presented at the international Symposium on
Mechanics of Inelastic Media and Structures in Warschau, September 1978.
B ETTEN , J. (1982d). Pressure-Dependent Yield Behaviour of Isotropic and Anisotropic Ma-
terials, in P. V ERMEER and H. L UGER (eds), Deformation and Failure of Granular Ma-
terials, A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam, pp. 81–89. Presented at the IUTAM Symposium in
Delft, Sept. 1982.
B ETTEN , J. (1983a). Damage tensors and tensors of continuity in stress analysis, Z. Natur-
forschung 38a: 1383–1390.
B ETTEN , J. (1983b). Damage tensors in continuum mechanics, Journal de Mécanique
théorique et appliqué 2: 13–32. Presented at Euromech Colloquium 147 on Damage
Mechanics, Paris- VI, Cachan, 1981.
B ETTEN , J. (1984). Interpolation Methods for Tensor Functions, in X. J. R. AVULA (ed.),
Mathematical Modelling in Science and Technology, Pergamon Press, New York, pp. 52–
57. Presented at the fourth Int. Conf. on Mathematical Modeling in Zürich, August 1983.
B ETTEN , J. (1985). The classical plastic potential theory in comparison with the tensor
function theory, Eng. Fracture Mech. 21: 641–652. Presented at the Int. Symposium
Plasticity Today, Udine, June 1983.
B ETTEN , J. (1986a). Applications of tensor functions to the formulation of constitutive
equations involving damage and initial anisotropy, Eng. Fracture Mech. 25: 573–584.
Presented at the IUTAM Symposium on Mechanics of Damage and Fatigue, Haifa and
Tel Aviv, Israel, July 1985.
B ETTEN , J. (1986b). Beitrag zur tensoriellen Verallgemeinerung einachsiger Stoffgesetze,
Z. Angew. Math. Mech. 66: 577–581.
B ETTEN , J. (1987a). Irreducible invariants of fourth-order tensors, in X. J. R. AVULA (ed.),
Mathematical Modelling in Science and Technology, Pergamon Journals Limited, Exeter,
pp. 29–33. Presented at the fith Int. Conf. on Mathem. Modelling in Berkely, USA, July
1985.
B ETTEN , J. (1987b). Tensor functions involving second-order and fourth-order argument
tensors, in J. P. B OEHLER (ed.), Applications of Tensor Functions in Solid Mechanics,
Springer-Verlag, Berlin. CISM-Course in Udine, July 1984.
B ETTEN , J. (1987c). Tensorrechnung für Ingenieure, Teubner-Verlag, Stuttgart.
B ETTEN , J. (1988a). Applications of Tensor Functions to the Formulation of Yield Criteria
for Anisotropic Materials, Int. J. of Plasicity 4: 29–46.
B ETTEN , J. (1988b). Mathematical modelling of materials behaviour, in X. J. R. AVULA
(ed.), Mathematical Modelling in Science and Technology, Pergamon Press, Oxford,
348 References

pp. 702–708. Presented at the sixth Int. Conf. on Mathem. Modelling in St Louis, Mis-
souri, USA, August 1987.
B ETTEN , J. (1989). Generalization of nonlinear material laws found in experiments to multi-
axial states of stress, Eur. J. Mech. A/Solids 8: 325–339. Presented at Euromech Collo-
quium 244 on Experimental Analysis of Nonlinear Problems in Solid Mechanics, Poznan,
Poland 1988.
B ETTEN , J. (1990). Recent Advances in Mathematical Modelling of Materials Behavior,
in E. RODIN and X. AVULA (eds), Mathematical and Computer Modelling, Pergamon
Press, Oxford, pp. 37–51. Presented as a plenary lecture at the seventh Int. Conf. on
Mathem. Modelling in Chicago, Illinois, USA, August 1989.
B ETTEN , J. (1991a). Applications of tensor functions in creep mechanics, in M. Z Y-
CZKOWSKI (ed.), Creep in Structures, Springer-Verlag, Berlin/Heidelberg/New York,
pp. 3–22. Presented as a ”general lecture” on the IUTAM-Symposium in Cracow/Poland,
Sept. 1990.
B ETTEN , J. (1991b). Recent advances in applications of tensor functions in solid mechanics,
Adv. Mechanics (Uspechi Mechaniki) 14: 79–109.
B ETTEN , J. (1992). Applications of tensor functions in continuum damage mechanics, Int.
J. Damage Mechanics 1: 47–59.
B ETTEN , J. (1998). Anwendungen von Tensorfunktionen in der Kontinuumsmechanik
anisotroper Materialien, ZAMM 78: 507–521. Hauptvortrag auf der 75. GAMM-Tagung
in Regensburg, 24-27, März 1997.
B ETTEN , J. (2001a). Kontinuumsmechanik, 2. Aufl., Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg,
New York.
B ETTEN , J. (2001b). Mathematical modelling of materials behaviour under creep conditions,
Appl. Mech. Rev. (AMR) 54(2): 107–132.
B ETTEN , J. (2001c). Recent Advances in Applications of Tensor Functions in Continuum
Mechanics, in E. G IESSEN V. D . and T. W U (eds), Advances in Applied Mechanics,
Vol. 37, pp. 277–363.
B ETTEN , J. (2003a). Applications of Tensor Functions in Damage Mechanics, in
J. S KRZYPEK and A. G ANCZARSKI (eds), Anisotropic Behaviour of Damaged Mate-
rials, Springer-Verlag, Berlin/Heidelberg/New York.
B ETTEN , J. (2003b). Finite Elemente für Ingenieure 1, zweite Aufl., Springer-Verlag, Berlin
/ Heidelberg / New York.
B ETTEN , J. (2004). Finite Elemente für Ingenieure 2, zweite Aufl., Springer-Verlag, Berlin /
Heidelberg / New York.
B ETTEN , J. (2007). Creep Curve, Maplesoft Appliction Center, Category Engineering Me-
chanics . Waterloo, Ontario, Canada.
B ETTEN , J. (2009). Zum Eigenwertproblem für Tensoren vierter Stufe, ZAMM . In Vorbere-
itung.
B ETTEN , J., B ORRMANN , M. and B UTTERS , T. (1989). Materialgleichungen zur
Beschreibung des primären Kriechverhaltens innendruckbeanspruchter Zylinderschalen
aus isotropem Werkstoff, Ing. Archiv (Arch. Appl. Mech.) 60: 99–109.
B ETTEN , J., B REITBACH , G. and WANIEWSKI , M. (1990). Multiaxial Anisotropic Creep
Behaviour of Rolled Sheet-Metals, Z. Angew. Math. Mech. (ZAMM) 70: 371–379.
B ETTEN , J. and B UTTERS , T. (1990). Rotationssymmetrisches Kriechbeulen dünnwandiger
Kreiszylinderschalen im primären Kriechbereich, Forschung. Ingenieur. 56: 84–89.
B ETTEN , J., E L -M AGD , E., M EYDANLI , S. and PALMEN , P. (1995). Anisotropic damage
growth under multi-axial stress (theory and experiments), Arch. Appl. Mech. 65: 110–120
and 121–132.
B ETTEN , J. and H ELISCH , W. (1995). Integrity basis for a fourth-rank tensor, in D. PARKER
and A. E NGLAND (eds), IUTAM Symposium on Anisotropy, Inhomogeneity and Nonlin-
earity in Solid Mechanics, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Netherlands, pp. 37–42.
 References 349

B ETTEN , J. and M EYDANLI , S. (1995). Untersuchung des anisotropen Kriechverhaltens

vorgeschädigter austenitischer Stähle, ZAMM 75: 181–182. DFG-Report Be766/12-2.
B ETTEN , J. and S HIN , C. (1991). Inelastisches Verhalten rotierender Scheiben unter
Berück-sichtigung der werkstoffbedingten Anisotropie und der tensoriellen Nichtlin-
earität, Forschung im Ingenieurwesen 7: 137–147.
B ETTEN , J. and S HIN , C. (1992). Inelastic Analysis of Plastic Compressible Materials Using
the Viscoplastic Model, Intern. J. Plasticity 9.
B ETTEN , J., S KLEPUS , S. and Z OLOCHEVSKY, A. (1998). A creep damage model for
initially isotropic materials with different properties in tension and compression, Engi-
neering Fracture Mechanics 59: 623–641.
B ETTEN , J., S KLEPUS , S. and Z OLOCHEVSKY, A. (1999). A Microcrack Describtion of
Creep Damage in Crystalline Solids With Different Behaviour in Tension and Compres-
sion, Int. J. of Damage Mech 8: 197–232.
B ETTEN , J. and WANIEWSKI , M. (1989). Multiaxial creep behaviour of anisotropic mate-
rials, Arch. Mech. 41: 679–695. Presented at the Fourth Polish-German Symposium on
Mechanics of Inelastic Solids and Structures, Mogilany, Poland, 1987.
B ETTEN , J. and WANIEWSKI , M. (1995). Tensorielle Stoffgleichungen zur Beschrei-
bung des anisotropen Kriechverhaltens isotroper Stoffe nach plastischer Verformung, Z.
Angew. Math. Mech. (ZAMM) 75: 831–845.
B ETTEN , J., Z OLOCHEVSKA , L. and Z OLOCHEVSKY, A. (1999). Modelling of elastic de-
formation for initially anisotropic materials sustaining damage, Tech. Mechanik 19: 211–
222.
B EZIER , P. (1972). Numerical Control, Mathematics and Appications, London/New
York/Toronto.
B HATNAGAR , N. and A RYA , V. (1974). Large strain creep analysis of thick-walled cylinders,
Int. J. Non-Linear Mechanics 9: 127–140.
B IRD , R., A RMSTRONG , R. and H ASSAGER , O. (1977). Dynamics of Polymeric Liquids,
Vol. 1: Fluid Mechanics, John Wiley & Sons, New York/ ... / Toronto.
B LOK , A. (2006). Vergleich rheologischer Modelle zum Kriechverhalten eines EVA-
Copolymers, Presentation on the occation of doctorial examination, RWTH-Aachen Uni-
versity.
B LUM , W. and I LSCHNER , B. (1967). Phys. Stat. Sol. 20: 629.
B ODNER , S. and H ASHIN , Z. (1986). Mechanics of Damage and Fatigue, Pergamon Press,
New York, Toronto.
B ODNER , S. and PARTOM , Y. (1975). Constitutive Equations for Elastic-Viscoplastic Strain-
Hardening Materials, J. Appl. Mech. 42: 385–389.
B OEHLER , J. (1979). A simple derivation of representations for non-polynomial constitutive
equations in some cases of anisotropy, ZAMM 59: 157–167.
B OEHLER , J. (1987). Applications of Tensor Functions in Solid Mechanics, Springer-Verlag,
Wien, New York.
B OEHLER , J. and S AWCZUK , A. (1976). Application of representation theorems to describe
yielding of transversely isotropic solids, Mech. Res. Comm. 3: 277–283.
B OEHLER , R. and S AWCZUK , A. (1977). On yielding of oriented solids, Acta Mechanica
27: 185–206.
B ÖHME , G. (2000). Strömungsmechanik nicht-newtonscher Fluide, 2. Aufl., Teubner-Verlag,
Stuttgart.
B RONSTEIN , I., S EMENDJAJEW, K. and M USIOL , G. (2000). Taschenbuch der Mathematik,
Verlag Harri Deutsch, Frankfurt.
B RONSTEIN , I., S EMENDJAJEW, K., M USIOL , G. and M UEHLIG , H. (2004). Handbook of
Mathematics, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg, New York.
B ROWN , S., E VANS , R. and W ILSHIRE , B. (1986). Exponential descriptions of normal
creep curves, Scripta Metallurgica 20: 855–860.
350 References

B ROWN , S., K IM , K. and A NAND , L. (1989). An Internal Variable Constitutive Model for
Hot-Working of Metals, Intern. J. of Plasticity 5: 95–130.
B RUELLER , O. (1991). Some new Aspects of the Nonlinear Characterization of Creep and
Stress Relaxation of Polymers, in M. Z YCZKOWSKI (ed.), Creep in Structures, Springer-
Verlag, Berlin, pp. 55–62.
B UCHTER , H. (1967). Apparate und Armaturen der Chemischen Hochdrucktechnik,
Springer-Verlag, Berlin.
C HABOCHE , J. (1974). Une Loi Differentielle d’Endommagement de Fatigue avec Cumula-
tion non Lineaire, Revue Francaise de Mecanique pp. 50–51. English trans In Annales
de l’IBTP 39.
C HABOCHE , J. (1977). Viscoplastic Constitutive Equations for the Description of Cyclic and
Anisotropic Behaviour of Metals, Bullet. De L’Academie Polonaise des Sciences 25: 33–
43.
C HABOCHE , J. (1981). Continuous damage mechanics: A tool to describe phenomena before
crack initiation, Nucl Eng Des 64: 233–247.
C HABOCHE , J. (1984). Anisotropic creep damage in the framework of continuum damage
mechanics, Nucl. Eng. Des. 79: 304–319.
C HABOCHE , J. (1988). Continuum damage mechanics - Part I: General concepts, Part II:
Damage growth, crack initiation, and crack growth, J. Appl. Mech. 55: 59–71.
C HABOCHE , J. (1993). Development of continuum damage mechanics for elastic solids
sustaining anisotropic and unilateral damage, Int J Damage Mech 2: 311–329.
C HABOCHE , J. (1999). Creep and Damage in Materials and Structures, Springer-Verlag,
Wien/New York, chapter Thermodynamically founded CDM Models for Creep and other
Conditions, pp. 209–283. CISM-Course 399.
C HABOCHE , J., L ESNE , P. and M OIRE , J. (1995). Continuum damage mechanics,
anisotropy and damage deactivation for brittle materials like concrete and ceramic com-
posites, Int J Damage Mech 4: 5–22.
C HAN , K., B ODNER , S., F OSSUM , A. and M UNSON , D. (1997). A Damage Mechanics
Treatment of Creep Failure in Rock Salt, Int. J. of Damage Mech. 6: 121–152.
C HEN , X. and C HOW, C. (1995). On damage strain energy release rate Y, Int J Damage
Mech 4: 251–263.
C HENG , C., K ARIM , A., L ANGDORN , T. and D ORN , J. (1968). Trans Met. Soc. AIME
242: 584.
C HOW, C. and L U , T. (1992). An analytical and experimental study of mixed-mode ductile
fracture under nonproportional loading, Int J Damage mech 1: 191–236.
C HOW, C. and WANG , J. (1987). An anisotropic theory of elasticity for continuum damage
mechanics, Int. J. Fracture 33: 3–16.
C HOW, C. and WANG , J. (1988). Ductile fracture characterization with an anisotropic con-
tinuum damage theory, Eng. Fracture Mech. 30: 547–563.
C HRISTENSEN , R. (1982). Theory of Viscoelasticity, second edn, Academic Press, New
York/ London/ Toronto.
C HRZANOWSKI , M. (1973). The Description of Metallic Creep in the Light of Damage
Hypothesis and Strain Hardening, Diss. Hab., Politechnika Krakowska, Krakow .
C HRZANOWSKI , M. (1976). Use of the damage concept in describing creep-fatigue interac-
tion under prescribed stress, Int. J. Mech. Sci. 18: 69–73.
C OCKS , A. and A SHBY, M. (1982). On creep fracture by void growth, Prog. Materials
Science 27: 189–244.
C OCKS , A. and L ECKIE , F. (1987). Creep Constitutive Equations for Damaged Materials,
in T. W U and J. H UTCHINSON (eds), Advances in Applied Mechanics, Vol. 25, pp. 239–
294.
C OCKS , A. and P ONTER , A. (1985). Constitutive equations for the plastic deformation of
solids, Leicester Univ. Eng. Dep. Rep. 85: 1–2.
 References 351

C OFFIN , L. (1954). A study of the effects of cyclic thermal stresses in a ductile metal, Trans
ASME 76: 931.
C RISTESCU , N. and S ULICIU , I. (1982). Viscoplasticity, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, The
Hague/ Boston/ London.
DAVIS , E. (1960). Relaxation of a cylinder on a rigid shaft, Journal of Applied Mechanics
27(3): 41–44.
DAVISON , L. and K IPP, M. (1978). Calculation of spall damage accumulation in ductile met-
als, in K. K AWATA and S HIRATORI (eds), Proc IUTAM Symp High Velocity Deformation
of Solids, Tokyo, Japan 1977, Springer-Verlag, New York, pp. 163–175.
DAVISON , L., S TEVENS , L. and K IPP, M. (1977). Theory of spall damage accumulation in
ductile metals, J Mech Phys Solids 25: 11–28.
D OETSCH , G. (1971). Handbuch der Laplace Transformation 1-3, Birkhäuser Verlag, Basel.
D RAGON , A. (1985). Plasticity and ductile fracture damage, Eng Fracture Mech 21: 875–
892.
D RUCKER , D. (1959). A Definition of Stable Inelastic Material, J. Appl. Mech. 26: 101–106.
D UBEY, R. and H ILLER , M. (1972). Yield Criteria and the Bauschinger-Effect for a Plastic
Solid, Journal of Basic Engineering, Transactions of the ASME pp. 228–230.
D UFAILLY, J. and L EMAITRE , J. (1995). Modeling very low cycle fatigue, Int. J. Damage
Mech. 4: 153–170.
D ÜNGER , U. (2005). Untersuchungen zum dynamischen Verhalten von offenzelligen fluid-
gefüllten Schaumstoffen, Dissertation, Universität Karlsruhe (TH).
D UNNE , F. and H AYHURST, D. (1994). Efficient cycle jumping techniques for the modelling
of materials and structures under cyclic mechanical and thermal loadings, Eur J Mech
A/Solids 13: 639–660.
D UNNE , F., OTHMAN , A., H ALL , F. and H AYHURST, D. (1990). Representation of Uni-
Axial Creep Curves Using continuum Damage Mechanics, Int. J. Mech. Sci. 32: 945–957.
DYSON , B. (1976). Constraints on diffusional cavity growth rates, Metal Science 10: 349–
353.
E BERT, F. (1980). Strömung nicht-newtonscher Medien, Vieweg-Verlag, Braunschweig /
Wiesbaden.
E DWARD , G. and A SHBY, M. (1979). Intergranular fracture during power-law creep, Acta
Metall 27: 1505–1518.
E INSTEIN , A. (1916). Die Grundlagen der allgemeinen Relativitätstheorie, Annalen der
Physik, 4. Folge 49: 769–822.
E ISENBERG , M. and Y EN , C. (1981). A Theory of Multiaxial Anisotropic Viscoplasticity,
J. Appl. Mech. 48: 276–284.
E NGELN -M ÜLLGES , G. and R EUTER , F. (1993). Numerik-Algorithmen mit Fortan 77-
Programmen, Wissenschaftsverlag, Mannheim. 7. völlig neu bearbeitete und erweiterte
Auflage.
E VANS , H. (1984). Mechanisms of Creep Rupture, Elsevier, London.
FAIRBAIRN , J. and M ACKIE , W. (1972). The creep of thick-walled tubes subjected to in-
ternal pressure, IUTAM Symposium on Creep in Structures, Gothenburg 1970, Springer,
Berlin, pp. 189–202.
F ETT, T., K ELLER , K. and M UNZ , D. (1988). An analysis of the creep of hot-pressed silicon
nitride in bending, J. of Materials Science 23: 467–474.
F INNIE , I. (1966). Method of predicting creep tension and compression from bending tests,
J. of the American Ceramic Society 49: 218–220.
F ITZGERALD , J. (1980). A tensorial Hencky measure of strain and strain rate for finite
deformations, J. Appl. Phys. 51: 5111–5115.
F OUX , A. (1964). An experimental Investigation of the Poynting Effect, in M. R EINER
and D. A BIR (eds), Second-order Effects in Elasticity, Plasticity and Fluid Dynamics,
Pergamon Press, Oxford/London/New York/Paris, pp. 228–251.
352 References

F R ÈRES , P. (1996). Enstehung und Wachstum von Mikrorissen in gekerbten Stäben unter
Hochtemperatur-Kriechbeanspruchung, Dissertation RWTH-Aachen.
G ANCZARSKI , A. and S KRZYPEK , J. (1997). Optimal design of rotationally symmetric
disks in thermo-damage coupling conditions, Tech Mech 17: 365–378.
G ANCZARSKI , A. and S KRZYPEK , P. (1995). Concept of thermo-damage coupling in contin-
uum damage mechanics, in R. H ETNARSKI and N. N ODA (eds), First Int Symp Thermal
Stresses 1995, Hamamatsu, Japan, Act City, June 5-7, 1995, pp. 83–86.
G IESEKUS , H. (1994). Phänomenologische Rheologie, Springer-Verlag, Berlin/Heidelberg.
G ITTUS , J. (1978). Irradiation Effects in Crystalline Solids, Applied Science Publ., London.
G OEL , R. (1975). On the creep rupture of a tube and a spere, J. Appl. Mech. Trans. ASME
43: 625–629.
G OODS , S. and N IX , W. (1978). The kinetics of cavity growth and creep fracture in silver
containing implanted grain boundary cavities, Acta Metallurgica 26: 739–752.
G OREV, B., RUBANOV, V. and S OSNIN , O. (1978). in G. P ISARENKO (ed.), Strength of
materials and Structural Members under Multiaxial Loading, Naukova Dumka, Kiev,
pp. 223–231.
G OREV, B., RUBANOV, V. and S OSNIN , O. (1979a). J. Appl. Mech. and Techn. Phys. 4: 121–
128.
G OREV, B., RUBANOV, V. and S OSNIN , O. (1979b). Strength of Materials 7: 62–67.
G RABACKI , J. (1994). Constitutive equations for some damaged materials, Eur J Mech
A/Solids 13: 51–71.
G RADY, D. (1982). Local inertial effects in dynamic fragmentation, J Mech Phys Solids
53: 322–325.
G RATHWOHL , G. (1984). Regimes of creep and slow crack growth in high-temperature
rupture of hot-pressed silicon nitride, Deformation of Ceramics II, Plenum Publishing
Corporation, pp. 573–586.
G ROSS , D. and S EELIG , T. (2001). Bruchmechanik, 3 edn, Springer-Verlag, Berlin / Heidel-
berg / New York.
H AN , C., K IM , K., S ISKOVIIC , N. and H UANG , C. (1975). An appraisal of rheological
models as applied to polymer melt flow, Rheol. Acta. 14: 533–549.
H AUPT, P. (2000). Continuum Mechanics and Theory of Materials, Springer-Verlag,
Berlin/Heidelberg/New York.
H AYAKAWA , K. and M URAKAMI , S. (1997). Thermodynamical Modeling of Elastic-Plastic
Damage and Experimental Validation of Damage Potential, Int. J. of Damage Mech.
6: 381–390.
H AYAKAWA , K. and M URAKAMI , S. (1998). Damage Mechanics in Engineering Materials,
Elsevier, chapter Space of damage conjugate force and damage potential of elastic-plastic
damage materials, pp. 27–44.
H AYHURST, D. (1972). Creep rupture under multiaxial states of stress, J. Mech. Phys. Solids
20: 381–390.
H AYHURST, D., D IMMER , P. and M ORRISON C.J. (1984). Development of continuum
damage in the creep rupture of notched bars, Phil Trans R Soc London A 311: 103.
H AYHURST, D. and L ECKIE , F. (1973). The effect of creep constitutive and damage rela-
tionships upon rupture time of solid circular torsion bar, Mech Phys Solids 21: 431–446.
H AYHURST, D., T RAMPCZYNSKI , W. and L ECKIE , F. (1980). Creep rupture and nonpro-
portional loading, Acta Metall 28: 1171–1183.
H AYMAN , B. (1980). Creep buckling - a general view of the phenomena, pp. 289–307. 3.
IUTAM-Symposium.
H AYMAN , B. (1981). Creep Buckling - A General View of The Phenomena, in A. P ONTER
and D. H AYHURST (eds), Creep in Structures, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, pp. 289–307.
H ECKER , F. (1967). Die Wirkung des Bauschinger-Effekts bei großen Torsions-
Formänderungen, Dissertation, Techn. Hochschule Hannover .
 References 353

H EEMANN , U. and S TEIN , E. (1991). Transient Creep in Rock Salt Structures, in M. Z Y-

CZKOWSKI (ed.), Creep in Structures, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, pp. 91–98.
H ELLE , S. and T VERGAARD , V. (1998). Intergranular fracture under creep-fatigue interac-
tion, Int J Damge Mech 7: 3–23.
H ENCKY, H. (1925). Die Bewegungsgleichungen beim nichtstationären Flieen elastischer
Massen, Z. angew. Math. Mech. 5: 144–146.
H ILL , R. (1950). The Mathematical Theory of Plasticity, Clarendon Press, Oxford.
H OHENEMSER , K. and P RAGER , W. (1932). Über die Ansätze der Mechanik isotroper
Kontinua, Z. Ang. Math. Mech. (ZAMM) 12: 216–226.
H ULT, J. (1974). Creep in continua and structures, in F. Z EMAN , J. L. AND Z IEGLER (ed.),
Topics in applied continuum mechanics, Springer, Wien, pp. 137–155.
H UMMEL , A., W ESCHE , K. and B RAND , W. (1962). Versuche über das Kriechen unbe-
wehrten Betons, Deutscher Ausschuss für Stahlbeton Heft 146. Verlag Wilhelm Ernst &
Sohn, Berlin.
H UTCHINSON , J. (1983). Constitutive behaviour and crack tip fields for materials undergoing
creep-constained grain boundary cavitation, Acta Metall 31: 1079–1088.
I GARI , T., S ETOGUCHI , K. and N OMURA , S. (1991). Prediction of Macroscopie and Load
Creep Behavior of Perforated Plates, in M. Z YCZKOWSKI (ed.), Creep in Structures,
Springer-Verlag, Berlin, pp. 579–586.
I LSCHNER , B. (1973). Hochtemperatur-Plastizität, Springer-Verlag, Berlin.
I LSCHNER , B. and S INGER , R. (2002). Werkstoffwissenschaften und Fertigungstechnik, 3.
edn, Springer- Verlag, Berlin / Heidelberg / New York.
JAKOWLUK , A. (1993). Process of Creep and Fatigue in Materials, Wydawnictwa Naukowo-
Techniczne, Warszawa. In Polish.
JAKOWLUK , A. and M IELESZKO , E. (1983). Method of optimizing the description of pri-
mary creep, Bulletin of the Polish Academy of Sciences, Appl. Mech. 31.
JAKOWLUK , A. and M IELESZKO , E. (1985). On the assumption of the creep potential exis-
tence, Bulletin of the Polish Academy of Sciences, Appl. Mech. 33: 429–437.
J OHNSON , A. (1960). Complex-stress creep of metals, Metallurg. Rev. 5: 447–506.
J OHNSON , J. (1981). Dynamic fracture and spallation in ductile solids, J Mech Phys Solids
53: 2812–2825.
K ACHANOV, L. (1986). Introduction to Continuum Damage Mechanics, Martinus Nijhoff
Publishers, Dordrecht.
K ACHANOV, L. (1958). On the time failure under creep conditions, Izv. Akad. Nauk USSR
Otd. Tekh. Nauk 8: 26–31. In Russian.
K ATTAN , P. and VOYIADJIS , G. (1990). A coupled theory of damage mechanics and finite
strain elasto-plasticity - I: Damage and elastic deformations, Int. J. Eng. Sci. 28: 421–435.
K AVIANY, M. (1995). Principles of Heat Transfer in Porous Media, Springer-Verlag, New-
York.
KOLSKY, H. (1972). Some recent experimental investigations in stress-wave propagation and
fracture, in G. H ERRMANN and N. P ERRONE (eds), Dynamic Response of Structures,
Pergamon, Oxford, pp. 327–343.
KOLSKY, H. (1978). The Role of Experiment in the Development of Solid Mechanics - Some
examples, in C HIA -S HUN Y IH (ed.), Advances in Applied Mechanics, Academic Press,
New York / San Francisco / London, pp. 309–368.
KOLUPAEV, V. (2006). Dreidimensionales Kriechverhalten von Bauteilen aus unverstärkten
Thermoplasten, Dissertation, Martin-Luther Universität Halle-Wittenberg.
KOSSOWSKY, R., M ILLER , D. and D IAZ , E. (1975). Tensile and creep strength of hot-
pressed Si3N4, J. of Materials Science 10: 983–997.
KOWALEWSKI , Z. (1987). The surface of constant dissipation energy rate under creep and
its experimental determination, Arch. Mech. 39: 445–454.
KOWALEWSKI , Z. (1991). The Influence of Deformation History on Creep in Pure Copper,
in M. Z YCZKOWSKI (ed.), Creep in Structures, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, pp. 115–122.
354 References

K RAJCINOVIC , D. (1983). Constitutive equations for damaging materials, J. Appl. Mech.

50: 355–360.
K RAJCINOVIC , D. (1984). Continuum damage mechanics, ASME Appl. Mech. Rev. 37: 1–6.
K RAJCINOVIC , D. (1996). Damage Mechanics, Elsevier, North-Holland, Amsterdam /
NewYork / Tokyo.
K RAJCINOVIC , D. and F ONSEKA , G. (1981). The continuous damage theory of brittle ma-
terials, J Appl Mech 48: 809–815.
K RAJCINOVIC , D. and L EMAITRE , J. (1987). Continuum Damage Mechanics, Springer-
Verlag, Wien, New York.
K RAWIETZ , A. (1986). Materialtheorie, Springer-Verlag, Berlin/ ... /Tokyo.
K REMPL , E. (1987). Viscoplasticity, Some Comments on Equilibrium Stress and Drag
Stress, Acta Mechanica 69: 25–42.
L ADEVEZE , P. (1990). A damage approach for composite structures theory and identifica-
tion, in A. VAUTRIN and H. S OL (eds), Mechanical Identification of Composites, Else-
vier, pp. 44–57.
L AM É , G. (1852). Lecons sur la théorie mathématique de l’ élasticite des corps solides,
Paris.
L AUN , H. (1978). Description of the non-linear shear behaviour of a low density polyethy-
lene melt by means of an experimentally determined strain dependent memory function,
Rheologica Acta 17: 1–15.
L AUN , H. and M ÜNSTEDT, M. (1978). Elongational behaviour of a low density polyehylene
melt, Rheol. Acta 17: 415–425.
L ECKIE , F. and H AYHURST, D. (1974). Creep rupture of structures, Proc. R. Soc. London A
340: 323–347.
L ECKIE , F. and H AYHURST, D. (1977). Constitutive equations for creep rupture, Acta Met-
allurg. 25: 1059–1070.
L ECKIE , F. and O NAT, E. (1981). Physical Nonlinearities in Structural Analysis, Springer-
Verlag, Berlin.
L ECKIE , F. and P ONTER , A. (1974). On the state variable description of creeping materials,
Ing.-Archiv. 43: 158–167.
L EE , H., P ENG , K. and WANG , J. (1985). An anisotropic damage criterion for deformation
instability and its application to forming limit analysis of metal plates, Eng. Fracture
Mech. 21: 1031–1054.
L EHMANN , T. (1960). Einige Betrachtungen zur Beschreibung von Vorgängen in der klas-
sischen Kontinuumsmechanik, Ingenieur-Archiv 29: 316–330.
L EHMANN , T. (1962). Einige ergänzende Bemerkungen zur Beschreibung von Vorgängen
in der klassischen Kontinuumsmechanik, Ingenieur-Archiv 31: 371–384.
L EHMANN , T. (1972). Einige Bemerkungen zu einer allgemeinen Klasse von Stoffgesetzen
für große elasto-plastische Formänderungen, Ingenieur-Archiv 41: 297–310.
L EIGH , D. (1968). Nonlinear Continuum Mechanics, Mc Graw-Hill Book Company, New
York.
L EMAITRE , J. (1985). A continuum damage mechanics model for ductile fracture, ASME J
Eng Mat Tech 107: 83–89.
L EMAITRE , J. (1992). A Course on Damage Mechanics, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg,
New-York. (second edition 1996).
L EMAITRE , J. (1996). A course on damage mechanics, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg,
New-York.
L EMAITRE , J. and C HABOCHE , J. (1975). A nonlinear model of creep fatigue damage
cumulation and interaction, in J. H ULT (ed.), Proc IUTAM Symp Mechanics of Visco-
Elastic Media and Bodies, Gothenburg, Sweden, Springer-Verlag, pp. 291–301.
L EMAITRE , J. and C HABOCHE , J. (1990). Mechanics of solid materials, Cambridge Uni-
versity Press.
 References 355

L I , S. and S MITH , D. (1995). High temperature fatigue-creep behaviour of single crystal

SRR99 nickle base superalloys, Fracture Engng. Mater. Struct. 18: Part I: 617–629, Part
II: 631–643.
L IN , R. (2002). Viscoelastic and Elastic-viscoelastic-elastoplastic Constitutive Character-
ization of Polymers at Finite Strains: Theoretical and Numerical Aspects, Dissertation,
UniBW Hamburg.
L IN , R., B ETTEN , J. and B ROCKS , W. (2006). Modeling of finite strain viscoplasticity based
on logarithmic corotational description, Arch. Appl. Mech 75: 693–708.
L IS , Z. (1992). Creep damage of solids under non-proportional loading, ZAMM 72: T164–
T166.
L ITEWKA , A. (1985). Effective material constants for orthotropically damaged elastic solids,
Arch Mech 37: 631–642.
L ITEWKA , A. (1989). Creep rupture of metals under multi-axial state of stress, Arch Mech
41: 3–23.
L ITEWKA , A. and H ULT, J. (1989). One parameter cdm model for creep rupture prediction,
Eur J Mech A / Solids 8: 185–200.
L ITEWKA , A. and M ORZ ÝNSKA , J. (1989). Theoretical and experimental study of fracture
for a damaged solid, Res. Mechanica 27: 259–272.
L ITEWKA , A. and S AWCZUK , A. (1981). A yield criterion for perforated sheets, Ingenieur-
Archiv 50: 393–400.
L IU , M. and K REMPL , E. (1979). A Uniaxial Viscoplastic Model based on Total Strain and
Overstress, J. Mech. Phys. Solids 27: 377–391.
L UBAHN , J. and F ELGAR , R. (1961). Placticity and Creep of Metals, John Wiley & Sons,
New York.
L UCAS , G. and P ELLOUX , R. (1981). Texture and stress state dependent creep in Zircaloy-2,
Met. Trans. 12A: 1321–1331.
L UDWIG , R. (2001). Tensorielle Verallgemeinerung eines Stoffmodels für Elastomere, Dis-
sertation, RWTH-Aachen University.
L UDWIK , P. (1909). Elemente der Technologischen Mechanik, Springer, Berlin.
M ACVEAN , D. (1968). Die Elementararbeit in einem Kontinuum und die Zuordnung von
Spannungs- und Verzerrungstensoren, Z. angew. Math. Phys. (ZAMP) 19: 157–185.
M ANG , H. and H OFSTETTER , G. (2000). Festigkeitslehre, Springer-Verlag, Wien / New
York.
M ANSON , S. (1979). Some useful concepts for the designer in treating cumulative damage
at elevated temperature. ECM 3, Cambridge 1: 13–45.
M ARIGO , J. (1985). Modelling of brittle and fatigue damage for elastic material by growth
of microvoids, Eng Fracture Mech 21: 861–874.
M ARIOTT, D. (1972). A review of reference stress methods for estimating creep defor-
mation, IUTAM Symposium on Creep in Structures, Gothenburg 1970, Springer-Verlag,
Berlin/Heidelberg/New York, pp. 137–152.
M ATZENMILLER , A. and S ACKMANN , J. (1994). On Damage Induced Anisotropy for Fiber
Composites, Int J Damage Mech 3: 71–86.
M EISSNER , J. (1971). Dehnungsverhalten von Polyäthylen-Schmelzen, Rheologica-Acta
10: 230–241.
M EISSNER , J. (1972). Modification of the Weissenberg Rheogoniometer for Measurement of
Transient Rheological Properties of Molten Polyethylene under Shear-Comparison with
Tensile Data, Journal of Applied Polymere Science 16: 2877–2899.
M EISSNER , J. (1975). Basis parameters melt rheology processing and end-use properties of
free similar low density polyethylene samples, Pure and Applied Chemistry 42: 551–612.
M ICHAL , A. (1927). Funktionals of r-dimensional manifolds admitting continuous groups
of point transformations, Trans. Am. Math. Soc. 29: 612–646.
M ICHAL , A. (1947). Matrix and Tensor Calculus, John Wiley, New York.
356 References

M IDDLEMAN , S. (1977). Fundamentals of Polymere Processing, McGraw-Hill Book Com-

pany, New York/ ... / Toronto.
M ISES , V. (1928). Mechanik der plastischen Formänderung von Kristallen, Z. angew. Math.
Mech. (ZAMM) 8: 161–185.
M ONKMAN , F. and G RANT, N. (1956). An empirical relationship between rupture life and
minimum creep rate in creep-rupture tests, Proc. ASTM 56: 593–620.
M OU , Y. and H AN , R. (1996). Damage evolution in ductile materials, Int J Damage Mech
5: 241–258.
M URAKAMI , S. (1983). Notion of continuum damage mechanics and its application to
anisotropic creep damage theory, J. Eng. Mat. Tech. 105: 99–105.
M URAKAMI , S. (1987). Progress of continuum damage mechanics, JSME Int. J. Ser. A
30: 701–710.
M URAKAMI , S. (1988). Mechanical modeling of material damage, Trans. ASME, J. Appl.
Mech. 55: 280–286.
M URAKAMI , S., H AYAKAWA , K. and L IU , Y. (1998). Damage evolution and damage sur-
face of elastic-plastic-damage materials under multiaxial loading, Int. J. Damage Mech.
7: 103–128.
M URAKAMI , S. and K AMIYA , K. (1997). Constitutive and damage evolution equations
of elastic-brittle materials based on irreversible thermodynamics, Int. J. Solids Struct.
39: 473–486.
M URAKAMI , S. and M IZUNO , M. (1992). A constitutive equation of creep, swelling and
damage under neutron irradiation applicable to multiaxial and variable states of stress,
Int J Solids Struct 29: 2319–2328.
M URAKAMI , S. and O HNO , N. (1981). Creep in Structures 1980, Springer-Verlag, Berlin,
Heidelberg, New York, chapter A continuum theory of creep and creep damage, pp. 422–
444. (ed: Ponter, A.R.S Hayhurst, D.R).
M URAKAMI , S., S ANOMURA , Y. and S AITOH , R. (1986). Formulation of cross-hardening in
creep and its effect on the creep damage process of copper, J. Eng. Mat. Tech. 108: 167–
173.
M URAKAMI , S. and S AWCZUK , A. (1979). On description of rate-independent behaviour
for prestrained solids, Archives of Mechanics 31: 251–264.
M URAKAMI , S. and S AWCZUK , A. (1981). A unifled approach to constitutive equations of
inelasticity based on tensor function representations, Nucl. Eng. Des. 65: 33–47.
M URAKAMI , S. and TANAKA , E. (1976). On the creep buckling of circular shells, Int. J.
Mech. Sci. 18: 185–194.
M URZEWSKI , J. (1992). Brittle and ductile damage of stochastically homogeneous solids,
Int J Damage Mech 1: 276–289.
NAJAR , J. (1994). Brittle residual strain and continuum damage at variable uniaxial loading,
Int J Damage Mech 3: 260–277.
NAUMENKO , K. (1996). Modellierung und Berechnung der Langzeitfestigkeit dünnwandiger
Flächentragwerke unter Einbeziehung von Werkstoffkriechen und Schädigung, Otto-von-
Guericke Universität Magdeburg. Preprint MBI-96-2, April 1996.
NAUMENKO , K. and A LTENBACH , H. (2007). Modeling of Creep for Structural Analysis,
Springer-Verlag, Berlin/Heidelberg.
N EEDLEMAN , A., T VERGAARD , V. and G IESSEN , E. (1995). Evolution of void shape and
size in creeping solids, Int J Damage Mech 4: 134–152.
N EMES , J., E FTTIS , J. and R ANDLES , P. (1990). Viscoplastic constitutive modeling of high
strain-rate deformation, material damage and spall fracture, Trans ASME 57: 282–291.
N ICOLINI , G. (1999). Mikrostruktur und Zeitstandverhalten teilchengehärteter Hochtem-
peraturwerkstoffe, Dissertation, RWTH-Aachen.
N ISHITANI , T. (1978). Mechanical behaviour of nonlinear viscoelastic celluloid under super-
imposed hydrostatic pressure, Trans. ASME. J. Pressure Vessel Technol. 100: 271–276.
N ORMAN , E. and D URAN , S. (1970). Acta Metall. 19: 723.
 References 357

N ORTON , F. (1929). Creep of high Temperatures, Mc Graw Hill, New York.

O BRECHT, H. (1977). Creep buckling and postbuckling of circular cylindrical shells under
axial compression, Int. J. Solids Struct. 13: 337–355.
O DQUIST, F. (1966). Mathematical Theory of Creep and Creep Rupture, University Press,
Oxford.
O DQUIST, F. and H ULT, J. (1962). Kriechfestigkeit metallischer Werkstoffe, Springer Berlin.
O HASHI , Y., K AWAI , M. and M OMOSE , T. (1986). J. Engng. Mater. Technol. 108: 68–74.
O MERSPAHIC , E. and M ATTIASSON , K. (2007). Oriented Damage in Ductile Sheets: Con-
stitutive Modeling and Numerical Integration, Int. J. Damage Mechanics 16: 35–56.
O NAT, E. (1986). Representation of mechanical behavior in the presence of internal damage,
Eng. Fracture Mech. 25: 605–614. Presented at the IUTAM Symposium on Mechanics
of Damage and Fatigue, Haifa and Tel Aviv, Israel, 1985.
O NAT, E. and L ECKIE , F. (1988). Representation of mechanical behavior in the presence of
changing internal structure, Trans. ASME, J. Appl. Mech. 55: 1–10.
OTHMANN , A., H AYHURST, D. and DYSON , B. (1993). Skeletal point stresses in circumfer-
entially notched tension bars undergoing tertiary creep modelled with physically based
constitutive equations, Proc. R. Soc. London 441: 343–358.
OYTANA , C., D ELOBELLE and M ERMET, A. (1982). Constitutive equations study in biaxial
experiments, J. Eng. mat. Tech. 104: 1–11.
PANTELAKIS , S. (1983). Kriechverhalten metallischer Werkstoffe bei zeitveränderlicher
Spannung, PhD thesis, RWTH-Aachen.
P ENNY, R. and M ARIOTT, D. (1971). Design for Creep, Mc Graw-Hill, London.
P ERZYNA , P. (1966). Fundamental Problems in Viscoplasticity, Advances in Appl. Mech.,
Academic Press, New York.
P ERZYNA , P. (1986). Internal state variable description of dynamic fracture of ductile solids,
Int J Solids Struct 22: 797–818.
P HILLIPS , A. and W U , H. (1973). A Theory of Viscoplasticity, Int. J. Solids Structures
9: 15–30.
Q I , W. (1998). Modellierung der Kriechschädigung einkristalliner Superlegierungen im
Hochtemperaturbereich, Vol. 230, Fortschritt-Berichte VDI 18: Mechanik / Bruch-
mechanik, Düsseldorf.
Q I , W. and B ERTRAM , A. (1997). Anisotropic creep damage modeling of single crystal
superalloys, Tech Mech 17: 313–332.
R ABOTNOV, Y. (1968). Creep rupture, in M. H ETENYI AND H. V INCENTI (ed.), Appl.
Mech. Conf., Stanford University, Palo Alto, pp. 342–349.
R ABOTNOV, Y. (1969). Creep Problems in Structural Members, North-Holland, Amster-
dam/London.
R EED -H ILL , R. (1973). Physical metallurgy principles, D. van Nostrand Company, New
York.
R EICHARDT, H. (1968). Vorlesung über Vektor- und Tensorrechnung, in K. H. G RELL (ed.),
Hochschulbücher für Mathematik, Vol. 34, VEB, Berlin.
R ICE , J. (1970). On the structure of stress-strain relations for time-dependent plastic defor-
mations in metals, Trans. ASME J. Appl. Mech. 37: 728–737.
R ICE , J. (1971). Inelastic constitutive relations for solids, J. Mech. Phys. Solids 19: 433–455.
R ICE , J. (1981). Constraints on the diffusive cavitation of isolated grain boundary facets in
creeping polycrystals, Acta Metall. 29: 675–681.
R ICHTER , H. (1949). Verzerrungstensor, Verzerrungsdeviator und Spannungstensor bei
endlichen Formänderungen, Z. angew. Math. Mech. 29: 65–75.
R IDES , M., C OCKS , A. and H AYHURST, D. (1989). The elastic response of damaged mate-
rials, J. Appl. Mech. 56: 493–498.
R IEDEL , H. (1987). Fracture at High Temperatures, Springer-Verlag, Berlin.
R IMROTT, F. (1959). Versagenszeit beim Kriechen, Ingenieur-Archiv 27: 169–178.
358 References

R IMROTT, F., M ILLS , E. and M ARIN , J. (1960). Prediction of creep failure time for pressure
vessels, Journal of Applied Mechanics 27(6): 303–308.
R IVLIN , R. (1955). Further remarks on the stress-deformation relations for isotropic materi-
als, J. Rat. Mech. Anal. 4: 681–702.
R IVLIN , R. (1970). Non-Linear Continuum Theories in Mechanics and Physics and their Ap-
plications, Centro Internazionale Mathematico Estivo (C.I.M.E.), Edizione Cremonense,
Roma.
R IVLIN , R. and E RICKSEN , J. (1955). Stress-deformation relations for isotropic materials,
J. Rational Mech. Anal. 4: 323–425.
RUBANOV, V. (1987). Experimental Foundation of the Constitutive Equations of Creep for
Materials with Different Behaviour in Tension and Compression, Ph. D. Thesis, Institute
of Hydrodynamics, Novosibirsk.
S AANOUNI , K., F ORSTER , C. and B EN H ATIRA , F. (1994). On the anelastic flow with
damage, Int J Damage Mech 3: 140–169.
S AWCZUK , A. and A NISIMOWICZ , M. (1981). Tensor Functions Approach to Creep Laws
after Prestrain, in A. P ONTER and D. H AYHURST (eds), Creep in Structures, Springer-
Verlag, Berlin / Heidelberg / New York, pp. 220–232.
S AYIR , M. (1970). Zur Fließbedingung der Plastizitätstheorie, Ing.-Archiv 39: 414–432.
S CHERER , G. (1986). Relaxation in Glass and Composites, John Wiley & Sohn, New York/
... / Singapore.
S CHOWALTER , W. (1978). Mechanics of Non-Newtonian Fluids, Pergamon Press, Oxford/
... / Frankfurt.
S EDOV, L. (1966). Foundations of the Non-Linear Mechnics of Continua, Pergamon Press,
Oxford.
S ETH , B. (1972). Creep transition in cylinders, International Centre for Mechanical Sciences
Courses and Lectures No. 149, Udine 1972, Springer, Wien.
S HAMMAS , M. (1988). Metallographic Methods for Predicting the Remament Life of Ferritic
Coarse-Grained Weld Heat Affected Zones Subject to Creep Cavitation, Int. Conf. on Life
Assessment . VGB, KEMA, EPRI, Essen, Arnheim, Palo Alto.
S HIN , C. (1990). Inelastisches Verhalten anisotroper Werkstoffe, Dissertation, RWTH
Aachen.
S IDOROFF , F. (1981). Description of anisotropic damage application to elasticity, IUTAM
Colloquium on Physical Nonlinearities in Structural Analysis, Springer-Verlag, Berlin,
pp. 237–244.
S KELTON , W., S ALIM , A. and PATTON , R. (1977). The creep of thick-walled 2 1/2 %
NiCrMo cylinders under internal pressure at 350◦ C: Development of a testing machine
and prliminary results., Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. 192: 73–98.
S KOCZEN , B. (1996). Generalization of the Coffin equations with respect to the effect of
large mean plastic strain, J Eng Mat Tech, ASME pp. 387–393.
S KRZYPEK , J. (1999). Creep and Damage in Materials and Structures, Springer-Verlag,
Wien/New York, chapter Material Damage Models for Creep Failure Analysis and De-
sign of Structures, pp. 97–166.
S KRZYPEK , J. (1993). Plasticity and Creep, CRC-Press, Boca Raton / Ann Arbor / London
/ Tokyo.
S KRZYPEK , J. and G ANCZARSKI , A. (1998). Modeling of damage effect on heat transfer in
time-dependent non-homogeneous solids, J Thermal Stresses 21: 205–231.
S KRZYPEK , J. and G ANCZARSKI , A. (1999). Modeling of Material Damage and Failure of
Structures-Theory and Applications, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg, New York.
S KRZYPEK , J. and G ANCZARSKI , A. (2003). Anisotropic Behaviour of Damaged Materials,
(Eds.), Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg, New York.
S OBOTKA , Z. (1984). Rheology of Materials and Engineering Structures, Vydala Academia
vêd, Praha.
S ÖDERQUIST, B. (1968). Acta Polytech. Scand., Series (f) 53: 1–36.
 References 359

S OKOLNIKOFF , I. (1964). Tensor Analysis, Theory and Applications to the Geometry and
Mechanics of Continua, John Wiley, New York/London/Sydney. Second Edition.
S PENCER , A. (1971). Theory of Invariants, in A. E RINGEN (ed.), Continuum Physics, Aca-
demic Press, New York and London, pp. 239–353.
S PENCER , A. (1987). Polynomial invariants and tensor functions, in J. B OEHLER (ed.),
Applications of Tensor Functions in Solid Mechanics, Springer-Verlag, Wien, New York,
pp. 141–201.
S TEVENSON , J. (1972). Elongational Flow of Polymer Melts, A. I. Ch. E. Journal 18: 540–
547.
S TIGH , U. (1985). Material Damage and Constitutive Properties, chalmers University of
Technology, Göteborg, Sweden.
S WIFT, H. (1947). Length Changes in Metals under Torsional Overstrain, Engineering
163: 253–257.
S ZAB Ó , I. (1964). Höhere Technische Mechanik, 4. aufl. edn, Springer, Berlin.
TAIRA , S., KOTERAZAWA , R. and O HTANI , R. (1965). Creep of thick-walled cylinders
under internal pressure at elevated temperature, in T. N ISHIHARA (ed.), Proc. 8th Japan
Congr. testing materials, Soc. Mat. Sci., Kyoto, pp. 53–60.
TALTY, R. and D IRKS , R. (1978). Determination of tensile and conpressive creep behaviour
of ceramic materials from bend tests, J. of Materials Science 13: 580–586.
T EOH , S., C HERRY, B. and K AUSCH , H. (1992). Creep Rupture Modelling of Poymers, Int.
J. of Damage Mech. 1: 245–256.
T ETELMAN , A. and M C E VILY, A. (1970). Fracture of Structural Materials, John Wiley.
T IMOSHENKO , S. (1934). Theory of Elasticity, Mc Graw-Hill Book Company, London.
T RAMPCZYNSKI , W., H AUHURST, D. and L ECKIE , F. (1981). Creep rupture of copper and
aluminium under non-proportional loading, J. Mech. Phys. Solids 29: 353–374.
T ROOST, A., B ETTEN , J. and E L -M AGD , E. (1973). Einschnürvorgang eines Zugstabes
unter konstanter Last bei Raumtemperatur, Materialprüfung 15: 113–116.
T RUESDELL , C. (1964). Second-order Effects in the Mechanics of Materials, in M. R EINER
and D. A BIR (eds), Second-order Effects in Elasticity, Plasticity and Fluid Dynamics,
Pergamon Press, Oxford/London/New York/Paris, pp. 1–47.
T RUESDELL , C. (1977). A First Course in Rational Continuum Mechanics, Vol. 1: General
Concepts, Academic Press, New York.
T RUESDELL , C. and N OLL , W. (1965). The non-linear field theories of mechanics. In:
Handbuch der Physik, Vol III/3 (ed Flügge S), Berlin, Heidelberg, New York: Springer
Verlag.
T RUESDELL , C. and T OUPIN , R. (1960). The classical field theories, in S. F LGGE (ed.),
Handbuch der Physik, Vol. III/1, Springer, Berlin, pp. 226–793.
T SCHOEGL , N. (1989). The Phenomenological Theory of Linear Viscoelastic Behavior,
Springer-Verlag, Berlin/ ... / Tokyo.
T URNER , L. (1909). The stresses in a thick hollow cylinder subjected to internal pressure,
Trans. Camb. Phil. Soc. 21: 377–396.
T VERGAARD , V. (1984). Constitutive Relations for Creep in Polycrystals with Grain Bound-
ary Cavitation, Acta Metall 32: 1977–1990.
T VERGAARD , V. (1988). Material failure by void coalescence in localized shear bands,
DCAMM Report , Tech Univ of Denmark, Lyngby 221: 1–26.
T VERGAARD , V. (1989). Material Failure by Void Growth to Coalescence, in J. H UTCHIN -
SON and T. W U (eds), Advances in Applied Mechanics, Vol. 27, pp. 83–151.
VOCE , E. (1955). A practical strain-Hardening function, Metallurgia 51: 219–226.
VOYIADJIS , G. and K ATTAN , P. (1990). A coupled theory of damage mechanics and finite
strain elasto-plasticity - II: Damage and finite strain plasticity, Int. J. Eng. Sci. 28: 505–
524.
VOYIADJIS , G. and K ATTAN , P. (1992). A plasticity-damage theory for large deformation
of solids, Part I: Theoretical formulation, Int J Eng Sci 30: 1089–1108.
360 References

VOYIADJIS , G. and V ENSON , A. (1995). Experimental damage investigation of a SiC - Ti

aluminium metal matrix composite, Int J Damage Mech 4: 338–361.
WALKER , J. (1978). The Amateur Scientist, Serious fun with Polyox, Silly Putty, Slime and
other non-Newtonian fluids, Sci. Am. 239: 142–149.
WALTERS , K. (1975). Rheometry, Chapman and Hall, London.
WANG , C.-C. (1971). Representations for isotropic functions, Arch. Rational Mech. Anal.
43: 392–395.
WANG , J. (1992). Low cycle fatigue and cycle dependant creep with continuum damage
mechanics, Int J Damage Mech 1: 237–244.
WANIEWSKI , M. (1984). The influence of direction and value of lplastic prestrain on steady-
state creep rate using the combined isotropic-kinematic hardening rule, Rozpr. Inz. 23: 4.
WANIEWSKI , M. (1985). A simple law of steady-state creep for material with anisotropy
induced by plastic prestraining, Ing.-Archiv 55: 368–375.
W EISSENBERG , K. (1947). A Continuum Theory of Rheological Phenomena, Nature
159: 310–311.
Z HENG , Q.-S. (1994). Theory of representation for tensor functions - a unified invariant
approach to constitutive equations, Appl. Mech. Rev. (AMR) 47: 545–587.
Z HENG , Q.-S. and B ETTEN , J. (1995). On the tensor function representation of 2nd-order
and 4th-order tensors: Part I, Z. Angew. Math. Mech. 75: 269–281.
Z HENG , Q.-S. and B ETTEN , J. (1996). On damage effective stress and equivalence hypoth-
esis, Int. J. Damage Mech. 5: 219–240.
Z HENG , Q.-S., B ETTEN , J. and S PENCER , A. (1992). The formulation of constitutive
equations for fibre-reinforced composites in plane problems: Part I, Arch. Appl. Mech.
62: 530–543.
Z YCZKOWSKI , M. (1981). Combined Loadings in the Theory of Plasticity, PWN-Polish
Scientific Publishers, Warszawa.
Z YCZKOWSKI , M. (1988). Optimal structural design under creep conditions, Appl. Mech.
Rev. 41: 453–461.
Z YCZKOWSKI , M. (1996). Optimal structural design under creep conditions, Appl. Mech.
Rev. 49: 433–446.
Z YCZKOWSKI , M. and S KRZYPEK , J. (1972). Stationary creep and creep rupture of a
thick-walled tube under combined loadings, IUTAM Symposium on Creep in Structures,
Gothenburg 1970, Springer, Berlin, pp. 315–329.
Index

√
t-law, 218, 222-224, 229 C
L2 -error norm, 224 C-S-D effect, 123
canonical form, 82, 113–114, 136–137
A capillar flows, 193
A BEL integral equation, 315-316 C AUCHY’s equation of motion, 47, 177
accelerating creep, 51 C AUCHY’s stress tensor, 44–48, 80, 138,
activation energy for creep, 219 149, 155, 261
activation energy for self-diffusion, 219 C AUCHY’s tetrahedron, 81
actual net-stress tensor, 135, 150 cavitation, 255
alternating symbol, 11 cavity growth, 256
anisotropic, 3, 113, 115 characteristic equation, 14–15, 45, 132
anisotropic damage, 138, 156-157 characteristic polynomial, 127–130
anisotropic damage growth, 81 Chi-square distribution, 204–205
anisotropic damage state, 81, 135 C HRISTOFFEL symbols, 29–30
anisotropic damage tensors, 3, 77, 126 C HRISTOFFEL symbols of the first kind, 24,
anisotropic hardening, 262 27
anisotropic materials, 109 C HRISTOFFEL symbols of the second kind,
anisotropic primary creep, 2, 61 24, 27
anisotropic viscoplastic solids, 248 circumferential stresses, 95
anisotropy tensor, 82 classical flow rule, 111
anomalous flows, 194 classical normality rule, 109
approximant, 331 classical strain tensor, 38
A RRHENIUS function, 219 climbing of dislocations, 218
asymmetric effective stress tensor, 156 coaxial, 156
austenite, 250 collocation method, 289
austenitic steel, 52–61 collocation point, 289
compatibility equations, 39
B complementary energy, 157
BAUSCHINGER effect, 68, 97 complementary error function, 331
best approximation, 266, 331–332 complex compliance, 234, 236
B INGHAM model, 246, 248 complex modulus, 234
bivector, 81, 140–143 complex parameters, 234, 236
biaxial specimen, 262 complex shear modulus, 234
body-fixed, 86 complex shear viscosity, 235
B OLTZMANN’s axiom, 44 complex viscosity, 234, 237
B OLTZMANN’s superposition principle, compliance, 205
189, 197 compressible fluids, 178
brain tissue 231 computer algebra systems, 336
B URGERS model, 229–236, condition of form invariance, 119
bulk modulus, 173, 176 conditions of compatibility, 117
bulk viscosity, 173–174 conjugate variables, 48
362 Index

constitutive equations, 31, 48–49, 119, 139, creep potential hypothesis, 2, 61, 109,
239, 253–256 113–115
continuous transition, 292 creep rate, 52, 61, 63, 78–79, 98, 165,
Continuum Damage Mechanics, 3 282–283
Continuum Mechanics, 31 creep relation, 196
contravariance, 17 creep response, 198
contravariant base, 22–23 creep spectra, 213, 215
contravariant base vectors, 19 creep strain, 218
contravariant components, 17, 22 creep tensor, 196
contravariant components of a vector, 36 creep velocity potential, 2
contravariant metric tensors, 20 creep-failure, 108
contravariant tensor components, 29 creep-strength-differential effect, 122–123
convection rate of change, 34 cubic splines, 267
convective rate, 178 curve fitting, 266
convective stress rate, 182 curvlinear coordinates, 16
convexity, 249 cylindrical coordinates, 29
convolution, 199–200, 303, 315
convolution integral, 303 D
convolution theorem, 199–200, 304–307, D ’A LEMBERT ’s principle, 46
309, 312, 315 damage effective stress, 139, 155, 157
convolution type, 314 damage effective tensor, 156, 158
copolymer, 218 damage equivalence hypothesis, 158
C OSSERAT continuum, 41, 44 damage equivalence principles, 157
C OUETTE-flow, 185 damage isotropy principle, 158
couple stresses, 47 damage mechanics, 3–4
damage state, 254
couple-stress vector, 41
damage tensor, 3, 80, 82, 115, 126, 139, 144
covariance, 17
damage variables, 156
covariant base vectors, 19, 22
damaged continuum, 141, 143, 149
covariant basis, 19, 23
damaged materials, 115
covariant components, 17, 22
damped free vibration, 233
covariant components of a vector, 36 damping factor, 233, 293
covariant derivatives, 25 damping rule, 300
covariant metric tensors, 20 deflection curve, 311, 313
covariant tensor components, 29 deformation gradient, 182, 202
creep acceleration, 282–284 del operator, 23
creep behavior, 237 deviator, 14
creep behavior of concrete, 215 deviatoric, 118, 123
creep buckling, 2, 61 die swell, 194
creep condition, 63, 121, 125, 253–254 differentiation of the transform, 301
creep criterion, 119 diffusion coefficient, 219
creep curve, 50–54, 58, 60, 165, 216– diffusion controlled process, 218–219, 330
218,224, 279–284 diffusional creep, 218
creep curves for concrete, 217–218 diffusion equation, 330
creep damage, 3, 77 diffusion way, 222
creep function, 196–199, 201, 203–204, D IRAC function, 197, 288, 290, 294, 308,
206, 209, 211, 213, 215, 223, 239, 309, 310
315 discrete relaxation spectrum, 227
creep integral, 198 discrete retardation spectrum, 205–206
creep mechanics, 1, 51, 330 dislocation creep, 218–219, 256, 262
creep parameters, 67, 282 displacement vector, 34
creep potential, 2, 53, 62–63, 65, 70–71, 80, dissipation power, 174
109–110, 116 dissipative energy, 233
 Index 363

dissipative force, 232 finite theory of elasticity, 47

dissipative stress, 232 finite-strain theory, 38, 108
distortion, 14, 174 first P IOLA -K IRCHHOFF stress tensor, 47,
divergence of a vector field , 23 186
divergence theorem of G AUSS, 45 flow potential, 61
double tensor, 87 flow rule, 63-64
dual basis, 19 fourth-order constitutive tensor, 81
dual damage tensor, 144 fourth-order damage tensors, 139
dual tensor of continuity, 144 fourth-order material tensor, 132
dyadic product, 25 fourth-order permutation tensor, 133
dynamic behavior, 231 fourth-order symmetric tensor, 133
dynamic shear modulus, 235 fourth-order tensor, 15, 118, 138
dynamic shear viscosity, 235 F REDHOLM integral equation, 300
frequency ratio, 293
E
effective stress tensor, 155, 158 G
eigenfrequency, 233 gamma distribution, 207
eigenvalue problem, 128, 131–132 gamma function, 207, 297
eigenvalues, 45 G AUSS distribution, 292
eigenvectors, 45 G AUSS error function, 220, 331
elastic modulus, 196, 203 generalized creep function, 205
elastic solids, 195 generalized relaxation function, 226
elastoviscoplastic, 245 geometrical non-linearities, 38
elementary symmetric functions, 15 gradient of a vector, 25
elliptical hysteresis, 233 grain boundary cavitation, 256
energy equivalence hypothesis, 157, 275, grain boundary diffusion, 255
372 growth mechanisms, 255
energy dissipation, 231
equation of state, 171 H
equations of equilibrium, 26, 28, 46 H AMILTON -C AYLEY theorem, 15, 69, 119,
equivalent creep strain, 91 160–161, 181
equivalent stresses, 106 hardening of aluminium alloy, 272–274
E UCLIDean space, 16, 49 harmonic loading, 231, 236
E ULER’s theorem on homogeneous H EAVISIDE function, 95, 204, 239–241,
functions, 65 285–288, 290, 308
E ULERian coordinates, 33 H ENCKY equation, 252
E ULERian finite strain tensor, 37, 183–184 H ENCKY’s strain tensor, 89, 108
E ULERian infinitesimal strain tensor, 38 hereditary integral, 189, 195–198, 303
EVA copolymer, 218 H ILL-condition, 68
evolution of damage, 257 H OOKE element, 204, 226
evolutional equations, 135, 253 hypothesis of energy equivalence, 157, 275,
experimental foundations of solid 372
mechanics, 253 hypothesis of strain equivalence, 157, 275,
extension flow, 167 377
expotential growth, 295 hypothesis of the equivalent dissipation rate,
expotential order, 295 65, 164, 248
extension viscosity, 175, 203 hysteresis, 231-234
external variables, 238 hysteresis loop, 231
extra stress tensor, 171
I
F ideal material response, 49
fading memory, 189–190, 193, 202 impulse function, 292
failure time, 106 incompatibility tensor, 39
364 Index

incompressibility, 250 L APLACE transformation, 207, 295, 298,

incompressible N EWTONian fluid, 174 306
index notation, 9 L APLACE transform of an integral, 302
inertial force, 46, 178 L APLACE transform pairs, 337-340
initial anisotropy, 81, 135, 139 leastsquare curve fitting, 268–269
integral equation, 295, 314–318 L EHR’s damping measure, 233
integrity basis, 29, 109, 112, 116, 118–120, limiting creep stresses, 123
122, 131, 136, 165 linear functional, 190, 193, 202
integro differential equation, 325 linear operator, 15, 44
intergranular creep fracture, 79, 255 linear standard solid model, 225
internal variables, 238, 251 linear transformation, 13, 62, 156
interpolation methods for tensor functions, linear viscoelastic, 198
135, 159–160 linear viscous fluids, 171
invariant damage models, 158 linearity rule, 329
invariant forms, 158 local rate, 178
inverse L APLACE transform, 215, 299 local rate of change, 34
irreducible invariants, 14–15, 28–29, 45, logarithmic strain tensor, 37–38, 90
135, 165–166 longitudinal stresses, 95
irreducible tensor-generators, 134 loss angle, 232
isochoric, 90 loss compliance, 234
isochoric distortion, 38 loss factor, 234
isotropic, 2, 114, 148 loss modulus, 234
isotropic creep potential, 63 L UDWIK-deformations, 89
isotropic material, 81
isotropic tensor function, 158, 180 M
mapped stress tensor, 63, 260
J
M ARQUART-L EVENBERG algorithm, 215,
JAUMANN derivative, 80, 135
224, 250
JAUMANN stress rate, 181
joint invariants, 119 material contravariant metric tensor, 89
material coordinates, 33, 86
K material damping, 233
K ELVIN creep function, 316 material deformation gradient, 34, 87
K ELVIN elements, 204 material description, 33, 186
K ELVIN model, 202–203, 205, 225, 26–237, material displacement gradient, 34
308–309, 316 material objectivity, 181, 191, 202
K ELVIN solid, 197 material tensor of rank four, 118
kernel function, 190, 315 material time derivative, 33, 39
kinetic equation, 78 material time derivative of the E ULERian
KOHLRAUSCH function, 230 strain tensor, 185
K RONECKER tensor, 20 material time derivative of the L AGRANGE
strain tensor, 183
L matrix notation, 9
L AGRANGE finite strain tensor, 36–38, 48, M AXWELL distribution function, 210, 212,
182 215
L AGRANGE’s multiplier, 64 M AXWELL fluid, 197, 201, 315
L AGRANGE infinitesimal strain tensor, 38 M AXWELL model, 189, 225, 237
L AGRANGE multiplier method, 131–132 measure of strain, 36
L AGRANGian coordinates, 33 mechanical equation of state, 52
L AME constants, 128 mechanical damping, 234
L APLACE operator, 25, 28 memory fluid, 189
L APLACE parameter, 236–237 mesocracks, 262
L APLACE transform, 198, 207, 227–228, metallographical analysis, 256
236, 295, 298, 308, 310, 316, 326 metric tensor, 21, 87
 Index 365

micro-cracks, 255 orthotropic material, 67

microscopic mechanisms, 255
microstructural creep, 263 P
minimum polynomial, 111, 113 parabolic exponential function, 215
minimum polynomial representation, 109, partial differential equation, 295, 329
249 partial fraction expansion, 241, 299
M ISES solid, 248 perforated materials, 115
mixed metric tensor, 20 perforation tensor, 115
mixed tensor components, 29 phenomenological, 255
model of M ONKMAN and G RANT, 79 physical components, 26
modified D IRAC delta functions, 294 P IOLA -K IRCHHOFF stress tensors, 47
modified P OYNTING -T HOMSON model, plastic potential, 61, 63–64, 90, 92
229 plastic viscosity, 246
modified flow rule, 116–118 polar decomposition theorem, 35
modified standard solid model, 229 polymer melt, 237
modified (continuous) H EAVISIDE polymer solution, 237
function, 292 polymers, 195, 202, 218
modified delta function, 289 P OISEUILLE-flow, 193
M ONKMAN -G RANT product, 80 P OISSON distribution, 207–209, 228
multi-axial creep behavior, 196 P OYNTING effect, 70–71
multiaxial, 159 P OYNTING -T HOMSON model, 226
multiaxial state of stress, 139 primary creep curve, 53-54, 58
primary stage, 263
N principal directions, 44
NAVIER -S TOKES equations, 177–178 principal invariants, 127
net-stress concept, 79 principal minors, 15
net-stress tensor, 80–81, 149, 155, 157 principal planes, 44
N EWTONian fluid, 172, 177, 248 principal stresses, 44
nominal (engineering) stress, 254 principal values, 160
non-N EWTONian fluids, 171, 176, 179, 181, principle of duality, 87
189, 193 principle of material frame-indifference, 50,
nonlinear creep behavior, 223 172, 179, 191
nonlinear dashpot, 223 principle of material objectivity, 50, 179
nonlinear effects, 232 principle of maximum dissipation rate, 63
nonlinear viscous fluids, 171, 174 P RONY-series, 218, 231
nonpolar case, 47 projection concept, 165
normal distribution, 221, 292 pseudo-net-stress tensor, 135, 137–138, 151,
normal stress effects, 194 157
normality rule, 112
normalized creep spectra, 206 R
normalized relaxation spectra, 227 R AMBERG -O SGOOD relation, 270–271
N ORTON -BAILEY creep law, 61, 64, 78–79, rate of dissipation, 164
162, 165 rate of dissipation of creep energy, 65, 121,
127
O rate-of-deformation tensor, 39, 48, 82, 109,
objective tensor, 184 179–180
O LDROYD time derivative, 185 reciprocal basis, 19
O LDROYD time derivative of the E ULERian reference configuration, 32
strain tensor, 185 reference time, 32
operational calculus, 295 R EINER -R IVLIN fluids, 181
orthogonal tensor, 184 relative deformation gradient, 191-192
orthonormal basis, 10, 16 relative right C AUCHY-G REEN tensor, 191
orthotropic behavior, 114 relaxation, 196
366 Index

relaxation function, 197–199, 201, 225–227, standard solid model, 204–205, 224, 239
235, 240–243, 316 steady creep, 51
relaxation integral, 198 S TOKES condition, 174, 178
relaxation modulus, 227 S TOKES fluid, 174
relaxation spectra, 225, 227, 229 storage compliance, 234
relaxation time, 189, 225–226, 237 storage modulus, 234
representations for tensor functions, 158 strain equivalence hypothesis, 157, 275, 372
residual stresses, 97 strain history, 189
resonance, 234 strain-hardening-theory, 52, 54, 60
retardation time, 203–205, 237 strain-to-rupture, 80
rheological models, 195 stress deviator, 162, 174
right C AUCHY-G REEN tensor, 36, 89, 192, stress relaxation, 197–199, 223, 229
202 stress tensor, 2, 40, 42
right stretch tensor, 89 stress vector, 40–41
rigid rotation, 35 structural relaxation, 229
rigid-body motion, 36 substantial derivative, 33
R IMROTT’s solution, 100 substitution rule, 177
ROMBERG’s integration method, 103 substitution tensor, 10
rule of lowering and raising the indices, 21, sufficient and necessary conditions of
23 compatibility, 118
summation convention, 10
S superposition principle, 197
second P IOLA -K IRCHHOFF tensor, 47, 48, S YLVESTER theorem, 160
185 symbolic notation, 9
second law of thermodynamics, 175
second-order effect, 70–72, 75–76, T
115–116, 249–250 tautochrone, 323
second-rank tensor, 13, 139 tensor analysis, 23
secondary creep, 263 tensor function theory, 2, 109
secondary stage, 165 tensor functions, 49
shear effect, 174 tensor generators, 81, 112–113, 119,
shear flow, 189 134–136
shear modulus, 197, 203 tensor of continuity, 126, 142–143
shear viscosity, 172, 175, 189, 203, 248 tensor-valued functional, 190, 193
shearing flow, 172 tensor-valued functions, 80
shift rule, 299 tensorial constitutive equations, 159
similarity rule, 299 tensorial generalization, 79
simplified representations, 135 tensorial interpolation method, 165, 252
simplified theory, 260–261 tensorial nature, 156
simultaneous invariants, 119, 125 tensorial nonlinear constitutive equation, 61
small-strain theory, 38 tensorial nonlinear constitutive equations
solid part, 247 involving the strain hardening hypothesis,
spatial coordinates, 33, 86 2
spatial covariant metric tensor, 90 tensorial nonlinearities, 2, 61, 252
spatial deformation gradient, 34, 87 tensors of continuity, 80
spatial description, 33, 37, 186 tertiary creep, 77, 80, 263
spatial displacement gradient, 34 theorem of conjugate shear stresses, 44
spherical coordinates, 30 theory of viscoplasticity, 245
spherical tensor, 14, 148 thermodynamic pressure, 174
spring-dashpot models, 202 thin-walled shells, 61
square wave, 286 thin-walled tube, 74
stabilized glass, 230 time transform, 330
standard form, 114 time-dependence, 254
 Index 367

time-dependent measurement, 254 viscoplastic constitutive equation, 250

time-hardening-theory, 52, 55–56, 60–61 viscoplastic materials, 245
tissue, 231 viscoplastic model, 246
traceless tensor, 14, 124 viscosity tensor, 171
traction vector, 41 viscous fluids, 178, 195
transformable functions, 298 viscous part, 247
transformed net-stress tensor, 150 viscous stress, 171
transient creep, 51–52 viscous stress tensor, 171, 189
transvections, 132, 134 void nucleation, 255
transverse contraction ratio, 175, 232 VOLTERRA integral equation, 314
transversely isotropic, 82, 114 volume change, 38, 174
T ROUTON number, 176 volume elasticity modulus, 173, 176
true stress, 254 volume viscosity, 173–176
two-sided L APLACE transformation, 295 vorticity tensor, 179, 181
U
W
unit impulse function, 288
unit step function, 285, 287 weight function, 189, 290
weighted-residual method, 290
V W EISSENBERG effect, 194
vector functions, 49
velocity gradient tensor, 180 Y
vibro creep, 162 yield condition, 245
viscoelastic, 195 yield function, 247, 249–250
viscometric flows, 193 yield strength in pure shear, 248
viscometric functions, 193 YOUNG’s modulus, 203