1023 MultivariableCalculus
1023 MultivariableCalculus
1023 MultivariableCalculus
Science Subtopic
& Mathematics Mathematics
Understanding
Multivariable Calculus:
Problems, Solutions,
and Tips
Course Workbook
P
rofessor Bruce H. Edwards has been a Professor of Mathematics
at the University of Florida since 1976. He received his B.S. in
Mathematics from Stanford University in 1968 and his Ph.D. in
Mathematics from Dartmouth College in 1976. From 1968 to 1972, he was
D3HDFH&RUSVYROXQWHHULQ&RORPELDZKHUHKHWDXJKWPDWKHPDWLFVͼin
Spanishͽ at Universidad Pedagógica y Tecnológica de Colombia.
Professor Edwards’s early research interests were in the broad area of pure mathematics called algebra.
His dissertation in quadratic forms was titled “Induction Techniques and Periodicity in Clifford Algebras.”
Beginning in 1978, Professor Edwards became interested in applied mathematics while working summers for
NASA at the Langley Research Center in Virginia. This work led to his research in numerical analysis and the
solution of differential equations. During his sabbatical year, 1984 to 1985, he worked on two-point boundary
value problems with Professor Leo Xanthis at the Polytechnic of Central London. Professor Edwards’s current
research is focused on the algorithm called CORDIC that is used in computers and graphing calculators for
calculating function values.
Professor Edwards has coauthored a number of mathematics textbooks with Professor Ron Larson of Penn
State Erie, The Behrend College. Together, they have published leading texts in calculus, applied calculus,
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Over the years, Professor Edwards has received many teaching awards at the University of Florida. He was
named Teacher of the Year in the College of Liberal Arts and Sciences in 1979, 1981, and 1990. In addition, he
was named the College of Liberal Arts and Sciences Student Council Teacher of the Year and the University of
Florida Honors Program Teacher of the Year in 1990. He also served as the Distinguished Alumni Professor for
the UF Alumni Association from 1991 to 1993. The winners of this two-year award are selected by graduates
of the university. The Florida Section of the Mathematical Association of America awarded Professor Edwards
the Distinguished Service Award in 1995 for his work in mathematics education for the state of Florida. His
textbooks have been honored with various awards from the Text and Academic Authors Association.
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calculus to graduate-level classes in algebra and numerical analysis. He particularly enjoys teaching calculus to
freshmen because of the beauty of the subject and the enthusiasm of the students.
i
Professor Edwards has been a frequent speaker at both research conferences and meetings of the National
Council of Teachers of Mathematics. He has spoken on issues relating to the Advanced Placement calculus
examination, especially on the use of graphing calculators.
ii
Table of Contents
INTRODUCTION
LESSON GUIDES
LESSON 1
A Visual Introduction to 3-D Calculus .....................................................................................................3
LESSON 2
Functions of Several Variables ...............................................................................................................7
LESSON 3
Limits, Continuity, and Partial Derivatives ............................................................................................11
LESSON 4
Partial Derivatives—One Variable at a Time ........................................................................................15
LESSON 5
Total Differentials and Chain Rules ......................................................................................................19
LESSON 6
Extrema of Functions of Two Variables ................................................................................................22
LESSON 7
Applications to Optimization Problems .................................................................................................26
LESSON 8
Linear Models and Least Squares Regression.....................................................................................29
LESSON 9
Vectors and the Dot Product in Space..................................................................................................32
LESSON 10
The Cross Product of Two Vectors in Space ........................................................................................36
LESSON 11
Lines and Planes in Space ...................................................................................................................40
LESSON 12
Curved Surfaces in Space ....................................................................................................................44
LESSON 13
Vector-Valued Functions in Space........................................................................................................48
LESSON 14
Kepler’s Laws—The Calculus of Orbits ................................................................................................52
LESSON 15
Directional Derivatives and Gradients ..................................................................................................55
iii
Table of Contents
LESSON 16
Tangent Planes and Normal Vectors to a Surface ................................................................................58
LESSON 17
Lagrange Multipliers—Constrained Optimization .................................................................................61
LESSON 18
Applications of Lagrange Multipliers .....................................................................................................64
LESSON 19
Iterated Integrals and Area in the Plane ...............................................................................................67
LESSON 20
Double Integrals and Volume ...............................................................................................................71
LESSON 21
Double Integrals in Polar Coordinates ..................................................................................................75
LESSON 22
Centers of Mass for Variable Density ...................................................................................................79
LESSON 23
Surface Area of a Solid .........................................................................................................................83
LESSON 24
Triple Integrals and Applications ...........................................................................................................87
LESSON 25
Triple Integrals in Cylindrical Coordinates ............................................................................................91
LESSON 26
Triple Integrals in Spherical Coordinates ..............................................................................................95
LESSON 27
Vector Fields—Velocity, Gravity, Electricity ..........................................................................................99
LESSON 28
Curl, Divergence, Line Integrals ........................................................................................................ 104
LESSON 29
More Line Integrals and Work by a Force Field................................................................................. 108
LESSON 30
Fundamental Theorem of Line Integrals.............................................................................................112
LESSON 31
Green’s Theorem—Boundaries and Regions.....................................................................................117
LESSON 32
Applications of Green’s Theorem ...................................................................................................... 122
LESSON 33
Parametric Surfaces in Space ........................................................................................................... 126
iv
Table of Contents
LESSON 34
Surface Integrals and Flux Integrals .................................................................................................. 130
LESSON 35
Divergence Theorem—Boundaries and Solids ................................................................................. 136
LESSON 36
Stokes’s Theorem and Maxwell’s Equations ..................................................................................... 140
SUPPLEMENTAL MATERIAL
v
vi
Understanding Multivariable Calculus: Problems, Solutions, and Tips
Scope:
T
he goal of this course is to complete your understanding and appreciation of calculus by seeing
how calculus is extended to three dimensions. Many of the ideas of elementary calculus in the plane
generalize naturally to space, whereas other concepts will be brand new. Most concepts will be
introduced using illustrative examples, and you will see how multivariable calculus plays a fundamental role
in all of science and engineering. You will also gain a new appreciation for the achievements of
higher mathematics.
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variables. In particular, the graphs of such functions are surfaces in space. After a brief look at limits, you
will generalize elementary derivatives to partial derivatives. You will learn how to generalize the differential
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variable. This leads to optimization applications and linear modeling of data.
You will then study vectors in space, a natural extension of vectors in the plane. Lines and planes are studied
in depth, as well as other surfaces in space. You will use vector-valued functions to understand Kepler’s laws
and prove one of them using calculus.
Your study then takes you to the world of multivariable integration, which is far more powerful than its
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applications to volume, surface area, mass, and far more. You will study additional kinds of integrals that
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One of the recurring themes throughout these lessons is the fundamental theorem of calculus. Recall from
elementary calculus how the fundamental theorem relates integration and differentiation:
b
³ F c x dx F b F a .
a
This theorem will appear in other forms in multivariable calculus, including in the famous fundamental
theorem of line integrals, which allows you to integrate over a piecewise smooth curve to make sense of such
topics as gravitation and conservation of energy.
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combine with double, triple, and surface integrals to form three of the crowning theorems in all of calculus,
each of which generalizes the ability of the fundamental theorem of calculus to extract maximum information
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1
UHODWHVWKHWULSOHLQWHJUDORIDVROLGWRWKHVXUIDFHLQWHJUDORYHUWKHVXUIDFHRIWKDWVROLGͽDQG6WRNHV¶VWKHRUHP
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was a colleague and friend of James Clerk Maxwell at Cambridge University, and the course concludes by
touching on mathematical connections between our capstone generalizations of the fundamental theorem of
calculus and Maxwell’s famous equations of electromagnetism.
This course presents essentially the same topics as a typical university-level, third-semester calculus course.
The material is based on the 10th edition of the bestselling textbook Calculus by Ron Larson and Bruce H.
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throughout the course.
The study of multivariable calculus has surprisingly few prerequisites. For a high school student who has
completed the equivalent of the Advanced Placement Calculus AB and Calculus BC courses, this course is a
very logical next step. And although some university programs teach multivariable calculus only after linear
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JUDVSRISUHFDOFXOXVDQG¿UVWVHPHVWHUFDOFXOXVLVRIWHQWKHRQO\HVVHQWLDOSUHSDUDWLRQ
That’s because calculus II and multivariable calculus start from a shared foundation but proceed in
substantially different directions. For example, while Understanding Calculus II: Problems, Solutions,
and Tips, a natural predecessor for this course, does introduce some topics in preparation for multivariable
calculus—conics, vectors, parametric equations, polar coordinates, and vector-valued functions—the bulk of
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analysis but are not featured in multivariable calculus. Moreover, in this course, any preparatory topics from
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distinct and self-contained.
Graphing calculators and computers are playing an increasing role in the mathematics classroom.
Without a doubt, graphing technology can enhance the understanding of calculus, so some instances where
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many of the graphs of surfaces were produced using Mathematica software—a more limited online version
of which can even be explored on your own, at little or no cost, using the website Wolfram|Alpha
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By the end of this course, you will have covered all the important theoretical ideas and theorems of a three-
semester university calculus sequence, without dwelling on their technical proofs. You will be prepared for
courses in engineering, physics, and other subjects that use calculus.
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which you can review as many times as you wish; the individual lesson summaries and accompanying problems
in the workbook; and the supporting materials in the back of the workbook, including the solutions to all
Scope
2
A Visual Introduction to 3-D Calculus
Lesson 1
Topics
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2 2 2
d x2 x1 y2 y1 z 2 z1 .
2 2 2
d x x0 y y 0 z z 0 r.
7KLVVLPSOL¿HVWRWKHHTXDWLRQRIDVSKHUHͼxíx0ͽ2ͼyíy0ͽ2ͼzíz0ͽ2 = r2.
§ x1 x2 y1 y 2 z1 z 2 ·
¨ 2 , 2 , 2 ¸.
© ¹
x If z = f ͼx, yͽLVDfunction of two variables, then x and y are called the independent variables, and z
is the dependent variable.
3
Summary
In these lessons, we will see how elementary calculus, the calculus of two dimensions, can be extended to
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will develop.
4
You know about the graph of a function of a single variable
ͼVHHFigure 1.1ͽ<RXZLOOOHDUQWRJUDSKIXQFWLRQVRIWZR 2
YDULDEOHVLQVSDFHͼVHHFigure 1.2ͽ y = x2
í í í 2
wf wf z
variables, , . 4
wx wy
4
You know about vectors in the plane, v v1 , v2 . You will learn about vectors in space, v v1 , v2 , v3 .
You know about vector-valued functions in the plane, such as rͼtͽ FRVti + sin tj. You will learn about vector-
valued functions in space, such as the helix given by rͼtͽ FRVti + sin tj + tk.
<RXNQRZDERXW¿QGLQJPD[LPXPDQGPLQLPXPYDOXHVRIIXQFWLRQVLQHOHPHQWDU\FDOFXOXV<RXZLOOOHDUQ
more advanced optimization techniques for functions of two variables.
Example 1
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Solution
2 2 2
d 1 2 0 1 2 3 1 1 25 27 3 3.
Example 2
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Solution
z
The center of the sphere is the midpoint, §¨ 4 0 , 2 4 , 3 3 ·¸ 2, 1, 0 .
© 2 2 2 ¹
r 0 2 2 4 1 2 3 0 2 = 499 = 22 . í
y
7KHHTXDWLRQRIWKHVSKHUHLVͼx±ͽ2ͼy±ͽ2ͼz±ͽ2 = 22 2,
í
ZKLFKVLPSOL¿HVWRͼx±ͽ2ͼy±ͽ2 + z2 = 22. ͼSee Figure 1.3.ͽ
x
Example 3 Figure 1.3
For the function of two variables z = f ͼx, yͽ x2 + xy, we have f ͼͽ DQGf ͼͽ 2ͼͽ
Study Tips
x We will use a right-handed coordinate system in space. That is, if the x-axis is your right hand and the
y-axis is your left hand, then the z-axis points upward.
5
x The formulas for distance, midpoint, and sphere are immediate generalizations for the familiar
formulas for distance, midpoint, and circle in elementary calculus.
x *LYHQͼx, yͽLQWKHGRPDLQRIDIXQFWLRQf of two variables, the value in the range is z = f ͼx, yͽ
Pitfall
x Just as in elementary calculus, you cannot divide by zero or take square roots of negative numbers.
For instance, if f ͼx, yͽ y 1 , then f ͼíͽDQGf ͼíͽDUHXQGH¿QHG
x y
Problems
4. Eliminate the parameter to demonstrate that the graph of the vector-value function rͼtͽ FRV ti + 3 sin tj
is a circle.
5. Find the critical numbers and relative extrema of the function f ͼxͽ x3 + 3x2 – 12x.
6. )LQGWKHGLVWDQFHEHWZHHQWKHSRLQWVͼíͽDQGͼííͽ
7. )LQGWKHPLGSRLQWRIWKHOLQHVHJPHQWMRLQLQJWKHSRLQWVͼíͽDQGͼͽ
8. )LQGWKHHTXDWLRQRIWKHVSKHUHZLWKFHQWHUͼͽDQGUDGLXV
Lesson 1: A Visual Introduction to 3-D Calculus
10. Calculate g ͼʌͽLIg ͼx, yͽ FRV ͼx + yͽ±VLQ ͼx – yͽ
6
Functions of Several Variables
Lesson 2
Topics
x Traces.
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x The graph of a function of two variables z = f ͼx, yͽFRQVLVWVRIDOOSRLQWVͼx, y, zͽVXFKWKDWz = f ͼx, yͽ
x Let z = f ͼx, yͽDQGc be a constant. A level curve or contour line is the set of all points in the plane
satisfying f ͼx, yͽ c.
Summary
In this lesson, we continue our study of functions of two or more independent variables. We will formally
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such functions and also extend these ideas to functions of three or more variables. Perhaps the most important
and interesting theme of this lesson is the graph of a function of two variables. To this end, we look at traces
and level curves for functions of two variables. Typical applications of level curves are topographic maps.
Finally, we will set up an application involving the minimal cost of construction of a box.
7
Example 1 z
2
Solution í
í
í í
í
The expression inside the radical must be nonnegative, so the domain 1
1 y
x 2
2
FRQVLVWVRIDOORUGHUHGSDLUVVDWLVI\LQJíx2íy2
Figure 2.1
So, we have D ^ x, y : x 2
y d 4` .
2
The domain is a circle of radius 2. Notice that the graph of the function is a hemisphere of radius 2 centered at
the origin, x2 + y2 + z2 zͼ6HHFigure 2.1ͽ
z
Example 2
Therefore, the largest possible value is 5, which is obtained when x = 1 and y = 2. Notice that there is no
VPDOOHVWYDOXHͼ6HHFigure 2.2ͽ
Example 3
z
4
Let f x , y 16 4 x 2 y 2 . Describe the level curve for c = 0. 3
ͼ6HHFigure 2.3ͽ 2
í
Lesson 2: Functions of Several Variables
í 1
Solution
y
Setting f ͼx, yͽ c, we have 2
16 4 x y 2
0. x
Figure 2.3
y2
2
7KLVVLPSOL¿HVWRWKHHOOLSVH 16 4 x 2 y 2 0 x 1.
4 16
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8
Example 4 4
c=0
í
Solution
í
The cost depends on the cost of the base and the four sides.
Figure 2.4
C = 3.00xyͼyzͽͼͽͼxzͽ xy + 4yz + 4xz.
Later in this course, we will determine the minimum cost of the box,
JLYHQD¿[HGYROXPH z
Study Tips z
y
x
x If z = f ͼx, yͽWKHQx and y are called the independent variables, Figure 2.5
and z is the dependent variable.
x ,QJHQHUDOWKHUDQJHRIDIXQFWLRQRIWZRYDULDEOHVLVPRUHGLI¿FXOWWRGHWHUPLQHWKDQWKHGRPDLQ
Often, a graph can help determine the range.
x <RXFDQGH¿QHIXQFWLRQVRIWKUHHRUPRUHYDULDEOHVLQDVLPLODUPDQQHU)RUH[DPSOH
f ͼx, y, zͽ x2íy2 + sin z is a function of three variables.
x You can add, subtract, and multiply functions of two or more variables. For example, if f ͼx, yͽ xy2
and g ͼx, yͽ VLQͼxyͽWKHQWKHVXPRIWKHWZRIXQFWLRQVLVͼf + gͽͼx, yͽ f ͼx, yͽg ͼx, yͽ
2xy2VLQͼxyͽ
x Level curves extend naturally to level surfaces. For example, consider the function of three variables,
f ͼx, y, zͽ x2 + y2 + z2. Each level surface is of the form 4x2 + y2 + z2 = c, which are ellipsoids.
x You will often see different letters used for the independent and dependent variables, as well as the
names of the functions.
Pitfalls
x You cannot form the composition of two functions, each of two variables. However, if g is a function
of a single variable and f is a function of two variables, then the following composition makes sense:
g D f x, y g f x, y .
9
x Make sure you understand if you are working in the plane or in space. For example, the graph of the
equation y = x is a line in the plane, but a plane in space.
x The graph of a function of two variables is a surface in space, whereas its level curves are graphs in
the xy-plane.
x Keep in mind that for a surface in space, its level curves lie in the xy-plane. On the other hand, a trace
is the intersection of the surface with a plane.
Problems
x y
2. Describe the domain of the function f ͼx, yͽ .
xy
6. Describe the level curves of the function f ͼx, yͽ íxíy for c = 0, 2, 4.
7. Describe the level curves of the function f ͼx, yͽ xy for c = ±1, ±3.
9. Complete the square for the function z = f ͼx, yͽ x + 4yíx2íy2WRFRQ¿UPWKDWWKHODUJHVWYDOXHRIWKH
function is z = 5.
Lesson 2: Functions of Several Variables
10. A propane tank is constructed by welding hemispheres to the ends of a right circular cylinder. Write the
volume of the tank as a function of r and x, where r is the radius of the cylinder and hemispheres and x is
the length of the cylinder.
10
Limits, Continuity, and Partial Derivatives
Lesson 3
Topics
x 7KHIRUPDOGH¿QLWLRQRIOLPLW
x Partial derivatives.
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į
^ x, y : 2
x x0 y y 0 2 `
į .ͼ6HHFigure 3.1ͽ
Figure 3.1
Then,
lim f ( x, y ) L
x , y o x0 , y0
2 2
f x , y L < ѓ whenever 0 x x0 y y 0 < į.
11
x 'H¿QLWLRQRISDUWLDOGHULYDWLYHV
wf f x 'x , y f x , y
f x x, y lim .
wx 'x o 0 'x
wf f x , y 'y f x , y
f y x, y lim .
wy 'y o 0 'y
Summary
In this lesson, we continue to study the fundamental concepts of limits and continuity for functions of two
variables. We will see that limits in multivariable calculus are more complicated, but we won’t dwell on the
theoretical aspects. We then present partial derivatives, the generalization of derivatives from elementary
FDOFXOXV:HZLOOOHDUQKRZWRFDOFXODWHSDUWLDOGHULYDWLYHVDQGGLVFRYHUWKHLUJHRPHWULFVLJQL¿FDQFH
Example 1
5x2 y
Calculate the limit lim .
x , y o1,2 x 2 y 2
Solution
5x2 y 5(1) 2 2 10
The limit is easy to evaluate: lim 2.
x , y o1,2 x 2 y 2 12 2 2 5
:HZHUHDEOHWRMXVWSOXJLQWKHSRLQWͼͽLQWKLVH[DPSOH7KHQH[WH[DPSOHLVPRUHLQWHUHVWLQJ
Example 2
2
§ x2 y2 ·
Show that the limit lim ¨ 2 does not exist.
x , y o 0,0 © x y 2 ¸¹
Lesson 3: Limits, Continuity, and Partial Derivatives
Solution
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2 2
Along the path y = 0, lim § x 2 02 · 1. And along the path y = x, lim § x2 x2 · 0.
¨ ¸
x ,0 o 0,0 © x 2 0 2 ¹
¨ ¸
x , x o 0,0 © x 2 x 2 ¹
Because these values do not agree, the limit does not exist.
Example 3
Calculate the partial derivatives of the function f ͼx, yͽ x3 + sin y.
12
Solution
We calculate the partial derivative with respect to x by holding the variable y constant and differentiating with
wf
respect to x: 3x 2.
wx
wf
Similarly, the partial derivative with respect to y is calculated by holding the variable x constant: cos y .
wy
Study Tips
x Open disks are circles without boundaries. Closed disks contain the boundary.
x In elementary calculus, you can approach the point c in only two directions—from the left and from
WKHULJKW7KHNH\GLIIHUHQFHLQPXOWLYDULDEOHFDOFXOXVLVWKDW\RXFDQDSSURDFKWKHSRLQWͼx0, y0ͽIURP
any direction and along any path.
x <RXFDQGH¿QHOLPLWVDQGFRQWLQXLW\RIIXQFWLRQVRIWKUHHRUPRUHYDULDEOHVLQDVLPLODUPDQQHU
x 7KHGH¿QLWLRQRIFRQWLQXLW\LVVLPLODUWRWKDWLQHOHPHQWDU\FDOFXOXV7KHIXQFWLRQLVFRQWLQXRXV
DWDSRLQWLILWLVGH¿QHGDWWKHSRLQWLWVOLPLWH[LVWVDWWKHSRLQWDQGWKHOLPLWHTXDOVWKHYDOXHRI
the function.
x Partial derivatives are rates of change with respect to one of the independent variables.
Pitfalls
x ,Q([DPSOH\RXFDQQRWMXVWSOXJLQWKHYDOXHͼͽ$OZD\VEHRQWKHORRNRXWIRUGLYLVLRQE\]HUR
In fact, there is a nonremovable discontinuity at this point.
x There are lots of notations for partial derivatives. For instance, if z = f ͼx, yͽWKHQWKHSDUWLDO
derivative with respect to x might be written as
wf w f x, y wz
f x x, y z x.
wx wx wx
Problems
xy 1
3. Find the limit lim .
x , y o1, 1 1 xy
y
4. Discuss the continuity of the function f x, y .
x y2
2
13
5. Discuss the continuity of the function f x, y 1 .
x2 y2 4
xy
6. Show that the limit lim does not exist.
x , y o 0, 0 x y2
2
xy 2
7. Show that the limit lim does not exist.
x , y o 0, 0 x2 y 4
wf wf
8. Calculate the partial derivatives and for f ͼx, yͽ xíy + 3.
wx wy
wf wf
9. Calculate the partial derivatives and for f ͼx, yͽ x y .
wx wy
wf wf
10. Calculate the partial derivatives and for f ͼx, yͽ FRVxy.
wx wy
Lesson 3: Limits, Continuity, and Partial Derivatives
14
Partial Derivatives—One Variable at a Time
Lesson 4
Topics
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x 'H¿QLWLRQRISDUWLDOGHULYDWLYHV
wf f x 'x , y f x , y .
f x x, y lim
wx 'x o 0 'x
wf f x , y 'y f x , y .
f y x, y lim
wy 'y o 0 'y
w § wf · w2f w § wf · w2f
f xx ; f yy .
wx ¨© wx ¸¹ wx 2 wy ¨© wy ¸¹ wy 2
w § wf · w2f w § wf · w2f
f xy ; f yx .
wy ¨© wx ¸¹ wywx wx ¨© wy ¸¹ wxwy
2 2
x Laplace’s partial differential equation: w z2 w z2 0$IXQFWLRQWKDWVDWLV¿HVWKLVHTXDWLRQLVVDLGWR
wx wy
be harmonic.
15
Summary
In this lesson, we continue our study of partial derivatives. After reviewing how to calculate partial
GHULYDWLYHVZHUHFDOOWKHLUJHRPHWULFVLJQL¿FDQFHDVUDWHVRIFKDQJH:HWKHQWXUQWRKLJKHURUGHUSDUWLDO
derivatives and observe a surprising property of so-called mixed partial derivatives. Finally, we generalize
differential equations to partial differential equations and look at Laplace’s equation as an example.
Example 1
Solution
wz wf
The partial derivative with respect to x is 3 x 2 cos xy y , and the partial derivative with respect to
wz wf wx wx
y is 4 y 3 cos xy x.
wy wy
Example 2
Find the slopes in the x-direction and in the y-direction of the surface given by the function
f ͼx, yͽ íͼxíͽ2íͼyíͽ2DWWKHSRLQWͼͽ
Solution
Example 3
wf
Find for the function f ͼx, y, zͽ xy + yz2 + xz.
wx
Solution
Calculating partial derivatives for functions of three or more variables is no different. We consider the
wf
variables y and z as constants and differentiate with respect to x : y z.
wx
16
Example 4
Calculate the four second-order partial derivatives for the function f ͼx, yͽ VLQx + ey + xy.
Solution
wf wf
:HEHJLQE\FDOFXODWLQJWKHWZR¿UVWRUGHUSDUWLDOGHULYDWLYHVRIWKHIXQFWLRQ cos x y and e y x.
wx wy
7KHIRXUVHFRQGRUGHUSDUWLDOGHULYDWLYHVDUHREWDLQHGE\GLIIHUHQWLDWLQJWKH¿UVWSDUWLDOGHULYDWLYHV
f xx w § wf · w cos x y sin x.
wx ¨© wx ¸¹ wx
w § wf · w ey x
f yy
wy ¨© wy ¸¹ wy
ey.
w § wf · w e y x 1.
f yx
wx ¨© wy ¸¹ wx
f xy w § wf · w cos x y 1.
wy ¨© wx ¸¹ wy
Notice that the two mixed partial derivatives are equal. Under suitable hypotheses, this is always true for
mixed partial derivatives.
Example 5
Solution
2 2
We have wz e x sin y , w z2 e x sin y , wz e x cos y , and w z2 e x sin y .
wx wx wy wy
2 2
Therefore, w z2 w z2 e x sin y e x sin y 0.
wx wy
Study Tips
x To calculate a partial derivative, hold one variable constant and differentiate with respect to the
other variable.
x The partial derivative with respect to x is the slope of the graph in the x-direction. Similarly, the
partial derivative with respect to y is the slope in the y-direction.
x Under suitable hypotheses, the mixed partial derivatives are equal: fxy = f yx.
17
Pitfalls
x The notation for partial derivatives can be confusing. Notice that for mixed second-order partials, you
do the derivative “closest to f ´¿UVW
w § wf · w2 f
wx ©¨ wy ¹¸ wxwy
f y x
f yx .
x Although the mixed partial derivatives are equal for most common functions, there exist examples for
which this is not true. For instance, they are not equal for the function
xy x 2 y 2
° , x , y z 0, 0
f x, y ® x2 y2 .
°
¯ 0, x, y 0, 0
Problems
y
2. )LQGERWK¿UVWSDUWLDOGHULYDWLYHVfx and f y for f ͼx, yͽ ye . x
3. Find the slope of the surface g ͼx, yͽ íx2íy2 in the x- and yGLUHFWLRQVDWWKHSRLQWͼͽ
5. Find the four second partial derivatives for the function f ͼx, yͽ x2íxy + 3y2.
Lesson 4: Partial Derivatives—One Variable at a Time
6. Find the four second partial derivatives for the function f ͼx, yͽ ex tan y.
7. For the function f ͼx, yͽ x2íxy + y2íx + y¿QGDOOYDOXHVRIx and y such that fx ͼx, yͽ DQG
f y ͼx, yͽ
8. For the function fx ͼx, yͽ 1 1 xy , ¿QGDOOYDOXHVRIx and y such that fx ͼx, yͽ DQGf y ͼx, yͽ
x y
y 2 2
9. Show that the function z = arctan VDWLV¿HV/DSODFH¶VHTXDWLRQ w z2 w z2 0.
x wx wy
2 2
10. Show that the function z VLQ ͼxíctͽVDWLV¿HVWKHZDYHHTXDWLRQ w 2z c 2 w z2 .
wt wx
18
Total Differentials and Chain Rules
Lesson 5
Topics
x Chain rules.
'H¿QLWLRQVDQG7KHRUHPV
x Let z = f ͼx, yͽdx ¨x, and dy ¨y. The total differential of z is the expression
dz wz dx wz dy = fx࣠ͼx, yͽdx + f y࣠ͼx, yͽdy.
wx wy
x Let w be a function of x and y, and assume that x and y are both functions of t. Then, w is a function of
t, and the chain rule says that
dw ww dx ww dy .
dt wx dt wy dt
Summary
,QWKLVOHVVRQZHFRQWLQXHRXUVWXG\RIIXQFWLRQVRIWZRRUPRUHLQGHSHQGHQWYDULDEOHV:H¿UVWJHQHUDOL]H
GLIIHUHQWLDOVIURPHOHPHQWDU\FDOFXOXVWRGH¿QHWKHWRWDOGLIIHUHQWLDORIDIXQFWLRQRIWZRYDULDEOHV:HWKHQ
GH¿QHGLIIHUHQWLDELOLW\RIDIXQFWLRQRIWZRYDULDEOHVDQGQRWHWKDWWKHGH¿QLWLRQORRNVTXLWHGLIIHUHQWIURPWKH
FRUUHVSRQGLQJGH¿QLWLRQLQHOHPHQWDU\FDOFXOXV:HDSSO\WKHWRWDOGLIIHUHQWLDOWRHUURUDQDO\VLV)LQDOO\ZH
present one of the many chain rules in multivariable calculus.
Example 1
Solution
19
Example 2 z
2
ͼ6HHFigure 5.1ͽ í
í
1 4 x 2 y 2 1 2 2 x y
The partial derivatives are wz x and wz .
wx 2 4 x2 y2 wy 4 x2 y2
wz 'x wz 'y x y
So, 'z | dz 'x 'y.
wx wy 4 x2 y2 4 x2 y2
2 2
ǻz = f ͼͽíf ͼͽ 4 1.01 0.97 4 12 12 §í§
Example 3
Solution
Study Tips
20
x There are many other chain rules in multivariable calculus, but we will not need them in this course.
x It is possible to solve Example 3 without the chain rule. First, express w as a function of t, and
then differentiate:
2
w x2 y y2 sin t e e
2 t t
.
Pitfalls
x 7KHGH¿QLWLRQRIGLIIHUHQWLDELOLW\ORRNVTXLWHGLIIHUHQWIURPWKHGH¿QLWLRQLQHOHPHQWDU\FDOFXOXV
x Notice in the chain rule that some of the derivatives are ordinary derivatives, and others are
partial derivatives.
Problems
x y
3. Find the total differential if w .
z 3y
4. 8VHWKHWRWDOGLIIHUHQWLDOWRDSSUR[LPDWHWKHTXDQWLW\ͼͽ2ͼͽí2ͼͽ
5. Use the total differential to approximate the quantity sin ª1.05 0.95 º sin 12 12 .
2 2
¬ ¼
6. The radius r and height h of a right circular cylinder are measured with possible errors of 4% and 2%,
respectively. Approximate the maximum possible percent error in measuring the volume.
7. Use the chain rule from elementary calculus to calculate the derivative of the function h x sin e 3 x .
2
21
Extrema of Functions of Two Variables
Lesson 6
Topics
x Applications.
'H¿QLWLRQVDQG7KHRUHPV
x Relative extrema occur at critical points. In other words, the critical points are the candidates for
relative maxima and relative minima.
2
'H¿QHWKHTXDQWLW\ d f xx a , b f yy a , b ª¬ f xy a , b º¼ . Then, we have the following.
22
3. d < 0, saddle point.
4. d = 0: Test is inconclusive.
Summary
,QWKLVOHVVRQZHGHYHORSWHFKQLTXHVIRU¿QGLQJPD[LPXPDQGPLQLPXPYDOXHVRIIXQFWLRQVRIWZRYDULDEOHV
We will see that the critical points of a function are the candidates for relative extrema, just as in elementary
calculus. The second partials test can be used to determine the exact nature of these critical points. Finally, we
close with an application from a previous lesson.
Example 1
z
(1, 2, 5)
,ISRVVLEOH¿QGWKHKLJKHVWDQGORZHVWSRLQWVRQWKHJUDSKRIWKH
4
function f ͼx, yͽ x + 4yíx2íy2.
Solution
2
wf wf
We set the partial derivatives 2 2 x and 4 2 y equal to í
wx wy
]HURDQGREWDLQWKHFULWLFDOSRLQWͼx, yͽ ͼͽ 2 2
4
4 y
x
By completing the square, we see that this point is a maximum and that
í
í
WKHUHLVQRPLQLPXPYDOXHͼ6HHFigure 6.1ͽ
f x, y 2x 4 y x2 y2 í
í
x 2 2 x 1 y 2 4 y 4 5
2 2
5 x 1 y 2 .
Figure 6.1
Example 2
Solution
:HVHWWKHSDUWLDOGHULYDWLYHVHTXDOWR]HURWRGHWHUPLQHWKHFULWLFDOSRLQWͼVͽ f x 4x 8 0 x 2
and f y 2 y 6 0 y 36RWKHRQO\FULWLFDOSRLQWLVͼíͽ
Example 3
8VHWKHVHFRQGSDUWLDOVWHVWRQ([DPSOHJLYHQWKHFULWLFDOSRLQWͼíͽ
23
Solution
2
d f xx a , b f yy a , b ª¬ f xy a , b º¼ 4(2) 0 8 ! 0,
and fxx > 0. Thus, by the second partials test, the point is a relative minimum.
Study Tips
x 7KHGH¿QLWLRQRIFULWLFDOSRLQWLVVLPLODUWRWKHGH¿QLWLRQLQHOHPHQWDU\FDOFXOXVH[FHSWWKDWQRZZH
use partial derivatives.
x The critical points are the candidates for relative extrema. It is possible that none of the critical points
are relative extrema. For instance, the critical point of the function f ͼx, yͽ y2íx2LVͼͽZKLFKLV
neither a relative minimum nor relative maximum. Such points are called saddle points.
Pitfalls
x When using the extreme value theorem, make sure that the region R is closed and bounded.
Otherwise, there might not be a maximum or minimum value. For instance, there was no minimum
value in Example 1.
x 5HPHPEHUWKDWERWKSDUWLDOGHULYDWLYHVPXVWEHHTXDOWR]HURͼRURQHRIWKHPXQGH¿QHGͽIRUWKHUHWR
be a critical point.
x Keep in mind that the relative extrema are not necessarily absolute extrema.
Lesson 6: Extrema of Functions of Two Variables
x 7KHVHFRQGSDUWLDOVWHVWFDQIDLOLQWZRZD\Vͼͽ7KHSDUWLDOGHULYDWLYHVPLJKWQRWH[LVWRUͼͽWKH
discriminant d = 0.
Problems
1. )LQGWKHFULWLFDOSRLQWͼVͽRIWKHIXQFWLRQ f x, y x 2 y 2 1.
2. )LQGWKHFULWLFDOSRLQWͼVͽRIWKHIXQFWLRQ f x, y x 2 y 2 10 x 12 y 64.
2
3. )LQGWKHFULWLFDOSRLQWͼVͽRIWKHIXQFWLRQ f x, y x 2
y2 .
3
4. Complete the square to determine the relative minimum of the function f ͼx, yͽ x2 + y2 + 8xíy + 20.
24
5. Determine the relative extrema of f ͼx, yͽ xy.
6. Use the second partials test to determine the relative extrema of the function
f ͼx, yͽ x2 + 2y2íxíy + 16.
7. Use the second partials test to determine the relative extrema of the function
f ͼx, yͽ íx2 + 4xyíy2 + 16x + 10.
10. An open box is to be constructed with 2 square meters of material. Determine the dimensions
of the box so that the volume is a maximum.
ª C 3 xy º
11. Verify that that the partial derivative with respect to x for V xy « » is
¬ 4( x y ) ¼
y2
2
Vx C 3 x 2 6 xy .
4 x y
y2 x2
2
12. Verify that Vx C 3 x 2 6 xy 0 and V y 2
C 3 y 2 6 xy 0 gives the solution
4 x y 4 x y
x = y = 12.
25
Applications to Optimization Problems
Lesson 7
Topics
'H¿QLWLRQVDQG7KHRUHPV
Summary
,QWKLVOHVVRQZHFRQWLQXHRXUVWXG\RIRSWLPL]DWLRQDSSOLFDWLRQVRIIXQFWLRQVRIWZRYDULDEOHV:H¿UVWORRN
DWPD[LPXPDQGPLQLPXPYDOXHVIRUIXQFWLRQVGH¿QHGRQFORVHGDQGERXQGHGUHJLRQV:HWKHQORRNDWWZR
UHDOOLIHDSSOLFDWLRQV7KH¿UVWRQHLQYROYHVPD[LPL]LQJWKHYROXPHRIDSDFNDJHDQGWKHVHFRQGLQYROYHVWKH
construction of a water line through three different regions.
Example 1
Lesson 7: Applications to Optimization Problems
Find the absolute extrema of the function f ͼx, yͽ x2 + 2y2íy
on the closed region bounded below by the parabola y = x2 and í
above by the line y ͼ6HHFigure 7.1ͽ
3
Solution
:H¿UVW¿QGWKHFULWLFDOSRLQWVLQWKHUHJLRQE\VHWWLQJWKHSDUWLDO
derivatives equal to zero: fx = 6x = 0, f y = 4yí
+HQFHWKHRQO\FULWLFDOSRLQWLQWKHUHJLRQLVDWͼͽ
Figure 7.1
and f ͼͽ í
26
Next, we analyze the boundary of the region.
Along the parabola y = x2íxf ͼx, x2ͽ h ͼxͽ x2 + 2 x 2 íx2 = 2x4íx2íx
2
We evaluate these points to obtain h ͼͽ h r 1
2
1 , and h ͼͽ
8
)LQDOO\ZHVHHWKDWWKHDEVROXWHPD[LPXPLVDWͼͽDQGWKHDEVROXWHPLQLPXPLVíDWͼͽ
Example 2 P B
2
)URPWKH¿JXUHZHVHHWKDWWKHWRWDOFRVWLQPLOOLRQVRIGROODUVLVC x , y 3 x2 4 2 y x 1 (10 y ).
3x 2( y x )
Cx
x2 4 y x 2 1
2( y x )
Cy 1.
y x 2 1
6HWWLQJWKHVHSDUWLDOGHULYDWLYHVHTXDOWR]HUR\LHOGVͼVHH3UREOHPIRUDGHULYDWLRQͽ
2 1.414, 3 2 1.284.
x | y |
2 3 2
§ 3 ·
These values yield the minimum cost C ¨ 2 , 2 ¸ | 17.39.
© 2 3 2 ¹
You can verify that this is a minimum by the second partials test or by analyzing the values
on the boundary. It is instructive to compare this minimum with other values for x and y:
Cͼͽ Cͼͽ 104 §DQGCͼͽ 5 §
27
Study Tips
x $VLOOXVWUDWHGLQ([DPSOHWKHWHFKQLTXHIRU¿QGLQJDEVROXWHH[WUHPDIRUIXQFWLRQVGH¿QHGRQFORVHG
DQGERXQGHGUHJLRQVUHTXLUHVWZRVWHSV<RXPXVW¿QGWKHFULWLFDOSRLQWVLQVLGHWKHUHJLRQDQGDOVR
analyze the function values on the boundary of the region.
x When solving an applied optimization problem, make sure that your answer is indeed a maximum
ͼRUPLQLPXPͽ7KHVHFRQGSDUWLDOVWHVWFDQRIWHQEHXVHG
Pitfalls
x :KHQ¿QGLQJWKHFULWLFDOSRLQWVIRUDIXQFWLRQGH¿QHGRQDFORVHGDQGERXQGHGUHJLRQPDNHVXUHWKDW
the points are indeed in the region.
x Calculating partial derivatives is a calculus skill. But setting those derivatives equal to zero and
VROYLQJWKHUHVXOWLQJHTXDWLRQVLVDOJHEUD7KHDOJHEUDSRUWLRQLVRIWHQWKHPRVWGLI¿FXOW
Problems
1. Find the absolute extrema of the function f ͼx, yͽ x2íxy + 5 on the region R ^ͼx, yͽx
y`
2. Find the absolute extrema of the function f ͼx, yͽ íxíy on the triangular region in the xy-plane
ZLWKYHUWLFHVͼͽͼͽDQGͼͽ
4. Find three positive integers such that their product is 27 and their sum is a minimum.
5. Show that a rectangular box of given volume and minimum surface area is a cube.
3x 2 y x 2 y x
7. If C x and C y 1, ͼxxyͽVKRZWKDW
x2 4 y x
2
1 y x
2
1
2 and 3
Cx = Cy = 0 implies that x y 2.
2 3 2
28
Linear Models and Least Squares Regression
Lesson 8
Topics
'H¿QLWLRQVDQG7KHRUHPV
Summary
,QWKLVOHVVRQZHDSSO\RXURSWLPL]DWLRQWHFKQLTXHWRFXUYH¿WWLQJ*LYHQDVHWRIGDWDSRLQWVLQWKHSODQH
ZHVKRZKRZWR¿QGWKHOLQHWKDWEHVW¿WVWKHGDWD7KLVOHDVWVTXDUHVUHJUHVVLRQOLQHLVXVHGH[WHQVLYHO\LQ
real-life models of data sets that are nearly linear. After we show an application to systolic blood pressure, we
ORRNEULHÀ\DWWKHVXUSULVLQJVLWXDWLRQLQZKLFKWKHGDWDLVQHDUO\YHUWLFDO
Example 1
)LQGWKHOHDVWVTXDUHVUHJUHVVLRQOLQHIRUWKHIRXUSRLQWVLQWKHSODQHͼíͽͼíͽͼͽͼͽ
Solution
4 4
¦x
i 1
i 3 1 0 2 2, ¦ yi
i 1
0 1 2 3 6.
4 4
2
¦x y i i 0 1 0 6 5, ¦ xi 9 1 0 4 14.
i 1 i 1
29
So, the slope is
n n n
n ¦ xi yi ¦ xi ¦ yi
i 1 i 1 i 1 4(5) ( 2)(6) 20 12 32 8,
a
n
§ · n
2
4(14) ( 2) 2 56 4 52 13
n ¦ xi 2 ¨ ¦ xi ¸
i 1 ©i 1 ¹
n n
b 1§ y a x ·
¨ ¦
n© i 1 i ¦
i 1
i ¸
¹ 4
1 6 8 2
13
1 § 6(13) 16 ·
4 ¨© 13 ¸
¹
1 94
4 13
47 .
26
Example 2
2
y = f ( x)
í
The ages xͼLQ\HDUVͽDQGV\VWROLFEORRGSUHVVXUHVy of a man 1 = 8 x + 47
13 26
í
are shown in the graph. Find the least squares regression line
í í í í 1 2 3 4
for this data. Then, use the line to approximate the change in
Figure 8.1
systolic blood pressure for each 1-year increase in age.
ͼ6HHFigure 8.2ͽ
Solution
(70, 199)
200
(64, 183)
Using a graphing utility, you obtain the line y = 1.6x + 84. (45, 165)
(39, 150)
From the slope, you see that the systolic blood pressure (49, 159)
Lesson 8: Linear Models and Least Squares Regression
Blood Pressure
(25, 122)
changes by approximately 1.6 for each 1-year increase in age. (16, 109)
100
y = 1.6x + 84
Study Tips
n n
2 2
S ¦ ª¬ f x y º¼
i 1
i i ¦ > ax
i 1
i b yi @ .
x Most graphing utilities have built-in capabilities for calculating the least squares regression line. For
Example 1, your calculator will give the very accurate approximation y = 0.61538x + 1.80769.
x <RXFDQDOVR¿WPDQ\RWKHUFXUYHVWRVHWVRIGDWDLQFOXGLQJSRO\QRPLDOH[SRQHQWLDOORJDULWKPLFDQG
trigonometric functions.
30
Pitfalls
x The least squares regression line is not a good approximation for nearly vertical data. For example, for
WKHWKUHHSRLQWVͼͽͼͽDQGͼͽWKHOHDVWVTXDUHVUHJUHVVLRQOLQHLVKRUL]RQWDOy = 1.5.
x If your data is not nearly linear, you might want to use a different least squares model. For instance, if
the data seems quadratic, you might use a second-degree polynomial to approximate the data.
Problems
1. )LQGWKHOHDVWVTXDUHVUHJUHVVLRQOLQHIRUWKHSRLQWVͼͽͼͽDQGͼͽ
2. )LQGWKHOHDVWVTXDUHVUHJUHVVLRQOLQHIRUWKHSRLQWVͼͽͼͽͼͽͼͽDQGͼͽ
3. 8VHDJUDSKLQJXWLOLW\RUFRPSXWHUWR¿QGWKHOHDVWVTXDUHVUHJUHVVLRQOLQHIRUWKHSRLQWVͼͽͼͽ
ͼͽͼíͽDQGͼíͽ
4. 8VHDJUDSKLQJXWLOLW\RUFRPSXWHUWR¿QGWKHOHDVWVTXDUHVUHJUHVVLRQOLQHIRUWKHSRLQWVͼͽͼͽ
ͼͽͼͽͼͽDQGͼͽ
5. An agronomist used four test plots to determine the relationship between the wheat yield yͼLQEXVKHOVSHU
DFUHͽDQGWKHDPRXQWRIIHUWLOL]HUxͼLQKXQGUHGVRISRXQGVSHUDFUHͽ7KHUHVXOWVDUHDVIROORZV
ͼx, yͽͼͽͼͽͼͽͼͽ
8VHDJUDSKLQJXWLOLW\RUFRPSXWHUWR¿QGWKHOHDVWVTXDUHVUHJUHVVLRQOLQHIRUWKHGDWDDQGXVHWKHPRGHO
to estimate the yield for a fertilizer application of 160 pounds per acre.
6. A store manager wants to know the demand y for an energy bar as a function of price x. The daily sales for
three different prices of the energy bar are as follows.
ͼx, yͽͼͽͼͽͼͽ
8VHDJUDSKLQJXWLOLW\RUFRPSXWHUWR¿QGWKHOHDVWVTXDUHVUHJUHVVLRQOLQHIRUWKHGDWDDQGXVHWKHPRGHO
WRHVWLPDWHWKHGHPDQGZKHQWKHSULFHLV
31
Vectors and the Dot Product in Space
Lesson 9
Topics
x Vectors in space.
x Lines in space.
'H¿QLWLRQVDQG7KHRUHPV
x Vectors in space are denoted by v v1 , v2 , v3 , where v1, v2, and v3 are the components of the
vector. The zero vector is 0 0, 0, 0 , and the standard unit vectors are i 1, 0, 0 , j 0, 1, 0 ,
k 0, 0, 1 .
x Two vectors are equal if they have the same components—that is, if they have the same length
and direction.
x Two nonzero vectors u and v are parallel if u = cv for some nonzero scalar c.
x If ș is the angle between the two nonzero vectors u and v, then cos T u< v .
u v
x Lines in space: Consider the line L through the point Pͼx1, y1, z1ͽDQGSDUDOOHOWRWKHdirection
JJJG
vector v a , b, c . The line L consists of all points Qͼx, y, zͽIRUZKLFK PQ is parallel to v,
JJJG
PQ x x1 , y y1 , z z1 t a , b, c tv . The parametric equations for the line are
x = x1 + at
y = y1 + bt
z = z1 + ct.
32
Summary
We extend our knowledge of vectors in the plane to vectors in space. The formulas for length, dot product, and
DQJOHDUHHDV\JHQHUDOL]DWLRQVRIWKHFRUUHVSRQGLQJGH¿QLWLRQVIURPHOHPHQWDU\FDOFXOXV:HWKHQVKRZKRZ
WRGH¿QHOLQHVLQVSDFHXVLQJYHFWRUV:HGHYHORSWKHSDUDPHWULFHTXDWLRQVIRUOLQHVLQVSDFHDQGLOOXVWUDWHWKLV
new idea with examples.
Example 1
Solution
JJJG JJJG
There are at least two ways to solve this problem. You could form the vectors PQ and PR and see if they are
parallel. Or, you could see if the sum of the distances between two points equals the distance between the third
pair. To this end, notice that
2 2 2
d ( P, Q ) 2 1 1 2 0 3 19
2 2 2
d P, R 4 1 7 2 6 3 171
2 2 2
d Q, R 4 2 7 1 6 0 76.
Example 2
Example 3
Solution
33
Example 4
)LQGWKHSDUDPHWULFHTXDWLRQRIWKHOLQHWKDWSDVVHVWKURXJKWKHSRLQWͼíͽDQGLVSDUDOOHOWRWKHYHFWRU
v 2, 4, 4 .
Solution
Using the formula for parametric equations, we have x = x1 + at = 1 + 2t, y = y1 + bt ít, and
z = z1 + ct ít.
Study Tips
x Lines in space are described using a point and a direction vector. This is quite different from lines in
the plane, for which we use slope and y-intercept.
x The parametric equations in Example 4 are x = 1 + 2t, y ít, and z ít. Notice that for
t WKHHTXDWLRQV\LHOGWKHRULJLQDOSRLQWͼíͽ$VtYDULHVRQWKHLQWHUYDOͼíͽWKHSRLQW
ͼx, y, zͽPRYHVXSDQGGRZQWKHOLQH
Pitfall
x 7KHGRWSURGXFWRIWZRYHFWRUVLVDVFDODUͼUHDOQXPEHUͽ,QWKHQH[WOHVVRQZHZLOOGH¿QHWKHFURVV
product of two vectors, which is a vector.
Problems
1. )LQGWKHFRPSRQHQWIRUPDQGPDJQLWXGHRIWKHYHFWRUKDYLQJLQLWLDOSRLQWͼͽDQGWHUPLQDOSRLQW
ͼͽ
Lesson 9: Vectors and the Dot Product in Space
3. 'HWHUPLQHLIWKHSRLQWVͼͽͼͽDQGͼͽDUHFROOLQHDU
34
8. )LQGDVHWRISDUDPHWULFHTXDWLRQVIRUWKHOLQHWKURXJKWKHSRLQWͼͽDQGSDUDOOHOWRWKHYHFWRU
v 3, 1, 5 .
9. )LQGDVHWRISDUDPHWULFHTXDWLRQVIRUWKHOLQHWKURXJKWKHSRLQWͼíͽDQGSDUDOOHOWRWKHYHFWRU
v 0, 6, 3 .
10. )LQGDVHWRISDUDPHWULFHTXDWLRQVIRUWKHOLQHWKURXJKWKHSRLQWVͼíͽDQGͼíͽ
35
The Cross Product of Two Vectors in Space
Lesson 10
Topics
'H¿QLWLRQVDQG7KHRUHPV
i j k
uu v u1 u 2 u3 u2 v3 u3v2 i u1v3 u3v1 j u1v2 u2 v1 k .
v1 v2 v3
x The area of the parallelogram having the vectorsX and v as adjacent sides is u u v u v sin ș.
u1 u2 u3
x The WULSOHVFDODUSURGXFW is the scalar u < v u w v1 v2 v3 .
w1 w2 w3
6XPPDU\
The cross product of two vectors in space is a vector, not a scalar. We calculate cross products using a
determinant formula. One of the most important properties states that the cross product of two nonzero vectors
36
LVDYHFWRURUWKRJRQDOͼSHUSHQGLFXODUͽWRERWKRIWKHRULJLQDOYHFWRUV,QRWKHUZRUGVWKHFURVVSURGXFWLV
RUWKRJRQDOWRWKHSODQHGHWHUPLQHGE\WKHRULJLQDOYHFWRUV:HSUHVHQWVRPHRIWKHEDVLFSURSHUWLHVRIWKHFURVV
SURGXFWDQGFORVHZLWKWKHWULSOHVFDODUSURGXFWZKLFKFRPELQHVWKHGRWSURGXFWDQGFURVVSURGXFW
([DPSOH
6ROXWLRQ
:HHYDOXDWHWKHFURVVSURGXFWE\H[SDQGLQJWKHGHWHUPLQDQWDORQJWKH¿UVWURZ
i j k
2 1 1 1 1 2
uu v 1 2 1 i j k
1 2 3 2 3 1
3 1 2
ͼíͽiíͼííͽjͼͽk = 3i + 5j + 7k.
z
Notice that the cross product is orthogonal to each of the original vectors.
v
([DPSOH u
The cross product of the two vectors is X × v íj + k, and the area is
therefore the length of this vector, u u v 2.
([DPSOH
6ROXWLRQ
w
1 1 0
The triple scalar product is u < v u w 0 1 1 2, which implies
WKDWWKHYROXPHLV 1 0 1 v
Figure 10.2
37
6WXG\7LSV
x Keep in mind that the cross product of two vectors is orthogonal to the original vectors. You can use
WKLVIDFWWRFKHFN\RXUFDOFXODWLRQV
x The words “orthogonal” and “perpendicular” mean the same thing. Another term that we will use is
“normal” in the sense that a vector is normal to a plane.
x 7KHGH¿QLWLRQRIWKHFURVVSURGXFWLVEDVHGRQDGHWHUPLQDQWFDOFXODWLRQ<RXPLJKWEHIDPLOLDUZLWK
îGHWHUPLQDQWV
a b
ad bc.
c d
1 2
)RUH[DPSOH 1(4) 2(3) 2.
3 4
x ,QWKHIRUPXODIRUWKHYROXPHRIDSDUDOOHOHSLSHGQRWLFHWKDWZHDUHXVLQJWKHXVXDODEVROXWHYDOXH
x ,Q([DPSOHZHREVHUYHGWKDWWKHFURVVSURGXFWZDVX × v = 3i + 5j + 7k5HYHUVLQJWKHRUGHU\RX
REWDLQWKHQHJDWLYHRIWKHRULJLQDOFURVVSURGXFWY× X íͼi + 5j + 7kͽ íiíjík íͼX × vͽ
3LWIDOOV
x 7KHFURVVSURGXFWLVRQO\GH¿QHGIRUYHFWRUVLQVSDFHͼWXSOHVͽ7KDWVDLG\RXFDQ¿QGWKHFURVV
SURGXFWRIͼͽDQGͼíͽ7KHDQVZHULVk.
x 7KHGRWSURGXFWRIWZRYHFWRUVLVDVFDODUͼUHDOQXPEHUͽZKHUHDVWKHFURVVSURGXFWLVDYHFWRU
3UREOHPV
38
Find a vector orthogonal to the vectors iDQGj + k.
Find the area of the parallelogram having adjacent sides 3, 2, 1 and 1, 2, 3 .
Find the volume of the parallelepiped with adjacent edges 1, 3, 1 , 0, 6, 6 , and 4, 0, 4 .
)LQGWKHYROXPHRIWKHSDUDOOHOHSLSHGZLWKYHUWLFHVͼͽͼͽͼͽͼͽͼͽͼͽ
ͼͽͼͽ
)LQGDYHFWRURUWKRJRQDOWRWKHWULDQJOHIRUPHGE\WKHSRLQWVAͼͽBͼíͽDQGCͼíͽ
39
Lines and Planes in Space
Lesson 11
Topics
x 7KHGH¿QLWLRQRIDSODQHLQVSDFH
x 7KHDQJOHEHWZHHQWZRSODQHV
x 7KHGLVWDQFHEHWZHHQDSRLQWDQGDSODQH
'H¿QLWLRQVDQG7KHRUHPV
¨ n2 ¸ n
© ¹
where PLVDQ\SRLQWLQWKHSODQH
6XPPDU\
:HGH¿QHSODQHVLQVSDFHXVLQJDSRLQWLQWKHSODQHDQGDQRUPDOͼSHUSHQGLFXODUͽYHFWRUWRWKHSODQH7KLV
DQDO\VLVJLYHVULVHWRWKHVWDQGDUGHTXDWLRQDQGJHQHUDOHTXDWLRQRIDSODQHLQVSDFH7KHFURVVSURGXFWSOD\VD
PDMRUUROHLQWKHGLVFXVVLRQ7KHSURMHFWLRQRIRQHYHFWRURQWRDQRWKHUZDVVWXGLHGLQHOHPHQWDU\FDOFXOXVDQG
ZHH[WHQGWKLVLGHDWRYHFWRUVLQVSDFH7KLVOHDGVWRDEHDXWLIXOIRUPXODIRUWKHGLVWDQFHEHWZHHQDSRLQW
and a plane.
([DPSOH z Cí
Find the general form of the equation of the plane containing the three
points AͼͽBͼͽCͼíͽͼ6HH)LJXUHͽ
6ROXWLRQ x
A B
y
7R¿QGWKHHTXDWLRQZHQHHGDSRLQWLQWKHSODQHͼWKHUHDUHWKUHHWR Figure 11.1
FKRRVHIURPͽDQGDQRUPDOYHFWRUWRWKHSODQH7R¿QGWKHQRUPDOYHFWRU
ZHFRPSXWHWKHFURVVSURGXFWRIWKHYHFWRUVIRUPHGE\MRLQLQJWKHSRLQWV
JJJG
AB 0 2, 4 1, 1 1 2, 3, 0
JJJG
AC 2 2, 1 1, 4 1 4, 0, 3 .
([DPSOH
6ROXWLRQ
7KHDQJOHEHWZHHQWKHSODQHVLVWKHVDPHDVWKHDQJOHEHWZHHQWKHLUQRUPDOYHFWRUV n1 1, 2, 3
and n 2 2, 3, 1 .
([DPSOH
6ROXWLRQ
§ · § 5, 10 < 4, 3 ·
projv u ¨ u < v2 ¸v ¨ ¸ 4, 3 50 4, 3 2 4, 3 8, 6 .
¨ v ¸ ¨ 4, 3
2
¸ 25
© ¹ © ¹
ͼ6HH)LJXUHͽ 10
u 5, 10
8
([DPSOH
6
proj 8, 6
)LQGWKHGLVWDQFHEHWZHHQWKHSRLQWQͼͽDQGWKHSODQH
4
x + 3y + z
2 v 4, 3
6ROXWLRQ
2 4 6 8 10
The normal vector to the plane is n 2, 3, 1 . Figure 11.2
JJJG
6HWWLQJy = z ZHREWDLQWKHSRLQWPͼͽLQWKHSODQH+HQFH PQ 0 6, 0 0, 0 0 6, 0, 0 .
JJJG
PQ <n 6, 0, 0 < 2, 3, 1 12 12
The distance is D .
n 4 9 1 14 14
6WXG\7LSV
x 7KHZRUGV³RUWKRJRQDO´³SHUSHQGLFXODU´DQG³QRUPDO´SUHWW\PXFKPHDQWKHVDPHWKLQJ
x Two distinct planes are parallel if their normal vectors are scalar multiples of each other. For instance,
the planes 3xíy + z = 6 and 6xíyz DUHSDUDOOHOEHFDXVHWKHLUQRUPDOYHFWRUVn1 3, 2, 1
and n 2 6, 4, 2 VDWLVI\Q Q.
x 7ZRSODQHVDUHSHUSHQGLFXODUͼRUWKRJRQDOͽLIWKHLUQRUPDOYHFWRUVDUHSHUSHQGLFXODU²WKDWLVLIWKH
dot product of the normal vectors is zero.
3LWIDOO
x 7KUHHSRLQWVLQVSDFHGRQRWQHFHVVDULO\GHWHUPLQHDSODQH,IWKHSRLQWVDUHFROOLQHDUWKHQWKHUHLVDQ
LQ¿QLWHQXPEHURISODQHVFRQWDLQLQJWKHWKUHHSRLQWV
3UREOHPV
)LQGDQHTXDWLRQRIWKHSODQHSDVVLQJWKURXJKWKHSRLQWͼíͽDQGSHUSHQGLFXODUWRWKHYHFWRUQ = j.
)LQGDQHTXDWLRQRIWKHSODQHSDVVLQJWKURXJKWKHSRLQWͼíͽDQGSHUSHQGLFXODUWRWKHOLQH
x ít, y ít, z ít.
)LQGDQHTXDWLRQRIWKHSODQHSDVVLQJWKURXJKWKHWKUHHSRLQWVͼͽͼͽDQGͼííͽ
)LQGWKHSDUDPHWULFHTXDWLRQVRIWKHOLQHWKDWSDVVHVWKURXJKWKHSRLQWͼͽDQGLVSHUSHQGLFXODUWRWKH
SODQHJLYHQE\xyíz = 6.
)LQGWKHSDUDPHWULFHTXDWLRQVRIWKHOLQHWKDWSDVVHVWKURXJKWKHSRLQWͼͽDQGLVSDUDOOHOWRWKHxz
plane and the yzSODQH
)LQGWKHGLVWDQFHIURPWKHSRLQWͼͽWRWKHSODQHx + yíz = 9.
)LQGWKHGLVWDQFHIURPWKHSRLQWͼíͽWRWKHSODQHxíy + 5z = 6.
Curved Surfaces in Space
Lesson 12
Topics
x 6SKHUHVDQGSODQHV
x &\OLQGULFDOVXUIDFHV
x Quadric surfaces.
x 6XUIDFHVRIUHYROXWLRQ
x 7KH0|ELXVVWULS
'H¿QLWLRQVDQG7KHRUHPV
x 3ODQH in space: ax + by + cz + d = 0.
x Let CEHDFXUYHLQDSODQHDQGOHWLEHDOLQHQRWLQDSDUDOOHOSODQH7KHVHWRIDOOOLQHVSDUDOOHO
to L and intersecting C is called a F\OLQGHU. C is theJHQHUDWLQJ FXUYH, and the parallel lines are
the UXOLQJV.
6XPPDU\
Lesson 12: Curved Surfaces in Space
:HKDYHDOUHDG\VHHQPDQ\JUDSKVRIVXUIDFHVLQVSDFHLQFOXGLQJSODQHVDQGVSKHUHV,QWKLVOHVVRQZHIRFXV
RQYDULRXVW\SHVRIVXUIDFHVWKDWSOD\DUROHLQRXUVWXG\RIPXOWLYDULDEOHFDOFXOXV:H¿UVWORRNDWF\OLQGULFDO
VXUIDFHVDJHQHUDOL]DWLRQRIWKHIDPLOLDUF\OLQGHU7KHQZHSUHVHQWWKHFODVVRIVXUIDFHVFDOOHGTXDGULF
VXUIDFHV:HKDYHDOUHDG\VHHQVRPHRIWKHVHLQFOXGLQJSDUDERORLGVDQGHOOLSVRLGV:HEULHÀ\PHQWLRQ
VXUIDFHVRIUHYROXWLRQZKLFKZLOOVHHPIDPLOLDUIURPHOHPHQWDU\FDOFXOXV)LQDOO\ZHVKRZWKHIDPRXV
0|ELXVVWULSDVXUIDFHZLWKRQO\RQHVLGH
([DPSOH
6NHWFKWKHVXUIDFHz = y.
6ROXWLRQ
z
8
7KHJUDSKLVDF\OLQGHUZKRVHJHQHUDWLQJFXUYH z = yLVDSDUDEROD
in the yzSODQH7KHUXOLQJVRIWKHF\OLQGHUDUHSDUDOOHOWRWKHxD[LV
ͼ6HH)LJXUHͽ
([DPSOH 4
6NHWFKWKHVXUIDFHJLYHQE\xíyz
6ROXWLRQ y
í
4
We rewrite the equation as follows: x
Figure 12.1
2 2 2
4 x 3 y 12 z 12
2
x2 y z 2 1
3 4
z
y2 x2 z 2 4
1.
4 3 1
7KLVLVDK\SHUERORLGRIWZRVKHHWV7KHWUDFHVLQWKHxySODQH í
ͼz ͽDQGLQWKHyzSODQHͼx ͽDUHK\SHUERODV7KHUHDUHQR í
6NHWFKWKHVXUIDFHJLYHQE\xy + zíxyíz + 3 = 0. í
Figure 12.2
6ROXWLRQ
%\FRPSOHWLQJWKHVTXDUH\RXREWDLQWKHHTXDWLRQRIDQHOOLSVRLG z
FHQWHUHGDWWKHSRLQWͼíͽ
2
2 2 2
x 2 y 1 z 1
1.
4 2 4
í
ͼ6HH)LJXUHͽ 2
y
4
x
Figure 12.3
([DPSOH z
4
,I\RXURWDWH y 1 , z ! 0, DERXWWKHzD[LV\RXREWDLQWKHVXUIDFHRI
z
2
revolution x 2 y 2 §¨ 1 ·¸ . ͼ6HH)LJXUHͽ 2
©z¹
6WXG\7LSV
í
x &RPSXWHUVDQGJUDSKLQJFDOFXODWRUVDUHYHU\XVHIXOLQ 2
y
x
producing graphs of surfaces in space. Figure 12.4
x 4XDGULFVXUIDFHVDUHWKHWKUHHGLPHQVLRQDODQDORJVRIFRQLFVHFWLRQV
x 7KH0|ELXVVWULSLVDQH[DPSOHRIDVXUIDFHZLWKRQO\RQHVLGH
3LWIDOOV
x 7KHZRUG³F\OLQGHU´FDQEHPLVOHDGLQJ,QFDOFXOXVDF\OLQGHUGRHVQRWKDYHWRORRNOLNHWKHXVXDO
³WLQFDQ´DVLOOXVWUDWHGLQ([DPSOH
x 7KHJUDSKRIDQHTXDWLRQGHSHQGVRQZKHWKHU\RXDUHZRUNLQJLQDSODQHRUVSDFH)RULQVWDQFHWKH
equation z = xLVDSDUDERODLQWKHxzSODQHEXWLWLVDF\OLQGHULQVSDFH
3UREOHPV
'HVFULEHWKHVXUIDFHy = 5.
'HVFULEHWKHVXUIDFHy + z = 9.
x2 y 2 z 2
,GHQWLI\WKHTXDGULFVXUIDFH 1.
16 25 25
Lesson 12: Curved Surfaces in Space
,GHQWLI\WKHTXDGULFVXUIDFHxíyz
,GHQWLI\WKHTXDGULFVXUIDFHxíyíz
,GHQWLI\WKHTXDGULFVXUIDFHxíy + z = 0.
,GHQWLI\WKHTXDGULFVXUIDFHx + 9yzíxíy + 36 = 0.
)LQGDQHTXDWLRQRIWKHVXUIDFHRIUHYROXWLRQJHQHUDWHGE\UHYROYLQJWKHFXUYHz y in the yzSODQHDERXW
the yD[LV
Vector-Valued Functions in Space
Lesson 13
Topics
x 9HFWRUYDOXHGIXQFWLRQV
x 7KHGHULYDWLYHRIDYHFWRUYDOXHGIXQFWLRQ
x ,QWHJUDOVRIYHFWRUYDOXHGIXQFWLRQV
x Particle motion.
'H¿QLWLRQVDQG7KHRUHPV
x 9HFWRUYDOXHGIXQFWLRQV r t f t i g t j h t k f t , g t , h t .
r t 't r t
x The GHULYDWLYHRIDYHFWRUYDOXHGIXQFWLRQ r c t lim .
't o 0 't
x Particle motion
rc t
x The XQLWWDQJHQWYHFWRU: T t .
rc t
b 2 2 2 b
x $UFOHQJWK: s ³ ª¬ xc t º¼ ª¬ y c t º¼ ª¬ z c t º¼ dt ³ r c t dt .
a a
2 2 2
x The GLIIHUHQWLDORIDUFOHQJWK: ds ª¬ xc t º¼ ª¬ y c t º¼ ª¬ z c t º¼ dt r c t dt .
6XPPDU\
,QWKLVOHVVRQZHH[WHQGRXUNQRZOHGJHRIYHFWRUYDOXHGIXQFWLRQVLQWKHSODQHWRIXQFWLRQVLQVSDFH:HUHFDOO
WKHGH¿QLWLRQRIWKHGHULYDWLYHRIDYHFWRUYDOXHGIXQFWLRQDQGGHYHORSVRPHRILWVSURSHUWLHV:HWKHQIRFXV
RQRQHRIWKHPDLQWKHPHVRIFDOFXOXV²SDUWLFOHPRWLRQ:HGH¿QHWKHSRVLWLRQYHORFLW\DQGDFFHOHUDWLRQ
IXQFWLRQV7KHXQLWWDQJHQWYHFWRULVLQWURGXFHGDQGZLOOSOD\DQLPSRUWDQWUROHLQXSFRPLQJOHVVRQV)LQDOO\
ZHUHFDOOWKHGH¿QLWLRQRIDUFOHQJWKRIDFXUYH
([DPSOH
6ROXWLRQ
([DPSOH
&DOFXODWHWKHGHULYDWLYHRIWKHGRWSURGXFWRIWKHYHFWRUYDOXHGIXQFWLRQV r t 1 i j ln tk and
t
u t t 2 i 2 tj k .
6ROXWLRQ
:HFDQGRWKLVSUREOHPWZRZD\V:HFRXOG¿UVWWDNHWKHGRWSURGXFWDQGGLIIHUHQWLDWHWKHUHVXOW
UͼtͽXͼtͽ 1 ͼtͽͼíͽͼítͽOQtͼͽ ttOQt = 3tOQt.
t
Or, we could use the product rule for the dot product, ª¬r t <u t º¼c r t <uc t r c t <u t . We will,
RIFRXUVHREWDLQWKHVDPHDQVZHU
([DPSOH
6ROXWLRQ
:HLQWHJUDWHWHUPE\WHUP r t 1 sin 2ti 2 cos tj arctan tk C . Notice that the constant of integration is a
2
vector, not a scalar.
([DPSOH
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:HFDOFXODWHWKH¿UVWDQGVHFRQGGHULYDWLYHVWRREWDLQWKHYHORFLW\DQGDFFHOHUDWLRQ
vͼtͽ Uƍͼtͽ íVLQ ti FRV tj + 3k and Dͼtͽ UƎͼtͽ í FRV tií VLQ tj.
7KHVSHHGLVJLYHQE\
2 2 2
v t rc t ª¬ xc t º¼ ª¬ y c t º¼ ª¬ z c t º¼ 16sin 2 t 16 cos 2 t 9 16 9 5.
ͼ6HH)LJXUHͽ
([DPSOH z
)LQGWKHDUFOHQJWKRIRQHWXUQRIWKHKHOL[
8
Uͼtͽ FRV ti VLQ tj +3tktʌ.
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7KHDUFOHQJWKLVJLYHQE\
b 2 2 2 í
s ³ ª¬ xc t º¼ ª¬ y c t º¼ ª¬ z c t º¼ dt í
Lesson 13: Vector-Valued Functions in Space
2S
2 2 2
> 4sin t @ > 4 cos t @ >3@
³0
dt
x
y
2S Figure 13.1
³ 5 dt 10S .
0
6WXG\7LSV
x <RXFDQHYDOXDWHWKHGHULYDWLYHRIDYHFWRUYDOXHGIXQFWLRQE\GLIIHUHQWLDWLQJWKHLQGLYLGXDO
components. That is, if Uͼtͽ f ͼtͽi + g ͼtͽj + hͼtͽk, then the derivative is Uƍͼtͽ f ƍͼtͽi + gƍͼtͽj + hƍͼtͽk.
x The derivative vector is tangent to the curve and points in the direction of motion.
50
x 7KHXQLWWDQJHQWYHFWRULQ([DPSOHLVDXQLWYHFWRUSRLQWLQJLQWKHGLUHFWLRQRIPRWLRQ
rc t 1 4sin ti 4 cos tj 3k .
T t
rc t 5
x <RXFDQLQWHJUDWHDYHFWRUYDOXHGIXQFWLRQE\LQWHJUDWLQJWKHLQGLYLGXDOFRPSRQHQWV)XUWKHUPRUH
\RXFDQFRPELQHWKHFRQVWDQWVRILQWHJUDWLRQLQWRRQHFRQVWDQWC, which is a vector.
3LWIDOO
3UREOHPV
2
Calculate the derivative of the function r t 1 i 16tj t k .
t 2
Calculate r c t <r cc t if r t 1 t 2 , t, 1 t 3 .
2 6
)LQGWKHLQGH¿QLWHLQWHJUDO ³ 2ti j k dt .
S
(YDOXDWHWKHGH¿QLWHLQWHJUDO ³0 4 ª¬ sec t tan t i tan t j 2sin t cos t k º¼ dt .
)LQGWKHYHORFLW\VSHHGDQGDFFHOHUDWLRQRIDSDUWLFOHPRYLQJZLWKSRVLWLRQIXQFWLRQUͼtͽ titjtk.
Find the unit tangent vector to the curve Uͼtͽ ti + tj + tkDWWKHSRLQWͼͽ
Find the arc length of the space curve Uͼtͽ ítitj + 3tkRYHUWKHLQWHUYDOt
Find the arc length of the space curve r t 2sin t ,5t , 2 cos t RYHUWKHLQWHUYDOtʌ.
Kepler’s Laws—The Calculus of Orbits
Lesson 14
Topic
• Kepler’s laws.
• Kepler’s first law: The orbit of each planet is an ellipse, with the Sun at one of the two foci.
﴾ See Figure 14.1. ﴿
• Kepler’s third law: The square of the orbital period Figure 14.1
of a planet is directly proportional to the cube of the
semimajor axis of the orbit.
Summary
Kepler’s famous laws of planetary motion were announced by the German astronomer and mathematician
Johannes Kepler ﴾ 1571–1630 ﴿. His three laws were based on a 20-year study of astronomical data compiled by
the Danish astronomer Tycho Brahe. Isaac Newton later used calculus to derive these laws from basic laws of
physics. In this lesson, we will study these three laws and use our calculus skills to prove the second law.
52
Example 1
Solution
Recall that the cross product of a vector with itself is zero. In fact, the cross product of parallel vectors is zero:
If u = u1i + u2j + u3k and v = cu = cu1i + cu2j + cu3k are parallel vectors, then
i j k
u × c=
u u1 u2 u=3 ( u2 cu3 − u3 cu2 ) i − ( u1cu3 − u3 cu1 ) j + ( u1cu2 − u2 cu1 )=
k 0.
cu1 cu 2 cu3
F =ma =− GMm r ⇒ a =− GM r.
r2 r2
This means that a and r are parallel, so their cross product is zero, r × r ′′ = r × a = 0.
Because the derivative is zero, r × r′ is a constant—for example, r × r′ = L. So, the planet moves in a plane
orthogonal to this constant vector L. That is, the vector r lies in a plane orthogonal to L.
Example 2
Solution
i j k
r × r ′ =r cos θ r sin θ 0 dθ
dt
− r sin θ r cos θ 0
=r 2 ( cos 2 θ + sin 2 θ ) dθ k =r 2 dθ k .
dt dt
53
6RQRZZHKDYH r u r c r 2 dT k and U × Uƍ L, which implies that r u r c L r 2 dT .
dt dt
1 E r 2 dT 1 t1 r 2 dT dt 1 t1 L dt 1 L t t .
A
2 ³D 2 ³t0 dt 2 ³t0 2
1 0
6RIRUWKHWLPHLQWHUYDO>t0, t@WKHDUHDVZHSWRXWLVFRQVWDQW,QRWKHUZRUGVIRUWLPHLQWHUYDOVRIHTXDOOHQJWK
the areas swept out are the same, which proves Kepler’s second law.
([DPSOH
6WXG\7LSV
x 7KHRUELWDOSHULRGIRU(DUWKLVP \HDU
2 y2
x 7KHVHPLPDMRUD[LVRIWKHHOOLSVH x 2 2 1, a ! b , is a,QDVWURQRPLFDOXQLWVͼ$8ͽa
a b
1 E r 2 dT .
2 ³D
x Recall the formula for area in polar coordinates: A
3UREOHPV
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ͼ$ QDVWURQRPLFDOXQLWLVGH¿QHGDVWKHPHDQGLVWDQFHEHWZHHQ(DUWKDQGWKH6XQPLOOLRQPLOHVͽ
$SRODUHTXDWLRQIRUWKHRUELWLV
Lesson 14: Kepler’s Laws—The Calculus of Orbits
r ed .
1 e sin T
7KHDVWHURLG$SROORKDVDSHULRGRI(DUWKGD\VDQGLWVRUELWLVDSSUR[LPDWHGE\WKHHOOLSVH
r 1 9 ,
1 5 9 cosT 9 5cos T
where rLVPHDVXUHGLQDVWURQRPLFDOXQLWV7KHDUHDRIWKLVHOOLSVHLVDSSUR[LPDWHO\
8VHDJUDSKLQJXWLOLW\WRDSSUR[LPDWHWKHWLPHLWWDNHV$SROORWRPRYHIURPWKHSRVLWLRQJLYHQE\
ș íʌWRș = ʌ
Directional Derivatives and Gradients
Lesson 15
Topics
x Directional derivatives.
x 7KHJUDGLHQWRIDIXQFWLRQRIWZRRUPRUHYDULDEOHV
x *UDGLHQWVDQGOHYHOFXUYHV
x *UDGLHQWVDQGOHYHOVXUIDFHV
'H¿QLWLRQVDQG7KHRUHPV
Du f x , y f x x , y cos T f y x , y sin T .
x Theorem: Du f x, y f x , y <u.
6XPPDU\
,QWKLVOHVVRQZHFRQWLQXHRXUVWXG\RIIXQFWLRQVRIWZRRUPRUHLQGHSHQGHQWYDULDEOHV:H¿UVWJHQHUDOL]HWKH
FRQFHSWRISDUWLDOGHULYDWLYHWRWKHVRFDOOHGGLUHFWLRQDOGHULYDWLYH7KLVOHDGVWRWKHGH¿QLWLRQRIWKHJUDGLHQW
RIDIXQFWLRQRIWZRͼRUPRUHͽYDULDEOHV:HZLOOVHHWKDWWKHJUDGLHQWLVDYHFWRUWKDWSRLQWVLQWKHGLUHFWLRQRI
55
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y
Du f x , y f x x , y cos T f y x , y sin T 2 x cos T §¨ 2 ·¸ sin T .
© ¹
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y
The partial derivatives are f x x , y y 2 and f y x , y ln x 2 xy.
x
§y ·
6RZHKDYH f x , y f x x , y i f y x , y j ¨ y 2 ¸ i ln x 2 xy j.
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Lesson 15: Directional Derivatives and Gradients
7KHJUDGLHQWRIWKHIXQFWLRQRIWKUHHYDULDEOHV f ( x , y , z ) x 2 y 2 4 z is
f x , y , z f x ( x , y , z ) i f y ( x , y , z ) j f z ( x , y , z )k 2 xi 2 yj 4k .
$WWKHSRLQWͼíͽ f 2, 1, 1 4 i 2 j 4k . z
4
2 2 y
4
,QWKLVFDVHWKHJUDGLHQWLVSRLQWLQJGRZQZDUGDWWKHSRLQW x4
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56
6WXG\7LSV
x 7KHJUDGLHQWRIDIXQFWLRQRIWZRͼRUPRUHͽYDULDEOHVLVDYHFWRUYDOXHGIXQFWLRQ
x *UDGLHQWVRIIXQFWLRQVRIWZRYDULDEOHVDUHRUWKRJRQDOWROHYHOFXUYHVDQGJUDGLHQWVRIIXQFWLRQVRI
WKUHHYDULDEOHVDUHRUWKRJRQDOWROHYHOVXUIDFHV
3LWIDOOV
x ,QWKHGH¿QLWLRQRIGLUHFWLRQDOGHULYDWLYHWKHGLUHFWLRQYHFWRUXPXVWEHDXQLWYHFWRU
3UREOHPV
Find the directional derivative of the function f ͼx, yͽ xíxy + 9y at the point PͼͽLQWKHGLUHFWLRQ
of v 3 i 4 j.
5 5
Find the directional derivative of the function f ͼx, yͽ ex sin y at the point PͼʌͽLQWKHGLUHFWLRQRI
v íi.
Find the directional derivative of the function f ͼx, y, zͽ x + y + z at the point PͼͽLQWKHGLUHFWLRQ
of v = iíj + k.
Find a normal vector to the level curve f ͼx, yͽ íxíy = 6 at the point Pͼͽ
57
Tangent Planes and Normal Vectors to a Surface
Lesson 16
Topics
'H¿QLWLRQVDQG7KHRUHPV
x 7KHHTXDWLRQRIWKHWDQJHQWSODQHFDQEHZULWWHQDV
Fx x0 , y0 , z 0 x x0 Fy x0 , y0 , z 0 y y0 Fz x0 , y0 , z 0 z z 0 0.
6XPPDU\
,QWKLVOHVVRQZHVKRZKRZWR¿QGWKHHTXDWLRQRIDWDQJHQWSODQHWRDVXUIDFH7KHVHFUHWLVWRXVHWKHIDFW
IURPWKHSUHYLRXVOHVVRQWKDWJUDGLHQWVDUHRUWKRJRQDOWROHYHOVXUIDFHV:HDOVRVKRZWKDWDSSUR[LPDWLRQVE\
Lesson 16: Tangent Planes and Normal Vectors to a Surface
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([DPSOH z
2
The level surface F ͼx, y, zͽ IRUWKHIXQFWLRQRIWKUHH
YDULDEOHVF ͼx, y, zͽ x + y + zíLVDVSKHUHRIUDGLXV
í
F ͼx, y, zͽ x + y + zí RUx + y + z = 9. í
2
2
The gradient of the function is F x , y , z 2 xi 2 yj 2 zk , y
x
ZKLFKLVQRUPDOWRWKHVXUIDFHDWWKHSRLQWͼͽ
F 1, 2, 2 2i 4 j 4k . ͼ6HH)LJXUHͽ í
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Figure 16.1
58
6ROXWLRQ
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F ͼx, y, zͽ x + yíz = 0.
z
Using this normal vector and the given point, we have 4
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SODQHLVxyíz ͼ6HH)LJXUHͽ
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Fx x x0 Fy y y0 Fz z z 0 0
f x x0 y0 x x0 f y x0 y0 y y0 z z 0 0
z z0 f x x0 y0 x x0 f y x0 y0 y y0 .
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7KLVLVVLPLODUWRWKHWDQJHQWOLQHDSSUR[LPDWLRQWRDFXUYHLQHOHPHQWDU\FDOFXOXV
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y
Find an equation of the tangent plane to the surface f ͼx, yͽ DWWKHSRLQWͼͽ
x
Find an equation of the tangent plane to the surface xy + z DWWKHSRLQWͼíͽ
60
Lagrange Multipliers—Constrained Optimization
Lesson 17
Topics
x Lagrange multipliers.
x $SSOLFDWLRQVWRRSWLPL]DWLRQSUREOHPVZLWKFRQVWUDLQWV
'H¿QLWLRQVDQG7KHRUHPV
6XPPDU\
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FRQVWUDLQWV)RULQVWDQFH\RXPLJKWZDQWWR¿QGWKHPD[LPXPYROXPHRIDER[ZLWKWKHFRQVWUDLQWWKDWWKH
FRVWRIWKHPDWHULDOIRUWKHER[LV¿[HG:HEHJLQWKLVOHVVRQZLWKDVLPSOHH[DPSOHRIPD[LPL]LQJWKHYDOXHRI
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ZHVDZLQRXUSUHYLRXVOHVVRQRQPD[LPXPPLQLPXPDSSOLFDWLRQV
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18 y
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x
y
§ 18 y · y 9 y2 x2 y
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8
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2 y2 y 2
y 2
1H[WXVHWKHFRQVWUDLQWHTXDWLRQ x 2 2 1 1 2 y 2 16 y 2 8.
3 4 16 16
9 y2 9 8 9x 3 2.
Thus, we have y 2 2 and x 2
16 16
2 2
§ · § ·
With these values of x and yWKHPD[LPXPYDOXHLV f ¨ 3 2 , 2 2 ¸ 4¨ 3 2 ¸2 2 24.
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or constraints.
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63
Applications of Lagrange Multipliers
Lesson 18
Topics
x 0D[LPL]LQJWKHYROXPHRIDSDFNDJH
x 6QHOO¶VODZRIUHIUDFWLRQ
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x When light waves traveling in a transparent medium strike the surface of a second transparent
PHGLXPWKH\WHQGWR³EHQG´LQRUGHUWRIROORZWKHSDWKRIPLQLPXPWLPH7KLVWHQGHQF\LVFDOOHG
UHIUDFWLRQDQGLWLVGHVFULEHGE\6QHOO¶VODZ RIUHIUDFWLRQ.
P
Let v and vEHWKHYHORFLWLHVRIOLJKWLQWKHWZRPHGLD Medium 1
DQGOHWWKHDQJOHVEHDVLQGLFDWHGLQWKH¿JXUH7KHQ
d1
sin T1 sin T 2 ș1
.
v1 v2 x y
d2
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Lesson 18: Applications of Lagrange Multipliers
a=x+y Q
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third equations, xz Ȝ and xy Ȝ, we have xz = xy z = y)URPWKH¿UVWDQGWKLUGHTXDWLRQVyz = Ȝ and
xy ȜZHKDYHyz Ȝ = xy x z6RZHKDYHy = z, x y z1H[WXVHWKHFRQVWUDLQWHTXDWLRQ
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a=x+y Q
Because speed = distance/time, we have time = distance/speed, which is what we want to minimize.
d1 2 x 2 d22 y 2
+HQFHZHZDQWWRPLQLPL]H T x , y VXEMHFWWRWKHFRQVWUDLQWg ͼx, yͽ x + y = a.
v1 v2
65
Using Lagrange multipliers,
T x , y O g x , y
x y
i j Oi O j .
v1 d12 x 2 v2 d 2 2 x 2
6RZHQHHGWRVROYHWKHWKUHHHTXDWLRQV
x O
v1 d12 x 2
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x y a.
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v1 d1 x v2 d 2 2 y 2
x y sin T1 sin T 2
)URPWKH¿JXUH sin T1 and sin T 2 , ZKLFKJLYHV6QHOO¶VODZ .
d1 2 x 2 d22 y 2 v1 v2
6WXG\7LS
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3 1
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where xUHSUHVHQWVWKHXQLWVRIODERUͼDWSHUXQLWͽDQGyUHSUHVHQWVWKHXQLWVRIFDSLWDOͼDWSHU
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this manufacturer.
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66
Iterated Integrals and Area in the Plane
Lesson 19
Topics
x Iterated integrals.
'H¿QLWLRQVDQG7KHRUHPV
h2 y g2 x
d
ª f x , y dx º dy and
b
ª f x , y dy º dx .
x Iterated integrals are of the form ³ «¬ ³
c h1 y »¼ ³ «¬ ³
a g1 x »¼
6XPPDU\
We now turn to the theory of integration for multivariable calculus. We begin with iterated integrals, which
are nothing more than repeated simple integrals. We show how an iterated integral can be used to calculate the
area of a planar region. We end the lesson by studying how you can reverse the order of integration. In fact, for
some iterated integrals, you must reverse the order of integration.
([DPSOH
4 x
Calculate the iterated integral ³ ª¬« ³
2 1
2 xy dy º dx .
¼»
6ROXWLRQ
First, we evaluate the integral in the brackets with respect to y, and then we integrate the result with respect to x.
x 4
4
ª x 2 xy dy º dx 4 4 ª x4 x2 º
ª¬ xy 2 º¼ dx ³ x x dx 64 8 4 2
3
³2 ¬« ³1 ¼» ³
2 1 2 «¬ 4 2 »¼
2
54 .
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bounded by the graphs of f ͼxͽ VLQ x and g ͼxͽFRV x π 5π
Figure 19.1
67
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5S sin x
4
A ³S ³
4
cos x
dy dx
5S sin x
³S > y @
4
cos x
dx
4
5S
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4
5S
> cos x sin x @S 44 2 2.
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6NHWFKWKHUHJLRQZKRVHDUHDLVUHSUHVHQWHGE\WKHLWHUDWHGLQWHJUDO ³ ³ dx dy.
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shown in )LJXUH. 4
Figure 19.2
([DPSOH
2 2 2
6NHWFKWKHUHJLRQRILQWHJUDWLRQUHSUHVHQWHGE\WKHLWHUDWHGLQWHJUDO ³ ³ e y dy dx. Then, evaluate the integral
Lesson 19: Iterated Integrals and Area in the Plane
0 x
by reversing the order of integration.
6ROXWLRQ 4
y=x
The region of integration is shown in )LJXUH.
2 2 2 2 y 2
Reversing the order, we have ³³ e y dy dx ³³ e y dx dy. 2
0 x 0 0
68
6WXG\7LSV
x Iterated integrals are similar to partial derivatives in that you integrate with respect to one variable
ZKLOHKROGLQJWKHRWKHUYDULDEOH¿[HG)RUH[DPSOHLI
f x x, y 2 xy , then f x , y ³ f x, y dx ³ 2 xy dx
x x2 y C y .
x Iterated integrals are usually written without brackets or parentheses. For instance, the iterated
LQWHJUDOLQ([DPSOHLVXVXDOO\ZULWWHQDVIROORZV
4 x 4 x
³ ª«¬ ³
2 1
2 xy dy º dx
»¼ ³³
2 1
2 xy dy dx.
3LWIDOOV
x For area computations, the outer limits of integration must be constants. For instance, the following
x 4
iterated integral is incorrect: ³ ³ 2 dx dy.
0 y
x .HHSLQPLQGWKDWWKHYDULDEOHRILQWHJUDWLRQFDQQHYHUDSSHDUDVDOLPLWRILQWHJUDWLRQ)RUH[DPSOH
x
the following integral is incorrect: ³ y dx.
0
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x
Evaluate the integral ³ x 2 y dy.
0
2y y
Evaluate the integral ³ dx.
1 x
1 2
Evaluate the iterated integral ³ ³ x y dy dx.
0 0
S 1
2
Evaluate the iterated integral ³ ³
0 0
y cos x dy dx.
69
1 1 y 2
Evaluate the iterated integral ³³
0 1 y 2
dx dy.
Then, reverse the order of integration and evaluate the resulting iterated integral.
2 1
Evaluate the iterated integral ³³
0 x
dy dx.
2
Then, reverse the order of integration and evaluate the resulting iterated integral.
1 2 2
Evaluate the iterated integral ³³
0 2x
4e y dy dx.
2 4
Evaluate the iterated integral ³³
0 y2
x sin x dx dy.
Lesson 19: Iterated Integrals and Area in the Plane
70
Double Integrals and Volume
Lesson 20
Topics
x Average value.
'H¿QLWLRQVDQG7KHRUHPV
³³ cf x, y dA
R
c ³³ f x , y dA
R
³³ ª¬ f x, y g x, y º¼ dA ³³ f x, y dA ³³ g x, y dA.
R R R
x Let f be integrable over the plane region R of area A. The DYHUDJHYDOXH of f over R is
1 f x , y dA.
A ³³
R
6XPPDU\
We continue our study of integration of functions of two variables. We show that the volume of a solid
can be represented by a double integral. These double integrals have many of the same properties as
single integrals. Although the motivation for double integrals was area and volume, we will see in upcoming
lessons that there are many more applications of such integrals. We end the lesson with the familiar topic of
average value.
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Calculate the volume below the surface z íy and above the rectangle given by 0 d x dd y d 2.
6ROXWLRQ z
4 2
The volume is given by the double integral ³³ f ( x, y ) dA ³ ³ 6 2 y dy dx.
R
0 0
z = xíy
4 2 4 2 4 4
³ ³ 6 2 y dy dx ³
0 0 0
ª¬6 y y 2 º¼ dx
0 ³0
8 dx >8 x @0 32 .
y
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([DPSOH x
Figure 20.1
The double integral for the volume under the surface z VLQ y2 VLQ ͼy2ͽDQGDERYHWKHUHJLRQERXQGHGE\
y x , x DQGy LV V ³ ³ x sin y 2 dy dx. Reverse the order of integration.
2 1
2 0 2
6ROXWLRQ
y
The region of integration is a triangle, and the given integral uses
y x
YHUWLFDOUHSUHVHQWDWLYHUHFWDQJOHVͼ6HH)LJXUHͽ 2
x 2y
If instead we use horizontal representative rectangles, we obtain 1 (2, 1)
the integral
2 1 1 2y
V ³³ sin y 2 dy dx ³³ sin y 2 dx dy.
0 x
2 0 0 x
2
1RWLFHWKDWWKH¿UVWLQWHJUDOFDQQRWEHGRQHHDVLO\ZKHUHDVWKH Figure 20.2
([DPSOH
2
DQGͼͽ
6ROXWLRQ
7KHDUHDRIWKHUHJLRQLVî 7KHDYHUDJHYDOXHLV
1 f x , y dA 1 4 3 1 xy dy dx .
A ³³
12 ³0 ³0 2
R
7KLVLQWHJUDOLVHDV\WRHYDOXDWHDQGWKH¿QDODQVZHULV 3 .
2
72
6WXG\7LSV
x Double integrals do not only represent areas and volumes. We will see many other applications in
upcoming lessons.
x It is very helpful to draw the region of integration together with a representative rectangle.
x &RPSXWHUVDQGJUDSKLQJFDOFXODWRUVFDQHYDOXDWHGRXEOHLQWHJUDOV6RPHWLPHVWKHDQVZHUPLJKWEHDQ
DSSUR[LPDWLRQ7KHIROORZLQJDUHWZRUHVXOWVIURPDFDOFXODWRU
1 2y
³³ sin y 2 dx dy cos(1) 1
0 0
2 1
³ ³ x
sin y 2 dy dx 0.4596976941.
0 2
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x Remember that the outer limits of integration must be constants, and the variable of integration can
QHYHUDSSHDUDVDOLPLWRILQWHJUDWLRQ)RUH[DPSOHWKHIROORZLQJGRXEOHLQWHJUDOLVLQFRUUHFWIRUWZR
2 1
reasons: ³ ³x sin y 2 dx dy.
y 2
x ,Q([DPSOHWKHJLYHQLQWHJUDOFDQQRWEHHYDOXDWHGE\WKHIXQGDPHQWDOWKHRUHPRIFDOFXOXVEHFDXVH
the integrand, sin y2, does not have an elementary antiderivative.
3UREOHPV
y
Find the volume of the solid bounded by the surface z DQGDERYHWKHUHFWDQJOHxy
2
Find the volume of the solid bounded by the surface z íxy and above the triangle bounded by
y x, y DQGx
6HWXSWKHGRXEOHLQWHJUDOIRUWKHYROXPHRIWKHVROLGLQWKH¿UVWRFWDQWERXQGHGE\y íx2
and z íx2.
1 1
2 2
Evaluate the iterated integral ³³ y
e x dx dy by switching the order of integration.
0 2
2 2
Evaluate the iterated integral ³³
0 x2
y cos y dy dx by switching the order of integration.
2
Find the average value of the function f ͼx, yͽ xRYHUWKHUHFWDQJOHZLWKYHUWLFHVͼͽͼͽͼͽ
DQGͼͽ
Find the average value of the function f ͼx, yͽ VLQͼx + yͽRYHUWKHUHFWDQJOHZLWKYHUWLFHVͼͽͼʌͽ
ͼʌ, ʌͽDQGͼʌͽ
2 y
:K\LVWKHH[SUHVVLRQ ³0 ³0 x y dy dx invalid?
Lesson 20: Double Integrals and Volume
Double Integrals in Polar Coordinates
Lesson 21
Topics
x Polar coordinates.
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x Conversion formulas:
x r cos ș, y r sin ș
y
x2 y2 r 2 , tan T .
x
x Double integrals in polar coordinates: Let R be a planar region consisting of all points
x, y r cos T , r sin T satisfying gͼșͽrg2ͼșͽĮșȕDQGͼȕíĮͽʌ.
E g 2 T
Then, ³³ f x, y dA ³D ³
R
g1 T
f r cos T , r sin T r dr dT .
6XPPDU\
In this lesson, we develop double integrals in polar coordinates. This conversion is especially useful if the
UHJLRQRILQWHJUDWLRQRUWKHLQWHJUDQGLVHDVLO\H[SUHVVHGLQSRODUFRRUGLQDWHV:HEHJLQZLWKDUHYLHZRI
polar coordinates and then develop the formula for a double integral in polar coordinates. In this case, the
differential of area, dA, becomes r dr Gș'RQ¶WIRUJHWWKHH[WUDr factor. We illustrate these ideas with area and
YROXPHH[DPSOHV
y
([DPSOH
2
Use polar coordinates to describe the region in )LJXUH.
6ROXWLRQ 1
75
([DPSOH
2 4 y2
Evaluate the double integral ³³
0 0
y dx dy by converting to polar coordinates.
6ROXWLRQ
2 4 y2 S 2
³ ³ r sin T r dr dT .
2
In polar coordinates, the integral becomes ³³
0 0
y dx dy
0 0
This integral is easy to evaluate because the limits of integration are constants:
2
S S 3
2ªr º
2
³0 ³0 r sin T r dr dT ³0 «¬ 3 sin T »¼ 0 dT
2
8 S 2 sinT dT 8 cos T S 2
3 ³0 3
> @0
8 ª0 1 º 8.
3¬
¼ 3
([DPSOH ʌ
2
6HWXSWKHGRXEOHLQWHJUDOLQSRODUFRRUGLQDWHVWR¿QGWKH
area of the region bounded by the polar graph r FRV ș. r = 3 cos 3θ
ͼ6HH)LJXUHͽ
θ=π
6ROXWLRQ 6
7KHJUDSKLVDURVHFXUYHZLWKSHWDOV
Lesson 21: Double Integrals in Polar Coordinates
2QHSHWDOLVGH¿QHGE\ S d T d S , θ = −π
6
6 6
where 0 d r d 3cos 3T .
S
6RWKHWRWDODUHDLV A 3³ 6
3cos 3T
r dr dT 9S .
S
6
³ 0 4
Figure 21.2
([DPSOH
6HWXSWKHGRXEOHLQWHJUDOIRUWKHYROXPHRIWKHLFHFUHDPFRQHERXQGHGDERYHE\WKHKHPLVSKHUH
z 2 x 2 y 2 and bounded below by the cone z x2 y2 .
76
z
6ROXWLRQ
:H¿UVWGHWHUPLQHZKHUHWKHVXUIDFHVLQWHUVHFWE\HTXDWLQJ z= 2 − x2 − y2
the equations:
2 x2 y2 x2 y2
z= x2 + y2
2 x2 y2 x2 y2
2 2x2 2 y2 x2 + y2 = 1
x2 y2 1.
y
x
ͼ6HH)LJXUHͽ Figure 21.3
z 2 x2 y2 2 r 2 and z x2 y2 r.
2S 1
V ³ ³ ª 2 r 2 r º r dr dT .
0 0 ¬ ¼
4 2 1
V S.
3
6WXG\7LSV
x The area of a polar sector is A r¨r¨ș. Hence, the differential of area in rectangular coordinates,
dA dy dx dx dy becomes r dr Gș in polar coordinates.
3LWIDOO
x Remember that the differential of area in polar coordinates is dA r dr Gș. Don’t forget the r.
77
3UREOHPV
3 9 x2
Evaluate the iterated integral ³³0 0
x dy dx by converting to polar coordinates.
2 4 x2
Evaluate the iterated integral ³ ³
2 0
x 2
y 2 dy dx by converting to polar coordinates.
2 2 x x2
Evaluate the iterated integral ³³0 0
xy dy dx by converting to polar coordinates.
8VHDGRXEOHLQWHJUDOLQSRODUFRRUGLQDWHVWR¿QGWKHDUHDRIWKHUHJLRQHQFORVHGE\WKHJUDSKRIWKH
equation r FRV ș.
8VHDGRXEOHLQWHJUDOLQSRODUFRRUGLQDWHVWR¿QGWKHDUHDRIWKHUHJLRQHQFORVHGE\WKHJUDSKVRIWKH
equations r DQGr
8VHDGRXEOHLQWHJUDOLQSRODUFRRUGLQDWHVWR¿QGWKHDUHDERXQGHGE\WKHWKUHHOHDYHGURVHFXUYH
r VLQ ș.
8VHDGRXEOHLQWHJUDOLQSRODUFRRUGLQDWHVWR¿QGWKHYROXPHRIWKHVROLGLQWKH¿UVWRFWDQWERXQGHG
by z xy and x2 + y2
8VHDGRXEOHLQWHJUDOLQSRODUFRRUGLQDWHVWR¿QGWKHYROXPHRIWKHVROLGERXQGHGE\ z x 2 y 2 , z
and x2 + y2
8VHDGRXEOHLQWHJUDOLQSRODUFRRUGLQDWHVWR¿QGWKHYROXPHRIWKHVROLGLQVLGHWKHKHPLVSKHUH
z 16 x 2 y 2 and outside the cylinder x2 + y2
78
Centers of Mass for Variable Density
Lesson 22
Topics
x Mass.
x Moments.
'H¿QLWLRQVDQG7KHRUHPV
x If the planar lamina given by the region R has variable density ȡͼx, yͽWKHQWKHPDVV is
m ³³ U x, y dA .
R
Mx ³³ y U x, y dA, M
R
y ³³ x U x, y dA .
R
§ My Mx ·
x If m is the mass of the lamina, the FHQWHURIPDVVLVͼଲxଲ y ͽ ¨ , ¸.
© m m ¹
6XPPDU\
In this lesson, we apply our knowledge of double integrals to the calculation of mass and centers of mass.
The formula for mass is the double integral of the density function. The formulas for the moments with
UHVSHFWWRWKHD[HVDUHPXFKVLPSOHUWKDQWKHFRUUHVSRQGLQJIRUPXODVLQ
y
HOHPHQWDU\FDOFXOXV,QVRPHH[DPSOHVSRODUFRRUGLQDWHV\LHOGHDVLHU
y=3
integrals than Cartesian coordinates.
(0, 3) (2, 3)
3
([DPSOH
2 R
)LQGWKHPDVVRIWKHWULDQJXODUODPLQDZLWKYHUWLFHVͼͽͼͽ 2y
x
DQGͼͽLIWKHGHQVLW\DWWKHSRLQWͼx, yͽLVȡͼx, yͽ x + y. 1 3
ͼ6HH)LJXUHͽ
x
(0, 0) 1 2 3
Figure 22.1
79
6ROXWLRQ
2y
The boundaries of the triangular region are x y DQGx .
3
3 2y
³³ 2 x y dA ³0 ³0 2 x y dx dy
3
m 10.
R
([DPSOH
6ROXWLRQ
The mass is
2 4 x2 2 4 x2 2
³ > y@ ³ 4 x dx
2
m ³ ³
2 0
1 dy dx
2 0
dx
2
2
ª x3 º ª§ 8· § 8 ·º 32 .
«¬ 4 x 3 »¼ «¬¨© 8 3 ¸¹ ¨© 8 3 ¸¹ »¼ 3
2
2 4 x2 256 .
The moment about the xD[LVLV M x ³ ³ 2 0
y dy dx
15
256
Mx 15 8 , DQGWKHFHQWHURIPDVVLVͼଲxଲ y ͽ § 0, 8 · .
6RZHKDYHଲ y ¨ ¸
m 32 5 © 5¹
3
Lesson 22: Centers of Mass for Variable Density
([DPSOH
6ROXWLRQ
7KHFRPSXWDWLRQVDUHYHU\VLPLODUWRWKHSUHYLRXVH[DPSOH
2 4 x2 8192 .
The moment about the xD[LVLV M x ³ ³ y 2 y dy dx
2 0 105
80
y
8192
Mx
6Rଲ y = 105
= 16 .
m 512
15
7 4
x Usually, density is mass per unit of volume. But for planar laminas, density is mass per unit of
surface area.
x The formulas for center of mass are equivalent to those studied in elementary calculus.
x The setup of the problem is the most important step. Calculating the resulting integrals can be
done by hand or by using computers and graphing calculators.
x 1RWLFHKRZZHWRRNDGYDQWDJHRIV\PPHWU\LQ([DPSOHVDQG
3LWIDOO
x The formula for Mx involves y, and the formula for My involves x6LPLODUO\WKHIRUPXODIRUଲ x
involves yDQGWKHIRUPXODIRUଲ y involves x.
3UREOHPV
)LQGWKHPDVVDQGFHQWHURIPDVVRIWKHWULDQJXODUODPLQDZLWKYHUWLFHVͼͽͼͽDQGͼͽLIWKH
density is ȡͼx, yͽ y.
)LQGWKHPDVVDQGFHQWHURIPDVVRIWKHWULDQJXODUODPLQDZLWKYHUWLFHVͼͽͼͽDQGͼͽLIWKH
density is ȡͼx, yͽ x.
Find the mass and center of mass of the lamina bounded by y x , y DQGx LIWKHGHQVLW\LV
ȡͼx, yͽ y.
Find the mass and center of mass of the lamina bounded by y x2, y DQGx LIWKHGHQVLW\LV
ȡͼx, yͽ xy.
Find the mass and center of mass of the lamina bounded by x2 + y2 xDQGy if the density is
ȡͼx, yͽ ͼx2 + y2ͽ
Lesson 22: Centers of Mass for Variable Density
82
Surface Area of a Solid
Lesson 23
Topics
x 6XUIDFHDUHDRIVROLGVLQVSDFH
x 6XUIDFHDUHDLQSRODUFRRUGLQDWHV
'H¿QLWLRQVDQG7KHRUHPV
x Let the function f represent a smooth curve on the interval > a , b @ . The DUFOHQJWK between a and b is
b 2
s ³ 1 ª¬ f c x º¼ dx.
a
x If a piece of arc length is rotated about the xD[LVWKHVXUIDFHDUHD of the resulting surface of
revolution is
b 2
A 2S ³ f x 1 ª¬ f c x º¼ dx.
a
x If a piece of arc length is rotated about the yD[LVWKHVXUIDFHDUHD of the resulting surface of
revolution is
b 2
A 2S ³ x 1 ª¬ f c x º¼ dx .
a
x The GLIIHUHQWLDORIDUFOHQJWK is
2
ds 1 ª¬ f c x º¼ dx .
2 2
S ³³ 1 ª¬ f x x , y º¼ ª¬ f y x , y º¼ dA.
R
x The GLIIHUHQWLDORIVXUIDFHDUHD is
2 2
dS 1 ª¬ f x x , y º¼ ª¬ f y x , y º¼ dA.
6XPPDU\
The formula for surface area is similar to that of arc length. Both involve an important differential: the
differential of arc length and the differential of surface area. After a brief review of arc length and surfaces
of revolution, we present the general formula for surface area of graphs of functions of two variables.
,QVRPHH[DPSOHVZHZLOOVHHWKDWSRODUFRRUGLQDWHVDUHXVHIXOLQVLPSOLI\LQJWKHFRPSXWDWLRQV
([DPSOH z
2
(0, 0, 2)
6ROXWLRQ
(0, 2, 0)
We have fx ͼx, yͽ íf y ͼx, yͽ íDQG 1 y
2
(2, 0, 0) 1
(1, 1, 0)
x2
2 2 Figure 23.1
dS 1 f x f y dA 1 1 1 dA 3 dA .
6RWKHVXUIDFHDUHDLV
2 2
S ³³ 1 ª¬ f x x , y º¼ ª¬ f y x , y º¼ dA ³³ 3 dA 3 ³³ dA.
R R R
2 2 x
Using a vertical representative rectangle, S 3³ ³ dy dx 2 3.
0 0
([DPSOH
6ROXWLRQ
Lesson 23: Surface Area of a Solid
The partial derivatives are fx ͼx, yͽ íx and f y ͼx, yͽ +HQFH
2 2
S ³³ 1 ª¬ f x x , y º¼ ª¬ f y x , y º¼ dA
R
³³ 1 4 x 2 1 dA
R
³³ 2 4 x 2 dA.
R
y
:HQRZQHHGWR¿QGWKHERXQGVIRUWKHUHJLRQGHWHUPLQHGE\WKH
WKUHHSRLQWVͼ6HH)LJXUHͽ
7KLVLQWHJUDOLVGLI¿FXOWWRHYDOXDWH$FDOFXODWRUJLYHV y = xí
í
2 | 1.618.
S ln 3 2
3
6ROXWLRQ
x y
The partial derivatives are f x and f y . The differential of surface area is
x y2
2
x y2
2
2 2
§ x · § y ·
dS 1 ¨ ¸ ¨ ¸ dA
¨ x2 y2 ¸ ¨ x2 y2 ¸
© ¹ © ¹
2
1 x2 y dA
x2 y2 x2 y2
2x2 2 y2 2( x 2 y 2 )
dA dA 2 dA.
x2 y2 x2 y2
+HQFHWKHVXUIDFHDUHDRIWKHLFHFUHDPFRQHLV
S ³³ dS ³³ 2 dA 2 ³³ dA 2 Area of circle 2 S S 2.
R R R
6WXG\7LSV
x Notice the similarity between the differential of arc length and the differential of surface area:
2
ds 1 ª¬ f c x º¼ dx differential of arc length
2 2
dS 1 ª¬ f x x , y º¼ ª¬ f y x , y º¼ dA differential of surface area.
85
x 6XUIDFHDUHDLVWKHGRXEOHLQWHJUDORIWKHGLIIHUHQWLDORIVXUIDFHDUHD S ³³ dS .
R
x <RXFRXOGKDYHXVHGHOHPHQWDU\JHRPHWU\WRVROYH([DPSOH7KHVXUIDFHDUHDRIDULJKWFLUFXODU
cone of height h and radius r is S S r r 2 h 2 . ,Q([DPSOHr h DQGKHQFH S S 2.
3LWIDOOV
x ,QHOHPHQWDU\FDOFXOXVPDQ\RIWKHLQWHJUDQGVIRUDUFOHQJWKDQGVXUIDFHDUHGLI¿FXOWWRLQWHJUDWH
7KLVLVDOVRWUXHLQPXOWLYDULDEOHFDOFXOXVDVZHVDZLQ([DPSOH
3UREOHPV
Find the area of the surface given by f ͼx, yͽ x + 2y over the triangular region RZLWKYHUWLFHVͼͽ
ͼͽDQGͼͽ
Find the area of the surface given by f ͼx, yͽ xíy over the square region RZLWKYHUWLFHVͼͽ
ͼͽͼͽDQGͼͽ
Find the area of the surface given by f ͼx, yͽ xíy over the circular region R given by
R ^ x, y : x 2
y 2 d 9` .
6HWXSWKHGRXEOHLQWHJUDOIRUWKHDUHDRIWKHSRUWLRQRIWKHSDUDERORLGz íx2íy2LQWKH¿UVWRFWDQW
86
Triple Integrals and Applications
Lesson 24
Topics
x Triple integrals.
'H¿QLWLRQVDQG7KHRUHPV
6XPPDU\
,QWKLVOHVVRQZHH[WHQGRXUNQRZOHGJHRIGRXEOHLQWHJUDOVWRWULSOHLQWHJUDOV:HEHJLQE\XVLQJWULSOH
LQWHJUDOVWRFDOFXODWHYROXPHLQZKLFKWKHLQWHJUDQGLV/DWHULQWKHOHVVRQZHXVHWULSOHLQWHJUDOVWR
calculate the mass of a solid. An important skill with triple integrals is changing the order of integration.
,QJHQHUDOWKHUHDUHVL[SRVVLEOHRUGHUVRILQWHJUDWLRQ
([DPSOH
4 3 2
Evaluate the triple integral ³³³
0 0 0
1 dz dy dx.
6ROXWLRQ
7KLVWULSOHLQWHJUDOUHSUHVHQWVWKHYROXPHRIDER[:HHYDOXDWHWKHLQWHJUDOLQWKHVDPHPDQQHUDVZH
evaluated double integrals,
z
4 3 2 4 3 2
³³³
0 0 0
dz dy dx ³ ³ > z @ dy dx
0 0 0
4 3
³ ³ 2 dy dx
0 0 2
4 3
³ > 2 y @ dx
0 0
4
³ 6 dx
0
4 4 3
> 6 x @0 24.
x y
ͼ6HH)LJXUHͽ
Figure 24.1
87
([DPSOH z
1
6NHWFKWKHVROLGZKRVHYROXPHLVUHSUHVHQWHGE\WKHWULSOHLQWHJUDO z íy
1 2 1 y
³ ³ ³ dz dx dy. Then, rewrite the integral in the order dy dz dx.
0 0 0
6ROXWLRQ
1
y
The limits of integration determine the shape of the solid.
ͼ6HH)LJXUHͽ
2
1 2 1 y 2 1 1 z
Because z íy y íz, ³ ³ ³ x
0 0 0
dz dx dy ³³³
0 0 0
dy dz dx.
%RWKLQWHJUDOVJLYHWKHVDPHYROXPHRI Figure 24.2
([DPSOH
z
6HWXSWKHWULSOHLQWHJUDOIRUWKHYROXPHRIWKHVROLGUHJLRQERXQGHG 2
6ROXWLRQ 1
:HPXVW¿UVW¿QGWKHLQWHUVHFWLRQRIWKHWZRSDUDERORLGVE\VHWWLQJ í
í
the equations equal to each other:
í
z 2 x2 y2 x2 y2 2 2x2 2 y2 x2 y2 1. y
1 1
x
The region of integration is the unit circle. The volume is
Figure 24.3
1 1 x 2 2 x2 y2
V ³ ³
1 1 x 2 ³ x2 y2
dz dy dx.
Lesson 24: Triple Integrals and Applications
7KLVLQWHJUDOLVGLI¿FXOWDQGWKHDQVZHULVʌ,QWKHQH[WOHVVRQZHZLOOVHHKRZWRVROYHWKHSUREOHPXVLQJ
cylindrical coordinates.
([DPSOH
)LQGWKHPDVVRIWKHXQLWFXEHLQWKH¿UVWRFWDQWJLYHQWKDWWKHGHQVLW\DWWKHSRLQWͼx, y, zͽLVWKHVTXDUHRILWV
distance to the origin.
88
6ROXWLRQ
1 1 1
³³³ U x, y , z dV ³ ³ ³ k x y 2 z 2 dz dy dx.
2
m
0 0 0
Q
7KLVLQWHJUDOLVQRWGLI¿FXOWWRHYDOXDWHDQGWKH¿QDODQVZHULVk.
6WXG\7LSV
x -XVWDVZLWKGRXEOHLQWHJUDOVZHRIWHQRPLWLQWHJUDQGVRI)RULQVWDQFHLQ([DPSOH
4 3 2 4 3 2
³ ³ ³ 1 dz dy dx ³ ³ ³ dz dy dx.
0 0 0 0 0 0
x It is worth repeating that the setup of a problem is more important than the actual integrations.
3LWIDOO
x Remember that the variable of integration cannot appear as a limit of integration. The following triple
1 2 1 z
integral is incorrect: ³ ³ ³ dz dx dy.
0 0 0
3UREOHPV
5 2 1
Evaluate the triple integral ³ ³ ³ dy dx dz. What does this represent?
0 0 0
3 2 1
Evaluate the triple integral ³ ³ ³ x y z dx dz dy.
0 0 0
1 1 1
Evaluate the triple integral ³ ³ ³
1 1 1
x 2 y 2 z 2 dx dy dz.
6HWXSWKHWULSOHLQWHJUDOIRUWKHYROXPHRIWKHVROLGLQWKH¿UVWRFWDQWERXQGHGE\WKHFRRUGLQDWHSODQHV
and the plane z íxíy.
89
6HWXSWKHLQWHJUDOIRUWKHPDVVRIWKHVROLGERXQGHGE\xy + 5z x y DQGz LIWKH
density is ȡͼx, y, zͽ y.
1 0 y2
Rewrite the iterated integral ³³ ³
0 1 0
dz dy dx using the order dy dz dx.
4 4 x 12 3x 6y
2 4
Rewrite the iterated integral ³³
0 0 ³0
dz dy dx using the order dy dx dz.
Lesson 24: Triple Integrals and Applications
90
Triple Integrals in Cylindrical Coordinates
Lesson 25
Topics
x Cylindrical coordinates.
x Conversion formulas.
'H¿QLWLRQVDQG7KHRUHPV
x Conversion formulas:
x r cos ș, y r sin ș, z z
y
r2 x2 + y2, tan ș , z z.
x
6XPPDU\
7KHF\OLQGULFDOFRRUGLQDWHV\VWHPLVWKHWKUHHGLPHQVLRQDOJHQHUDOL]DWLRQRISRODUFRRUGLQDWHV
These coordinates are especially useful for representing cylindrical surfaces and surfaces of revolution.
The conversion formulas are similar to the conversion formulas between polar coordinates and Cartesian
FRRUGLQDWHV:H¶OOVWXG\H[DPSOHVRIWULSOHLQWHJUDOVLQF\OLQGULFDOFRRUGLQDWHVDQGQRWHWKDWWKHGLIIHUHQWLDO
RIYROXPHKDVWKHH[WUDr factor, dV U࣠G]࣠GU࣠Gș.
([DPSOH
6ROXWLRQ
([DPSOH
6ROXWLRQ
y 3 S nS .
We have r2 x2 + y2 r DQG tan T 3, which gives T
x 1 3
Of course, z
7KHUHDUHPDQ\SRVVLEOHF\OLQGULFDOFRRUGLQDWHV)RUH[DPSOH r , T , z 2, S3 , 2
or r , T , z 2, 4S , 2 .
3
z
([DPSOH
([DPSOH y
x
θ =c
by z íx2íy2ͼ6HH)LJXUHͽ
Lesson 25: Triple Integrals in Cylindrical Coordinates
Figure 25.1
6ROXWLRQ
z
2
The intersection of the two paraboloids is obtained by setting the
equations equal to each other:
2S 1 2 r 2
The volume is V ³³³ dV ³ ³³ r dz dr dT . í
0 0 r2 y
Q
1 1
x
Figure 25.2
92
This integral is easy to evaluate:
2S 1 2 r 2
V ³ ³ > rz @
0 0 r2
dr dT
2S 1
³ ³ ª¬r 2 r r 2 º¼ dr dT
2
0 0
2S 1
3
³ ³ ª¬2r 2r º¼ dr dT
0 0
1
2S ª 2 r4 º
³0 «¬ r 2 »¼ dT
0
2S
2S 1 dT ª1T º S.
³0 2 «¬ 2 »¼ 0
6WXG\7LSV
x 1RWLFHWKDWF\OLQGULFDOFRRUGLQDWHVDUHWKHQDWXUDOH[WHQVLRQRI&DUWHVLDQFRRUGLQDWHVWR
three dimensions.
x When converting from one coordinate system to another, you can always check your answer by
converting back to the original coordinates.
x ,WLVKHOSIXOWRLGHQWLI\WKHFRRUGLQDWHV\VWHPUHSUHVHQWLQJDJLYHQSRLQW)RULQVWDQFHLQ([DPSOH
write r , T , z 4, 5S , 3 and x , y , z 2 3, 2, 3 .
6
3LWIDOOV
x The cylindrical coordinates of a point are not unique. In particular, the rYDOXHFDQEHSRVLWLYHRU
QHJDWLYH$QGWKHUHDUHLQ¿QLWHO\PDQ\FKRLFHVIRUWKHDQJOHș.
3UREOHPV
Find an equation in rectangular coordinates for the cylindrical equation r2 + z2
Find an equation in rectangular coordinates for the cylindrical equation r VLQș.
3
2S R1 R12 r 2 4S R 2 R 2 2 .
Verify that V 2³
0 ³ ³
R2 0
r dz dr dT
3
1 2
2 4 x2 4
Convert the integral ³ ³
2 4 x 2 ³ x2 y 2
x dz dy dx to cylindrical coordinates.
6HWXSWKHWULSOHLQWHJUDOLQF\OLQGULFDOFRRUGLQDWHVIRUWKHYROXPHRIWKHVROLGERXQGHGDERYH
by z x and below by z x2 + 2y2.
6HWXSWKHWULSOHLQWHJUDOLQF\OLQGULFDOFRRUGLQDWHVIRUWKHYROXPHRIWKHVROLGLQVLGHWKHVSKHUH
x2 + y2 + z2 DQGDERYHWKHXSSHUQDSSHRIWKHFRQHz2 x2 + y2.
Lesson 25: Triple Integrals in Cylindrical Coordinates
Triple Integrals in Spherical Coordinates
Lesson 26
Topics
x 6SKHULFDOFRRUGLQDWHV
x Conversion formulas.
'H¿QLWLRQVDQG7KHRUHPV
x Conversion formulas:
ȡ2 x2 + y2 + z2 ȡ x2 y 2 z 2
y
tan ș
x
cos z z .
U x2 y2 z 2
95
6XPPDU\
6SKHULFDOFRRUGLQDWHVDUHVLPLODUWRWKHORQJLWXGHDQGODWLWXGHFRRUGLQDWHVRQ(DUWK7KH¿UVWFRRUGLQDWHLVD
GLVWDQFHDQGWKHRWKHUWZRFRRUGLQDWHVDUHDQJOHV:HEHJLQE\GH¿QLQJVSKHULFDOFRRUGLQDWHVLQVSDFHDQG
GHYHORSWKHLUFRQYHUVLRQIRUPXODV$IWHUORRNLQJDWVRPHH[DPSOHVRIVXUIDFHVLQVSKHULFDOFRRUGLQDWHVZH
apply them to the calculation of volumes and mass. For spherical coordinates, the differential of volume is a bit
complicated: dV ȡ2 sin ࣠Gȡ࣠G࣠Gș.
([DPSOH
6ROXWLRQ
§ ·§ 3 ·
x U sin I cos T 4sin S cos S 4 ¨ 2 ¸¨ ¸ 6
4 6 © 2 ¹© 2 ¹
§ ·
y U sin I sin T 4sin S sin S 4 ¨ 2 ¸ §¨ 1 ·¸ 2
4 6 © 2 ¹© 2 ¹
§ ·
z U cos I 4 cos S 4¨ 2 ¸ 2 2.
4 © 2 ¹
([DPSOH
Lesson 26: Triple Integrals in Spherical Coordinates
z
6ROXWLRQ
y 0
We have U x2 y2 z 2 42 0 0 4, tan T 0 T 0,
x 4
and cos I z 0I S.
U 2
y
Therefore, U , T , I § 4, 0, S · ͼ6HH)LJXUHͽ ( x , y , z ) = ( 4, 0, 0 )
¨ ¸
© 2¹ ( e, θ , φ ) = ⎛⎜ 4, 0, π2 ⎞⎟
⎝ ⎠
x
Figure 26.1
96
z
([DPSOH
([DPSOH
c y
)LQGWKHYROXPHRIWKHLFHFUHDPFRQHERXQGHGDERYHE\WKHXSSHUKDOIRI x
the sphere x2 + y2 + z2 DQGEHORZE\ z x 2 y 2 ͼ6HH)LJXUHͽ
Figure 26.2
6ROXWLRQ
z
x2 y2 z z2 x2 y2
z= x2 + y2
2
x y z 2 2
x y x y
2 2 2 2
2
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y
x
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S
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4
2
U 2 sin I d U dI dT 4S ª 2 1º .
V ³³³ dV ³ ³ ³
Q
0 0 0 3 ¬ ¼
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write U , T , I §¨ 4, S , S ·¸ and x , y , z 6 , 2 , 2 2 .
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origin in spherical coordinates, but it is a point on the yD[LVLQUHFWDQJXODUFRRUGLQDWHV
x Don’t forget the complicated differential of volume in spherical coordinates, dV ȡ2 sin ࣠Gȡ࣠G࣠Gș.
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4
2
U 2 sin I dU dI dT 4S ª 2 1º .
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Q
0 0 0 3 ¬ ¼
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6HWXSWKHWULSOHLQWHJUDOLQVSKHULFDOFRRUGLQDWHVIRUWKHPDVVRIWKHVSKHUHRIUDGLXVLIWKHGHQVLW\LV
proportional to the distance of the point to the zD[LV
98
Vector Fields—Velocity, Gravity, Electricity
Lesson 27
Topics
x 9HFWRU¿HOGV
x 5RWDWLRQDQGUDGLDOYHFWRU¿HOGV
x 7KHJUDGLHQWDVDYHFWRU¿HOG
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x A YHFWRU¿HOG over a planar region R is a function F that assigns a vector )ͼx, yͽWRHDFKSRLQWLQR.
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í
) ͼx, yͽ xi + yj
) ͼͽ i + j
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UDGLDOYHFWRU¿HOGͼ6HH)LJXUHͽ Figure 27.2
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y2
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because F f .
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are conservative.
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the gradient of the potential.
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Curl, Divergence, Line Integrals
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Topics
x 7KHFXUORIDYHFWRU¿HOG
x 7KHGLYHUJHQFHRIDYHFWRU¿HOG
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b 2 2
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M N P 2 xy x + z2
2
2 yz
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
= ∂y ∂z i − ∂x ∂z j + ∂x ∂y k
x + z2
2
2 yz 2 xy 2 yz 2 xy x2 + z 2
= ( 2 z − 2 z ) i − ( 0 − 0 ) j + ( 2 x − 2 x ) k = 0.
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z
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107
More Line Integrals and Work by a Force Field
Lesson 29
Topics
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b
t=π 0≤t ≤ π
³
C
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Fundamental Theorem of Line Integrals
Lesson 30
Topics
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Lesson 31
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Lesson 32
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Surface Integrals and Flux Integrals
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Lesson 34: Surface Integrals and Flux Integrals
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Solutions
Lesson 1
S
sin S sin 0 1.
S
2. ³0
2
cos x dx >sin x @0 2 2
3. v 4 1, 0 2 5, 2 5i 2 j.
x and sin t y
4. x 3cos t and y 3sin t implies cos t .
3 3
2
By the fundamental trigonometric identity, we have cos 2 t sin 2 t x2 y 1 x2 y2 9. This is the
9 9
equation of a circle of radius 3 centered at the origin.
2
6 1 2 2 2 4
2 2
6. The distance is 25 0 36 61.
7. The midpoint is §¨ 4 8 , 0 8 , 6 20 ·¸ 6, 4, 7 .
© 2 2 2 ¹
2 2 2 2 2
8. x 0 y 2 z 5 22 x 2 y 2 z 5 4.
9. f 1, 3 ln 3 e1 3 ln 3 e 4 .
144
Lesson 2
1. f 0, 5, 4 05 4 9 3.
2. The domain is ^ x, y : x z 0 and y z 0`. That is, the domain consists of all points in the plane that do not
lie on either axis.
4. The graph is a plane 4 units above, and parallel to, the xy-plane.
6. 6HWWLQJíxíy = cZHVHHWKDWx + 3y íc. Hence, the level curves are lines of slope 2 .
3
x 2 2 x 1 y 2 4 y 4 5
2 2
z 2x 4 y x2 y2 5 x 1 y 2 .
10. The volume consists of the cylinder and two hemispheres. Hence, we have
S r2x 4 S r3 S r 2 3 x 4r .
V
3 3
145
Lesson 3
1. lim
x , y o 2, 1
2x 2
y
2
2 2 1 9.
2. lim e xy e1 2 e2 .
x , y o1, 2
xy 1 11 1 0
3. lim 0.
x , y o1, 1 1 xy 1 11 2
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2
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xy 2 y2 y2
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x2 y4 y4 y4 2
xy 2 y2 y2 1.
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1
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1 . Hence, the limit does not exist. 2
2
wf wf
8. 2, 5.
wx wy
wf wf 1 xy 1 2 x .
9. y,
wx wy 2 2 y
wf wf
Solutions
146
Lesson 4
y y2 y x y y y § y·
2. fx ye x
yx
2
e , fy e x 1 ye x e x
¨1 x ¸ .
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9. :H¿UVWFDOFXODWHWKHVHFRQGSDUWLDOGHULYDWLYHV
y 2 xy x ,z 2 xy
zx , z xx , zy yy .
x y2
2
x 2
y 2
2
x y2
2
x 2
y2
2
2 2 2 xy 2 xy
Hence, w z2 w z2 2
2
0.
wx wy x 2
y2 x 2
y2
10. :H¿UVWFDOFXODWHWKHVHFRQGSDUWLDOGHULYDWLYHV
2 2
Hence, w 2z c 2 sin x ct c 2 w z2 .
wt wx
Lesson 5
1. dz 4 xy 3 dx 6 x 2 y 2 dy.
3. dw 1 dx 3 x z dy x y dz.
z 3y z 3y
2
z 3y
2
2
Then, dz 2 xy dx x 2 dy and 2.01 9.02 2 2 9 | 2 2 9 0.01 2 2 0.02 0.44.
¬ ¼
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2 dr dh 2 0.04 0.02 0.10.
V S r 2h r h
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cos e 3 x
2
3 x2
2 2
cos e 3 x e 3 x (6 x )
2
6 xe 3 x cos e 3 x .
2
8. dw ww dx ww dy y e t x 2e 2 t e 2 t e t e t 2e 2 t e t .
dt wx dt wy dt
Solutions
148
9. dw ww dx ww dy sin x y (2t ) sin x y (0) 2t sin t 2 1 .
dt wx dt wy dt
Lesson 6
x y
1. fx 0 x 0, f y 0 y 0. 7KHFULWLFDOSRLQWLVͼͽ.
x2 y2 1 x2 y2 1
2. fx 2 x 10 0 x 5, f y 2 y 12 0 y 6. 7KHFULWLFDOSRLQWLVͼͽ.
4x 4y
3. The partial derivatives f x 1
, fy 1
DUHQRWGH¿QHGDWx = y 7KHFULWLFDO
SRLQWLVͼͽ. 3 x2 y2 3
3 x2 y2 3
2 x 2 y 2 8 x 6 y 20 2 x 2 4 x 4 y 2 6 y 9 20 8 9 f x , y
2 2
4. 2 x 2 y 3 3
KDVDUHODWLYHPLQLPXPDWͼíͽ.
2
By the second partials test, d f xx f yy f xy 0 1 0, DQGKHQFHͼͽ is a saddle point.
2
Hence, d f xx f yy f xy 6(4) 0 ! 0, DQGE\WKHVHFRQGSDUWLDOVWHVWͼͽ is a relative minimum.
2
Hence, d f xx f yy f xy ( 10)( 2) 4 2 ! 0, DQGE\WKHVHFRQGSDUWLDOVWHVWͼͽ is a
relative maximum.
149
8. fx 2 y 2 x3 0, f y 2x 2 y3 0. Solving these equations, we see that there are three critical points:
ͼͽͼͽDQGͼííͽ. f xx 6 x 2 , f yy 6 y 2 , f xy 2.
2
$Wͼͽ, d f xx f yy f xy 0 0, 0, 1 is a saddle point.
2
$Wͼͽ, d f xx f yy f xy ! 0 and f xx 0, VRͼͽ is a relative maximum.
2
)LQDOO\DWͼííͽ, d f xx f yy f xy ! 0 and f xx 0, VRͼííͽ is a relative maximum.
10. Let x and y be the dimensions of the base and z the height.
2 xy
The amount of material is 2 xy 2 xz 2 yz z .
2x 2 y
§ 2 xy ·
The volume of the box is therefore V xyz xy ¨ ¸.
© 2x 2 y ¹
Setting the partial derivatives equal to zero, you obtain x = y and the nontrivial critical point
x, y §¨ 36 , 36 ·¸ .
© ¹
6
By the second partials test, this is a maximum. The corresponding z value is , and the maximum
6 6
volume is .
9
C 3 xy Cxy 3 x 2 y 2
11. We have V xy So, by the quotient rule,
4( x y ) 4( x y )
y 2 C 3 x 2 6 xy
7KLVVLPSOL¿HVWR Vx 2
.
4 x y
Solutions
12. The numerators both equal zero: C 3 x 2 6 xy C 3 y 2 6 xy , which implies that x = y. Using the value
C 1296 3 x 2 6 x 2 0 9x2 1296 x 12. Hence, the solution is x = y
Lesson 7
1. f x 2 x 4 y 0, f y 4 x 0 0, 0 is the only critical point, and it lies outside the rectangular region.
We now analyze the function along its boundaries.
$ORQJ y 0, 1 d x d 4: f x 2 5, f 1, 0 6, f 4, 0 21.
$ORQJ x 1, 0 d y d 2, f 4 y 6, f 1, 0 6, f 1, 2 2.
6XPPDUL]LQJWKHPD[LPXPLVͼͽDQGWKHPLQLPXPLVͼíͽ.
2. The function has no critical points. We analyze the function along its boundary.
$ORQJ y 1 x 1, 0 d x d 2, f 2 x 10 7KHPD[LPXPLVDQGWKHPLQLPXPLV
2
)LQDOO\WKHDEVROXWHPD[LPXPLVͼͽDQGWKHDEVROXWHPLQLPXPLVͼͽ.
3. $SRLQWRQWKHSODQHLVJLYHQE\ x, y , z x, y , 3 x y .
2
7KHVTXDUHRIWKHGLVWDQFHIURPͼͽ to this point is S x2 y 2 3 x y .
2
The corresponding z-value is 1, and the minimum distance is 12 1 12 3.
151
4. Let x, y, and z be the three numbers. Because xyz 27, z 27 .
xy
5. Let x, y, and z be the length, width, and height, respectively, and let VEHWKH¿[HGYROXPH
6. We have
and
Setting these two equations equal to each other, you have 4xy x + 4y, which implies that x = y.
2 y x 2 y x 3 x 1 0.
7. Because C y 1 0, 1. So, C x
y x
2
1 y x
2
1 x2 4
1x 2
Solving this equation for x, 3 x x2 4 9x2 x2 4 x2 .
2 2
3 2
Knowing this value, you obtain y .
3 2
Solutions
Lesson 8
1. n 3, ¦x i 9, ¦ yi 9, ¦ xi yi 39, ¦ xi 2 35.
n ¦ xi yi ¦ xi ¦ yi 3 39 9 9 36 3.
a 2 2
n ¦ xi ¦ xi
2
3 35 9 24 2
1 1 §9 3 9 · 9 3.
b y a ¦ xi
n ¦ i 3©
¨
2
¸
¹ 6 2
n ¦ xi yi ¦ xi ¦ yi 5 46 13 12 74 37 .
a 2 2
n ¦ xi ¦ xi
2
5 51 13 86 43
1 1 §12 37 13 · 7 .
b y a ¦ xi
n ¦ i 5©
¨
43
¸
¹ 43
5. You obtain y 14 x 19. When x 1.6, y 14(1.6) 19 41.4 bushels per acre.
153
Lesson 9
3. 7KHYHFWRUMRLQLQJWKH¿UVWWZRSRLQWVLV 1, 3, 4 , DQGWKHYHFWRUMRLQLQJWKH¿UVWDQGWKLUGSRLQWVLV
1, 1, 1 . Because these vectors are not parallel, the points are not collinear.
8. The point is Pͼͽ, and the direction vector is v 3, 1, 5 . The parametric equations are
x 0 3t , y 0 t, z 0 5t x 3t , y t, z 5t .
9. x 3 0t , y 0 6t , z 2 3t x 3, y 6t , z 2 3t .
x ít, y ít, z = 6.
154
Lesson 10
i j k i j k
1. k ui 0 0 1 0 i j 0k j and i u k 1 0 0 0 i j 0k j.
1 0 0 0 0 1
i j k
3 2 7 2 7 3
2. uu v 7 3 2 i j k 17 i 33 j 10k .
1 5 1 5 1 1
1 1 5
i j k
1 2 3 2 3 1
3. uu v 3 1 2 i j k 3i 5 j 7k .
2 1 1 1 1 2
1 2 1
i j k
1 1 1 1 1 1
4. uu v 1 1 1 i j k j k.
1 1 0 1 0 1
0 1 1
The dot product of this vector with the original vectors is zero, showing orthogonality.
i j k < j k 1 1 0, j k < j k 1 1 0.
5. The cross product of the given vectors will be orthogonal to the two vectors.
i j k
0 0 1 0 1 0
i u 2j k 1 0 0 i j k j 2k .
2 1 0 1 0 2
0 2 1
i j k
0 2 1 2 1 0
6. vu v 1 0 2 i j k 0.
0 2 1 2 1 0
1 0 2
The cross product of a vector with itself is always the zero vector.
155
7. 2QHZD\WRVROYHWKLVSUREOHPLVWR¿QGWKHFURVVSURGXFWDQGWKHQGLYLGHE\LWVOHQJWKWRJHQHUDWHDXQLW
YHFWRU$QRWKHUZD\LVWRREVHUYHWKDWWKHVHYHFWRUVOLHLQWKHxy-plane, so an orthogonal unit vector is k
ͼRUíNͽ.
1 3 1
6 6 0 6 0 6
u < v u w 0 6 6 1 3 1 24 24(3) 24 72.
0 4 4 4 4 0
4 0 4
+HQFHWKHYROXPHLV
10. The following three vectors form adjacent sides of the parallelepiped:
3 0, 0 0, 0 0 3, 0, 0 , 0 0, 5 0, 1 0 0, 5, 1 , 2 0, 0 0, 5 0 2, 0, 5 .
3 0 0
5 1 0 1 0 5
0 5 1 3 0 0 75.
0 5 2 5 2 0
2 0 5
+HQFHWKHYROXPHLV
JJJK JJJK
11. Form the vectors AC 3, 8, 2 and AB 1, 1, 3 . Their cross product 22, 7, 5 is orthogonal
to the triangle.
Solutions
156
Lesson 11
4. The angle between the two planes is the angle between their normal vectors, n1 3, 2, 1
and n 2 1, 4, 2 .
n1 < n 2 38 2 7 6
cos T T | 1.1503 | 65.91q.
n1 n 2 14 21 7 6 6
5. The dot product of the normal vectors n1 5, 3, 1 and n 2 1, 4, 7 is zero, so the planes
are orthogonal.
7. The direction vector of the line is v = 3ijík. The parametric equations of the line are
x 2 3t , y 3 2t , z 4 t.
8. The direction vector of the line is v = k. The parametric equations of the line are x 2, y 3, z 4 t .
9. The normal to the plane is n 5, 1, 1 . The given point is Qͼͽ, a point in the plane is Pͼͽ,
JJJG
and the vector PQ is 0, 9, 0 .
JJJG
PQ <n 9
Therefore, the distance is D 9 3.
n 27 3 3
10. The normal to the plane is n 3, 4, 5 . The given point is Qͼíͽ, a point in the plane is Pͼͽ,
JJJG
and the vector PQ is 1, 3, 1 .
JJJG
PQ <n 20
Therefore, the distance is D 20 2 2.
n 50 5 2
Lesson 12
2. The x-coordinate is missing, so you have a right circular cylinder with rulings parallel to the x-axis.
The radius of the cylinder is 3.
y2
4. Rewriting the equation, 4 x 2 4z2 1, we see that this is a hyperboloid of one sheet centered
4
at the origin.
7. %\FRPSOHWLQJWKHVTXDUHZHVHHWKDWWKHVXUIDFHLVDQHOOLSVRLGZLWKFHQWHUDWͼͽ.
16 x 2 2 x 1 9 y 2 4 y 4 16 z 2 36 16 36
2 2
16 x 1 9 y 2 16 z 2 16
Solutions
2 2
x 1 y 2
z2 1.
1 16 9
158
8. %\FRPSOHWLQJWKHVTXDUHZHVHHWKDWWKHVXUIDFHLVDQHOOLSWLFFRQHZLWKFHQWHUDWͼíͽ.
9 x 2 6 x 9 y 2 4 y 4 9 z 2 6 z 9 4 81 4 81
2 2 2
9 x 3 y 2 9 z 3 0.
2
10. One equation is x 2 y 2 § z · , or 4x + 4y = z.
¨ ¸
©2¹
Lesson 13
1. rc t 1 i 16 j tk .
t2
2. rc t 3t 2 , 3sin 3t , 3cos 3t .
3
3. rc t t , 1, 1 t 2 , r cc t 1, 0, t r c t <r cc t t (1) ( 1)0 1 t 2 (t ) t t .
2 2 2
4. ³ 2ti j k dt t 2 i tj tk C.
S S
§ 2 ·
2 1 i ¨ ln 0 ¸ j §¨ 1 0 ·¸ k 2 1 i ln 2 j 1 k .
© 2 ¹ ©2 ¹ 2
6. r t 4 ti 4 tj 2 tk , v t r c t 4 i 4 j 2 k , a t v c t DQGWKHVSHHGLV
,
v t 42 42 22 36 6.
rc t 2sin t , 2 cos t , 0
r c t 2sin t , 2 cos t , 0 T t sin t , cos t , 0 .
rc t 2
159
8. $WWKHSRLQWͼͽ, t +HQFH r c t i 2tj k , r c 0 i k , r c 0 2.
r c 0 ik 2 2
The unit tangent is T 0 i k.
r c 0 2 2 2
b 2 2 2 1 1
s ³ ª¬ x c t º¼ ª¬ y c t º¼ ª¬ z c t º¼ dt ³ 1 16 9 dt ª¬ 26t º¼ 26.
a 0 0
b 2 2 2 S
s ³ ª¬ x c t º¼ ª¬ y c t º¼ ª¬ z c t º¼ dt ³ 4 cos 2 t 25 4sin 2 dt
a 0
S S
³ 4 25 dt ª¬ 29t º¼ 29S .
0 0
Lesson 14
1. The vertices of the ellipse occur when T S and T 3S . So, the length of the major axis is
2 2
r 1.164 .
1 0.967 sin T
We next apply Kepler’s second law. The time t required to move from position T S to position T S
2 2
is given by
Lesson 15
1. f x , y 3 4 y i 9 4 x j f 1, 2 5i 5 j.
3. f x , y , z 2 x i 2 y j 2 z k f 1, 1, 1 2i 2 j 2k .
v 3 3 3
The vector v is a not a unit vector, so u i j k.
v 3 3 3
Du f 1, 1, 1 f 1, 1, 1<u 2i 2 j 2k <§¨ 3
i
3
j
3 ·
k
3 ¸¹
2 3
.
© 3 3 3
4. f x , y 3i 10 yj f 2, 1 3i 10 j.
f x , y 2 x i 1 j f 2, 3 4i j.
5.
x2 y x2 y
6. f x , y , z 6 xi 10 yj 4 zk f 1, 1, 2 6i 10 j 8k .
f x , y 2 x 2 y i 2 xj f 1, 0 2i 2 j and f 1, 0 44 2 2.
f x , y , z y 2 z 2 i 2 xyz 2 j 2 xy 2 zk f 2, 1, 1 i 4 j 4k
and, thus,
f 2, 1, 1 1 16 16 33.
161
9. The gradient is f x, y 2i 3 j. 7KHOHYHOFXUYHLVx + 3y $Wͼͽ, the gradient
f 0, 0 2i 3 j is normal to this line.
y2 x2 2 xy 7 i 24 j is the direction.
Therefore, T 2
i 2
j T 3, 4
625 625
x y
2 2
x y2
2
Lesson 16
We have F 1, 1, 2 2i 2 j 4k and F 1, 1, 2 4 4 16 24 2 6.
$QRUPDOYHFWRUWRWKHVXUIDFHDWWKHSRLQW §¨ 6, S , 7 ·¸ is F §¨ 6, S , 7 ·¸ 1 i 3 3j k .
© 6 ¹ © 6 ¹ 2
y y 1,F
6. Let F x, y , z z. We have Fx , Fy 1.
x x2 x z
7. Let F x, y , z x 2 y 2 2 z 2 . We have Fx 2 x , Fy 2 y , Fz 4 z.
9. Let F x, y , z 3 x 2 y 2 6 y z. We have F 2 xi 2 y 6 j k .
§ ·
10. Let F x, y , z xy 1 1 z. We have F §¨ y 12 ·¸ i ¨ x 12 ¸ j k .
x y © x ¹ © y ¹
Lesson 17
163
2. The constraint is g x, y 2 y x 2 0. f Og 2 xi 2 yj O 2 xi 2 j .
3. g x , y 2 x y 100. f Og (2 2 y ) i (2 x 1) j O 2i j .
2
7. We minimize the square of the distance. f x, y x 2 y 3 with the constraint g x, y y x 2 0.
f Og gives rise to the equations 2 x O 2 x , 2( y 3) O , y x 2 .
2
5, x § · 5 § 1 ·
If x y WKHQf ͼͽ = 9. If x z 0, O 1, y r 5 . f ¨r 5 , 5 ¸ ¨ ¸
11 .
2 2 © 2 2 ¹ 2 © 2 ¹ 4
4 3 360.
Solutions
3
Solving these equations, you obtain x y 360 , z
3
164
Lesson 18
1 1 3 3
1. The gradient is f x, y 75 x y 4 i 25 x 4 y 4 j. The constraint is g x , y 150 x 250 y
4 500,000.
So, g x , y 150i 250 j. Setting f Og produces the system of equations
1 1
75 x 4 y 4 150O
3 3
25 x 4 y 4 250O
150 x 250 y 50, 000.
3
3 1 3
f 250, 50 100 250 4
50 4
5000 5 4
| 16, 719 units.
2. There are two cases. For points on the circle x 2 y 2 10, \RXFDQXVH/DJUDQJHPXOWLSOLHUVWR¿QGWKH
maximum and minimum values. If yWKHQ\RXREWDLQx íy = ± 3, and Ȝ +HQFHWKHPD[LPXP
value of fLVZKLFKRFFXUVDWͼíͽDQGͼííͽ. If y \RXREWDLQWKHPLQLPXPYDOXHRIf,
DSSUR[LPDWHO\DQGWKLVYDOXHRFFXUVDW 10 , 0 . For points inside the circle, you can use partial
GHULYDWLYHVWRFRQFOXGHWKDWWKHIXQFWLRQKDVDUHODWLYHPLQLPXPRIDWWKHSRLQWͼͽ. Combining these
results, fKDVDPD[LPXPRIDWͼíͽDQGDPLQLPXPRIDWͼͽ.
4S bc O , 4S ac O , 4S ab O, a b c K.
3 3 3
2S h 4S r O 2S rh, 2S r OS r 2 , S r 2 h V0 .
V0 V0
Solving these equations, you obtain h r and V ʌU3. The dimensions are r 3 and h 23 .
2S 2S
165
2 2 2
5. Minimize the square of the distance f x, y , z x 2 y 1 z 1 subject to the constraint
g x , y , z x y z 1. Setting f Og produces
2 x 2 O , 2 y 1 O , 2 z 1 O , x y z 1.
Lesson 19
x x
1. ³ x 2 y dy
0
ª¬ xy y 2 º¼
0
x2 x2 0 2x2 .
2y y 2y
2. ³ dx ª¬ y ln x º¼ y ln 2 y 0 y ln 2 y , y ! 0.
1 x 1
2
1 2
ª 1 2º 1 1 1
3. ³0 ³0 x y dy dx ³0 «¬ xy 2 y »¼ 0 dx ³0 2 x 2 dx ª¬ x 2 2 x º¼
0
1 2 3.
1 S
S
2
1 S
2 ª y2 º S
2 1 cos x dx ª 1 sin x º 2 1.
4. ³ ³ 0 0
y cos x dy dx ³ 0 « 2 cos x » dx
¬ ¼0
³ 0 2 ¬« 2 ¼» 0 2
y
3 y 4 dx dy 3 ª4 § x ·º 3 4 § S · dy 3 S dy 3
5. ³³ ³ « y arctan ¨ y ¸ » dy ³ ¨ ¸ ³ >S ln y @1 S ln 3.
1 0 x2 y2 1
¬ © ¹¼ 0 1 y© 4¹ 1 y
2 4
2 x 2 x
2
ª 2
º
x x dx « 4 x 8 x x x » 8.
4 4 4
6. A ³ ³ 0 0
dy dx ³0 > y @0 dx ³ 4 4
0
¬ 3 2 ¼0 3
1 y 2 S (area of semicircle).
³ 2
1 1
7. ³³ dx dy 1 y 2 dy
0 1 y 2 0 2
1 1 y 2 1 1 x 2 1
1 x 2 dx S.
Reversing the order of integration, ³³ 0 1 y 2
dx dy ³ ³ 1 0
dy dx ³ 1 2
2
2 1 2
§ x· ª x2 º
8. ³ ³ 0 x
2
dy dx ³0 ¨©1 2 ¸¹ dx «¬ x
4 »¼ 0
1.
1 2y 1 1
Reversing the order of integration, ³³ dx dy ³ 2 y dy ª¬ y 2 º¼ 1.
0 0 0 0
Solutions
166
10. We must reverse the order of integration.
2 4 4 x 4 x 4
³ ³ x sin x dx dy ³ ³ x sin x dy dx ³ ª¬ y x sin x º¼ dx ³ x sin x dx.
0 y2 0 0 0 0 0
4
Next, use integration by parts to obtain >sin x x cos x @0 sin 4 4 cos 4 | 1.858.
Lesson 20
2
4 2 y 4 ª y2 º 4
1. V ³ ³ 0 0 2
dy dx ³ 0 « 4 » dx
¬ ¼0
³ 0
dx 4.
y 1
1 y 1 ª x2 y º §1 y3 · ª y2 y4 º 3.
2. V ³0 ³0 1 xy dx dy ³0 « x ¬ 2 »¼ 0
dy ³0 ©¨ y 2 ¹¸ dy « 2 8 »
¬ ¼0 8
xy dy dx §¨ 1 ·¸ .
1 x
3. V ³³ 0 0 © 8¹
4. :HFDOFXODWHWKHYROXPHRIWKHVSKHUHLQWKH¿UVWRFWDQWDQGPXOWLSO\WKHDQVZHUE\
r 2 x2
r 2 x 2 y 2 dy dx §¨ 4 S r 3 ·.
r
V 8³ ³ ¸
0 0 © 3 ¹
4 x 2
4 x dy dx §¨© 256 · .
2
2
5. V ³ ³ 0 0 15 ¹
¸
1 1 1 2x 1 1 1
2 2 2 2
2
e x dx dy 2
e x dy dx 2
2 xe x dx ª e x º 2
³³ 0 y
2
³ ³
0 0 ³ 0 ¬ ¼0 1 e 4 .
2 2 2 2y 2 2
7. ³ ³
0 x2
2
y cos y dy dx ³ ³ 0 0
y cos y dx dy ³ 0
2y y cos y dy 2 ³ y cos y dy
0
2
2 > cos y y sin y @0 2 > cos 2 2sin 2 1@ .
1 4 2 x dy dx 1 4 2 x dx 1 ª x2 º4
8 ³0 ³0 8 ³0
Average 2.
8 ¬ ¼0
9. The area of the region is ʌ. The average value is
1 S S 1 S S
Average ³ ³ sin x y dy dx ³ ª¬ cos x y º¼ dx
S2 0 0 S2 0 0
1 S 1 S 2 cos x dx 1 2sin x S
S2 ³ cos x S cos x dx
0 S 2 ³ 0 2 > @0 S
0.
10. The limits of integration for the inside integral cannot contain the variable of integration, in this case, y.
Lesson 21
3
S S
3 9 x 2 3 ª r3 º S
1. ³³ x dy dx ³ ³
2
( r cos T ) r dr dT ³
2
«¬ 3 cos T »¼ dT 9 >sin T @0 2 9.
0 0 0 0 0
0
2
2 4 x 2 S 2 S ª r4 º S
2. ³ ³
2 0
x 2
y 2
dy dx ³ ³ 0 0
2
r r dr dT ³ 0 «¬ 4 »¼ dT ³ 0
4 dT 4S .
0
2 2
3. Note that y 2x x2 1 x 1 x 1 y 2 1.
2cosT
S
2 ª r4 º
³ 0 «¬ 4 cos T sin T »¼ dT
0
S
2
4³ cos 5 T sin T dT
0
S
ª 4 cos 6 T º 2 2.
«¬ 6 »¼ 0 3
168
4
2S 4 2S ª r2 º 2S
5. A ³ ³ r dr dT ³ «¬ 2 »¼ dT ³ 6 dT 12S .
0 2 0 0
2
6. We will calculate the area of one leaf and multiply the answer by 3.
S
S 2sin 3T 3 S 3 4sin 2 3T dT S
3 ªT sin 6T º
3
A 3³
0
3
³ 0
r dr dT
2 ³0
3³
0
3
1 cos 6T dT «¬ 6 »¼ 0
S.
7. The volume is
S 1 1 S 2 1 r 3 sin 2T dr dT
³ ³ r cos T r sin T r dr dT
2
2 ³0 ³0
V
0 0
S
1 S 2 sin 2T dT ª cos 2T º 2 1.
8 ³0 «¬ 16 »¼ 0 8
2S 5
r 2 dr dT
2S 125 dT 250S .
8. V ³ ³
0 0 ³ 0 3 3
4
ª 16 r 2 3 2 º
2S 4
16 r 2 r dr dT
2S
« » dT 2S
5 15 dT 10 15S .
9. V ³ ³
0 1 ³ 0 « 3 » ³ 0
«¬ »¼1
Lesson 22
2
2 2 2 ª xy 2 º 2 2
1. m ³ ³ xy dy dx ³ « 2 » dx ³ 2 x dx ª¬ x 2 º¼ 4.
0 0 0 0 0
¬ ¼0
1 S
S S 4
1
2ª r º ª 1 sin 2 T º 2 1.
2.
³0 ³0 r cos T r sin T r dr dT ³0 «¬cos T sin T 4 »¼ 0 dT
2
m «¬ 4 2 »¼
0
8
169
3. We have the following results:
3 y
m=∫ ∫ 4 y dx dy = 36
0 0
3 y
Mx = ∫ ∫ 4 y 2 dx dy = 81
0 0
4 xy dx dy = 81
3 y
My = ∫ ∫
0 0 2
( )
My 9
= , y = x = 9 , x, y = ⎛⎜ 9 , 9 ⎞⎟ .
M
x=
m 8 m 4 ⎝8 4⎠
4 xy dx dy = 81
3 y
Mx = ∫ ∫
0 0 2
3 y
My = ∫ ∫ 4 x 2 dx dy = 27
0 0
( )
My 3
= , y = x = 9 , x, y = ⎛⎜ 3 , 9 ⎞⎟ .
M
x=
m 2 m 4 ⎝2 4⎠
5 y dy dx = 5
1 x
m=∫ ∫
0 0 4
5 y 2 dy dx = 2
1 x
Mx = ∫ ∫
0 0 3
5 xy dy dx = 5
1 x
My = ∫ ∫
0 0 6
( )
My 2
= , y = x = 8 , x , y = ⎛⎜ 2 , 8 ⎞⎟ .
M
x=
m 3 m 15 ⎝ 3 15 ⎠
2 x2
Mx = ∫ ∫ 3 xy 2 dy dx = 32
0 0
x2
3 x 2 y dy dx = 192
2
My = ∫ ∫
Solutions
0 0 7
( )
M y 12
= , y = x = 2, x, y = ⎛⎜ 12 , 2 ⎞⎟ .
M
x=
m 7 m ⎝ 7 ⎠
7. We use polar coordinates, as follows:
π
3 ( x 2 + y 2 ) dy dx = ∫
4 16− x 2 4
m=∫ ∫
2
∫ 3r 3 dr dθ =96π
0 0 0 0
π
3 ( x 2 + y 2 ) y dy dx ∫
16− x 2
3r 4 sin θ dr dθ = 3072
4 4
Mx = ∫ ∫
2
∫
0 0 0 0 5
M y = M x by symmetry
x= y=
M x 32
m
=
5π ( )
, x, y = ⎛⎜ 32 , 32 ⎞⎟ .
⎝ 5π 5π ⎠
Lesson 23
2 2
1. fx 2, f y 2, 1 f x f y 1 4 4 3.
4
2
ª º
3 dy dx 3³ 4 x dx 3 « 4 x x »
4 4 x 4
The surface area is S ³ ³
0 0 0
¬ 2 ¼0
24.
2 2
2. fx 2, f y 3, 1 f x f y 1 4 9 14.
3 3 3
The surface area is S ³³
0 0
14 dy dx 3³
0
14 dx 9 14.
2 2
3. fx 2, f y 3, 1 f x f y 1 4 9 14.
2S 3 2S 9 14
We use polar coordinates. S ³ ³ 14 r dr dT ³ dT 9 14S .
0 0 0 2
2 2
4. fx 3, f y 2, 1 f x f y 1 9 4 14 .
8 123 x
2
The surface area is S ³³
0 0
14 dy dx 48 14.
2 2
5. fx 2 x , f y 2 y , 1 f x f y 1 4x2 4 y2 .
S 4
1 4 r 2 r dr dT §¨ S 65 65 1 · .
In polar coordinates, S ³ ³ 0
2
0 © 24
¸ ¹
2 2
6. fx 2 x, f y 2, 1 f x f y 1 4x2 4 5 4x2 .
5 4 x 2 dy dx §¨ 1 27 5 5 ·¸ .
1 x
We have S ³³
0 0 © 12 ¹
2 2
7. fx 2 x , f y 2 y , 1 f x f y 1 4x2 4 y2 .
1 4 r 2 r dr dT §¨ S 37 37 1 ·¸ .
2S 3
In polar coordinates, S ³ ³ 0 0 © 6 ¹
2 2
8. fx ex , f y 0, 1 f x f y 1 e2 x .
1 1
The surface area is given by S ³³ 1 e 2 x dy dx | 2.0035 .
0 0
kx ky 2 2 k 2 x2 k 2 y2
fx , fy , 1 fx f y 1 2 2
2 1 k 2 .
x y2
2
x y2
2
x y x y2
S ³³ 1 k 2 dA 1 k 2 ³³ dA 1 k 2 area of circle 1 k 2S r 2 S r2 1 k 2 .
R R
Lesson 24
5 2 1 5 2 1 5 2 5 5
2 5
1. ³³³
0 0 0
dy dx dz ³ ³ > y@
0 0 0
dx dz ³³ 0 0
dx dz ³ > x@
0 0
dz ³
0
2 dz > 2 z @0 10.
7KLVLVWKHYROXPHRIWKHER[RIGLPHQVLRQVîî
5 x 5 x y
dz dy dx §¨ 125 ·¸ . Note: Other orders of integration are possible.
5
4. V ³³ ³
0 0 0 © 6 ¹
Solutions
9 x2
dz dy dx §¨ 81 ·¸ . Note: Other orders of integration are possible.
3 2x
5. V ³³ ³
0 0 0 © 2¹
6 6 x2 6 x2 y2
6. V ³ ³
6 6 x 2 ³ 0
dz dy dx 18S . Note: Other orders of integration are possible.
6 4 2 x 3 2 y 2 x 3
7. m ³³
0 0 ³ 0
3 dz dy dx 24 .
5 x 15 3 x 3 y
3 y dz dy dx §¨ 375 · .
5 5
8. m ³³ ³
0 0 0 © 8 ¹
¸
y2 z
dy dz dx §¨ 1 ·¸ .
1 0 1 1
9. ³³ ³
0 1 0
dz dy dx ³³³ 0 0 1 © 3¹
4
4 x 12 3 x 6 y 3
12 4 z 12 4 z 3 x
10. ³³
2
³
4
dz dy dx ³³
3
³
6
dy dx dz 4 .
0 0 0 0 0 0
Lesson 25
3cos §¨ S ·¸ 3sin §¨ S ·¸
3 2,y 3 2 , z 1.
2. x r cos T r sin T
©4¹ 2 ©4¹ 2
§3 2 3 2 ·
The rectangular coordinates are x , y , z ¨ 2 , 2 , 1¸ .
© ¹
2 2 y 2 2
3. r2 2 2 2 2 8 8 16 r 4. tan T
x 2 2
1.
5. r2 z2 x2 y2 z 2 5, a sphere of radius 5.
6. r 2sin T r 2 2 r sin T x 2 y 2 2 y. Completing the square, you obtain the cylinder
2
x 2 y 1 1.
2S R1 R12 r 2 2S R1 R12 r 2
2³
0 ³ ³
R2 0
r dz dr dT 2³
0 ³R > rz @0
2
dr dT
2S R1
2³ ³ r R12 r 2 dr dT
0 R2
R1
3
2 ³ ª« R12 r 2 2 º» dT
2S
3 0 ¬ ¼ R2
2 2 S R 2 R 2 3 2 dT
3 ³0
1 2
4S R 2 R 2 3 2 .
3
1 2
2 4 x2 4 2S 2 4 2S 2 4
8. ³ ³
2 4 x 2 ³ x2 y2
x dz dy dx ³ ³ ³ r cos T r dz dr dT ³ ³ ³
0 0 r2 0 0 r2
r 2 cos T dz dr dT .
9. In the xy-plane, 2 x 2 x 2 2 y 2 x 2 x y 2 0.
2 2
§ 1· 2 §1· .
Completing the square, you have the circle ¨ x ¸ y ¨ ¸
© 2¹ ©2¹
S cos T 2 r cos T
In polar coordinates, the circle is r cos T . Hence, V ³ ³ ³ r dz dr dT .
0 0 2r2
2S 2 4r 2
Hence, x + y DQGWKHLQWHJUDOLV V ³ ³ ³ r dz dr dT .
0 0 r
Lesson 26
2. x 5sin §¨ 3S · cos § S ·
¸ ¨ ¸
5, y 5sin §¨ 3S · sin § S ·
¸ ¨ ¸
5, z 5cos §¨ 3S ·¸ 5 2.
© 4 ¹ ©4¹ 2 © 4 ¹ ©4¹ 2 © 4 ¹ 2
§5 5 5 2·
The rectangular coordinates are x , y , z ¨ 2 , 2 , 2 ¸.
© ¹
2 y 2 3
2 2 3 42
2
3. U 32 4 2. tan T 3.
x 2
4. z U cos I 6 U 6sec I .
cos §¨ S ·¸
3 z
5. cos I .
©6¹ 2 x y2 z2
2
of a cone.
2 4 x2 2 4 x2 y2 S 2S 4 cos I
³ ³2 4 x 2 ³ 2
x dz dy dx
0
4
³ ³ ³ 0 2 sec I
U sin I cos T U 2 sin I dU dT dI ,
S 2S 4 cos I
4
ZKLFKVLPSOL¿HVWR ³ ³ ³ U 3 sin 2 I cos T dU dT dI .
0 0 2 sec I
2S 2 2 § 2 1 · dT § 2 2 2· 4S
³
0 3 ¨© 2 ¸
¹
¨ 3 3 ¸ 2S
© ¹ 3
2 1 .
2S S 3
2
8. V ³ ³S ³ U 2 sin I dU dI dT .
0 0
4
2S S 4sin I
9. V ³ ³ ³ U 2 sin I dU dI dT 16S 2 .
0 0 0
10. The distance from a point to the z-axis is r x2 y2 U sin I . We set up the integral for the mass in the
¿UVWRFWDQWDQGPXOWLSO\E\
S S 3 S S 3
³ ³ U sin I U
2 2 2 2 2
m 8k ³ sin I dU dI dT 8k ³ ³ ³ U 3 sin 2 I dU dI dT .
0 0 0 0 0 0
Lesson 27
1. The vectors make a 45º angle with the x-axis. They have constant length F 12 12 2.
3. M 5 y3 , N 15 xy 2 wN 15 y 2 wM .
wx wy
+HQFHWKHYHFWRU¿HOGLVFRQVHUYDWLYH
y
4. M 1 ,N 1 wN x z wM .
x y2
2
x y2
2 wx 3
wy 3
x 2
y2 2
x 2
y2 2
+HQFHWKHYHFWRU¿HOGLVQRWFRQVHUYDWLYH
2 2 2 2
7. fx 2 xye x , f y ex , fz 1 F x, y , z 2 xye x i e x j k . Note that f F.
Solutions
8. f x x, y y f x, y xy g y . f y x , y x f x, y xy h x .
9. We have
x 1 ln x 2 y 2 g y
f x x, y
x2 y2
f x, y
2
y 1 ln x 2 y 2 h x .
f y x, y
x y2
2
f x, y
2
10. We have
f x x, y 3 x 2 y 2 f x, y x3 y 2 g y
f y x, y 2 x 3 y f x, y x3 y 2 h x .
Lesson 28
i j k
w w w
1. curl F
wx wy wz
xz xy i yz xy j yz xz k .
xyz xyz xyz
i j k
w w w
2. curl F
wx wy wz
e x
cos y e x cos y k 2e x cos yk .
e x sin y e x cos y 0
i j k
w w w
3. curl F
wx wy wz
1 1 k 2k .
y x 0
4. 7KHYHFWRU¿HOGLVQRWFRQVHUYDWLYHEHFDXVHLWVFXUOLVQRQ]HUR
i j k
w w w
curl F
wx wy wz
cos y i cos z j cos xk z 0.
sin z sin x sin y
5. 7KHYHFWRU¿HOGLVFRQVHUYDWLYHEHFDXVHWKHFXUOLV]HUR
1 x 2 y 2 z 2 g y, z
fx xy 2 z 2 f
2
1 x 2 y 2 z 2 h x, z
fy x 2 yz 2 f
2
1 x 2 y 2 z 2 k x, y .
fz x2 y2 z f
2
6. div F x , y wM wN 2 x 4 y.
wx wy
8. rc t 4i 3 j ds 4 2 32 dt 5 dt .
1 1 1
³ 4t 3t 5 dt ³ 60t
2
So, the line integral becomes ³ xy ds dt ª¬ 20t 3 º¼ 20.
C 0 0 0
S S S 5S .
³ x y 2 z 2 ds ³ sin t cos 2 t 4 dt >5t @0 2
2 2 2 2
So, the line integral becomes
C 0 ³
0
5 dt
2
6S
2
6S ª º
10. ³ 1 t 2 dt 2 «t t » 2 6S 18S 2 6S 2 3S 1 .
0
¬ 2 ¼0
Solutions
Lesson 29
1. F x, y xi yj ti tj, r c t i j.
1 1 1
So, the line integral becomes ³ F < dr ³ ti tj< i j dt ³
C
0 0
2t dt ª¬t 2 º¼
0
1.
³ 3ti 4
2 2 2
³ F < dr
C
2
4 t 2 j <¨ i
© 4 t2
j ¸ dt
¹
³2 3t 4t dt ³2 t dt «¬ 2 »¼ 2 0.
5. F x, y xi 2 yj ti 2t 3 j, r c t i 3t 2 j.
2
2 2 ªt2 6 º
So, the work done is W ³ F < dr ³0
ti 2t 3 j< i 3t 2 j dt ³
0
t 6t 5 dt ¬« 2
t »
¼0
2 64 66.
C
1 1 1
³ F < dr ³ 6 t i 10t 2 j 15t 2 k < 5i 3 j 2k dt ³ 90t dt
2 2
The work done is W ª¬30t 3 º¼ dt 30.
0 0 0
C
7. y 5 x , dy 5 dx , 0 d x d 2. So, we have
2 2
³ 3 y x dx y ³ ª¬15 x x dx 5 x 5 dx º¼
2
dy
0
C
2
³ 14 x 125 x dx
2
0
2
ª 2 x3 º 28 125 8 1084 .
«¬7 x 125 3 »¼ 3 3
0
8. y 5 x , dy 5 dx , 0 d x d 2 . So, we have
³ x 3 y dy ³
C
2
2
0
x 3 5 x 5 dx
2
2
³ 5 x 375 x dx
2
0
2
ª x2 3º
«¬5 2 125 x »¼ 10 125 8 1010.
0
9. F x, y x 2 i xyj 4t 2 i 2t (t 1) j, r c t 2i j.
3
3 3 ª 10t 3 2 º 236 .
So, we have ³ F < dr ³ 1
4t 2 i 2t t 1 j< 2i j dt ³1
8t 2 2t 2 2t dt «¬ 3 t »¼ 3
C 1
2
10. F x, y x 2 i xyj 4 3 t i 2 3 t (2 t ) j, r c t 2i j.
0
4 3 t i 2(3 t )(2 t ) j< 2i j dt
2
³ 0
2
ª 8 3 t 2 2 3 t (2 t ) º dt .
¬ ¼
7KLVLQWHJUDOVLPSOL¿HVWRWKHQHJDWLYHRIWKHDQVZHUWR3UREOHP
2
2 ª t3 º 168 116 80 236 .
³ 84 58t 10t dt
2 2
³ F < dr
C
0 «¬ 84t 29t 10 3 »¼
0
3 3
Lesson 30
2. M 1,N x wN 1 z 1 wM . 7KHYHFWRU¿HOGLVQRWFRQVHUYDWLYH
y y2 wx y2 y2 wy
3. 7KHYHFWRU¿HOGLVQRWFRQVHUYDWLYHEHFDXVHWKHFXUOLVQRQ]HUR
i j k
w w w § x § x ·· § y y ·
curl F
wx wy wz ¨ ¨ ¸ ¸ i ¨ ¸ j ln z ln z k z 0.
© z © z ¹¹ © z z ¹
xy
y ln z x ln z
z
Solutions
4. Because wN 2x wM , WKHYHFWRU¿HOG F x , y
2 xyi x 2 y 2 j is conservative.
wx wy
y3
The potential function is f x , y x2 y K.
3
0, 4
ª 2 y3 º 64 .
³ 2 xy dx x y dy
2 2
Hence, we have «x y 3 » 3
C ¬ ¼ 5, 0
5. Because wN 2x wM , WKHYHFWRU¿HOG F x , y
2 xyi x 2 y 2 j is conservative.
wx wy
y3
The potential function is f x , y x2 y K.
3
0, 4
ª 2 y3 º 64 .
³ 2 xy dx x dy
2 2
Hence, we have y «x y 3 »
C ¬ ¼ 2, 0 3
6. %HFDXVHWKHFXUOLV]HURWKHYHFWRU¿HOGLVFRQVHUYDWLYH
4, 2, 4
The potential function is f ͼx, y, zͽ = xyz + K. Hence, ³ yz dx xz dy xy dz > xyz @
C
0, 2, 0
32.
7. %HFDXVHWKHFXUOLV]HURWKHYHFWRU¿HOGLVFRQVHUYDWLYH
4, 2, 4
The potential is f ͼx, y, zͽ = xyz + K. Hence, ³ yz dx xz dy xy dz > xyz @
C
0, 0, 0
32.
3S , S
Hence, the line integral is ³ cos x sin y dx sin x cos y dy >sin x sin y @
C
2 2
0, S
1.
9. 7KHYHFWRU¿HOGLVFRQVHUYDWLYHZLWKSRWHQWLDO f x, y x2 K.
y
3, 2
ª x2 º 9 1 7.
The work is therefore W « y»
¬ ¼ 1, 1 2 2
x2 y2
10. 7KHYHFWRU¿HOGLVFRQVHUYDWLYHEHFDXVH wN wM .
wx x2 y2
2
wy
Because the curve does not contain the origin, the line integral is zero.
181
Lesson 31
Here, x 2 t , dx dt , y 2 t , dy 1 dt .
2 2t
2 2 § 1 ·
So, we have ³C2
y 2 dx x 2 dy ³ t 2 dt 2 t
1 ¨ 2 2 t ¸ dt .
© ¹
§ wN wM · 1 x
³³ ¨© wx
R
wy ¸ dA
¹
³ ³ 2 x 2 y dy dx
0 x
³ 2x
1 x 1 3
³ ª¬ 2 xy y 2 º¼ 2 x x 2 dx
0 x 0
1
ª 4 52 x 2 x3 º 411
«¬ 5 x 2 3 »¼ 1 .
0
5 2 3 30
This is the area of the ellipse having a b = 1. So, the answer is ʌDE ʌ.
§ wN ·
4. We have wM 2e x sin 2 y wN . Hence,
³³ ¨© wx
wM
¸ dA 0.
wy wx R
wy ¹
Solutions
5. By Green’s theorem, we have the following:
§ wN wM · dA
W ³ xy dx x y dy ³³ ¨© wx
C R
wy ¸¹ ³³ 1 x dA
R
1
2S 1 2S ª r2 r3 º
³0 ³0 1 r cos T r dr dT ³0 «¬ 2 3 cos T »¼ dT
0
2S
2S
§ 1 1 cos T · dT ª 1 T 1 sin T º S.
³ 0
¨
©2 3
¸
¹ ¬« 2 3 ¼» 0
W ³x
C
3
2
3 y dx 6 x 5 y dy
§ wN
³³ ¨© wx
R
wM
wy
·
¸ dA
¹
³³ 6 3 dA.
R
Lesson 32
3
³ y x dx 2 x y dy ³ x 2 x x dx 2 x x 2 2 x 2 x 2 dx
2
C 0
3
³ 2 x 11x 2 11x dx
3
0
3
ª x4 x3 x2 º
«¬ 2 11 3 11 2 »¼
0
81 99 99 9.
2 2
1 4 ª x 2 x x 2 1 º dx 1 1 ª x 5 5 x 3 º dx
A
2 ³1 ¬
¼ 2 ³4 ¬ ¼
4
1 ª x3 xº 1 3x 1 1 18 1 9 9.
2 «¬ 3 »¼ 2
> @4 2
2 2
1
183
y x2 y2
4. 7KHYHFWRU¿HOG F x, y i 2 x 2 j is conservative because wN wM .
x y2
2
x y wx x 2
y 2
2
wy
y dx x dy § wN wM ·
By Green’s theorem, the line integral is zero because ³
C x2 y2 ³³ ¨© wx
R
wy ¸ dA
¹
0.
y 2 y1 y 2 y1
5. The line joining the points is y
x2 x1
x x1 y1 . So, dy x2 x1
dx.
x2 ª y 2 y1 § y 2 y1 · º
³ y dx x dy ³ x1 « x x x x1 y1 x ¨ x x ¸ »dx
C ¬ 2 1 © 2 1 ¹¼
x2
x2 ª § y 2 y1 · º ª ª § y 2 y1 · º º
³ « x1 ¨ x x ¸ y1 » dx « « x1 ¨ ¸ y1 » x »
¬ ¬ © x2 x1 ¹
x1
¬ © 2 1¹ ¼ ¼ ¼ x1
ª § y 2 y1 · º
« x1 ¨ x x ¸ y1 » x2 x1 x1 y 2 y1 y1 x2 x1
¬ © 2 1¹ ¼
x1 y 2 x2 y1 .
1 ª 0 0 4 0 12 4 6 0 0 3 0 0 º 21 .
6. We have A
2¬
¼ 2
ªw w º
7. ³ f x dx g y dy ³³ «¬ wx g y wy f x »¼ dA ³³ >0 0@ dA
C R R
0.
Lesson 33
2 2
2. Because x 2 y 2 u cos v u sin v u 2, this is the cone x + y = z.
3. ru u , v i j, rv u , v i j k.
$WWKHSRLQWͼíͽ, u DQGv = 1. ru 0, 1 i j, rv 0, 1 i j k.
The normal vector is the cross product, N ru u rv i j 2k . Note that the surface is the plane x – y z.
Solutions
184
4. ru u , v 2 cos vi 3sin vj 2uk , rv u , v 2u sin vi 3u cos vj.
1 2 1 2
Finally, the area is A ³³
0 0
ru u rv dA ³³
0 0
4 2 du dv 4 2 (2)(1) 8 2.
3 2S 3 2S
Finally, A ³³ ru u rv dA ³³ 2 du dv 2(2S )(3) 12S .
0 0 0 0
2 2 2
x2 y2 z 2 sin u cos v sin u sin v cos u
sin 2 u cos 2 v sin 2 u sin 2 v cos 2 u
sin 2 u cos 2 u 1.
185
10. :H¿UVWFDOFXODWHWKHFURVVSURGXFW
i j k
ru u rv cos u cos v cos u sin v sin u
sin u sin v sin u cos v 0
sin 2 u cos vi sin 2 u sin vj (cos u sin u cos 2 v cos u sin u sin 2 v )k
2 2
ru u rv sin 2
u cos v sin 2 u sin v sin u cos u
2
sin 2 u sin u.
Lesson 34
1. wz 1, wz 0. dS 1 1 0 dA
2
2 dA. So, we have the following.
wx wy
4 3
³³ x 2 y z dS ³ ³ x 2 y (4 x )
S
0 0
2 dy dx
4 3
2³
0 ³ 4 2 y dy dx
0
4 3
2 ³ ª¬ 4 y y 2 º¼ dx
0 0
4
2 ³ 3 dx 12 2.
0
186
3. We have the following.
2 3 x
3 2 3 x 3ª y2 º
3³ ³ y 3 x dy dx 3³ « 3 x » dx
0 0 0
¬ 2 ¼0
3 3
3 2 ³ 3 x dx
0
3
ª 3 x 4 º
« 6 » 243 .
«¬ 4 » 2
¼0
4. ru u , v i , rv u , v j 2k . ru u rv 2 j k , ru u rv 5.
2
ª 2 º
5 « v 5v »
2 1 2
Hence, ³³ y 5 dS ³0 ³0 v 5
S
5 du dv 5 ³ v 5 dv
0
¬ 2 ¼0
12 5.
2 2
5. dS 2x 2 y 1 dA . So, we have
xy xy
³³ dS ³³ x 2
1 4 x 2 4 y 2 dy dx
S
z S
y2
2S 4 r 2 cos T sin T 1 4 r 2 r dr dT
³ ³
0 2 r2
2S 4
³ ³ r 1 4 r 2 cos T sin T dr dT .
0 2
6. G x, y , z x y z 1, G i j k . So, we have
³³ F < N dS ³³ F <G dA
S R
1 1 x
³ ³ 3 z 4 y dy dx
0 0
1 1 x
³ ³ 3 1 x y 4 y dy dx
0 0
1 1 x
³ ³ 1 3 x 2 y dy dx.
0 0
x y
7. G x, y , z z 36 x 2 y 2 , G i j k.
36 x 2 y 2 36 x 2 y 2
x2 y2 x2 y2 36
F<G z 36 x 2 y 2 .
36 x 2 y 2 36 x 2 y 2 36 x 2 y 2 36 x 2 y 2
S
36 2
6 36 r dr dT .
³³ F < N dS ³³ F <G dA ³³
S R R 36 x 2 y 2
dA ³ ³
0 0
36 r 2
Lesson 35
z 0, N k , F < N z 2 , ³³ 0 dA 0
S
2 2
z 2, N k , F<N z 2 , ³³ 4 dA ³³ 4 dx dy 16
S 0 0
x 0, N i, F <N 2 x , ³³ 0 dA 0
S
2 2
x 2, N i, F<N 2 x , ³³ 4 dA ³³ 4 dx dy 16
S 0 0
y 0, N j, F < N 2 y , ³³ 0 dA 0
S
2 2
y 2, N j, F < N 2 y , ³³ 4 dA ³ ³ 4 dx dy 16.
S 0 0
2 2 2 2 2
So, we have the same result: ³³³ div F ³ ³ ³ 2 z dz dy dx ³³ 4 dy dx 4 2 2 16.
0 0 0 0 0
Q
2 xi 2 yj k 1
N and F < N ª 2 x 2 z 2 y 2 z 2 z 2 º¼ .
4x2 4 y2 1 4x2 4 y2 1 ¬
Solutions
188
So, we have
³³ F < N dS ³³ ª¬2 x y 2 z 2 z 2 º¼ dA
2
S R
2S 1
ª 2 r 2 1 r 2 2 1 r 2 2 º r dr dT
³ ³ 0 0 «¬ »¼
2S 1
³ ³ ª¬ 2 r 2 r 3 º¼ dr dT
0 0
2S 1 dT
³ S.
0 2
2S 1 1 r 2
³³³ div F ³ ³ ³ 6 z r dz dr dT
0 0 0
Q
2S 1
³ ³ 3 6r 3r 4 r dr dT
2
0 0
1
2S ª r2 r 4 3 r 6 º dT
³0
3
«¬ 2 6
4 6 »¼ 0
2S
ª 3 3 1 º dT S.
³0 «¬ 2 2 2 »¼
4 y2 4 y2
4x 4 x
2 2
³ ³
2 4 y 2 4 xz 2 xy y dx dy ³ ³ 2
2 4 y 2
2
y 2 2 xy y 2 dx dy
2 4 y2
³ ³ 2 4 y 2
16 x 4 x 3
4 xy 2 2 xy y 2 dx dy
2 4 y2
2 4 2 2 2 2
³2 ª¬8 x x 2 x y x y xy º¼ 4 y2
dy
2
³ 2 y 2 4 y 2 dy.
2
1 1 1
³³³ div F ³ ³ ³ 2 x 2 y 2 z dz dy dx
Q
0 0 0
1 1
³ ³ 2 x 2 y 1 dy dx
0 0
1
³ 2 x 2 dx
0
1 2 3.
189
5. The divergence is div F 1 2 y 1 2 y. So, we have
7 5 25 y 2
³³³ div F ³ ³ ³
Q
0 5 25 y 2
2 y dx dy dz
7 5
³³ 4 y 25 y 2 dy dz
0 5
5
7 ª 4 25 y 2 3 2 º dz
³0 ¬« 3
¼» 0.
5
Lesson 36
2S 2S
³C
F < dr ³C
y dx x dy ³ ª¬ 3sin t 3sin t 3cos t 3cos t º¼ dt ³
0 0
9 dt 18S .
i j k
curl F w w w 2k .
wx wy wz
y z xz x y
i j k
Their cross product is u u v 1 1 1 2i 2 j. The surface is the plane is G 2x 2 y 0.
0 0 2
G 2i 2 j and N dS 2i 2 j dA.
Solutions
Next, we calculate the curl of F:
i j k
curl F w w w 2 x k.
wx wy wz x2 y2
arctan x ln x2 y2 1
y
Because the curl is orthogonal to N dS 2i 2 j dA, the line integral equals zero:
i j k
3. The curl is curl F w w w xyj xzk .
wx wy wz
xyz y z
Let G x , y , z x 2 z , G 2 xi k , N dS 2 xi k dA.
Then, we have
3
3 3 3 ª x4 º 243 .
³³ x x 2 dy dx ³ 3 x 3 dx «¬3 4 »¼
0 0 0
0
4
i j k
4. curl F w w w 0.
wx wy wz
1 1 2
6RWKHGRXEOHLQWHJUDOLVDOVR]HURͼ7KHUHLVEDVLFDOO\QRFLUFXODUPRWLRQWRWKHOLTXLGͽ
191
i j k
5. curl F w w w 3 x 2 y 2 k.
wx wy wz
y x2 y2 x x2 y2 0
Letting N = k,
2S 2 2S 2 2S
³³ (curl F )< N dS ³³ 3
S R
x 2 y 2 dA ³ ³ 3r r dr dT ³
0 0 0
ª¬ r 3 º¼ dT
0 ³
0
8 dT 16S .
ͼ7KHUHLVFLUFXODUPRWLRQͽ
Solutions
Glossary
Note: The number in parentheses indicates the lesson in which the concept or term is introduced.
Some concepts from beginning calculus, and even precalculus, have also been included that were introduced
in Understanding Calculus: Problems, Solutions, and Tips ͼCalculusͽ or in Understanding Calculus II:
Problems, Solutions, and TipsͼCalculus IIͽ.
x, x t 0
f x x ® .
¯ x, x 0
It is continuous, but not differentiable, at x = 0. Its graph appears in the shape of the letter V. Reviewed in
Calculus, Lesson 1.
DFFHOHUDWLRQͼͽ,QFDOFXOXVDFFHOHUDWLRQLVWKHUDWHRIFKDQJHRIYHORFLW\DQGKDVWZRFRPSRQHQWVWKH
rate of change in speed and the rate of change in direction. See particle motion. Introduced for two
dimensions in Calculus, Lessons 34–35.
b 2 2 2 b
s ³ ª¬ xc t º¼ ª¬ y c t º¼ ª¬ z c t º¼ dt ³ r c t dt .
a a
2 2 2
ds ª¬ xc t º¼ ª¬ y c t º¼ ª¬ z c t º¼ r c t dt .
'x ba, x a , x1 , x2 ,! , xn 1 , xn b.
0
n
193
The area RIWKHUHJLRQERXQGHGE\f, the x-axis, and the vertical lines x = a and x = b is
n
A lim ¦ f ci 'x , xi 1 d ci d xi ,
n of
i 1
axis of revolution: If a region in the plane is revolved about a line, the resulting solid is a solid of revolution,
and the line is called the axis of revolution. See Calculus II, Lesson 30.
§ My Mx · M0
x, y ¨ m , m ¸ or x
© ¹ m
,
centroid7KHJHRPHWULFFHQWHURIDSODQDUODPLQDRUKLJKHUGLPHQVLRQDOREMHFW:KHQPDVVLVXQLIRUPO\
distributed, the centroid is equivalent to the center of mass. See Calculus II, Lesson 9.
FKDLQUXOHͼͽ: 8QOLNHLQHOHPHQWDU\FDOFXOXVPXOWLYDULDEOHFDOFXOXVKDVDYDULHW\RIFKDLQUXOHV7KHRQH
covered in this course is
dw ww dx ww dy ,
dt wx dt wy dt
ZKHUHVRPHRIWKHGHULYDWLYHVDUHRUGLQDU\GHULYDWLYHVZKLOHRWKHUVDUHSDUWLDOGHULYDWLYHV
compound interest formula: Let P be the amount of a deposit at an annual interest rate of rͼas a decimalͽ
compounded nWLPHVSHU\HDU7KHDPRXQWDIWHUt\HDUVLV
nt
P §¨1 r ·¸ .
Glossary
A
© n¹
194
concavity: Let f be differentiable on an open interval I. The graph of f is concave upward on I if f c is
increasing on I and concave downward on I if f c is decreasing on I. A graph is concave upward if the
graph is above its tangent lines and concave downward if the graph is below its tangent lines.
See Calculus II, Lesson 2.
Coulomb’s law ͼͽ: The force exerted on a particle with electric charge q1ORFDWHGDWͼx, y, zͽE\DSDUWLFOHRI
charge q2ORFDWHGDWͼ0, 0, 0ͽ is
c q1 q2
F x, y , z 2
u.
r
i j k
uu v u1 u 2 u3 u2 v3 u3v2 i u1v3 u3v1 j u1v2 u2 v1 k .
v1 v2 v3
195
The magnitude of the cross product is a scalar, which equals u u v u v sin T .
§ wP wN · § wP wM · § wN wM ·
curl F x , y , z ¨ wy wz ¸ i ¨© wx wz ¸¹ j ¨ wx wy ¸k
© ¹ © ¹
i j k
u F x, y , z w w w .
wx wy wz
M N P
Tc( t )
K .
r c( t )
y cc
K 3
.
ª1 y c 2 º 2
¬ ¼
F\OLQGHUͼͽ: ,QHOHPHQWDU\JHRPHWU\DF\OLQGHUUHVXOWVZKHQOLQHVSHUSHQGLFXODUWRDFLUFOHJHQHUDWHDWXEH
shape, but LQKLJKHUPDWKHPDWLFVDF\OLQGHUͼRUF\OLQGULFDOVXUIDFHͽFDQUHIHUWRDQ\VXUIDFHFUHDWHGZKHQ
DQ\JHQHUDWLQJFXUYHLQDSODQHͼnot just a circleͽLVH[WHQGHGLQWRDWKLUGGLPHQVLRQE\OLQHVLQWHUVHFWLQJ
that curve and orthogonal to its plane.
Glossary
196
cycloid: 7KHFXUYHWUDFHGRXWE\DSRLQWRQWKHFLUFXPIHUHQFHRIDFLUFOHUROOLQJDORQJDOLQH See Calculus II,
Lesson 28.
b
7KHQWKLVOLPLWLVWKHGH¿QLWHLQWHJUDO of f from a to b and is denoted ³ f x dx. See Calculus II, Lesson 3.
a
delta xͼ¨ xͽͼͽ: 7KHV\PERO ¨x is read “delta x” and denotes Dͼsmallͽ change in x. Some textbooks use h
LQVWHDGRI¨x.
GHQVLW\ͼͽ: 8VXDOO\PDVVSHUXQLWYROXPHEXWIRUSODQDUODPLQDVGHQVLW\LVPDVVSHUXQLWRIVXUIDFHDUHD
f x 'x f x
f c x lim .
'x o 0 'x
dy
f c x, , y c, d ª¬ f x º¼ , D > y @ .
dx dx
7KHGH¿QLWLRQVRIVORSHDQGWKHGHULYDWLYHDUHEDVHGRQWKHGLIIHUHQFHTXRWLHQWIRUVORSH
change in y 'y
slope .
change in x 'x
f x 'x , y f x , y f x , y 'y f x , y
f x x, y lim , f y x, y lim .
'x o 0 'x 'y o 0 'y
197
GHWHUPLQDQWQRWDWLRQͼͽ: ,QWKLVFRXUVHZHXVHDîGHWHUPLQDQWIRUPRQO\WRKHOSXVUHPHPEHUDQG
calculate the cross product RIWZRYHFWRUV7HFKQLFDOO\DGHWHUPLQDQWLVDVLQJOHUHDOQXPEHUREWDLQHGE\
using determinant notation, but in that sense, this course has no determinants—which are a topic covered
in linear algebra. See cross product.
differential: ,QHOHPHQWDU\FDOFXOXVZHOHWy = f ͼxͽ be a differentiable function. Then, dx ¨x is called the
differential of x. The differential of y is dy f c x dx. For multivariable calculus, see total differential.
See Calculus II, Lesson 2.
differential equation: A differential equation in x and y is an equation that involves x, y, and derivatives of y.
The order RIDGLIIHUHQWLDOHTXDWLRQLVGHWHUPLQHGE\WKHKLJKHVWRUGHUGHULYDWLYHLQWKHHTXDWLRQ
dy
$¿UVWRUGHUOLQHDUGLIIHUHQWLDOHTXDWLRQFDQEHZULWWHQLQWKHVWDQGDUGIRUP P x y Q x.
dx
See Calculus II, Lessons 4–6.
GLIIHUHQWLDORSHUDWRUͼGHOͽͼͽͼͽ: w , w , or w . 8VHGLQFXUOGLYHUJHQFH3URQRXQFHG
wx wy wz
“del,” or “grad,” or “nabla.”
GLUHFWLRQDOGHULYDWLYHͼͽ$JHQHUDOL]DWLRQRIWKHFRQFHSWRISDUWLDOGHULYDWLYHWKDWFDQEHXVHGWR¿QGWKH
VORSHDZD\IURPDSRLQWLQDQ\JLYHQGLUHFWLRQ
GLVNͼͽ: Two-dimensional analog for intervals along the x-axis in beginning calculus. An open disk that is the
interior of a circle. Compare with planar lamina.
GLYHUJHQFHRIDYHFWRU¿HOGͼͽ: $VFDODUWKDWPHDVXUHVRXWZDUGÀX[SHUXQLWYROXPHWKHWHQGHQF\
Glossary
198
GLYHUJHQFHWKHRUHPͼͽ: A generalization of Green’s theorem that relates a ÀX[LQWHJUDORYHUWKHERXQGDU\
of a solid with a triple integral over the entire solid:
³³ f x, y dA
R
lim ¦ f xi , yi 'Ai .
' o0
i 1
To solve, rewrite as an iterated integral. Can be used to solve for area, volume, mass, surface area, etc.
extreme value theorem ͼͽ: If z = f ͼx, yͽ is continuous on the closed and bounded region R in the plane, then
there is at least one point in R at which f takes on a minimum value and at least one point in R at which f
takes on a maximum value.
exponential function: The inverse of the natural logarithmic function y OQx is the exponential function
y = ex. The exponential function is equal to its derivative, d ª¬e x º¼ e x. The exponential function to base
dx
a, a!LVGH¿QHGE\ a x e ln a x. See Calculus, Lesson 1.
ÀX[LQWHJUDOͼͽ$VXUIDFHLQWHJUDOWKDWLVXVHGWRPRGHOWKHÀRZRIDOLTXLGWKURXJKDWZRVLGHGVXUIDFH²
an orientable surface. )OX[LQWHJUDOVDUHQRWGH¿QHGIRUVXUIDFHVWKDWDUHQRWRULHQWDEOH
199
IXQFWLRQRIWZRYDULDEOHVͼͽ: $IXQFWLRQZLWKWZRLQGHSHQGHQWYDULDEOHVͼoften x and yͽ and one dependent
YDULDEOHͼoften z or tͽ. Let Dͼthe domainͽ be a set of ordered pairs of real numbers. If to each ordered pair
ͼx, yͽ in D there corresponds a unique real number f ͼx, yͽ, then f is a function of x and y.
b
³ f x dx
a
F b F a .
This theorem and the second fundamental theorem of calculus show how integration and differentiation
DUHEDVLFDOO\LQYHUVHRSHUDWLRQV,If is continuous on an open interval I containing a, the second
fundamental theorem of calculusVD\VWKDWIRUDQ\x in the interval,
d ª x f t dt º
dx «¬ ³a
»¼ f x.
Q
³³ E< N dS
S
H0
.
JUDGLHQWͼͽ: A vector that points in the direction of maximum increase or steepest ascent; is orthogonal
WROHYHOFXUYHVͼfor functions of two variablesͽDQGOHYHOVXUIDFHVͼfor functions of three variablesͽ.
7KHJUDGLHQWRIDIXQFWLRQRIWZRͼor moreͽ variables is a vector-valued function; for a function of two
variables, the gradient is grad f x , y f x , y f x x , y i f y x , y j. The dot product of the
gradient with the unit vector gives the directional derivative.
Glossary
200
*UHHQ¶VWKHRUHPͼͽ: A theorem about points in the plane that UHODWHVDOLQHLQWHJUDODURXQGWKHERXQGDU\RI
a region with a double integral over the entire region:
§ wN wM ·
³C
M dx N dy ³³ ¨© wx
R
wy ¸ dA.
¹
Here, M and N are the components of a vector-valued function F. This theorem generalizes to space, in
WZRGLIIHUHQWZD\VZLWKWKHdivergence theorem and Stokes’s theorem.
dy
JURZWKDQGGHFD\PRGHOͼͽ: 7KHVROXWLRQWRWKHJURZWKDQGGHFD\PRGHO ky is y Ce kt . Introduced in
dt
Calculus II, Lesson 5.
Used when exponents m and n are both even in the integral ³ sin m x cos n x dx. Reviewed in Calculus II,
Lesson 11.
KDUPRQLFIXQFWLRQͼͽ: $IXQFWLRQWKDWVDWLV¿HV/DSODFH¶VSDUWLDOGLIIHUHQWLDOHTXDWLRQIRUWKHVWHDG\VWDWH
distribution of the temperature in plates or solids.
improper integral$QLQWHJUDOZKHUHRQHRIWKHOLPLWVRILQWHJUDWLRQLVRUíRIWKHIRUP
f b
³ f x dx
a
lim ³ f x dx ,
b of a
201
e³
P ( x ) dx
integrating factor: For a linear differential equation, the integrating factor is u . See Calculus II,
Lesson 6.
integration by partial fractions: An algebraic technique for splitting up complicated algebraic expressions—
LQSDUWLFXODUUDWLRQDOIXQFWLRQV²LQWRDVXPRIVLPSOHUIXQFWLRQVZKLFKFDQWKHQEHLQWHJUDWHGHDVLO\
using other techniques. See Calculus II, Lesson 13.
³ f g x g c x dx F g x C because ³ f u du F u C.
iterated integrals ͼͽ: Repeated simple integrals, such as double integrals and triple integrals. The inside
limits of integration can be variable with respect to the outer variable of integration, but the outside limits
of integration must be constant with respect to both outside limits of integration.
inverse functions7KRVHZKRVHJUDSKVDUHV\PPHWULFDFURVVWKHOLQHy = x.
A function g is the inverse function of the function f if f ͼJ࣠ͼxͽͽ = x for all x in the domain of g and
J࣠ͼf ͼxͽͽ = x for all x in the domain of f. The inverse of f is denoted f 1 . Reviewed in Calculus II, Lesson 1.
LQYHUVHVTXDUH¿HOGV ͼͽ: Fields where the force decreases in proportion with the square of distance.
Given r xi yj zk , WKHYHFWRU¿HOGFLVDQLQYHUVHVTXDUH¿HOGLI F x , y , z k u.
2
r
cos 1 x cos y
Glossary
202
y arctan x tan 1 x tan y x , for f x f and S y S .
2 2
.HSOHU¶VODZVͼͽ: 1ͽ The orbit of each planet is an ellipse, with the Sun at one of the two foci; 2ͽ a line
joining a planet and the Sun sweeps out equal areas during equal intervals of time; 3ͽ the square of the
RUELWDOSHULRGRIDSODQHWLVGLUHFWO\SURSRUWLRQDOWRWKHFXEHRIWKHVHPLPDMRUD[LVRIWKHRUELW
ODPLQDͼͽ$WKLQÀDWSODWHRIPDWHULDOXVXDOO\RIXQLIRUPGHQVLW\
/DSODFH¶VSDUWLDOGLIIHUHQWLDOHTXDWLRQͼͽ'HVFULEHVWKHVWHDG\VWDWHWHPSHUDWXUHGLVWULEXWLRQLQSODWHVRU
2 2
solids. w z2 w z2 0. $IXQFWLRQWKDWVDWLV¿HVWKLVHTXDWLRQLVVDLGWREHharmonic.
wx wy
ODZRIFRQVHUYDWLRQRIHQHUJ\ͼͽ,QDFRQVHUYDWLYHIRUFH¿HOGWKHVXPRISRWHQWLDODQGNLQHWLFHQHUJLHVRI
an object remain constant from point to point.
OHDVWVTXDUHVUHJUHVVLRQOLQHͼͽ: 8VHGWR¿WDOLQHWRDVHWRISRLQWVLQWKHSODQH:RUNVEHVWZKHQWKHGDWDLV
QHDUO\OLQHDU'HULYHGE\PLQLPL]LQJWKHVXPRIWKHVTXDUHVRIWKHGLIIHUHQFHVEHWZHHQWKHGDWDDQGWKH
line. If f ͼxͽ = ax + b, then the values of a and bDUHJLYHQE\
n n n
n ¦ xi yi ¦ xi ¦ yi n n
1 § y a x ·.
a i 1
n
i 1 i 1
2
,b ¨ ¦
n© i 1 i ¦ i ¸
¹
§ n · i 1
n ¦ xi 2 ¨ ¦ xi ¸
i 1 ©i 1 ¹
level curve ͼͽ: Also known as a contour lineWKHVHWRIDOOSRLQWVLQWKHSODQHVDWLVI\LQJf ͼx, yͽ = c, when
z = f ͼx, yͽ and c is a constant. Contrast with trace, which is the intersection of a surface with a plane.
203
level surface ͼͽ: Although a function in three variables f ͼx, y, zͽ cannot itself be graphed, it is possible to
graph a level surface, the set of all points in space where that function equals a constant, f ͼx, y, zͽ = c.
L’Hôpital’s rule: A technique for evaluating indeterminate forms for limits such as 0 or f , where no
0 f
guaranteed limit exists. See Calculus II, Lesson 14.
Also, the equation lim f x f means that f ͼxͽ increases without bound as x approaches c.
x oc
7KHGH¿QLWLRQIRUDOLPLWLQPXOWLYDULDEOHFDOFXOXVLVVLPLODUWRWKDWLQHOHPHQWDU\FDOFXOXVH[FHSWWKDWZH
XVHRSHQGLVNVͼDQGDSSURDFKIURPDQ\GLUHFWLRQͽLQVWHDGRIXVLQJRSHQLQWHUYDOVͼDSSURDFKLQJIURPRQO\
two directionsͽ:HVD\WKDW lim f x , y L if for eachİ > 0, there existsį > 0 such that
x , y o x0 , y0
2 2
f x , y L H whenever 0< x x0 y y 0 G.
OLQHLQWHJUDOͼͽ: Integration over a piecewise smooth curve, which can be used to calculate the mass of
DWKLQZLUHͼwhere the value of the integral does not depend on the orientation of the curveͽRUZRUNE\D
IRUFH¿HOGͼwhere the orientation of the path does matter and determines the sign of the answerͽ. Green’s
theoremLPSOLHVWKDWWKHOLQHLQWHJUDODURXQGDQ\FORVHGFXUYHZLWKLQDFRQVHUYDWLYHYHFWRU¿HOGLV]HUR
See fundamental theorem of line integrals.
OLQHVLQVSDFHͼͽ'H¿QHGXVLQJDSRLQWDQGDGLUHFWLRQYHFWRUWKHVHDUHTXLWHGLIIHUHQWIURPOLQHVLQWKHSODQH
ͼGH¿QHGXVLQJVORSHDQGy-interceptͽ. See planes in space and parametric equations.
Glossary
204
1
log rule for integration: ³ x dx ln x C .
For a logarithmic function to base a, when a > 0 and a log a x 1 ln x. See Calculus, Lesson 27.
ln a
See Calculus II, Lesson 3.
mass ͼͽ7KHGRXEOHLQWHJUDORIWKHGHQVLW\IXQFWLRQ
0D[ZHOO¶VHTXDWLRQVͼͽ: Four partial differential equations, and their integral forms, describing the
LQWHUDFWLRQRIHOHFWULFDQGPDJQHWLF¿HOGV7KHLUGLIIHUHQWLDOIRUPVDUHDVIROORZV
U
)RUDQHOHFWULF¿HOGE and a surface S enclosing a charge Q, <E , where ȡLVWKHFKDUJHGHQVLW\
H0
If ELVDQHOHFWULF¿HOGBLVDPDJQHWLF¿HOGDQGJLVWKHFXUUHQWGHQVLW\ u B wE J.
wt
PRPHQWͼͽ: Related to the turning force of a mass around a pivot or fulcrum. 0RUHSUHFLVHO\LIDPDVVm
is concentrated at a point and if x is the distance between the mass and another point P, then the
moment of m about P is mx. Formulas for the moments with respect to the axes are much simpler
WKDQWKHFRUUHVSRQGLQJIRUPXODVLQHOHPHQWDU\FDOFXOXV M x ³³ y U x , y dA, M y ³³ x U x , y dA.
R R
Covered in Calculus II, Lesson 9.
PXOWLYDULDEOHFDOFXOXVͼͽ: Calculus of more than one variable. That is, the calculus of functions of two or
more independent variables, and their graphs in space.
1 t
205
normal: 3HUSHQGLFXODURURUWKRJRQDO$YHFWRULVQRUPDOWRDVXUIDFHDWDSRLQWLILWLVSHUSHQGLFXODUWRWKH
surface at the point. Also, the normal component of acceleration is the direction of the acceleration and is
2
JLYHQE\ aN v Tc a < N a aT 2 , where the normal vector is written N or n. See Calculus II,
Lesson 35.
one-sided limits: The limit from the right means that x approaches c from values greater than c. The
HOHPHQWDU\QRWDWLRQLV lim f x L.
x oc
orientable ͼͽ: A surface is orientable when its unit normal vector NFDQEHGH¿QHGDWHYHU\QRQERXQGDU\
point on a surface SVXFKWKDWWKHQRUPDOYHFWRUVYDU\FRQWLQXRXVO\RYHUWKHVXUIDFH
SDUDPHWHUͼͽ: 8VHGWRGH¿QHGDYHFWRUYDOXHGIXQFWLRQDSDUDPHWHULVDQLQGHSHQGHQWYDULDEOH
SDUDPHWULFHTXDWLRQͼͽ: %\HTXDWLQJFRUUHVSRQGLQJFRPSRQHQWVRIDGLUHFWLRQYHFWRU x x1 , y y1 , z z1
with three direction numbersͼa, b, cͽ, we can GH¿QHDOLQHLQVSDFHLQWHUPVRIWKUHHSDUDPHWULF
JJJG
equations, PQ x x1 , y y1 , z z1 t a , b, c :
x x1 at
y y1 bt
z z1 ct .
Glossary
206
In the special case where a, b, and c are all nonzero, the parameter t can also be omitted in favor of so-
FDOOHGV\PPHWULFHTXDWLRQVWKDWRPLWt of the form ( x x1 ) / a ( y y1 ) / b ( z z1 ) / c. 0RUHJHQHUDOO\
IRUDQ\SDUDPHWULFFXUYHZHFRQVLGHUx, y, and zDVIXQFWLRQVRIDIRXUWKYDULDEOHͼ“parameter”ͽ t. The
FXUYHWUDFHGRXWE\WKHSDUDPHWULFHTXDWLRQV x f t , y g t , z h t induces an orientation to the
curve as the parameter t increases. See Calculus II, Lesson 28.
SDUDPHWULFVXUIDFHͼͽ$JHQHUDOL]DWLRQRIDSDUDPHWULFFXUYHJLYHQE\DYHFWRUYDOXHGIXQFWLRQKDYLQJ
two parameters. As the parameters u and vYDU\RYHUWKHLUGRPDLQVWKHIXQFWLRQWUDFHVRXWDVXUIDFHLQ
space: r u , v x u , v i y u , v j z u , v k . For example, the paraboloid z = x2 + y2 can be described as
a parametric surface r u , v ui vj u 2 v 2 k .
wf f x 'x , y f x , y wf f x , y 'y f x , y
f x x, y lim ; f y x, y lim .
wx 'x o 0 'x wy 'y o 0 'y
w § wf · w2 x § wf · w2 y
f xx ; w ¨ ¸ f yy
wx ¨© wx ¸¹ wx 2 wy © wy ¹ wy 2
w § wf · w2 f § wf · w2 f
f xy ; w ¨ ¸ f yx .
wy ¨© wx ¸¹ wywx wx © wy ¹ wxwy
SDUWLFOHPRWLRQͼͽ7KHSRVLWLRQYHORFLW\DQGDFFHOHUDWLRQDUHDOOYHFWRUVWKHVSHHGLVDVFDODU
3RVLWLRQ r t x t i y t j z t k.
9HORFLW\ v t rc t xc t i y c t j z c t k .
Acceleration: a t r cc t xcc t i y cc t j z cc t k .
2 2 2
Speed: v t rc t ¬ª xc t ¼º ¬ª y c t ¼º ¬ª z c t ¼º .
207
SLHFHZLVHVPRRWKFXUYHͼͽ: $FXUYHIRUZKLFKWKHLQWHUYDORIWKHFXUYHFDQEHSDUWLWLRQHGLQWRD¿QLWH
number of smooth subintervals. The lower-dimensional counterpart of a simply connected region.
SODQHLQVSDFHͼͽ: $SODQHLQVSDFHLVGHWHUPLQHGE\DSRLQWRQWKHSODQHDQGDYHFWRUQRUPDOWRWKHSODQH
The standard equation of a plane in space is a x x1 b y y1 c z z1 0. The general form of a
plane is ax by cz d 0, where a, b, and c are components of the normal vector to the plane.
SRWHQWLDOIXQFWLRQͼͽ: The differentiable function whose gradient can represent a particular conservative
YHFWRU¿HOGF as follows: F f . Finding a potential function is comparable to antidifferentiation:
VRPHWLPHVHDV\WRVHHDWDJODQFHEXWVRPHWLPHVGLI¿FXOWRULPSRVVLEOHWR¿QG
SURMHFWLRQͼͽ: When a vector u is projected onto a vector v, the result is a multiple of v, written
§ ·
projv u ¨ u < v2 ¸ v.
¨ v ¸
© ¹
7KHSURMHFWLRQLVXVHGWR¿QGWKHGLVWDQFHEHWZHHQDSODQHDQGDSRLQWQRWLQWKDWSODQH
208
radian: Calculus uses radian PHDVXUH,IDSUREOHPLVVWDWHGLQGHJUHHPHDVXUH\RXPXVWFRQYHUWWRUDGLDQV
360° is 2ʌ radians; 180° is ʌ radians. See Calculus II, Lesson 1.
second derivative test: Let f c c 0 ͼc is a critical number of fͽ. If f cc c ! 0, then f has a relative minimum
at c. If f cc c 0, then f has a relative maximum at c. See Calculus II, Lesson 2.
VHFRQGSDUWLDOVWHVWͼͽ6LPLODUWRWKHVHFRQGGHULYDWLYHWHVWLQHOHPHQWDU\FDOFXOXVXVHGWRGHWHUPLQH
ZKHWKHUFULWLFDOSRLQWVDUHUHODWLYHH[WUHPDRUQRW/HWͼa, bͽ be a critical point of f'H¿QHWKHTXDQWLW\
2
d f xx a , b f yy a , b ª¬ f xy a , b º¼ . Then, we have the following.
Snell’s law RIUHIUDFWLRQͼͽ: When light waves traveling in a transparent medium strike the surface of
DVHFRQGWUDQVSDUHQWPHGLXPWKH\WHQGWR³EHQG´ͼundergo refractionͽ in order to follow the path of
minimum time.
solid of revolution: If a region in the plane is revolved about a line, the resulting solid is a solid of revolution,
and the line is called the axis of revolution. When the plane is a circle, the resulting solid is a torus.
See theorem of Pappus. See Calculus II, Lesson 7.
solution curves7KHJHQHUDOVROXWLRQRID¿UVWRUGHUGLIIHUHQWLDOHTXDWLRQUHSUHVHQWVDIDPLO\RIFXUYHVNQRZQ
DVVROXWLRQFXUYHVRQHIRUHDFKYDOXHRIWKHDUELWUDU\FRQVWDQW6HHCalculus, Lesson 35, and Calculus II,
Lesson 5.
209
VSKHULFDOFRRUGLQDWHVͼͽ6LPLODUWRORQJLWXGHDQGODWLWXGHFRRUGLQDWHVRQ(DUWKEXWWKH¿UVWFRRUGLQDWHȡ
is a distance, while the other two are angles. The distance ȡ is from a point in space P to the origin O, ș is
the same angle as used in cylindrical coordinates, and ij is the angle between the positive z-axis and the
line segment OP , ijʌ. (VSHFLDOO\XVHIXOIRUOLNHVSKHUHVWKDWKDYHDFHQWHURIV\PPHWU\
6WRNHV¶VWKHRUHPͼͽ: A higher-dimension analog of Green’s theorem that relates a line integral around a
closed curve C to a surface integral of a closed, oriented surface S for which CLVWKHERXQGDU\/HWWLQJ
the unit normal to that surface be N and )ͼx, y, zͽEHDYHFWRU¿HOGZKRVHFRPSRQHQWIXQFWLRQVKDYH
FRQWLQXRXV¿UVWSDUWLDOGHULYDWLYHVWKHQStokes’s theorem states that ³ F < dr ³³ curl F < N dS .
C S
summation formulas:
n
¦c
i 1
c c " c cn.
n
n ( n 1)
¦i
i 1 2
.
n
n ( n 1)(2 n 1)
¦i
i 1
2
6
.
VXUIDFHͼͽ: Surfaces are graphs in space, such as quadric surfaces and surfaces of revolution. A
surface is simply connectedLIHYHU\VLPSOHFORVHGFXUYHLQWKHUHJLRQHQFORVHVRQO\SRLQWVWKDWDUH
inside that region.
VXUIDFHDUHDͼͽ: In space, surface area equals the double integral of the differential of surface area.
If z = f ͼx, yͽLVGH¿QHGRYHUDUHJLRQR in the xy-plane, the surface area is
2 2
S ³³ 1 ¬ª f x x , y ¼º ¬ª f y x , y ¼º dA.
R
2
³³ f x, y , z dS ³³ f x, y , g x, y
2
1 g x g y dA.
S R
Glossary
210
theorem of Pappus: If a region is rotated about the y-axis, then the volume of the resulting solid of revolution
is V 2S xA. See Calculus II, Lesson 9.
torus$VXUIDFHRUVROLGVKDSHGOLNHDWLUHRUGRXJKQXWDQGIRUPHGE\UHYROYLQJWKHUHJLRQERXQGHGE\WKH
circle x2 + y2 = r2 about the line x R r R . See Calculus II, Lesson 31.
WRWDOGLIIHUHQWLDOͼͽ: 6LPLODUWRWKHWDQJHQWOLQHDSSUR[LPDWLRQWRDFXUYHLQHOHPHQWDU\FDOFXOXVWKHWRWDO
differential is a tangent plane approximation to a surface. The total differential of z is the expression
dz wz dx wz dy f x x , y dx f y x , y dy.
wx wy
WUDFHͼͽ: The intersection of a surface with a plane—for example, the intersection with one of the three
coordinate planes. The trace of a surface is a curve in space, unlike a level curveZKLFKLVDFXUYHRQO\LQ
the xy-plane.
trigonometric functions7KHULJKWWULDQJOHGH¿QLWLRQRIWKHWULJRQRPHWULFIXQFWLRQVXVHVWKHIROORZLQJ
right triangle.
sin T a.
c c
b. a
cos T
c T
tan T sin T a. b
cos T b
sin T y
sin T y , cos T x , tan T
cos T x
211
trigonometric identities: Trigonometric identities are trigonometric equations that are valid for all values
RIWKHYDULDEOHͼW \SLFDOO\x or șͽDQGRIIHUDQLPSRUWDQWWHFKQLTXHIRUVLPSOLI\LQJGLIIHUHQWLDWLRQDQG
integration problems. These are presented in Calculus II, Lesson 2. In addition to those described under
trigonometric functions, some of the most useful are as follows.
sin 2 x cos 2 x 1.
tan 2 x sec 2 x 1.
cos 2 x 1 cos 2 x .
2
sin 2 x 1 cos 2 x .
2
trigonometric substitution: A technique for converting integrands to trigonometric integrals. See Calculus II,
Lesson 12.
WULSOHLQWHJUDOͼͽ: 7KHGH¿QLWLRQLVVLPLODUWRWKHGH¿QLWLRQRIGRXEOHLQWHJUDO
n
³³³ f x, y , z dV
Q
lim
' o0
¦ f x , y , z 'V .
i 1
i i i i
There are six orders of integration for triple integrals in Cartesian coordinates:
WULSOHVFDODUSURGXFWͼͽ: Using three vectors, we take the dot product of one vector with the cross product of
WZRRWKHUYHFWRUV&DQEHXVHGWR¿QGWKHYROXPHRIDSDUDOOHOHSLSHGGH¿QHGE\WKUHHYHFWRUVWKDWGRQRW
lie in the same plane.
u1 u2 u3
u < v u w v1 v2 v3 .
w1 w2 w3
rc t
XQLWWDQJHQWYHFWRUͼͽ: A unit vector pointing in the direction of motion is T t
Glossary
, where r is a
rc t
YHFWRUYDOXHGIXQFWLRQͼposition vectorͽ.
212
YHFWRUͼͽ: )RUTXDQWLWLHVWKDWKDYHERWKPDJQLWXGHDQGGLUHFWLRQVXFKDVYHORFLW\DFFHOHUDWLRQDQG
IRUFH&RQWUDVWHGZLWKVFDODUVZKLFKKDYHRQO\PDJQLWXGHVXFKDVVSHHGPDVVYROXPHDQGWLPH
8VXDOO\DSSHDULQORZHUFDVHEROGOHWWHUV
YHFWRUYDOXHGIXQFWLRQVͼͽ)XQFWLRQVWKDWLQSXWDVFDODUWRJHWDYHFWRU0RUHSUHFLVHO\IXQFWLRQVWKDWXVH
YHFWRUVLQVWHDGRIDOJHEUDLFYDULDEOHVWRGH¿QHWKHLURXWSXWVXVXDOO\RIWKHIRUPUͼtͽ = f ͼtͽL + J࣠ͼtͽM + K࣠ͼtͽN,
or the more compact form, r t f t , g t , h t , where f and g and h are the component functions and
t is the input parameter. See Calculus II, Lessons 33.
YROXPHͼͽ: 7KHGRXEOHLQWHJUDORIDQRQQHJDWLYHIXQFWLRQGH¿QHGRQDFORVHGDQGERXQGHGUHJLRQLQ
the plane.
213
Summary of Differentiation Formulas
d
Sum or difference rule: >u r v @ uc r vc
dx
dw ww dx ww dy
Chain rule: d ª¬ f u º¼ f c u u c one generalization of which is .
dx dt wx dt wy dt
d x 1.
dx
> @
d ªe x º ex .
dx ¬ ¼
d ª¬e x º¼ e x .
dx
Summary of Differentiation Formulas
d ª¬ a x º¼ ln a a x .
dx
214
d > cos x @ sin x.
dx
215
Summary of Integration Formulas
³ kf x dx k ³ f x dx.
³ ª¬ f x r g x º¼ dx ³ f x dx r ³ g x dx.
³ d x x C.
x
³ e dx e x C.
x § 1 ·a x C.
³ a dx ¨ ¸
© ln a ¹
³ sin x dx cos x C.
³ cos x dx sin x C.
216
³ sec 2 x dx tan x C.
³ dx arcsin x C .
a2 x2 a
³ dx 1 arctan x C .
a2 x2 a a
217
Quadric Surfaces
1RWLFHWKDWWKHVTXDUHGWHUPVGHWHUPLQHWKHRYHUDOOVKDSHIRUHDFKTXDGULFVXUIDFH$Q\FURVVPXOWLSOLHG
WHUPVͼsuch as xy, xz, or yzͽDVZHOODVOLQHDUWHUPVDQGFRQVWDQWVPHUHO\WLOWRUVKLIWWKHSRVLWLRQRIWKH
overall shape.
z
x 2y 2
z 2
ellipsoid: 2
+ 2 + 2 = 1.
a b c
Is a sphere when a = b = c.
y
x2 y2 z 2
K\SHUERORLGRIRQHVKHHW 1.
a2 b2 c2
2QO\RQHRIWKHWKUHHVTXDUHGWHUPVLVQHJDWLYH
z
7UDFHVSDUDOOHOWRWKHWZRSRVLWLYHWHUPVͼxyͽ are ellipses;
WUDFHVSDUDOOHOWRWKHSODQHRIWKHQHJDWLYHWHUPͼxz and yzͽ
DUHK\SHUERODV
x2 y2 z 2
1.
a2 b2 c2
Quadric Surfaces
218
x2 y2 z 2 z 2 x2 y2
K\SHUERORLGRIWZRVKHHWV 1 .
a2 b2 c2 c2 a2 b2
x2 y2 z 2
1.
a2 b2 c2
x2 y2 z 2
elliptic cone: 0.
a2 b2 c2
$GRXEOHFRQHVLPLODUWRK\SHUERORLGRIRQHVKHHW
H[FHSWWKHWZRHOOLSWLFFRQHVWRXFKRQO\DWDVLQJOHSRLQW z
2QO\RQHRIWKHWKUHHVTXDUHGWHUPVLVQHJDWLYH
and
x2 y2 z 2
0.
a2 b2 c2
219
x2 y2
elliptic paraboloid: z.
a2 b2 z
$F\OLQGHUFUHDWHGE\URWDWLQJDSDUDERODZKHQa = b = 1.
x2 y2
K\SHUEROLFSDUDERORLG z.
a2 b2
6\PPHWULFDOVDGGOHVKDSHZKHQa = b = 1.
z
One positive squared term and one negative squared
term set equal to a linear third term.
An alternative orientation is
x
y2 x2
z.
b2 a2
Quadric Surfaces
220
Bibliography
Larson, Ron, and Bruce H. Edwards. Calculus. 10th ed. Florence, KY: Brooks/Cole, 2014. This text covers an
entire three-semester calculus sequence.
———. Calculus: Early Transcendental Functions. 6th ed. Florence, KY: Brooks/Cole, 2015. This text
offers a different approach to the exponential and logarithmic functions, presenting them in the beginning of
the textbook.
Larson, Ron, and Bruce H. Edwards. Multivariable Calculus. 10th ed. Florence, KY: Brooks/Cole, 2014.
&RQWDLQVWKHFKDSWHUVDERXWPXOWLYDULDEOHFDOFXOXVͼChapters 10–14ͽIURPWKHIXOOWKUHHVHPHVWHUWH[WERRNE\
the same authors, Calculus, 10th edition.
3HQURVH5RJHUThe Road to Reality: A Complete Guide to the Laws of the Universe. New York: Vintage, 2007.
6RPHRQHFRPSOHWLQJWKLVFRXUVHZLWKDQLQWHUHVWLQWKHRUHWLFDOSK\VLFVPLJKWHQMR\UHDGLQJ&KDSWHUͼ“Real-
Number Calculus”ͽRU&KDSWHUͼ“Surfaces”ͽRIWKLVHQF\FORSHGLFDWWHPSWWRVXUYH\DOOPDWKHPDWLFVRI
LPSRUWDQFHIRUFRQWHPSRUDU\SK\VLFV
Saxon, John H., Jr., and Frank Y. H. Wang. Calculus with Trigonometry and Analytic Geometry. 2nd ed. Edited
E\%UHW/&URFNDQG-DPHV$6HOOHUV:LOPLQJWRQ0$6D[RQ3XEOLVKHUV7KLVLVDQRWKHUJRRGFKRLFH
DPRQJFDOFXOXVWH[WVDQGLVHGLWHGE\-DPHV$6HOOHUVZKRSURGXFHGAlgebra I, Algebra II, and Mastering the
Fundamentals of Mathematics with The Great Courses.
Internet Resource
221