Lectures on Sanatana Dharma / Hinduism

Five Marks of Brahmanism

1. Authority of the Vedas
2. Belief in a Creator
3. Path of Ritualism
4. Social structure based in a system of Hereditary Ranks
5. Ascetism
The five marks constitute the sramanas (from ‘sram’ – to exert)
Paved the way to: 1. doctrine of transmigration (punarjanma)
2. action of karma
3. salvation or emancipation or moksha
The Upanishadic doctrine of Brahman & Atman can be traced back to the Vedas and
the Brahmanas

Varnas as social categories:

1. Brahmin – the priestly “caste”
2. Kshatria - the kingly and the warrior “caste”
3. Vaisha – the merchants, the farmers
4. Sudra – those of the “service occupation”

I. The four Stages of Life or Asrama (different but related to the Four Ends of Man)
A. Brahmacarin – He puts his childhood behind on his investiture with the
sacred thread, leading a celibate and austere life as a student at the home
of his teacher.
B. Grhasta – He returns to his parental home and marries and becomes a
householder after having mastered the Vedas or parts of it.
C. Vanaprastha – Well advanced in middle age, he has seen his children’s
children and had thus surely established his line; he leaves his home for
the forest to become a hermit, and by meditation and penance, he frees his
soul from material things (his wife may accompany him).
D. Sannyassin – He leaves his hermitage (ashram), being a very old man and
becomes a homeless wanderer with all his earthly ties broken.
(This scheme represents the ideal rather than the real.)

II. Initiation – The great rite of Upanayana; the second birth; whereby a boy becomes a
full member of his class and of society; was confined to Brahman, Kshatrias and
Vaisyas. The Sudra and lower orders could not undergo it and are never allowed hear
or learn the most sacred of the scriptures.
The ideal age for the ceremony varied to the castes – eight for a Brahman,
Eleven for a Kshatria and twelve for a Vaisya.
The kernel of the ceremony was he investing of the boy, clad in the
garments of an ascetic and with a staff in hand, with the sacred thread, the
Yajnopavita/Vajnopavita, which was hung over his left shoulder and under his
right arm and which he is expected to wear continuously from that day forward. It
 was a cord of three threads, each of nine twisted strands, made of cotton, hemp or
wool for Brahmans, Kshatrias and Vaisyas respectively.

Education – According to the ideal of the sacred text, the training of the
Brahmacarin takes place in the home of a Brahman teacher (guru). Among the
first lessons of the student is the performance of sandhya: the morning, noon and
evening devotions which include reciting the Gayatri (a verse from a hymn of the
Rg Veda, addressed to the old solar god Savitr; restraint of the breath, sipping and
sprinkling water, and pouring libations of water to the sunk, which was looked on
rather as a symbol of the special deity of the worshipper.
The subjects of the study are the Vedas and the other fields notably the
“Limbs of the Veda” or the Vedangas in which there are six: (1) kalpa or the
performance of sacrifice; (2) siksa –correct pronunciation or phonetics; (3)
chandas—metre and prosody; (4) nirukta—etymology or the interpretation of
obscure words in the Vedic texts; (5) vyakarana—grammar; (6) jyotisa—science
of the calendar.

III. Marriage – A young man in his early twenties returns home to resume the everyday
Life of his caste. He would take a ritual bath and reward his teacher according the
means of his family. From now on, he is a snataka (one who has bathed) and he
might enjoy all the worldly pleasures and eat any kind of food usually eaten by
his class and wear fine clothes and jewelry, which he puts on at a special
homecoming ceremony or samavartana. He should marry as soon as possible, for
unless he had taken a vow of religious celibacy, marriage and the procreation of
children were a positive duty.
Marriage has three purposes: (1) the promotion of religion by the
performance of household sacrifices; (2) progeny—whereby the father and his
ancestors were assured of a happy after-life and the line is continued, and; (3) rati
or sexual pleasure.
With the marriage ceremony completed, the householder might devote
himself to the Four Ends of Life/Man which are: (1) Dharma—gaining religious
merit through following the sacred law; (2) Artha—gaining wealth by honest
means; (3) Kama—pleasure of all kinds; and (4) Moksha—deliverance from the
wheel of rebirth.
Artha and Kama need little explanation but the first, Dharma, involves
numerous religious duties, notably the performance of birth, marriage and funeral
and other religious duties, notably the regular carrying out of the “Five Great
Sacrifices” or the Panca-Mahayajna.
The greatness of these sacrifices lay not in their expense or complexity but
on their importance. They are to be performed daily and consist of:
1. Brahmayajna—the worship of Brahman, the “World Spirit”, by
reciting the Vedas;
2. Pitryajna—the worship of the ancestors, by libations of water and the
periodical sraddha;
3. Devayajna—worship of the gods, by pouring ghee on the sacred fire;
 4. Bhutayajna—the worship of all living things by scattering grains and
other food on the threshold for animals, birds, spirits, etc.
5. Purusayajna—the worship of men, by showing them hospitality.
Ideally, the Five Great Sacrifices should be performed thrice a day; at the
sandhyas or periods of worship at sunrise, noon and sunset.

Moksha—Through this, the individual attains reunion with the Ultimate

Reality or Brahman. According to Krishna, there are three main paths to
Moksha (known also as Yoga): (1) Karma or right conduct; (2) Jnana or
knowledge; and (3) Bhakti or devotion --- where any or all of these can be
used by the individual according to one’s personal needs. However, to the
orthodox Hindu, one should pass the stages of the Vanaprastha and
Sannyassin.

IV. Antyesti – The funeral ceremonies or antyesti are the last of the many sacraments
which marked the stage of man’s life. According to the most favored Aryan
customs, the corpse was carried to the burning ground as soon as possible after
death, followed by the mourners, the eldest leading. It is cremated, to the
accompaniment of sacred texts; the mourners circumambulated the pyre, not in the
auspicious clockwise direction but the anti-clockwise. Then, they bath in the nearest
river, tank or lake, and returns home, this time lead by the youngest.

On the third day after the cremation, the charred bones of the dead are
gathered and up and thrown into a river, preferably the Ganges.

For ten days after the cremation, libations of water are poured for the
dead, and offerings of rice-balls (pinda) and vessels of milk made for him. On death,
a man’s soul becomes a miserable ghost or preta, unable to pass on to the World of
the Fathers or to a new birth, and liable to do harm to the surviving relatives. With
the performance of the last antyesti rite of the 10th day, it acquires a subtle body with
which to continue on its journey, speeded on its way and nourished in the after life
with the pinda offered at periodical sraddha ceremonies. With the 10th day, the
mourners cease to be impure, and resumes their normal lives.

V. Tradition divides religious and dharmic literature into the broad

categories:Sruti and Smrti or “heard” and “remembered”/”revelation” and
“tradition”.
Sruti – is self-authenticating (from Sanskrit shru—to hear)
Smrti—is validated to the extent that it is not in conflict with the first.

Sruti – divided into highly unequal parts

A. Portion of Works – roughly comprising the pre-Upanishadic Vedic
literature.
1. the injunctions to specific ritual performances for specific purposes;
 2. expository passages—that illuminate, praise or condemn matters
pertaining to ritual performances;
3. mantras or Vedic verses and formulae employed at these ritual
performances.

In the exegesis of this Portion of Works, the expositor is wholly

preoccupied with liturgy—his interpretations eventually are organized in
Mimamsa or the Science of Works—in turn exerting considerable
influence or Dharma Shastra and in a definite way, the complexity of
dharma (correct action).

B. Portion of Knowledge—consisted mainly of the older Upanishads, not dealing

with ritual acts to be performed but with insight to be acquired—insight, not as an
abstract philosophic concern, but the means actively to progress beyond the world
of contrasts to that state of ultimate unity where one passes from transmigration to
the eternal unity or bliss of release.

This part of Sruti is the scriptural basis of Vedanta.

In its entirety, the Veda stands revealed at the beginning of creation. At its
dawn, the ancient seers (rsis) saw the Veda. Being eternal, it is simultaneous.
The Hindu view of the World and Life is: “in this Life is an illusion and the after
life is the Reality.”

VI. The Vedic Literature

1. Rg Veda – is a collection of hymns in ten books, devoted to gods, natural

phenomena, sacrificial elements, also speculations about the origin of the World,
the structure of society and the ultimate basis of reality beneath it.
2. Yajur Veda – and the Sama Veda are both collections whose purpose is
exclusively liturgic.
Yajur Veda – contains formulae that another of priests employ at the festive
celebration of a sacrifice.
3. Sama Veda –an anthology from the Rg Veda of verses that, set to certain
melodies, were chanted by yet another set of priests.
4. Atharva Veda – (stands apart) – a collection of spells that were used for rites
rather different from the other three. Many of these are magical and speak to
immediate existential needs—to ward off diseases or cure it, to put a hex on an
enemy; to cause a woman to fall in love with someone; to ensure a safe
confinement.

Brahmanas –Texts pertaining to the Brahman or the creative power of word and rite.

Aranyaka –(Forest Books/Treatises)—complementary concern—the interrelationship

between the text and the human person involved in the ritual.
 Brahmanas and Aranyakas—formally structured by the rites they are expounding and
interpreting—no such structure is imposed on the Upanishad.

Srauta Sutras—manuals on the performance of the rituals—attached to the principal

schools is a secondary literature the most important of which are the Grhya or Brhya
sutras—manuals on the practical performance of the domestic ritual (rites of passage,
marriage, etc.) and the Dharma Sutras—rules of correct conduct.

Vac (speech)—pronounces the names of the three worlds: bhuh – bhuvah- svah (earth,
atmosphere and heaven)

Hari Om----God Prajapati—Lord of Creatures (the Creator)

--out of the void, desire takes place, the first germ of will—and out of tyad, the
yon, the sat is born existing here and now, summarized in the satyas, the true.
(In the early philosophical school, the Sankhaya, the evolution of the “World’ is
really the evolution of he primeval man.)
Prana (breath), the cessation of which signals ‘death’
Atman—consciousness, entirety (soul), which the real nature is satyam (true)

*The year and the Cycle of Life

Based on the Puranic architecture of space, the measure of time is the life
of Brahma, the Creator—measured in days and nights. During his day, the World
exists, in his sleep, the world is in abeyance. A day of Brahma is 4,320,000
years, multiplied by 360 (mortal Hindu days in year), multiplied by 12 is the
grand year and three times that is the year. Time is kala – the calculator and the
calculated.

The Vedanta—in a way is a proper term, at some point in time, for Hinduism, a
philosophy founded on a set of mystical truths that are in complete agreement
with the fundamental teachings of all the great religions.
At its core, based on three propositions:
1. The true nature of Self of man is God—man is divine, predicated on
the existence of an infinite and transcendental Being. (Only our own
private delusion creates separate habitations for Man and God.
2. The purpose of life is to know that this divinity is within us—to
discover this Self within ourselves and realize its identity with
Brahman, the transcendental Godhead.
3. The spiritual truth is universal and is found at the heart of all
religions—Sri Ramakrishna said: “A common man through ignorance
considers his own religion to be the best and make such clamor.”—but
when illumined by knowledge—such clamor disappears.

VII. Extension of the Vedic Literature—The Legal Literature

 When the sacrificial instructions of the Brahmanas became obscure, a new group
of texts was composed to elucidate them—the Srauta Sutras. Sutra means “thread” but
used as a secondary term meaning—“manual of instruction” in the form of brief
aphrorisms. The whole title maybe paraphrased as “Manuals Explaining the
Scriptures.”

Later, Brhya Sutra, dealing with “domestic religious ceremonies,” and Dharma
Sutra, “manuals of human conduct,” were composed. A set of three sutras, one of each
of these two topics was attributed to a legendary sage and the set is called Kalpa Sutra.
Dharma Sutras are the earliest source of Hindu law, the most important being attributed
to Gautama,, Baudhayana, Vasistha, and Apastamba—probably written in a more
westerly part of India while the Apastamba may have been composed in Northern
Deccan.

Later, from the early centuries of Christian Era onwards, the prose sutras,
including those now lost to us, were expanded and remodeled in verse form. These
revisions are the Dharma Shastras (Instructions in the Sacred Law), sometimes used for
the Dharma Sutras, too, but most modern authorities reserve it for the longer versified
texts of later days. There are numerous Dharma Shastras, the earliest of which is that of
Manu, probably composed in its final form in the 2nd or 3rd Century CE. Other important
Dharma Shastras are those of Yajnavalkya, Visnu, and Narada, which date from the
Gupta Period and the Middle Ages. Manu is still largely concerned with human conduct
generally, but the works of his successors approach more and more closely to purely
legal.

The Sutras and Shastras taken together are as Smrti (heard), which was believed
to have been directly revealed to its authors, and therefore, of greater sanctity than the
later texts. Thus, the Manava Dharma Shastra (Lawbook of Manu) is also known as
Manu-Smrti.

The Epics and Puranas were also known as Smrti and contain much legal lore.
In fact, hundreds of verses in Manu are also to be found in the Maha Bharata and were
probably not plagiarized but inherited from common source.

Many medieval jurists wrote lengthy commentaries on the Smrti literature—the

most important of which was Vijnanesvara, who wrote at the court of the great Calukya
emperor, Vikaramaditya VI (circa 1075-1127). His Mitaksara, a commentary on the
lawbook of Yajnavalkya, played a very important role in conceptualizing the civil law of
modern India. Other important jurists of the middle ages were Hemadri (c. 1300), and
Jimutavahana (12th Century), whose “Treatise on Inheritance,” Dayabhaga, part of the
compilation called Dharmaratna, has also influenced later Indian Law.

It cannot be too strongly stressed that the whole Smrti literature is the work of
Brahmans, who wrote from their own point of view. The Arthashastra, written from a
more secular angle, differs from the Smrties in many instances. It is certain that the
advice of the Smrties was not considered or regularly followed in many ancient
kingdoms, though it became increasingly authoritative with time. The statements of the
Smrities must, as far as possible, be checked with comparing with the Arthashastra and
by passing references to law and custom in general literary inscriptions, and the writings
of foreign travelers.

VIII. Principal Works of Hindu Classical Literature

Title Approx. Date General Contents

Four Vedas 1000 BCE and maybe Early pd. of nature worship
more and the war God Indra

Brahmanas 800--600 BCE Priestly rituals,sacrifices,

prayers, spells

Upanishads 600—300 BCE Philosophic Hinduism, unity

of the universe—only the
Brahma is unchanging and
real

Code of Manu or 250 BCE Legal code for religion,

Dharmashastra society, women and daily
Conduct

Epics and Puranas 400 BCE—250 CE Epic poems, “Maha Bharata”

(probably earlier) (Great King Bharata) and
“Ramayana” (Life of Rama)

Maha Bharata +300 BCE and The futility of war/intra-

and various dates family war between the
Pandavas and the Kauravas;
discussion on religion

Ramayana +300 BCE Story of Rama (Vishnu) and

wife Sita and conflict with
Ravana, the demon king

Puranas Various dates Creation stories and

devotional material

Bhagavad Gita CE 200s Mystic dialogue between

Arjuna and Kishna
concerning God, worship
and the assigned duties of
 Man (dharma)—from the
“Maha Bharata’s 13th
chapter
* Basically, Sacred Hindu Literary Works are classified into three:
Sruti—(literally “heard and revealed”)—the Vedas and the exigeses
literally, Veda means knowledge or wisdom. These are the oldest
scriptures in the world, containing hymns to various powers of
nature personified as gods and goddesses and the details and rituals
to appropriate them. They are handed down by word of mouth from
generation to generation in the families of the rishis, or holy men, who
compose them.
The Upanishads are the most important part of the Vedas, containing
1179 books of which 108 are considered important. They contain the
Essence of the philosophy of the Vedas and guide in his quest for
Spiritual enlightenment.
Smrti—( lit., “heard and remembered”)—compiled by people to guide people,

Itihas—Epics like the “Maha Bharata” and the”Ramayana”, “Puranas”

IX. Upanishad

The word Upanishad literally means “sitting devotedly” and 108 Upanishads have
been preserved. Of these, 16 were considered particularly important treatises by
Shankara, the 8th Century philosopher and sage who wrote commentaries on ten of these
—the principal Upanishads: Isha, Kena, Katha, Prashna, Mundaka, Mandukya, Mitareya,
Taitttiriya, Chandogya, and Brihadaranyaka. (Pls refer to the Chart on Vedic Texts under
Upanishad.)

Common Characteristics of the Upanishads

1. Basic homogeneity of meaning and purpose—echo one another in the
acceptance of Brahman as the only Reality and the World as transitory and
unreal.
2. All emphasize the identity of the Impersonal Brahman with the Atman, the
in-dwelling Self or Godhead in all creatures. “Tat Tvam Asi”—“That thou
art.”
3. The purpose of life is to realize this unity by transcending the three states of
ordinary consciousness—waking, dreaming and dreamless sleep.
4. All Upanishads were communicated by illumined saints whose only purpose
was to enlighten others and thereby relieve the sufferings of mankind.
–Their task was not to create philosophic schools or systems but to record for
posterity the truth of their inner experience.

X. Other Sacred Works

A. Bhagavad Gita (Song of God)—has 700 verses; Maha Bharata—200,000

verses
 One of the greatness of the Gita is its ability to synthesize the four
yogas or “paths to God” into a cohesive whole—the perfect man is the blending
of: Jnana Yoga—“intellectual discrimination” or “knowledge”
Bhakti Yoga—“devotional pathway to God’
Karma Yoga—“selfless action”
Raja Yoga—“one-pointed meditation”

B. Bhagavata Purana (puranas—literally “ancient”)—scriptures written

primarily to amplify and illustrate the truth of the Vedas and Upanishads by
recounting various allegories, legends, stories of India’s avatars and saints—Jnana
and Bhakti are harmonized.

There are 18 puranas, six devoted to Vishnu, six to Brahma, six to Shiva,
and—divided into twelve skandhas or books.
--books Ten and Eleven are the most important
--Books Ten—Life story of Sri Krishna
--Book Eleven—Contains Krishna’s teachings to his friend Uddhava.

C. The Tantras—teach that the creative principle of the World is Shakti or God
the Mother, which is united with Shiva or Brahma. Shakti therefore is not
indistinct from Shiva the Absolute of the Upanishad, but is the power of the
Absolute. To realize this is the purpose of the Tantra. By means of Tantric
disciplines, the devotee comes to know his Brahman nature which is the Sat-
chittananda—(Absolute Existence; Consciousness; and Bliss)

D. Brahma Sutras (Vedanta Sutras) of Badarayana—expound the philosophy

of the Upanishads in a series of terse, penetrating and sometimes obscure
statements—divided into four chapters:
First Chapter—deals with Brahman and its relation to the World and man.
Second Chapter—meets the objection to the view of Brahman, the soul and the
World—exposes the errors of rivaling theories in Hinduism.
Third Chapter—examines the methods by which one can attain the knowledge of
Brahman
Fourth Chapter—discusses he final result of knowledge—liberation (moksha)—
and the two paths possible after death (if one fails to attain moksha—
the return or rebirth (punarjanma) and non-return or gradual
liberation.

D. Manu’s Laws (Dharma Shastras), twelve books—education, marriage,

domestic life, organization of the caste system, punishments, reincarnation.

*Rough Sketch of Indian History

1. Indus Valley Civilization
 a. Mohenjo-Daro
b. Harappa
2. Maurya and the Kushans
3. Gupta and Chola
4. Delhi Sultanate
5. Mughal
6. British Occupation
a. East India Company
b. Viceroy of India
7. Independence

*Hindu Fundamentals

One God—Brahman, Called TAT “That”—Hari Om

Three Gunas
The word Guna means “disposition” which indicates the state of mind of
a person. The various mental dispositions bind a person by forging him into
action.
Sattvoguna—is of the nature of knowledge, balance, harmony
Rajoguna—is of the nature of activity, ambition; passion
Tamasoguna—is of the nature of inertia/dullness

Three Manifestations
Sattvic—serene
Ragasic—active
Tamasic—destructive

Four Varnas (castes)

Brahmins—the intellectuals; religious teachers, philosophers, scientists
Kshatriyas—the ruler and protectors; government, judges, warriors
Vaisyas—the commercialists, industrialists, traders, farmers
Sudras—the labor force, artisans, service occupation

Four Ashrams (Stages of Life)

Particular duties are prescribed at each stage
Brahmacharin—students/seeker/celibate
Grhasta—householder (married)
Vanaprastha—retired from active work
Sannyassin—renunciate, contemplates on God

Five Human Values

Satya—Truth
 Dharma—right conduct
Prema—Love
Ahimsa—Non-violence
Shanti—Peace

Seven factors that influence human condition:

Deha—body
Karma—action
Raga—attachment
Dwerha—hatred
Ahamkara—egoism
Aviveka—lack of discrimination
Ahnaana—ignorance
Ten Commandments (of Manu, the ancient law giver)
Dhriti—courage and consistency
Kshama—compassion
Dama—control over mind
Asteya—non-covetousness
Shauca—cleanliness
Idriyanigraham—control on senses
Dhi—steadfast mind
Vidya—spiritual knowledge and outlook
Satya—respect for truth
Akrodha—never get angry

The PATHS to Brahman

The aim of the individual Atma is to be liberated from the cycle of births
and deaths so as to unite with Brahman or the Absolute (God). This spiritual
union is called Yoga. There are FOUR paths to attain the highest state of
perfection in man:

Bhakti Yoga—The path of Bhakti or devotional love, surrender to God.

The devotee looks on God as his Father/personal friend/master/beloved and
worships by daily pooja.

Karma Yoga—union with God through action/work. Perform work for

work’s ske, not for its rewards or fear of consequences. Service to the needy.

Jnana Yoga—The Path of knowledge or wisdom by the study of

scriptures, by living a life of detachment and taking a Guru for guidance.

Raja Yoga/DhyanaYoga—or union through meditation for the one who

has control over his senses and has gained a subtle vision of the glories of God.

SANSKARAS
 The life of Hindu is like a journey. On the way, a person takes important
steps and our ancient Rsis prescribed religious ceremonies to mark each stage to
help the person to learn discipline and develop his character—Sanskara
Sanskar literally means”making perfect, purification, cleansing. These
ceremonies are performed as a purification rite for an individual or family. Some
are small and private ceremonies performed with or without priest, while others
are performed on a grand scale with an attending priest. The ancient Rsis have
prescribed as many as 40 sanskaras in the life of man but only a few are observed
today. Sanskaras are considered as the physical representation of a symbolic chan
ge in the life of an individual.

The sanskaras are acts that prepare a person for a specific purpose, like
studentship and marriage; generate new qualities in an individual, like fitness,
education and responsibility.

Most sanskaras have lost their original meaning and are considered purely
ceremonial. Nowadays most sanskars are not performed formally except Vivah
(marriage) and Antyesti (death). Jatakarman and Namakarana are performed
together at the naming ceremony (Chati) of the child. Upanayana (Janya) is
performed just before the marriage ceremony.

Upanayana or Janya/ Sacred Thread Ceremony:

At this ceremony, a boy is invested with the sacred thread which entitles him to
perform Hindu rites. In the Aryan times, this ceremony took place when the boy was
aged between 7 and 10 but nowadays, it is performed at any convenient time to the
family or just before his marriage ceremony.

The boy’s torso is girdled with the sacred thread consisting of three white cotton
threads, each of nine twisted strands. A verse of the RgVeda is whispered into his ear.
After the ceremony which signifies a new birth, he becomes dwija, or twice born.

Every year, on the full moon of the month of shravan (July-August), the sacred thread
is changed to the chanting of mantras.

Vegetarianism

Most Hindus abstain from eating meat for a number of reasons. Our
Dharma states that there is one self or one life pulsating in all beings. We have no
moral right to take away a life.

Secondly, we must sacrifice (our) life for others; it is human greatness and
dignity. To take away life for our personal comfort or pleasure is undignified.
Human life has to be sustained. We know that plants are at the lower level in
evolution, their degree of understanding of mental and physical pain is less developed.
Therefore, a lesser violence is committed by being a vegetarian.
The basis of our religion is non-violence and by being vegetarian, we practice
Non-violence by minimum violence.
Besides all these, it is known that a low-fat vegetarian diet leads to health and
strength of body mind and soul. “Live according to dharma, which is the law of life..

The Vedic Texts

(Branch) (Compilation)
Sakha Samhita Brahmana Aranyaka Upanishad Srauta Sutra
Rg Veda
a. Sakala Sakala Aitareya Aitareya Aitareya Asvalayana
b. Baskala Baskala Kausitaki kausitaki Kausitaki Sankhayana

Yajur Veda
Black
a. Kathaka Kathaka Katha Katha Katha Kathaka
b. Maitrayani Maitrayani Maitrayani Manava varaha
c. Taittiriya Taittiriya Taittiriya Taittiriya Taittiriya Baudhayana
Svetasvatara Vadhula
Bharadvaja
Apastamba
Hiranyakesin
Vaikhanasa
White (Vajasaneyi)
a.Madhamdina Madhyamdina
Brhad Satapatha Brhadaran- Katyayna
yaka
b. Kanva Kanva Isa

Sama Veda
a. Kauthuma Kauthuma Pancavimsa Aranyaka- Chandogya Latyayana
samhita Drahyayana
Ranayaniya Ranayaniya Arseyanakalpa
b. Jaiminiya Jaiminiya Jaiminiya Jaiminiya Kena Jaiminiya
Satyayana Upanishad-
Brahmana

Atharva Veda
a. Saunaka Saunaka Mundaka Vaitana
Gopatha Mandukya
b. Paippilada Paippilada Prasna
* work *work *work *knowledge
portion portion portion portion
hymns, rules of (Forest
 mantras conduct Treatises)
& performance concerned with
of rites symbolic rites and ceremonies

The Varna Castes as Social Categories

Relation to the Entitled to the
Class of Vedic Sacred Cord* Ritually
Varnas Occupation Scriptures* Clean

Brahmins* Priests Expositors Wearers Clean

Kshatrias* Warriors-Rulers Readers Wearers Clean

Vaisyas* Merchants Hearers Wearers Clean

Sudras Service- Excluded Non-Wearers Clean

Occupations

Harijans Low-level Excluded Excluded Unclean

Occupation

*The “twice-born” castes relate closely to the scriptures and the Sacred Cord. The
ceremony wherein young males first don the Sacred Cord constitutes their “second birth”,
the beginning of their new life as caste members responsible for ritual obligation.

*The Hindu Calendar, the Vikram Samvat, came into being 57 years before the Christian
calendar in the reign of King Vikramaditya.

Calendar of Hindu Festivals

Month Festivals

Chaitra Chedi Chand—(New Year), beginning of the Hindu year

(around March/April)

Vaishakha

Jaistha

Asadha Rathajatra Chariot Festival

Month Festivals
Sravana Raksha Bandhan
Janmashtami* (Lord Krishna’s birthday)

Bhadra Ganesh Chaturthi* (Festival of Ganesh—son of Siva); Onam

Harvest Festival

Aswina Navaratri*—(celebrated over a period of nine nights) in honor of

Durga (tamasic manifestation of Parvati); Lakshmi (escort of
Vishnu); and Saraswati (escort of Brahma)

Dussehra* or Vijaya dashmi—(victory of Rama over Ravana)

Kartik Diwali* (Festival of Light)

Bhratri Dwitiya* (Brother’s day)

Agrahayana Festival of New Rice

Pausa Swami Vivekananda’s Birthday

Magha Saraswati Puja* also the second Navaratri*

Pongal (Sun Worship)

Phalguna Holi* (Spring Festival)

Shivaratri (Festival of Shiva)

**
*Ganesh Chaturthi—The birthday of the elephant-faced god, Ganesh, remover of
obstacles is celebrated by the whole community in the temple.
A big clay idol of Ganesh is installed on the stage in the Social
Hall of the temple and is worshipped for seven to ten days.
Special bhajans and prayers are sung and laddos are offered.
Aarti is performed every morning and evening. On the last day,
after Aarti in the afternoon (Ganesh is born at midday), there is
much singing and dancing. Sweets offered to Ganesh are then
distributed as Prasada and then the idol is ceremoniously taken
 to the sea and transferred to a boat, from which it is
ceremoniously immersed in the sea with cries of “Ganapati
Bappa Morya, Puchachya Varshi Lavakarya (O lord Ganesha,
come soon, next year.

*Janmashtami—is one of the most popular Hindu festival, celebrating the birthday of
Krishna, the 8th incarnation of Vishnu, who came to protect mankind from
destruction by evil forces. Krishna was born at midnight in a prison in
Mathura to Devaki and Vasudev so that many people fast until midnight.
At midnight, bells are rung and an idol of the child Krishna is placed in a
beautifully-decorated cradle and his Aarti is performed and sweets are
offered to all. The cradle with baby Krishna is kept until his chati
celebration.

*Navaratri—is the festival celebrated over a period of nine nights. There are two
Navaratri celebrations during the year, one around March and the other in
October. At Navaratri, Hindus worship God as Shakti, in the form of Devi
Mata. During the first three days, Durga (the destroyer of demons) is
invoked so that she can help us to awaken ones power to destroy the
negative forces lurking in ones bosom.
In the second stage, Lakshmi, the giver of wealth is invoked to give
one wealth of divine qualities like love, kindness, devotion, patience,
endurance, charity, ahimsa, etc.
In the third stage, Saraswati, the giver of knowledge and wisdom
invoked to give one divinity and harmony and a well-integrated mind.
In the Hindu temple in Manila, the celebration begins with the bathing
ceremony and clothing of the Mata in a new dress and ornaments and
sowing of wheat/barley in pots with earth and performing the Mata Aarti.
For nine evenings, the devotees gather to recite the Durga Chalisa and
sing bhajans to Devi Mata in her various forms to invoke her blessings.
Aarti is performed and langar Prasad follows.
A lot of people fast for the whole period, some eat fruits and milk
only. Mehandi is put on the Mata on the 7th day. Afterwards, everyone
puts it on, too.
On the 9th day, Ashtami, a Havan, is performed in the afternoon.
Eight girls and one boy is later called and the people who are fasting
wash the girls’ feet and give them small gifts. In the evening, there is
Jagran with singing of bhajans and many joins in the dandia dance until
midnight when Aarti is performed and parsad given. Chunris is offered
to Mata.

*Dussehra or Vijaya dashami comes the day after Navaratri. It commemorates both the
victory of the warrior-goddess Durga and also the victory of the god-king
Rama over the demon-king Ravana which symbolizes the triumph of good
over evil. An effigy of Ravana is burned with fireworks (symbolizing
getting rid of evils: pride, greed, jealousy, hatred, anger).
*Diwali or the “Festival of Lights” is celebrated in the dark nights during October/
November by Hindus all over the world. It is the most colorful and the
brightest Indian festival celebrating the return of Shri Ram to Ayodhya
after 14 years exile in the Dandak forest, during which Sita was
kidnapped by Ravana and later rescued by Ram with the help of the
monkey-god Hanuman. The people of Ayodhya greeted him with an
aura of lights.
In the evening, the whole house, offices, temples are brilliantly
illuminated with fairy lights and earthenware diyas to welcome Lakshmi
Mata, the goddess of wealth and prosperity. Hindus perform Lakshmi
Pooja with family and friends wishing each other Happy Diwali.

*Raksha Bandhan symbolizes the abiding and chaste bond of love between brother and
sister. The rakhi, which is a delicate, sometimes decorated thread is tied
by the sister on the wrist of her brother as a symbol of this affection. This
makes the brother bound to protect his sister from any trouble or wound.
When one does not have a brother, or wants to be a sister of someone, she
can tie the rakhi to him. The day starts with an early bath and pooja. The
sister then offers Aarti to her brother and ties the rakhi on his right wrist.
A tilak is applied to the forehead of the brother and the brother blesses the
sister. The brother gives a gift, a token of love and affection to her and the
brother is treated with sweets.

*Holi is a spring festival and is one of the gayest and most colorful. People let themselves
go on this occasion (varna is not strictly observed). The young and old go
into the streets indulging in good-humored “battles” of colored water and
gulal (powder). One the legends associated with Holi refers to the story
of Holika, who could not be burnt by fire. She was asked by her brother,
the demon-king Hiranyakashipu to sit on a burning pyre with Prahlad on
her lap to burn him to death but she got burned instead. Hiranyakashipu
wanted his son Prahlad punished for refusing to worship him as god but
Prahlad was an ardent devotee of Vishnu, so he refused to oblige.
Holi is also associated with the divine love between Radha and
Krishna and episodes from Kishna’s life, especially his playing with the
gopies is re-enacted in a riot of color.

JAINISM
- is the religion of the person who aspires to become Jina or conqueror of wordly
passions, hence, the adherents of this religion are called Jains.

In most of the non-Jain writings, Vardhamana Mahavira (real name: Nigrantha

Nattaputta) who lived from 599 to 527 BCE/549-477 BCE is identified as the founder of
the religion but the Jains then claim that he was the last Tirthankara, or saving
pathfinder of the present half of time cycle. The appearance of a Tirthankara is bound
with the moral and religious decay of the people and hence, their need for reawakening
and religious revivification.

Mahavira, “the Great Victor”, was born the son of the Kshatriya Chief Siddharta
and his Queen Trisala in Vaisali (in Basarh, Bihar). He married Yasoda, a fellow
Kshatriya, who bore him a daughter, Anavadya, whom he gave in marriage to a member
of he same caste, Jamali. Mahavira’s parents were the followers of Parsvanatha and he
was brought up in the Jain tradition.

As worldly pleasures were of little interest to Mahavira, he became, with the

consent of his elders, an ascetic at age thirty. He gave up everything he owned, including
even his clothes. For 12 years, he practiced self-discipline and meditated in search of
truth. He became an ill-treated, wandering mendicant, moving on foot and exposed to the
bites of insects, reptiles, and dogs, but always meditating.

At 42, he finally attained Kevalajnana, or omniscience—the state of a human

being having all the attributes of perfection but one, namely, confinement in one’s body.
In this state, he has infinite joy, compassion, knowledge and peace. A person who has
reached this state is certain to reach moksha. He achieved this at 72.

Evidently, before Mahavira, the Jains were of the sect of Parsva who preceded
Mahavira by some 250 years. In Jain temples, he is represented flanked by a seven-
headed cobra.

Jain scriptures are called Sutras the most important of which is the Kalpasutra
which has the life and teachings of Mahavira. The Tattvarthadhigama-sutra elaborates
the Jain doctrine systematically and is written by Umasvati with the texts in the metrical
bhasyas consisting of thousands of verses in laconic style.

Cosmology

Motion, rest, space, Atma (the Real Self) or soul, and matter are the basic
elements of which all the World and the non-World are made. All are eternal; all but the
soul are lifeless and all but matter are spiritual. Soul and matter are plural, whereas
motion, rest, and space are all singular. Motion and rest have no self-existence but are
always predicates of souls and matter. Space is an attribute of both the World (loka) and
non-World (aloka), of which the World is but a very small part. Any body is made up of
a number of paramanu or atoms ordered alongside one another without fusion or
amalgamation . Such groups form skandhas enjoying other attributes than those of life;
or through procreation, as in the case of higher animals and man.

There are two kinds of bodies: the karmic and the fiery. The former is the
outcome of previous thoughts, words, and/or actions following the Hindu Law of karma.
The latter is a vehicle of potential energy. Beings come to be either through
manifestation, as of a god or another spiritual existence; through coagulation, as in the
case of the lowest forms of life; or through procreation, as in the case of higher animals
and man.

There are three worlds: (1) underworld or hell—made of seven superposed

regions, each constituting a kind of torture and terror; (2) the upperworld or heaven—a
region far above the stars, an inverted replica of the underworld and contains the
illustrious and glorious abodes of the gods—at the top is the pure white region where the
“perfected’ souls of men dwell in moksha; (3) in-between stands our world, a flat,
horizontal region called Jambudvipa, centered around Mount Mandara or Meru, and a
small fraction of it is Bharata Varsa or India.

“Animals”, include not only what zoology studies but all plants and atoms of
earth, fire, water, wind, each of which has a soul, a jiva, perceptible or subtle and
developed or undeveloped.

The number of soul (of all animated beings) is eternally the same. Men constitute
a small fraction, and their souls witness the mental functions they discharge or upayoga;
their casual efficacy or labdhi; and reason or samjnana. Human souls, however, can
never know the truth of anything with absolute certainty. Every proposition they make is
valid only under a set of several presuppositions (aneka), and its contrary is just as valid
provided it is made to rather than simultaneously with it. Jainism hence developed a
totally relativistic theory of knowledge (nayavada).

Central theme of Mahavira’s teachings were satya or truth, ahimsa or non-

violence and aparigraha or non-attachment. Jains are expected to develop mental
discipline and purity of thought and introspection (pratikramana). In addition, they may
do one or more daily Kshanayaks, periods each of 48 minutes duration, of meditation and
study of religious literature.

Samgha is the collective name of the adherents—composed of monks and nuns;

nirgranthas—free from civil ties; bhiksa—mendicant; and sadhu—pious man; and the
laity: upasaka—servant; and sravaka—listener.

For salvation, one must go through the 14 stages of ascent from false belief
(mithya-drasti) to that of omniscience (kevalajnana) and finally to moksha.

In the practice of their religion, Jains tend to divide themselves into two distinct
groups: the majority who cannot afford to leave their homes and accept the rigors of the
ascetic life, and the minority, who can and do become monks. The latter represent the
ideal life for a Jain. Jain monks take five vows to guide their lives.

1. They vow non-injury of life (ahimsha). According to Jain tradition Mahavira taught:

“He who injures these (animals) does not comprehend and renounce the sinful
acts; he who does not injure these, comprehends and renounces the sinful acts. Knowing
them, a wise man should not act sinfully toward animals, nor cause others to act so, nor
allow others to act so. He who knows these causes of sin relating to animals, is called a
reward-knowing sage. Thus I say.” (Ayaranya Sutra 1, 1, 6, 6)

This vow has become the most dominant characteristic of all Jains and the mark
by which they are known to the world. A Jain will go to great lengths to avoid harming
any living creature. They are vegetarian and avoid such products as leather, which require
the death or suffering of life. Jain monks, following Mahavira’s example, sweep the path
before them when they walk to avoid treading on insects, and they strain the water they
drink to protect whatever life may have been in it. In certain extreme cases, Jains have
been known to extend care to rats (When rats were a problem in Bombay, Jains
established hospices for them. Captured rats were given a home, separated by sex so they
could not reproduce, fed, and cared for until they died of natural causes.). The Jain
principle of not injuring life has had widespread influence among non-Jains, such as
Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi and Albert Schweitzer.

2. Jain monks vow always to speak the truth; because of this vow, they are widely
respected for their truthfulness. In its search for truth, however, Jainism has tended
to view truth as relative rather than absolute. (The best example of this is the story of
the elephant where each blind man perceives the animal from a different point and
the descriptions varied tremendously.).

3. Jain monks vow to refrain from taking anything that is not given to them. This too
had to the Jain’s reputation for honesty.

4. The monks’ 4th vow is to renounce sexual pleasures. This is in keeping with
traditional asceticism, which views the pleasures of the flesh as evil; because sex is
one of the greatest pleasures of the flesh, it must be forsaken. (Mahavira went even
further, but not only renouncing sexual pleasures but by also renouncing women in
general. He is said to have declared that “women are the greatest temptation in the
world.”)

5. The final vow is to renounce all attachments. Attachments to and love for other
persons or things is one of the elements that keep humans bound to life. (It was for
this reason that Mahavira renounced his family and possessions and refused to stay
in any place any longer than one day lest he form new attachments.) (*In the 4 th
century BCE, when Alexander the Great entered India, he encountered the naked
Jain philosophers and was fascinated by them. The Jains only stamped their feet in
Alexander’s presence. When he inquired about this strange behavior, he was told,
“King Alexander, every man can possess so much of the earth’s surface as this we
are standing on. You are but human like the rest of us, save that you are always busy
and up to no good, traveling so many miles from your home, a nuisance to yourself
and to others. Ah well! You will soon be dead, and then you will own just as much
of the earth as will suffice to bury you.”—from Arrian 7:1.4-7:2.1)

Generally, all Jains seek to follow the first three vows as much as possible whereas
those who enter the monastic life keep all five. Thus, a Jain layperson may marry
and have a family and possessions—with the understanding that he or she is not
leading he ideal life and may not expect release in this life.

The scriptures of the Jains are called Agamas, which means “precepts,” or
Siddhantas, which means “treatises.” Orthodox Jains believe that these Agamas are
the actual sermons or teachings that Mahavira gave to his disciples.

Jain Sects

By 80 CE, the Jains severely divided over what was to become the true meaning
of Jainism, and they split into two sects that still exist today. The sect that interprests
Jain teachings more liberally is the Svethambara (literally,”the white clad”). Today,
this group is located mainly in the northern part of India. They are liberal in their
interpretation of Mahavira’s teachings regarding the wearing of clothing and are
called “white clad’ because they reject the necessity of nudity and allow their monks
to wear a white garment. They are also liberal in that they allow women into the
religion and into their monasteries and even accept the possibility that a woman may
find release. Of the two sects, the Svethambara is the most popular.

The second sect, the Digambara (literally,”the sky clad”), is the more
conservative of the two, and its members live mainly in southern India. The
Digambaras adhere to the old ideals and require their monks to go about nearly
nude; total nudity is reserved only for those of greatest holiness. In addition, they
believe that women have no chance of achieving release and are to be regarded as
the greatest of all temptations to man. Therefore, women are prohibited from
entering the monasteries and the temples. The Digambaras even refuse to believe
that Mahavira was ever married.

In 1473, a third sect arose as a splinter group from Svethambara. This group ,
known as the Sthanakavasi, is distinguished by its opposition to temples and idols. It
also differs from other Jain sects by accepting only thirty-three Agamas as
authoritative, whereas others accept as many as 84.

Jain Festivals

Although Jains do not place heavy emphasis upon corporate worship and rituals,
they do celebrate certain major annual festivals. These festivals are connected with
the five major events in the life of each of the Tirthankara. These events are the
Tirthankara’s entering into the womb, birth, renunciation, attainment of great
knowledge, and final release from this life. Mahavira’s birthday is celebrated in
early April.

Paijusana

This celebration comes at the end of the Jain year, usually in the month of
August/September and is the most popular festival. During this 8-day period, each
Jain fasts and attends special worship. All Jain laity are encouraged to live as a
monk for at least one 24-hour period. During this time, the layperson is to live in a
 monastery, fast, and meditate. At the conclusion of this period, Jains do acts of
penance and seek forgiveness in order to begin the New Year with a clean slate. The
festival ends with a procession of adherents carrying the image of a Tirthankara
through the village, and of giving alms to the poor.

Divali

Jains have appropriated the Hindu holiday of Divali, which is celebrated in

November. Instead of worshiping the Hindu goddess Kali, Jains use this period to
remember the liberation of Mahavira by the lighting of lamps. In addition to these
festivals, Jains fast at each full moon and make pilgrimage to various holy sites.
Schism divided the Jains into Digambara (sky-clad or nude) and Svethambara or
white-robed.

SIKHISM

The word Sikh is derived from the Sanskrit shishya (disciple) and it is a branch of
the Hindu Bhakti movement and from Islamic Sufism drew inspiration.

The founder, Guru Nanak, accepted the theory of punarjanma, karma and
preached strict monotheism and forbade idolatry, emphasized the unity of the godhead
using the Vedantic concept of Aum or Om and added the qualifications of singleness and
creativity and thus made ik (one) Aum Kar (Creator) a figurative representation as .
The opening lines of the celebrated morning prayer Japji, which are known as the mool
mantra (root belief) of Sikhism define God as the One, the Truth, Creator, Immortal and
Omnipresent. He is also Nirankar—formless and beyond human comprehension.
Sikh scriptures use many names, both Hindu and Muslim for God—Nanak’s
favorites were Sat Kartar (True Creator) and Sat Nam (True Name). Later,Wahe Guru
(Hail Guru). Sikhism is often described as Nam Marga (The Way of Nama) since it
emphasized the constant repetition (Jap) of the name of God, and the gurbani (divine
hymn of the gurus). Nama cleanses the soul of sin and conquers the source of evil, and
the haumain (I am) or the ego and induces a super conscious stillness (divya dritst).

At the heart of Sikh religion lies the idea of the guru.

*God is the true guru: God’s divine and creative word (shabad) came to mankind
in a distinctive way through ten historical figures, each of whom was called a guru.

*The Sikh community, continuing the faith of the 10 th guru, is itself called the
guru.
 *And the sacred scriptures are said to be a guru (the Guru Granth Sahib).

One of the distinctive feature of Sikhism as a guru religion is that Nanak and his
nine successors are seen as making up a definite historical phase of individual of living
gurus. They are said to share the same truths, to have possessed the same distinctive
insight into God, and even to have held a basic common identity. The Sikhs say that the
ten gurus are like candles which have been lit from each other.

The Orthodox Sikh gurus:

Nanak 1469—1539
Angad 1504—1552
Amar Das 1479—1574
Ram Das 1534—1581
Aryan 1563—1606
Har Gobind 1595—1644
Har Raj 1630—1661
Har Krishan 1656—1664
Tegh Bahadur 1621—1675
Gobind Singh 1666—1708

Most of them served as the guru and leader of the Sikhs only in later life. Each
was chosen for the task by his predecessor on the basis of his spiritual insight and
worthiness.
During the period of the first five gurus, most of the Sikh doctrines were
developed. The community emerged as a devotional group of religious seekers. This
group had much in common with the north Indian tradition of the mystics, who sought a
union with God through devotion and love. Many people see the Sikh religion as
possessing two basic features, one being this mystical aspect, the other more aggressive,
military and world-affirming.
This first major period of Sikh history—from about CE 1500 when Nanak’s
active ministry began until roughly 1600 when the Muslim Empire passed from Akbar,
the friend of the Sikhs, to his evil successor Jahangir—was not devoid of worldly and
political interest. Each of the early gurus contributed something which would become
important later, when open conflict broke out between Muslims and Sikhs.

*Guru Nanak taught that “there is no Hindu, there is no Muslim”. This came to serve as
the basis for a separate Sikh identity. What was chiefly a religious idea for Nanak later
became the justification for a distinctive political and military community.
*Guru Angad had a liking for physical fitness. He organized games among his
followers. These activities were not aimed at military training, but when such training
became necessary, they were seen to have prepared the way for it.
*Guru Amar Das established the langar or communal eating facilities served by a
common kitchen. This was paid for by the Sikhs associated with a particular temple. The
aim was to encourage Sikhs of all castes to eat together without the caste prejudice which
characterizes much of the ordinary Indian way of life. It strengthened community and
helped the under-privileged. Non-Sikhs, too, were welcome.

This great ideal of the Sikh gurus was a reaction against the Hindu caste system
and involved their rejection of orthodox priesthoods such as the Brahmins. During the
later period of Sikh history, when they were facing fierce aggression from the Muslims, it
was relatively easy for caste divisions to be submerged in the defense of the Sikh
community. Contemporary Sikhism, however, still possesses internal divisions of caste.
Although the Sikh ideal speaks of the casteless community of fellow-seekers after God, in
practice this ideal has not been completely achieved.

*Guru Arjan, the 5th, served as a turning point in Sikh history. After him, there was a
marked increase in political strife between Sikhs and Muslims. He built the renowned
Hari Mandir, the Golden Temple, at Amritsar, which became the centre of Sikh religious
and national life. It was the focal point of Sikh identity and expressed many of the basic
Sikh hopes and beliefs.

Guru Gobind Singh in 1699 formed the Khalsa (Arabic/Persian meaning pure
(Khalis). Sikhism later became a reform movement; SingSabha of the1890s and the
Akali (1920s) or immortal and took care of Sikh temples: Gurdwaras.

Sikh Holy Days

Because of the extreme simplicity and personal nature of Sikhism, this religion
does not have an elaborate calendar or set of festivals. As residents of northern India,
Sikhs celebrate Holi and Divali with their Hindu neighbors. In June, the Sikhs celebrate
the martyrdom of Guru Arjan, the compiler of the Adi Granth and the builder of the
Golden Temple. Sikhs also annually celebrate the birthdays of Nanak in November and
guru Arjan in December or January. These celebrations include communal processions an
sacred meals.

BUDDHISM
(continuation)
The Four Noble Truth:
1, That Life is Sorrow (Dukha)
2. The Cause of Sorrow is Desire/Craving (Tanha)
3. To Annihilate Sorrow, Annihilate Desire (To annihilate dukha, annihilate
tanha)
4. To annihilate Desire, Practice the Eight-Fold Path/The Middle Way

The Eight-Fold Path:

1. Right Belief is the renunciation of worldly things and the dedication to a
humanitarian faith;
2. Right Resolve—is the means by which the individual dedicates himself to the
 achievement of Nirvana.
3. Right Speech—enables the individual to serve as a model for others to follow
.
4. Right Conduct—acknowledges the sanctity of life.
5. Right Livelihood—is a life of service rather than selfishness.
6. Right Effort—the individual keeps his inner self free of evil thoughts
7. Right Mindfulness—constant awareness that craving is pointless.
8. Right Concentration—enables the individual to be selfless in his mind and
overt acts.

Therevada Buddhism

Given a personal name, Siddharta, family name Gautama, later contemporaries

called him Sakyamuni or Sage of the Sakyas and the Buddha generally referred to
himself as the Tathagata or One Who Has Found the Truth.

According to traditional account, millions of years ago, Siddharta met the

Buddha of the Previous Age, Dipankara, then the former made a firm resolve that he,
too, one day would become a Buddha, a teacher of gods and men. In pursuance of this
goal/vow, during countless lives hereafter, he had practiced the Ten Paramita or
perfections needed for the attainment of that goal: generosity, morality, renunciation,
wisdom, effort, forbearance, truthfulness, determination, loving kindness, equanimity.
During this long period of training, he was known as a Boddhisattva, a Buddha to be.

After a series of trials, he sat under the pipal tree, to be known later as the Bodhi
(Enlightenment) Tree and assumed the Unbreakable Posture or Vajrasana until the time
he assumed the level of supreme Enlightenment.

Self-indulgence is low, vulgar, ignoble; Self-mortification is painful and crazy—

both are profitless. There is the Middle Way, the good life, hence the Eight-Fold Path.

As the Buddha thus expounded his Doctrine, the Dhamma, followers asked to be
ordained as monks by him, hence the third member of the Buddhist Trinity (The Buddha,
Dhamma), the Sangha (the order). In the beginning, there were very few rules, mainly
the vows of celibacy, non-violence and the absence of any personal property other than
the barest minimum—needed for existence: an alms bowl, two sets of robes, a needle, a
rosary, a razor, and a filter (for removing little insects from monk’s drinking water). As he
numbers increased, the rules reached 227.

Three months after Parnirvana, 500 of his Chief disciples or arhants met in a
cave near Rajagraha and at a Council or Sangiti, they followed the Buddha’s injunction
that his place as teacher was not to be taken by any monk or group of monks but by
Doctrine, the Dhamma. The teachings were accordingly collected together into Three
Pitakas or baskets: (1) Vinaya Pitaka (Basket of Discipline)—contains the rules and
regulations for monks and nuns; (2) Sutta Pitaka (Basket of Discourses)—consists of
five collections (Nikayas) of the teachings of the Master, collectively known as the
Dhamma, hence the Dhammapada, and also discourses of his disciples, both monks and
nuns; (3) Abhidhamma Pitaka—contains the more philosophical and psychological
terms found in the Doctrine classified, analyzed and expounded. These 3 Pitakas are also
known as the Pali Canon (the language, Pali of the Buddha).

Buddha’s Teachings:

The Doctrine of Karma (Kamma in Pali)—is briefly stated, the Law of Cause and
Effect, a self-operating law and the nature of the act and therefore its resultant effect,
depends on the quality of the will or volition (cetana) behind it. As a result of one’s
action, one may be born as a human being, a deva or deity, an animal, a peta or
wandering spirit, or in one of the several nirayas or places of woe.

*Samsara—continued existence

Anatta or no-soul—the Buddha’s teaching of No-soul is not negative; it is a

reality and as such, positive. Belief in a permanent soul plunges beings into Samsara.
The unexhausted force of Karma at a person’s death produces rebirth. The Buddha
promulgated the teaching of Paticca-Samuppada or Dependent Origination: “This being
present, that comes to be; this being absent, that ceases to exist.”

Because of ignorance, Karmic activities (deeds of body, speech and mind) are
performed, the aggregate of which produces the dying consciousness: Vinnana.

When the Arhant dies, he has entered Panirvana and cannot be said that he exists
or does not exist (both propositions equally false)—one of the synonyms used by the
Buddha for his stage is Amata—a state in which there is no participation in any
describable form of existence or non-existence.
Buddhism, a religion of Enlightenment has its basis—compassion and its climax
transcendental insight or gnosis (Panna)—the whole teaching consists of the cultivation
of three factors: (1) Ethics (Sila); (2) Contemplation (Samadhi); and Wisdom (Panna)—
Samadhi is the acquisition of the mental tranquility (Samatha) by the complete absence
of conflicts and tensions acquired through Bhavana (more than meditation). It is through
contemplation that one gets a clear knowledge or Vipassana.

MAHAYANA BUDDHISM

San Chiao or Three Teachings/Schools of Thought in China: Buddhism,

Confucianism and Taoism

The unfinished task of Mahayana Philosophy in India was accomplished by the

Chinese Buddhist: Totalistic Philosophy of the Hua Yen School, the Lotus
phenomenology of the T’ien T’ai school and Ch’an or Zen Buddhism.

Buddhist and Taoist Philosophies—metaphysical synthesis of the two traditions—

Chinese Madhyamika which extended Nagarjuna’s Sunyavada (doctrine of emptiness).
 Li Huo Lun (Disposition of Error)—avoiding ideological confrontation between
Buddhist and Confucian doctrines.

In translating Buddhist doctrines into Chinese, Taoist philosophy was heavily

relied upon. In oral discourse, written translation and exegesis, the Buddhist often used a
device called ko-yi (matching concepts)—match a grouping of Buddhist ideas with a
plausibly analogous grouping of indigenous ideas: the Buddhist tathata
(suchness/thusness) with the Taoist pen-wu (original non-being); sila (morality) with the
Confucian Hsiao-shun (filial obedience) or nirvana with the Taoist wu-wei (non-action).

By the end of the 3rd Century CE, both Hinayana and Mahayana sutras had been
rendered into Chinese including the Prajnaparamita sutras (wisdom literature.).

The famous Kumarajiva rendered into Chinese Nagarjuna’s Mula-madhyamaka

karika, the Vimalakirti-nirdesa, the Saddharmapundarika sutra (the Lotus Scripture of
Wonderful Law), the Vajracchedika-prajnaparamita sutra (the Diamond Sutra), the
Sukahavati-vyuha (the Pure Land Scripture).

Chinese Sects—10 Major Schools of Buddhism

Three Hinayana schools: (a) Ch’eng-shih; (b) Chu-she; (c) the Lu; and seven
Mahayana schools

Chen-yen (esoteric school of Mahayana) used mantras (mystic words) and mandalas
(magical diagrams) for spiritual emancipation

San-Lun school (Chinese representative of the Indian Madhyamika school of Nagarjuna

who was introduced into China by Kumarajiva, who translated the three Indian works of
he Middle Doctrine, two by Nagarjuna and he third by his disciple, Deva).

Madhyamika or Middle Doctrine of Nagarjuna was elaborated by the early Chinese

Buddhist and was culminated into a systematic work—has three main aspects: (1) The
Middle Path of Nagarajuna’Eight-Fold Negation, by means of which all one-sided
perverse views are to be refuted; (2) The Theory of Refutation of Perverse Views is itself
revelation of the correct view; (3) The Middle Doctrine of two-fold truth according to
which the distinction between transcendental truth (paramartha-satya) and worldly truth
(samvrti-satya) is merely provisional and pedagogical ( as skillful means) rather than
real.
Included in this school are Hsuan-tsang’s translations including: (1) Dharmapala’s
Vijnapti-matra-tasiddhi (Establishment of the Consciousness-Only System); (2)
Mahaprajnaparamita-sutra (Great Scripture of Perfect Wisdom) in 600 volumes.
 The complete systematization of the idealistic doctrine is in the C h’eng-wei-shia-lun
Shu-chi (Philosophical Notes on Dharmapala’s Vijnapti-matra-tasiddhi.

This Mahayana idealism reduces all existence to one hundred dharmas (factors of
existence) in five divisions: Mind, mental functions, form, things not associated with
mind, non-created factors. In the final analysis, everything is consciousness only, which
is divided into eight “parts”. The external world is produced when alaya (store-
consciousness), which in constant flux, is “perfumed” by “seeds” or effects of good and
evil deeds. Once alaya is purified completely, it will be transformed into the perfect
wisdom of the magnificent mirror reflecting the Ultimate Reality—tathata or Nirvana.

From the philosophical point of view, the Hua-Yen (Flower Garland) and the
T’ien T’ai (Lotus) are the most influential Mahayana school in China.

The name “Flower Garland” comes from Avatamsaka-Sutra—whose main

teaching consists in the “theory of the universal causation of the Realms of the Law,”
according to which all dharmas arise simultaneously and are in the state of thusness. In
its static aspect, thusness is the Void (sunyata) or the noumenal realm of Principle (Li).
In its dynamic aspect, it is manifested on the phenomenal realm of Facts (Shih).

The school that reflects the practical, non-speculative, and this-worldly

mindedness of the Chinese is that of Ch’an or Meditation (dhyana). Its unique style is
fully expressed in the Ch’an jargon: “A special transmission (from mind to mind)
outside the scriptures, non-reliance upon verbalism, a direct pointing to man’s mind and
seeing into one’s own Nature for the attainment of Buddhahood.”

Satori—the “here” and “now” of Ch’an

Zen—uses shock therapy of shouting and beating, as well as kung-an (Japanese

koan) exercises of mind—sharpening question and answer between the Ch’an master
and his disciples. Later, the moderate tsuo-ch’an (sitting in meditation) is recommended.

TRIPITAKA—THE THREE BASKETS OF TRUTH

Vinaya Pitaka—‘baskets of order’, materials about the life of Buddha and the origin of
the monastic community; contains the rules of discipline for monks;
Sutta Pitaka—(guide-line instruction book); teaching of the Buddha and the monks
and also contains 547 legends and stories from the previous existence of the Buddha.
Abhidhamma Pitaka—(basket of higher learning); its seven books (probably 3 rd to 1st
Century BCE); written in dry academic style and not for common people; contains the
Dhammapada, a psychological insight into Buddhism.

Sangha (Council)—2nd Buddhist Council of Vesali, 383 BCE---

Theravadins—strict and conservative; salvation through individual effort
Mahasanghikas—membes of the great community—salvation for all mankind
 Arhat—holy man
Bhiksu—monk

THREE MAIN “SCHOOLS OF BUDDHISM”

Hinayana:
-Milindapanho—Questions of King Milinda (written 1st Century CE)
-Visuddhimaga—The Way to Purity (dogmatic) by Buddhagyosa, 5th C.
-Abdhidehana-sangaha—Summary of the meaning of higher teaching, 11th C. by
Anuraddha

Mahayana
-Sukhavativyuha—‘Description of the Paradise of Sukhavati’
-Sadharmapundarika—‘Lotus of the Good Law’ (Tendai Sect of Japan)
-Prajnaparamita-sutra—‘Guide to Perfect Wisdom’—a comprehensive
explanation of the State of Being a Buddha
Vajrayana Buddhism—diamond vehicle—seeks to pass beyond the appearances of
things into an emptiness through which the individual is identified with absolute
(“Sunyata Eva Rpam; Eva Rpam Sunyata—“form is emptiness; emptiness is
form); to achieve this, specific techniques are used:
1. mantra—“Om mani padme hum”—Hail to the Jewel in the Lotus”
2. mudra—Shaktrini—through directly orgiastic worship, the worshipper
is joined to the universal feminine
3. mandala—mystical diagram of the Buddhist universe

Boddhisattva (Buddha-to-be)—The most famous of which is the “Goddess of Mercy,”

known as the Avalokiteswara Kuan Yin Ma or plain Kuan Yin Ma in Chinese, Kwannon in
Japanese, Kwanom-Posal in Korean, Kwan-Am in Vietnamese.
There are many Boddhisattva’s: The Dalai Lama (Ocean of Wisdom) of Tibet,
believed to be the 14th reincarnation of Chenrezig, the “Patron Saint of Tibet.”

-Lamaism:
-King Srong-btsan-sgam-po (7th Century CE)
-Padmasambhava—Indian missionary who blended Bon and Vajrayana Buddhism
-after 11th Century, Lamaism came into decline
-Tsong-kha-pa, 14th Century reformer—leadership succession
--reincarnation of the BuddhaAvalokiteswara-Dalai Lama—“Great Ocean of
Wisdom”—reincarnation of the Buddha Amitabha
--Panchen Lama—“Jewel of the Scholars”
---(chubilghon—transformation of the body of Lama to another)
Zen—Boddhidharma—Satori, Zazen, and koan

Trikaya—the “three bodies” of the Buddha:

1. Dharmakaya—“Absolute Being”
2. Nirmanakaya—Buddha’s “Transformation Body”
3. Sambhogakaya—Buddha in “Earthly Body”
 -Dharmakaya: Adibuddha—“original Buddha”—has set out for himself five
“meditation Buddha” or Dhyanibuddhas:
(a) Amitabha—the one of immeasurable brilliance;
(b) Vairocana—the “radiant one”;
(c) Akshobya—the “unshakable”;
(d) Rathnasambhava—the “one born of precious stone”;
(e) Amoghasiddhi—the “one of unfailing strength”.

In Japan, those responsible for the spread, introduction of Buddhism:

1. Shotoku Taishi (621)
2. Tendai Sect (805)
3. Shingon Sect (806) (Sanskrit, mantra, founder—Kukai/Kobo Daishi
4. Amida (12th Century by Monk Honen—Jodo Shinran-Shonin-Shin Sect
5. Nichiren (17th Century)
6. Sokka Gakkai (20th Century)—“Value-creating society”

Indian Mystic Poets

1. Tiravalluvar—wrote “Tirukkural” (1,330 verses), considered the 5th Veda and

Tamil Bible of South India—very similar to the Bible.

2. Bhartrihari—wrote “Vairagya-Satakam” or “Hundred Verses on Renunciation—

collection of terse and often pungent verses reflecting the inner struggles, doubts,
joys of a spiritual aspirant; also wrote “Nitisatakam”—“Hundred Verses on
Worldly Wisdom”; “Sringara-Satakam”—“Hundred Verses on Love.”

3. Kabir—(1440-1518)—blended Hinduism and Islam in his lyrical poems;

considered as heretic in his home place, Benares.

4. Sri Chaitanya Mahaprabhu—(1485-1533)—Revitalized Hinduism; philosophy

of divine love; founded school of Sanskrit grammar and logic at age 16; at 23, had
ecstatic vision of Krishna and at 25, renounced the World.

5. Mira Bai—(1547-1614)—One of the greatest woman poet of Northern India—

her ecstatic songs of love for Sri Krishna are still sung today throughout South
Asia; became a wandering mendicant and led a very saintly life.

6. Ramprasad—(1718-1775)—Bengali singer of hymns and one of the most

inspired worshipper of God in the aspect of the Divine Mother; educated in
Medicine and languages but chosen religious life and later, after forcibly married,,
became an accountant but instead of keeping accounts, wrote hymns to the Divine
Mother on the pages of the ledger. Discovered by his employer but was not
scolded and his genius was recognized and was sent home with the pledge to be
 supported with an allowance for the rest of his life (it was fulfilled; became
favorite singer of kings and rajas.

7. Tulsidas—(1523-1623)—One of India’s great teachers by the example of his life

and the genius of his poetry. “Ramacaritamanasa”—life story of Rama, most
famous of Tulsidas’; praise or interpretation of his chosen ideal.

Other Hindu Renaissance Writers

1. Sri Ramakrishna—(1836-1886)—One of the most significant spiritual

personalities through the examples of his life and teachings, the underlying
unity of all religions—details of life extremely simple and unpretentious.

2. Swami Vivekananda—(1863-1902)—The leading disciple of Sri Ramakrishna;

possessed the rare combination of spiritual brilliance and spiritual attainment;
brought monastic order to the West.

3. Swami Brahmananda—(1863-1922)—wrote “The Etenal Companion”—

practical teachings to his order (a brother in faith with Swami Vivekananda).

4. Also included here are: Rabindranath Tagore, Mahatma Gandhi, Sri

Aurobindo, Ramana Maharshi.

Modern Indian Writers

1. Rabindranath Tagore—(1861-1941)—Embodiment of all that is best in Indian

cultures. A prolific writer—poems, stories, plays, novels, essays dealing with the
various period of Indian history from Vedic Age to the modern—with humanistic
and idealistic conceptions of life. “Songs for Gitanjali”—the most mystical of his
writings; “Realization of the Infinite”—The Upanishads say: “Man becomes true
if in his life, he can apprehend God, if not, it is the greatest calamity for him.”

2. MahatmaGandhi (Mohandas K. Gandhi)—1869-1948—India’s greatest political

figure. Influenced by the writings of Ruskin, Thoreau, the Bhagavad-Gita, the
Qur’an and New Testament. Believed that the practice of Bramacharya (chastity)
is one of important steps toward making India a strong nation.

3. Sri Aurobindo—(1872-1950)—Known for revolutionary metaphysical ideas. “The

Life Divine”—his central teachings, a philosophy of cosmic salvation in which
both man and the universe gradually attain the quality of divinity through a process
of evolution.

4. Ramana Maharshi—(1879-1950)—Known for his life of ascetic simplicity and

the teaching of a practical means to Self-Knowledge. Samadhi—Spiritual
awakening is described at age 17—led to his enlightenment and abandonment of
worldly life.
 Dated Overlays of Peoples, Dynasties and Religions in South Asia

Religions Dates Peoples and Dynasties

“Independence” 1947 Separation of India, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka

European Christianity

1858 Direct Administration by the British Government

1763 Expulsion of the French, Britain dominant

1611-13 British East India Company established first trading

Post

1526-1858 Muslim Mughal Empire

Sikhism (in Punjab) Early 1500s

1192.1526 Muslim Delhi Sultanate

Zoroastrianism ( Bombay)

700s Muslim Occupation of Sind Area

Islam 600s

650.1206 Rival Indian Dynasties

c. 450-533 White Huns (Northwest India)

320-500 Indian Gupta Empire

Hinduism Developed 200-400

76/120-c. 450 Scythian Kushan Dynasty (Northwest India)

Apostolic Christianity 60s

C.E. (Common Era)

Greek and Indian Dynasties

B.C.E. (Before the Common Era)

321-185 Indian Maurya Empire

Religions Dates (BCE) Peoples and Dynasties

326 Greeks under and after Alexander the Great

Jainism 500s Indian Dynasties

Buddhism circa 500

Vedic Brahmanism 1700s-1500s Aryan Dominance

c. 3000-1000 Indus Valley Civilization

3200 (?) Dravidians

Animism Prehistoric Early Hunter-Gatherers

History of India

Indus Valley Civilization

The Indus Valley (or Harappan) civilization began some time after 3,000 BCE to
flourish around 2,400 to 1,750 BCE and vanished some time after 1,500 BCE. The
scores of cities for a thousand miles along the Indus, including Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro
(Mound of the Dead), and the seaport of Lothal, featured a planned, rectangular format
with drainage and sewage systems. Organized trade and art prospered. Invasion, floods,
soil salinification, or a combination of factors have been blamed for the strange
disappearance of this highly sophisticated people and civilization.

Puzzling also is the dominance achieved by the Indo-Aryan speaking people soon
after 1,500 BCE. The”Indo-European theory” of waves of Aryan-speaking invaders
obliterating the Harappan civilization, and then swamping the Dravidian-speaking
inhabitants of the bronze Age cities and farms on the Gangetic plain, is seriously
questioned. Some scholars think a slow process of incoming peoples brought about
cultural and economic changes. Others think Aryans had been in Bengal and the Indus
Valley, alongside other peoples, since about 4,000 BCE. Aryans appear to have brought
iron tools, horses, social hierarchy, and Sanskrit classics.

Between 1,000 and 500 BCE, the Deccan participated in the Ganges culture based
on settled agriculture. By 100 BCE, North India was in contact with the South, where
enterprising people maintained extensive maritime trade relations with the Mediterranean
world and with Southeast Asia. By 700 BCE, numerous small kingdoms existed in the
Himalayan foothills. In one such kingdom within what is not Nepal was born Prince
Siddharta, who became the Buddha, the Enlightened One. However, Buddhism as a
religion became widespread only under the Mauryas.

The Mauryas and the Kushans

In the 300s BCE, the monarchial system in South Asia made the transition to
imperial government with the advent of the Mauryan emperors who ruled the northern
plains region. Under Asoka (Ashoka), greatest of the Mauryan rulers (272-232 BCE),
trade with China and Greece prospered. Asoka greatly expanded his empire through
conquest, but ceased warring after converting to the Buddhist concept of ahimsha
(nonviolence, kindness to all living things) and tolerance. He sponsored Buddhist
monasteries and universities and the spread of Buddhism into Sri Lanka, Southeast Asia,
and Gandhara (Afghanistan). Asoka improved irrigation and transportation in his
kingdom, and in every important city, set up great stone pillars inscribed with the
Buddhist Dharma or Law of Piety: compassion, liberality, truth and respect.

The Mauryan Empire

Chandragupta Maurya—Chief architect of the greatest of India’s ancient

empires. Under him was Kautilya, a very able and unscrupulous Brahman adviser and is
the reputed author of Arthashastra or the “Treatise on Polity”—a very valuable source of
information on state administration.

The Mauryan empire had developed a highly organized bureaucratic

administration, which controlled the whole economic life of the state, and that it had a
very thorough secret service system, which was active among all classes from the highest
ministers to the submerged tenth of the towns.

Asoka (Priyadarsi)—“Of Gracious Mien”—Asoka’s throne name—the greatest

and noblest ruler India has known, and one of the greatest kings of the world.

Keynote of Asoka’s reform as humanity in internal administration and the

abandonment of aggressive war (after his conversion to Buddhism). In place of the
traditional policy of territorial expansion, he substituted conquest by Righteousness.

He strongly supported the doctrine of ahimsha (non-injury to man and animals).

 He took pride in the fact that he had substituted pilgrims to Buddhist holy places
for hunting expeditions, the traditional sports of Indian kings. He was in part responsible
for the growth of vegetarianism in India.

He improved communication by planting fruit trees along the roads to provide

shade and food, digging at intervals, and setting up rest-houses for weary travelers.

He developed the cultivation of medicinal herbs, which with other drugs, were
supplied to men and animals alike—helped in the advancement of Ayurvedic medicine.

To ensure that his reforms were put into effect, he inaugurated a new class of
official, the “Officers of Righteousness” (Dharma-Mahamatra), who, taking their
instructions to encourage good relations between men, and to ensure that the local
officials carry out he new policy.

The dharma officially propagated by Asoka was not Buddhism at all, but a system
of morality consistent with the tenets of most of the sects of the empire and calculated to
lead to peace and fellowship in this World and Heaven in the next.

It was in his reign that Buddhism ceased to be a simple Indian sect and began its
career as a World religion.

During the 500 years between 250 BCE and about CE 300, South Asia’s
international trade with Egypt, Rome and China flourished; her mathematicians brought
to light the so-called “Arabic numerals,” the decimal places, and concept of zero, and
Greek sculptors from the kingdom of Bactria formalized the smooth beauty of the
Buddha images. The Scythian king Kanishka of the Kushan dynasty (circa CE 78-320)
facilitated the spread of Buddhism into Central Asia, and the Silk Road came again into
prominence. By sea and land, ideas and customs passed both ways between India,
Central Asia, China and Rome.

In exchange for silk, spices, ointments, and gems, Rome exported pottery, Greek
wines, harem girls, and gold coins at a rate of about $4 million annually.

Gupta and Chola Dynasties

The Gupta

In CE 320, there rose a new Chanda Gupta whose successors in great measure
restored the splendor of the Mauryas. He owed his rise to power largely to his marriage
with a princess Kumaradevi of the tribe of the Licchavis.

Samudra Gupta – Pataliputra, the capital of the empire, once more became the
center of a great empire, reaching from Assam to the borders of the Punjab.

Chadra Gupta II or Vikramaditya—marks the high watermarks of ancient Indian

culture. His reign, noted by a Chinese traveler, Fa-Hsien, is characterized by
peacefulness. The rarity of serious crime, and the mildness of the administration, stated
that it was possible to travel from one end of the country to the other without molestation,
and without a need of passports.

Indian culture reached a perfection which it was never again to attain and at this
time, was perhaps the happiest and most civilized region of the world.

The Gupta dynasty (CE 320-circa 500) of Northern India saw the revival of
classic Sanskritic learning, and the expansion of cities and universities. India became an
international center of art, learning and medicine. The Gupta dynasty was India’s first
“Golden Age,” and it existed at a time when Europe was in the depth of the “Dark Ages”
following the fall of Rome.

India’s second “ Golden Age” was the Chola kingdom (800s-1251) in the South.
Chola kings, and those in the half millennium preceding them, established colonies
overseas and altered the political and cultural life of Southeast Asia by spreading the
Indian concepts of statecraft and royal courts to the region. Chola merchants also traded
to Arab ports and to Egypt, South India’s cities, architecture, huge irrigation projects,
dyes, tempered steel, textiles placed her on par with the most advanced civilizations of
the period.

During the Golden Ages, Hinduism deprived Buddhism of much of its singularity
by proclaiming Buddha Gautama to be an incarnation of Vishnu. Thus, by implication,
the rest of Buddhist teaching and practice were incorporated into the system of
Hinduism’s all-inclusiveness. Buddhism also suffered two other disastrous setbacks: (1)
the wholesale destruction of Buddhist temples by the White Huns in CE 500s; and (2) the
desecration of the remainder by the Muslims in the 1,000s. From this time on, it was only
outside its Indian homeland that Buddhism continued to flourish.

The Muslim Invaders

By the CE 1,000s, the North had slumped into fragmented kingdoms and had
became ripe for invasion. It did not have to wait long. The Muslim armies pressed in
from Persia and Afghanistan and,, after defeating Hindu forces in 1192, established the
Delhi Sultanate in Tamil-Nadu (Tamil land). But this unity was soon dissolved because
Muslim administrative philosophy favored a tribal rather than an imperial form of
government. The outcome was that 33 Sultans of Delhi belonged to five different
dynasties, and independent states took shape in what ostensibly were simply provinces.

Tamerlane’s swift (1398-1399) and brutal incursions as far as Delhi paved the
way for the fifth dynasty of Lodi Afghans. In the continuing chaos of these fragmented
principalities, India was again readied for change. It came in the person of Babur (1483-
1530) who, losing the kingdom of Kabul, invaded India and founded the Mughal (from
the word Mongol) empire. Babur’s lineage derives from his maternal ancestor Genghis
Khan, and on his father’s side, from Tamerlane. His most famous descendant was his
grandson Akbar (meaning “the great’). Akbar (1542-1605), a successful general and wise
administrator, established India as resplendent World power, and won the loyalty of the
dominant Hindu population by his religious tolerance. To these magnificent Mughal
courts came the Europeans during their “Age of Exploration.” Only too soon, the
vehemently conservative Aurangzeb (1618-1707) reversed the policy of tolerance. His
fatally costly wars on inconclusive conquest, together with his oppressive efforts to
convert non-Muslims to Islam, so wrecked the twin pillars of fiscal stability and popular
loyalty that the tottering empire soon broke up.

The Mughal Empire

Chronology: The first six emperors are the best

Babur—1483-1530 1483—Babur is born in Ferghana

Humayun—1508-1556 1526—Babur defeats Ibrahim, Sultan of Delhi ,at

Akbar—1542-1605 Panipat

Jahangir—1569-1627 1530—Death of Babur, accession of son,

Shah Jahan—1592-1666 Humayun

Aurangzeb—1618-1707 1540—Humayun defeated by Afghan leader

----------------------- Sher Shah, who rules empire -----

1555—Humayun retakes Delhi

1556—Humayun dies; son Akbar enthroned

1562—Akbar, a freethinking Muslim, marries of the powerful kingdom, Hindu

province of Rajnaputana

1564—Akbar abolishes jizha, a poll tax on non-Muslims

1605—Death of Akbar, succession of son Jahangir

1617—Jahangir’s son, Khurram, pacified rebellious Deccan region and receives the title

of Shah Jahan

1627—Jahangir dies, Shah Jahan proclaimed Emperor and execute 5 rivals (brothers

and relatives)

1631—Queen Mumtaz Mahal (Arjmand Banu) dies in childbirth; the following year,
work

began on her tomb, the TajMahal

1657—Rumor’s of Shah Jahan’s imminent death trigger war among four sons. The

Victor, Aurangzeb, is crowned in 1658 and confines his father to the palace.

1666—Death of Shah Jahan

1679—the jizha reimposed

1681—Aurangzeb departs for the Deccan, remains 26 years

1707—Aurangzeb dies.

1739—Persians massacre the people of Delhi and carry off the Peacock throne

1862—Death of the last of 17 succeeding Mughal rulers, Bahadur Shah II in Burma.

At the height of their power, in the 1500s and 1600s, the Mughals ruled as many
as 150 million people in an empire that today would stretch across Afghanistan, Pakistan
and India.

Akbar—whom most historians regard as the greatest Mughal, was the most
powerful ruler of his time, far succeeding, for example, his contemporary Queen
Elizabeth of England in wealth and number of men under arms.

Personalities of the Mughal Emperors (first six)

Babur (Tiger) would talk of garden he created and confessed in his memoir, the
Babur-Nama, a moonstruck yearning for a boy (but he fathered at least 19 children)

Humayun (Fortunate) might talk of books; in ignominous flight, much of the time
after succeeding Babur in 1530, he packed h is library along. He was too easygoing but
he emerged top, handling a fledging toAkbar in 1556.

Akbar (Great) would question you about your religion—and might incorporate its
tenets to one he was fashioning. As he discoursed on diverge subjects, it would never
occur to you that he could not read.

Jahangir (World Seizer) also would talk of gardens and the artists of his court.
After having the imperial reins in 1605, he surrendered to alcohol and opium; his shrewd
wife ran the empire until he died in 1627.

Shah Jahan (Sovereign of the World) would expound on symmetry in

architecture. His taste for grandeur had a flip side of sadness; he ended life as a prisoner
gagzing out at his grand creation, the Taj Mahal.
 Aurangzeb’s intolerance and religious fanaticism isolated the dynasty to its
subjects and some of the gains of Akbar went down the drain as the empire is eaten by
pockets of rebellion.

The Legacy of the Mughal

1. Painting attained unrivaled heights under the rein of Jahangir and architecture
under Shah Jahan. Painters perpetuate a Mogul style in miniatures, delicately
stroking paper with brushes made of hair from squirrels’ tail—one hair to a brush.

2. The design of the Taj Mahal is not original. Humayun’s tomb, in Delhi built a
century before the Taj Mahal, seems a prototype. Similar minarets had risen in
Lahore, and the cupolas beside the dome—classic Indian embellishment—were to
be seen everywhere. The great achievement of the Taj’s architecture was the
refinement of these elements into harmonious symmetry, The Taj exceeds the sum
of its inspiration.

3. The imperial gardens of India and Kashmir are unrivaled, like the Shalimar
Gardens of Lahore and Kashmir.

4. The empire, under Akbar, was stitched with roads, improving communications.

5. A unique system of government was developed: during the time of Akbar, his
officials were organized, given the ranks called mansabs, with authority weighed
by number—one man might be a mansabdar of 1,000 men; a greater official
might rank 2,000; even 4,000, and was expected to maintain troops, according to
his rank, for the empire’s use.

The European Impact

Waiting to grab their shares of the shattered empire were the European powers,
who had gradually gained footholds in the centuries following Vasco da Gama’s
discovery of the sea route from Portugal to Calicut on the Kerala coast in 1498. Their
competition with one another in the Indian Ocean and subcontinent, and elsewhere in
Asia reflected struggle for power amongst the same nations on the European scene. In
South Asia, reflected the immediate struggle the objectives of which were the selection
and consolidation of trading stations and sailing routes through which the spices, silks,
jewels, and handicrafts of the Orient could flow directly to Europe, and the silver and
goods of Europe could be carried to the East.

Territorial acquisitions became necessary only hen secondary considerations

during the phase of consolidation. Beginning in 100, England and France fought for
control of Greater India; by 1819, Britain had become the paramount power in the Indian
subcontinent. After the so-called Indian or Sepoy Mutiny of 1857-58, which actually
reflected widespread national protest against alien and political control from London
came the Viceroy and a Council that took the place of the abolished private East India
Company. English was established as the official language of education and government,
and of the legal system which was superimposed upon Indian customary and princely
judicature. The centuries-old aggressiveness of the Maratha warriors, the militant
Sikhs, the restless Pathans, and the neighboring Afghans were controlled only at the cost
of series of wars.

Unfortunately, England and Europe from the mid-1800s were capitalizing on their
machine-age technology and mass-produced goods, and held India as a hostage market.
But the accompanying leaven of new educational and liberalizing philosophies, which
describe Western-style democracy, individualism, economic freedom, and equal
opportunities for all persons, became an intellectual and social ferment. In due course,
this ferment would finally remove he rule of England (the British Raj) and would also
lead to the subsequent dissolution of the unity of the subcontinent.

Confronted with twin factors of modernization and Westernization, the Indian

soul replied: Modernization – yes; Westernization – No. The emerging middle class of
businessmen and upper-class intellectuals organized the all-party Indian National
Congress in 1885, and the Muslim League of India in 1906. Mohandas K. Gandhi,
Jawaharlal Nehru,, Mohammad Ali Jinnah, and others led the nation through much
travail to eventual independence.

Pakistan proclaimed its independence on Aug. 14, 1947; India on Aug. 15, 1947;
Ceylon (later Sri Lanka) on Feb. 4, 1948. The Maldive Islands retained its connection
with England until July 26, 1965. After civil war and war with India, East Pakistan
declared itself independent as the new nation of Bangladesh in 1972. India, Sri Lanka,
and Bangladesh chose to retain membership in the British Commonwealth of Nations.

The Three Major Phases of Indian Nationalism: 1885—1947

A. 1885 to 1905—emphasis on Reform and Political participation of Indians on British

colonial rule—basically moderate in nature.

B. 1905 to 1918—characterized by radicalism

C. 1916 to `1947—Mahatma Gandhi came into the limelight and the wave of young
radicals pressed not only for reforms but independence.

A. From 1858 to 1885, the Bramo Samaj and the Arya Samaj held sway and
then, the period from 1885 to `1905 was characterized by membership of the intellectuals
and the middle class pressing for the reorganization of the Indian Civil Service so that the
natives who are qualified can be employed into the system. Among the leaders was
G.K.Gokhale, a moderate one. In all, various reforms were introduced (by the colonial
government.).

B. 1905 to1918—saw a sharp turn for radicalism, even if the British colonial
government introduced reforms—the Montague Reform and the Indian Council Act of
1912 where the local and national levels of government administration were introduced
and the diarchy was made effective. But even if the educated, middle class were given
greater participation in the Legislative Branch of government, and they were in the
majority, they can be overridden by a veto of the British Governor of the province.
B.G.Tilak, a radical, entered the scene and instituted measures aimed to irritate the
Muslim minority by establishing festivals coinciding with Muslim holiday, the cow
protectionist policy and, as a whole, the purist Hindu nature of the movement. During
this time, the Congress Party of India was dominated by Hindu but serious conflict with
the Muslims hasn’t manifested yet.

It was also at this time that World War I took place with the humbling of the
Turkish Ottoman Empire after their defeat by the Allied and the imposition of the Sevres
Treaty where the Turkish Sultan, as Caliph, was stripped of power in 1924. This resulted
in the Khilafat Movement where the Muslims were threatened of their religious identity,
being in the minority and subsumed after the end of the Mughal Empire.

C. 1916 to 1947—had dual nationalistic nature: Indian/Hindu and Muslim nationalist

movements. There was a brief unity of interest between the Muslims and Hindus in 1922
but this ended in 1924 when serious conflict arose.

This time, G.K. Gokhale died and radicalism entered a new intensity and the
movement pressed not for political reforms but for independence. Gandhi came to be
known and his Satyagraha: Ahimsa (non-violence) and Swadeshi (boycott of all foreign
goods) became effective. In all, civil disobedience gained standing even in the Congress
supported by Jawaharlal Nehru and others.

The India Act of 1936 by the British embodied the transition from a colonial to an
independent government and some provisions also gave representation to Muslims in the
government but the Hindu majority wouldn’t give chances to give equality to the
Muslims so that Muhammad Ali Jinnah (first President of Pakistan) was forced to resign
from the Congress and manifested the unity of the Muslims through the Muslim League.

Representatives from Great Britain like Mr. Cripps and others went to India to
resolve the Hindu-Muslim conflict but to no avail.

By 1936, an election was held; proven successful (the experimental Swaraj or

self-government) and by 1946, independence of both India and Pakistan, as the new
nation, born out of India took place.

On August 14, 1947, both countries were granted independence (from the
Independence Act of 1947) and this independence was born out of bloodshed since the
last movement of Muslim, the Pan-Islamic Movement also added fuel to Muslim
sentiment.

Great Britain was in a hurry to get out of India that she consented. Even the
Morley-Minto Reform of earlier years, that gave Bicameral Legislature to India did not
prove to be an effective curb to the independence movement.