Lecture On Vibration PDF

53/58:153 Lecture 1 Fundamental of Vibration
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Lecture 1: Introduction
Reading materials: Sections 1.1 – 1.6
1. Introduction
People became interested in vibration when the first musical instruments,

probably whistles or drums, were discovered.
Most human activities involve vibration in one form or other. For example, we
hear because our eardrums vibrate and see because light waves undergo vibration.
Any motion that repeats itself after an interval of time is called vibration or
oscillation.
The general terminology of “Vibration” is used to describe oscillatory motion

of mechanical and structural systems.
The Vibration of a system involves the transfer of its potential energy to

kinetic energy and kinetic energy to potential energy, alternately.
The terminology of “Free Vibration” is used for the study of natural vibration
modes in the absence external loading.
The terminology of “Forced Vibration” is used for the study of motion as a

result of loads that vary rapidly with time. Loads that vary rapidly with time are
called dynamic loads.
If no energy is lost or dissipated in friction or other resistance during

oscillation, the vibration is known as “undamped vibration”. If any energy is lost in
this way, however, is called “damped vibration”.
If the system is damped, some energy is dissipated in each cycle of vibration

and must be replaced by an external source if a state of steady vibration is to be
maintained.
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2. Branches of Mechanics
Rigid bodies
Statics & Dynamics; Kinematics & Dynamics of Mechanical Systems
Fluid mechanics
Deformable bodies
Structural analysis: assuming loads do not change over time or change
very “slowly”
Vibrations or Dynamic analysis: considering more general case when
loads vary with time.
Finite element analysis: a powerful numerical method for both static
and dynamic analysis.
Vibration analysis procedure
Step 1: Mathematical modeling

Step 2: Derivation of governing equations
Step 3: Solution of the governing equations
Step 4: Interpretation of the results
3. Other Basic Concepts of Vibration
A vibratory system, in general, includes a means for storing potential

energy (spring or elasticity), a means for storing kinetic energy (mass or
inertia), and a means by which energy is gradually lost (damper).
The minimum number of independent coordinates required to determine

completely the positions of all parts of a system at any instant of time
defines the degree of freedom (DOF) of the system.
Examples:
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A large number of practical systems can be described using a finite

number of DOFs. Systems with a finite number of DOFs are called discrete
or lumped parameter systems.
Some systems, especially those involving continuous elastic members,

have an infinite number of DOFs. Those systems are called continuous or
distributed systems.
4. Plane truss example (Matrix method)
Element equations
Global equations
Boundary conditions
Stiffness matrix and unknown variables
or Kd
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f(t) = f0
Kd = f
f(t) is a harmonic force, i.e. f(t) = - 100 cos(7 π t)
or
&& + Kd = f
Md
Solutions
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5. Period and Frequency
“Period of vibration” is the time that it takes to complete one cycle. It is

measured in seconds.
“Frequency” is the number of cycles per second. It is measured in Hz (1

cycle/second). It could be also measured in radians/second.
Period of vibration: T
Frequency of vibration: f = (1/T) Hz or ω = (2π/T) radians/s
T=(2 π/ω) = (1/T)
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Example:
6. Dynamic loads on structures
Wind loads
Blast pressure
Earthquakes
Etc.
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7. Importance of dynamic analysis

Load magnification & Fatigue effects
A static load is constant and is applied to the structure for a considerable part of
its life. For example, the self weight of building. Loads that are repeatedly exerted,
but are applied and removed very slowly, are also considered static loads.
Fatigue phenomenon can be caused by repeated application of the load. The

number of cycles is usually low, and hence this type of loading may cause what is
known as low-cycle fatigue.
Quasi-static loads are actually due to dynamic phenomena but remain constant
for relatively long periods.
Most mechanical and structural systems are subjected to loads that actually
vary over time. Each system has a characteristic time to determine whether the
load can be considered static, quasi-static, or dynamic. This characteristic time is
the fundamental period of free vibration of the system.
Dynamic Load Magnification factor (DLF) is the ratio of the maximum

dynamic force experienced by the system and the maximum applied load.
The small period of vibration results in a small DLF.
Fatigue phenomenon can be caused by repeated application of the load. The

number of cycles and the stress range are important factors in determining the
fatigue life.
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8. Types of Vibratory Motion
Oscillatory motion may repeat itself regularly, as in the case of a simple

pendulum, or it may display considerable irregularity, as in the case of ground
motion during an earthquake.
If the motion is repeated after equal intervals of time, it is called periodic

motion. The simplest type of periodic motion is harmonic motion.
Harmonic motion
It is described by sine or cosine functions.
( )
x(t ) = A sin ω t
A is the amplitude while ω is the frequency (radians/sec)
( )
x& (t ) = ω A cos ω t
( )
&x&(t ) = −ω 2 A sin ω t = −ω 2 x(t )
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Two harmonic motions having the same period and/or amplitude could have
different phase angle.
A harmonic motion can be written in terms of exponential functions.
so that
A harmonic motion could be written as
Alternative forms for harmonic motion
Generally, a harmonic motion can be expressed as a combination of sine and

cosine waves.
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or
Periodic motion
The motion repeats itself exactly.
A general vibratory motion doesn’t have a repeating pattern.
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Lecture 2: Spring-Mass Systems

Reading materials: Sections 1.7, 1.8
1. Introduction
All systems possessing mass and elasticity are capable of free vibration, or
vibration that takes place in the absence of external excitation. Of primary interest
for such a system is its natural frequency of vibration.
The basic vibration model of a simple oscillatory system consists of a mass, a

massless spring, and a damper.
If damping in moderate amounts has little influence on the natural frequency, it

may be neglected. The system can then be considered to be conservative.
An undamped spring-mass system is the simplest free vibration system. It has

one DOF.
2. Equation of Motion
Natural frequency
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3. Free vibration solution
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Example 1: A ¼ kg mass is suspended by a spring having a stiffness of

0.1533 N/mm. determine its natural frequency in cycles per second.
Determine its statistical deflection
Example 2:
A weight W=80lb suspended by a spring with k = 100 lb/in. Determine the

vibration response, if the system is given an initial displacement of 2 inches and
then released suddenly.
Then
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4. Free Vibration of an undamped torsional system
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Example 3:
An automobile wheel and tire are suspended by a steel rod 0.50 cm in diameter and
2 m long. When the wheel is given an angular displacement and released, it makes
10 oscillations in 30.2 second. Determine polar moment of inertia of the wheel and
tire.
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Damping dynamic systems
Spring-mass systems with viscous damping:
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Introducing the damping ratio,
Therefore,
Finally, we have
a) Critical damping: ξ =1
b) Overdamped system: ξ >1
c) Underdamped or lightly damped system: 0 < ξ <1
The above can be classified as critically damped motion; nonoscillatory motion;

and oscillatory motion.
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Underdamped or lightly-damped motion: 0 < ξ < 1
where
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Example: A weight w = 80lb suspended by a spring with k=100lb/in. The

damping coefficient is c=1.6 lb-s/in. Determine the vibration response.
Initial displacement is 2 inches.
Logarithmic decrement: If there are the displacements at two consecutive

peaks at t1 and t1+Td
The logarithmic decrement is defined as
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The relationship between the logarithmic decrement and the damping ratio
For lightly damped systems, the difference between two successive peaks
may be too small to measure accurately. Since the logarithmic decrement
between any two successive peaks is constant, we can determine the
decrement from the first peak and the peak n cycles later.
Example: The following data are given for a vibrating system with viscous
damping: w = 10lb, k = 30 lb/in, c = 0.12 lb in/s. Determine the logarithmic
decrement and the ratio of any two successive amplitudes.
The dissipated energy in the first cycle,
Overdamped (Nonoscillatory) motion: ξ >1
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Example: A weight w = 80lb suspended by a spring with k=100lb/in. The

damping coefficient is c=10 lb-s/in. Determine the vibration response. Initial
displacement is 2 inches.
Critically damped motion: ξ =1
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Example: A weight w = 80lb suspended by a spring with k=100lb/in.

Determine the critically damped vibration response. Initial displacement is 2
inches.
6. Spring-Mass systems with Coulomb Damping (Optional)
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The first half cycle
Assume
Apply the I.C.
The second half cycle
Assume
Apply the I.C.
And so on…
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Lecture 3: Discrete Models

Reading materials: Sections 1.9, 1.10
1. Introduction
Equations of motion for discrete spring-mass-dashpot systems can be written by

considering equilibrium of forces acting on different masses in the system.
Equations of motion can also be derived via energy methods.
2. Spring in series and in parallel
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3. Mass dropping on a Spring-mass system
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4. A two degree of freedom system
5. Equivalent Spring-Mass systems for framed structures
Common framed structures are usually idealized as equivalent single or

multi-degree of freedom spring-mass systems.
The mass of the equivalent spring is equal to the total mass of the beam.
The stiffness of the equivalent spring is determined form the static

deflection produced by a concentrated load placed at the location where the
mass is lumped.
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6. Shafts subjected to axial forces and torques
7. Beams
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8. Frames (Optional)
Simplified model of building frame considers lateral dynamic forces.
The simplest lumped-mass model of a multi-story frame subjected to lateral

dynamic loads is based on the assumption that the floor systems, and therefore
girders (horizontal beams), are rigid. Thus the number of degrees of freedom for
dynamic analysis is equal to the number of stories in the frame.
The mass at each story level includes: dead loads based on the tributary area of
the frames, weight of the girders, and half the weight of the columns and walls
from the story above and below.
The story stiffness is equal to the sum of stiffnesses of all columns in a given
story.
Rigid frame
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Example 1
Define an equivalent two degrees of freedom spring-mass model for the two story
frame. The dead load from the floors and the walls in lb/ft2 (psf) is shown in the
figure. The frame spacing is 20 ft and the columns have a moment of inertia =
133.2 in4 and E = 30e6 lb/in2
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Lecture 4: Undamped Free Vibration

Reading materials: Section 2.1
1. Introduction
The terminology of “Free Vibration” is used for the study of natural vibration
modes in the absence external loading.
Free vibration solution of multi-degree of freedom systems follows procedure

similar to the one used for a single degree of freedom system.
The number of DOFs of the system is the number of masses in the system
multiplying the number of possible types of motion of each mass.
Generally, the number of equations of motion is the number of DOFs. They are
in form of coupled differential equations. In other words, each equation involves
all the DOFs/coordinates.
All differential equations for the system must be solved simultaneously.
The matrix notation is used to indicate the system of equations for a general
case.
2. A two DOFs spring-mass system
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3. Examples:
Compute natural frequencies and mode shapes for a two DOF spring-mass
system as shown in above with m1=9; m2=1; k1=38; k2=2; k3=3
Find the natural frequencies and mode shapes of a spring-mass system, shown
below, which is constrained to move in the vertical direction only. (n=1)
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4. Torsional System
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5. Frequencies and mode shapes using standard eigenvalue problem
If mass matrix is non-singular, the frequency equation can easily be

expressed in the form of a standard egienvalue problem.
The above is a standard eigenvalue problem. The mode shapes are the
eigenvectors while the frequencies are the square roots of the egienvalues.
Another efficient way for larger systems.
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Example: Compute natural frequencies and mode shapes for a two DOF
spring-mass system as shown in above with m1=9; m2=1; k1=38; k2=2; k3=3
6. Exact solutions based on the given initial conditions
General solutions of the free vibration:
in matrix form
or
The unknown coefficients can be determined via initial conditions.
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Example:
Compute free vibration solution of a two DOF spring-mass system as shown in

above with m1=9; m2=1; k1=38; k2=2; k3=3 and the following initial conditions:
y1(0) = 1; y2(0) = 0; v1(0) = 0; v2(0) = 0
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7. Interpretation of mode shapes
In the first mode shape the two masses are moving in the same direction.
The movement of the first mass is smaller than the second mass in this
mode because the first mass is attached to a stiffer spring.
In the second mode shape the two masses are moving in the opposite
directions. The movement of the first mass is also smaller than the second
mass.
There are only two possibilities of independent motion of this two DOF system
indicated by those two mode shapes. Any other motion can be described in terms
of a linear combination of these two modes. For example:
8. Example: free vibration solution of the following three DOF system

(Optional)
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Lecture 5: damped Free Vibration (Optional)

1. Introduction
Free vibration equations of motion of a damped multi-degree of freedom

system are
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2. Complex frequencies and mode shapes
For underdamped systems the roots of characteristic equation are complex

conjugate pairs. Each pair gives one mode shape.
Example: Compute natural frequencies and mode shapes for a damped two
DOF system.
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3. Damped free vibration solution
Generally, the frequencies and mode shapes are complex conjugate pairs
Then, the solution can be written as linear combination in terms of the roots of the
complex frequency
There are 2n undertermined coefficients which can be dertermined via initial

conditions. The solution can be expressed as the following using Euler’s equations
Example: In the previous example, initial conditions are
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Based on initial conditions
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Lecture 6: Modal Superposition

1. Introduction
Exact solution of the free vibration problems is
where coefficients can be determined from the initial conditions.
The method is not practical for large systems since two unknown coefficients
must be introduced for each mode shape.
Modal superposition is a powerful idea of obtaining solutions. It is applicable to

both free vibration and forced vibration problems.
The basic idea
To use free vibrations mode shapes to uncouple equations of motion.

The uncoupled equations are in terms of new variables called the modal
coordinates.
Solution for the modal coordinates can be obtained by solving each equation
independently.
A superposition of modal coordinates then gives solution of the original
equations.
Notices
It is not necessary to use all mode shapes for most practical problems.
Good approximate solutions can be obtained via superposition with only
first few mode shapes.
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2. Orthogonality of undamped free vibration mode shapes
An n degree of freedom system has n natural frequencies and n corresponding

mode shapes.
Mass orthogonality:
Proof:
Mass nomalization:
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Stiffness orthogonality:
Proof:
3. Modal superposition for undamped systems – Uncoupling of the

Equations of motion
Equations of motion of an undamped multi-degree of freedom system
The displacement vector can be written as a linear combination of the mode

shape vectors.
or in matrix form,
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Then, the equations of motion
First term becomes a modal mass matrix using mass orthogonalitys
Second term becomes a stiffness matrix using stiffness orthogonality
Here is the modal load vector
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The equations of motion are uncoupled and known as the modal equations
or
Recall natural frequencies
Then
Obviously, each modal equation represents an equivalent single degree of freedom

system.
Rewrite the initial conditions for the modal equations
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Finally, the modal equations are
4. Modal superposition for undamped systems – Solution of the modal

equations
For free vibrations, the modal equations are:
&z&i (t ) + ωi2 z i (t ) = 0
For each equation, the solution is
or
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where
Then, the solution for the original equations of motion is
Indeed, the above solution is the exact solution. The approximate solution can be
obtained via using the first few mode shapes.
The above equations are general expressions for both free vibration and forced
vibration.
For forced vibration, zi (t ) could be obtained from the solution of one DOF
forced vibration.
5. Examples
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Eigenvalues, frequencies, and mode shapes
a. Uncoupling equations of motion
I.C.s:
Modal equations:
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b. solution
6. Rayleigh damping
The undamped free vibration mode shapes are orthogonal with respect to the
mass and stiffness matrices.
Generally, the undamped free vibration mode shapes are not orthogonal with
respect to the damping matrix.
Generally, equations of motion for damped systems cannot be uncoupled.
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However, we can choose damping matrix to be a linear combination of the

mass and stiffness matrices. Then, the mode shapes are orthogonal with respect to
the damping matrix, and the equations of motion can be uncoupled.
Damping matrix
Equations of motion
Displacement vector
where
Uncoupling equations of motion
where
Rewrite the equations of motion
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where
There are
So that
Free vibration solution of an undamped system
Therefore, the exact solution is
Approximate solution can be obtained via using the first few mode shapes as usual.
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Example 1:
In a four DOF system the damping in the first mode is 0.02 and in the fourth mode
is 0.01. Determine the proportional damping matrix and calculate the damping in
the second and third modes.
Damping in the first mode and fourth mode:
The coefficients in the damping matrix can be determined as
Damping in other modes:
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The damping matrix is
Example 2:
Obtain a free vibration solution for a four DOF system using only two modes.
Assume 5% damping in the first two modes.
First two modes:
Uncoupling equations of motion
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Modal equations:
Solutions:
Final solutions:
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Lecture 7: Systems involving zero or repeat Frequencies

Reading materials: Sections 2.4 and 2.5
1. Systems involving zero frequency
Some possible mode shapes may not involve any deformation. They are called
rigid body modes. The corresponding frequencies are zero.
Example: an unrestrained three spring-mass system
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Exact solution
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Modal superposition solution
Some dynamic systems exhibit rigid-body modes that are characterized by zero
natural frequencies.
The beam is not properly restrained. Its first mode is a rigid body mode in which
the beam pivots around its left support.
Generally, the uncoupled modal equations are
Since the frequency is zero, the corresponding uncoupled modal equation is
For free vibration:
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Example
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2. Systems involving repeated frequency
In a special case, all frequencies of a dynamic system are not unique.
Example
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Lecture 8: Harmonic Loads

Reading materials: Sections 3.1, 3.2 and 3.3
1. Introduction
When an applied load varies as a sine or a cosine function, it is called harmonic

loading.
Sine loading:
Cosine loading:
The applied force or displacement excitation may be harmonic, nonharmonic

but periodic, nonperiodic, or random in nature.
The response of a system to a harmonic excitation (loading) is called harmonic

response.
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The nonperiodic excitation excitation may have a long or short duration. The
response of a dynamic system to suddenly applied nonperiodic excitations is called
transient response.
If the frequency of excitation coincides with the natural frequency of the

system, the response of the system will be very large. This condition is known as
resonance, which should be avoided to prevent failure of the system.
The examples of harmonic motion include the vibration produced by an

unbalanced rotating machine, the oscillations of a tall chimney due to vortex
shedding in a steady wind, and the vertical motion of an automobile on a sinusoidal
road surface.
2. Equations of motion
General equations of motion:
Loading expressed as complex exponential function
Equations of motion
Multi degree of freedom systems subjected to harmonic loading
Equations of motion
Analytical solutions will be obtained for single DOF systems subjected to

harmonic loading. The solution of multiple DOF systems will be obtained via
modal superposition approach.
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3. Response of an undamped system under harmonic force
(Note: ω here is the load frequency ωf in our text book, while ωn is the system natural frequency
ω in our text book.)
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Example: A reciprocating pump, weighing 150lb, is mounted at the middle of a

steel plate of thickness 0.5 in., width 20in., and length 100 in., clamped along two
edges. During operation of the pump, the plate is subjected to a harmonic force,
F(t)=50 cos 62.832t lb. Find the amplitude of vibration of the plate
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4. Beating phenomenon (Optional)
If the load frequency, ωf, is close to, not exactly equal to, the natural frequency
of the system, ω, a phenomenon known as beating may occur.
In this kind of vibration, the amplitude builds up and then diminishes in a

regular pattern.
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It can be observed that the sin ωft curve will go through several cycles, while
the sin εt wave goes through a single cycle. Therefore, the amplitude builds up and
dies down continuously.
5. Response of a damped system under harmonic force in exponential

form (Optional)
Loading expressed as complex exponential function
Equations of motion
Superposition the complete solution is the sum of the solution to free vibration
due to initial conditions and the particular solution due to load, generally.
For the free vibration solution
For the particular solution:
Assume
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Then
Since
We have
Let
Then,
Finally
Solution for sine and cosine loading
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Separating the real and the complex parts
Steady-state solution for cosine loading
Complete solution for cosine loading
Steady-state solution for sine loading
Complete solution for sine loading
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6. Response of a damped system under a cosine load
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Any amount of damping (ξ > 0) reduces the magnification factor for all values
of the forcing frequency.
The amplitude of forced vibration becomes smaller with increasing values of

forcing frequency
For an undamped system (ξ = 0), the excitation and response are in phase (the
phase angle is 0) for 0 < r < 1 and out of phase (the phase angle is 180o) for r > 1.
For ξ > 0 and r > 1, the phase angle is given by 90o < φ < 180o, implying that
the response leads the excitation.
For ξ > 0 and 0< r < 1, the phase angle is given by 0o < φ < 90o, implying that
the response lags the excitation.
For ξ > 0 and r = 1, the phase angle is given by φ = 90o, implying that the
phase difference between the excitation and the response is 90o
For ξ > 0 and large values of r, the phase angle approach 180o, implying that
the response and the excitation are out of phase.
7. Example
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Lecture 9: Harmonic Loads (Con’t)

Reading materials: Sections 3.4, 3.5, 3.6 and 3.7
1. Resonance
The dynamic load magnification factor (DLF)
The peak dynamic magnification occurs near r=1 for small damping ratios.
Damping is usually small in practical systems. Therefore, the resonance

condition is usually defined as when the load frequency is same as the undamped
natural frequency.
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Example
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2. Vehicle travelling over a rough terrain (Optional)
The automobile is simply modeled as a single degree of freedom model.
The road profile is idealized by a sine harmonic
Equations of motion
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Solution is a superposition of sine and cosine harmonic loading
Maximum displacement
Displacement transmissibility: the ratio of maximum displacement with the

input displacement a
When the frequency ratio is greater than sqrt(2), the displacement transmitted is
less than the static displacement. It means that the damping has a negative effect.
In other words, lightly damped systems have lower displacement transmissibility
than those with larger damping.
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When the frequency ratio is less than sqrt(2), the displacement transmitted is
larger than the static displacement. Larger damping values significantly reduce the
displacement transmissibility.
Force transmitted to the automobile
Maximum force and force transmissibility
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When the frequency ratio is greater than sqrt(2), the force transmitted is still
larger than the static force. It is unlike the displacement transmissibility.
When the frequency ratio is less than sqrt(2), the increase in magnitude is not as
severe as for the ratio less than sqrt(2). In this range, the damping has a negative
effect. Lightly damped systems have lower force transmissibility than those with
larger damping.
Example
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3. Estimating damping from a harmonic load test (Optional)
Dynamic load magnification factor (DLF)
At resonance
Half-power points
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Example
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4. Vibration isolation (Optional)
Machines generating substantial dynamic forces are isolated by mounting them

on massive blocks that rest on some other elastic materials, such as rubber, springs,
cork, and soil.
The system can be modeled as a single degree of freedom system.
Spring constant
Equations of motion
Dynamic force
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Steady state displacement
maximum force
Force transmissibility
When the frequency ratio is greater than sqrt(2), the force transmitted is less
than the static force. It is desirable to design foundation so that the frequency ratio
at is beyond sqrt(2).
Larger M is better since M increases ω decreases and the frequency ratio

increases.
The damping has a negative effect.
Lightly damped systems have lower force transmissibility than those with
larger damping.
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Example: To design a foundation for a machine that weighs 300 kN. The
concrete block supporting the machine is 2.5 x 12 m in plan. Determine its
thickness so that only 30% of the static force is transmitted to the supporting
structure of this machine. The density of concrete is 1300 kg/m3. The block is
placed on a bed of dry sand and gravel with a coefficient of compression of 0.3
MPa/m. The damping ratio is 3%. The machine operates at 240 rpm.
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5. Forced vibration with Coulomb Damping (Optional)
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6. Stability analysis (Optional)
A system is dynamically stable if the motion (or displacement) converges or

remains steady with time.
If the amplitude of displacement increases continuously (diverges) with time, it

is said to be dynamically unstable.
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7. Self-excitation (Optional)
The force acting on a vibrating system is usually external to the system and
independent of the motion.
There are systems for which the exciting force is a function of the motion
parameters of the system, such as displacement, velocity, or acceleration.
Such systems are called self-excited vibrating systems since the motion itself
produces the exciting force.
The motion diverges and the system becomes unstable if energy is fed into the
system through self-excitation.
The instability of rotating shafts, the flutter of turbine blades, the flow-induced
vibration of pipes, and the automobile wheel shimmy and aerodynamically induced
motion of bridges are typical examples of self-excited vibration.
Example: instability of spring-supported mass on moving belt
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Lecture 10: Multiple degrees of freedom system using modal

superposition (Optional)
Rayleigh damping
2. Uncoupled equations
Undamped free vibration mode shapes and frequencies
Uncoupled equations
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Solution
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Lecture 11: Time frequency signals

Reading materials: Sections 4.1, 4.2, 4.3, and 4.4
1. Time domain vibration signal
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The following can be obtained:
Duration of the record: 18.5 s
uP=3.7, peak amplitude
TP=0.6s, period in the neighborhood of the peak
TS=9 s, duration of strong motion
NZ=30, number of zero crossings within TS
2. Fourier series for periodic functions
If a time function repeats itself after T seconds, it is called a periodic function

with period T.
A Fourier representation u (t ) of a given time function uˆ (t )
-2-
______________________________________________________________________________
Fourier coefficients:
Two special classes of functions
Even function: u(-t) = u(t), bn=0
Odd function: u(t) = -u(t), a0= an=0
Example
uˆ (t ) = sin(t ) + 0.6 sin( 2t + 0.75)
-3-
______________________________________________________________________________
-4-
______________________________________________________________________________
3. Fourier spectrum
Fourier series can be viewed in terms of a superposition of harmonics
or
Finally,
The above form shows that the amplitude of each harmonic is An.
A plot of the amplitudes for different frequencies is called the Fourier or

frequency spectrum.
This plot is typically used to show dominant frequencies and their amplitudes
present in a given periodic function.
-5-
______________________________________________________________________________
Example 1: Compute and draw frequency spectrum for the following function
uˆ (t ) = sin(t ) + 0.6 sin( 2t + 0.75)
-6-
______________________________________________________________________________
Example 2: Compute and draw frequency spectrum for the following function
-7-
______________________________________________________________________________
Fourier series representation
The frequency spectrum also suggests that the first and the third harmonics can
give a reasonable representation of the original function.
-8-
______________________________________________________________________________
4. Complex Fourier series (Optional)
Fourier series of displacements in exponential form
-9-
______________________________________________________________________________
Define new coefficients
or
In summary,
or
- 10 -
______________________________________________________________________________
Example: Compute and draw frequency spectrum for the following function
- 11 -
______________________________________________________________________________
- 12 -
______________________________________________________________________________
Lecture 12: Discrete Fourier Transform (Optional)

1. Introduction
All experimental vibration time signals are available as numerical data at

discrete time steps.
For actual dynamic loading, including wind or earthquakes, the results can only
be obtained through numerical integration of equations of motion.
It is important to create a discrete form of the Fourier series that can be used on
discrete time signals.
The complex Fourier series
-1-
______________________________________________________________________________
Period and frequency
Numerical integration (Trapezoidal rule)
Here, tS = sΔt,
-2-
______________________________________________________________________________
In summary,
2. Example
-3-
______________________________________________________________________________
-4-
______________________________________________________________________________
-5-
______________________________________________________________________________
3. Data smoothing
Discrete Fourier transform can be used to remove noise from measured time-
history data.
An Example
List of data over one period
-6-
______________________________________________________________________________
Discrete Fourier frequency coefficients
Smoothed solution
-7-
______________________________________________________________________________
-8-
______________________________________________________________________________
Lecture 13: Frequency Domain Solution

1. Steady-state solution for complex forcing function
Equation of motion (Single degree of freedom)
For steady-state solution, assume the solution
Get the solution
Not time derivatives.
For Periodic loading, using Fourier transform
-1-
______________________________________________________________________________
For each component, the solution amplitude is
here
Therefore,
Complete solution
Summary of the procedure
a. Use the direct Fourier transform to determine the complex frequency

amplitudes for the applied force – transform force into the frequency domain
-2-
______________________________________________________________________________
b. Determine the complex frequency amplitudes of the solution
c. Use the inverse Fourier transform to take the frequency amplitudes of the
solution back into the time domain
Example: Determine the steady-state motion of the water tower when it is

subjected to a triangular periodic load. 10% damping
-3-
______________________________________________________________________________
-4-
______________________________________________________________________________
2. Using discrete Fourier Transform for numerical force data
Use the direct Discrete Fourier Transform to compute the complex frequency
amplitudes for the applied force
Determine the complex frequency amplitudes of the solution
Use the inverse Fourier transform to transform frequency amplitudes of the

3. General Non-Periodic loading
General loading can be treated in the frequency domain approach by extending

the load period to include a large interval of zero force to the end of the actual
force. Mathematically the load is still periodic.
The method is used only for large duration loading where the initial built-up of
the loading is relatively slow.
-5-
______________________________________________________________________________
4. Impulsive force
A nonperiodic exciting force usually has a magnitude that varies with time; it
acts for a specified period of time and then stops.
The simplest form is the impulsive force – a force that has a large magnitude F
and acts for a very short period of time.
-6-
______________________________________________________________________________
5. Multiple degrees of freedom frequency domain solution
Coupled Equation of motion
Rayleigh damping
Undamped free vibration modes
Mass orthogonality:
Stiffness orthogonality:
Uncoupled equations
Modal coordinates
Damped modal equations
-7-
______________________________________________________________________________
Solution of modal equations
a. Use the direct Discrete Fourier transform to compute the complex frequency
amplitudes for the applied force
b. Determine the complex frequency amplitudes of the solution
c. Use the Inverse Fourier transform to transform frequency amplitudes of the

Final solution
-8-
______________________________________________________________________________
Lecture 14: General Forcing Functions (Optional)

1. Impulse function
An impulse or shock loading is a force that is applied for a very short time.
Using dirac-delta function
where
-1-
______________________________________________________________________________
Equations of motion
when
Solution
-2-
______________________________________________________________________________
Example
-3-
______________________________________________________________________________
2. Arbitrary function
For an arbitrary dynamic loading, the force can be thought of as infinite series
of short duration pulses.
The motion of a single degree of freedom system as a result of the impulse

whose magnitude is F(τ)dτ is
The total response via superposition
Ideal step function: The force is suddenly applied and then stays constant
afterwards.
-4-
______________________________________________________________________________
Dynamic load magnification factor
-5-
______________________________________________________________________________
Rectangular pulse force: The force is suddenly applied and stays constant until
td. Then the force is suddenly removed.
Forced vibration phase:
Free vibration phase:
(notice: ytd should be utd )
Utd and vtd are displacement and velocity at time td obtained from the forced
vibration phase.
Therefore, the solution becomes
-6-
______________________________________________________________________________
Example
-7-
______________________________________________________________________________
-8-
______________________________________________________________________________
Triangular pulse force
Forced vibration phase:
Free vibration phase:
-9-
______________________________________________________________________________
Lecture 15: Determination of Natural Frequencies and Mode

Shapes (Optional)
1. Eigenvalue problems
The following type of equations often occur in practice,
Ax = λx (a)
For a matrix of order N, there are N vectors xi (i=1 to N). Every vector is
associated with a value λi
xi: Eigenvectors or Characteristic vectors
λi: Eigenvalues
Theoretical analysis
Solving the following characteristic equation to obtain the eigenvalues
det(A-λI)=0
Solving the following linear algebra equations to obtain the eigenvectors
(A-λiI) xi =0
For vibrating system
Solving the following characteristic equation to obtain the natural

frequencies
det(m-1k-λI)=0
or
det(k-λ m)=0
-1-
______________________________________________________________________________
ωi=sqrt(λi)
Solving the following linear algebra equations to obtain the eigenvectors
(m-1k-λiI) φi =0
or
(k-λi m) φi =0
2. Eigenvectors by gauss elimination
Example:
-2-
______________________________________________________________________________
3. Vector iteration (Power method) for the largest eigenvalue
⎡ 16 − 24 18 ⎤ ⎧ x1 ⎫ ⎧ x1 ⎫
⎢ 3 ⎪ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪
⎢ −2 0 ⎥⎥ ⎨ x2 ⎬ = λ ⎨ x2 ⎬
⎢⎣− 9 18 − 17 ⎥⎦ ⎪x ⎪ ⎪x ⎪
⎩ 3⎭ ⎩ 3⎭
⎧ x1 ⎫ ⎧1⎫
⎪ ⎪ ⎪⎪
a). Guess a solution: ⎨ x2 ⎬ = ⎨1⎬
⎪x ⎪ ⎪1⎪
⎩ 3⎭ ⎩⎭
b). Substitute the guessed solution into LHR of the equation. Then, normalizing the
resulting vector
⎡ 16 − 24 18 ⎤ ⎧1⎫ ⎧ 10 ⎫ ⎧ 1.0 ⎫
⎢ 3 ⎪⎪ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪
⎢ −2 0 ⎥⎥ ⎨1⎬ = ⎨ 1 ⎬ = 10 ⎨ 0.1 ⎬
⎢⎣− 9 18 − 17 ⎥⎦ ⎪1⎪ ⎪− 8⎪ ⎪− 0.8⎪
⎩⎭ ⎩ ⎭ ⎩ ⎭
c). Do iteration till convergence
-3-
______________________________________________________________________________
Illustrating convergence towards the eigenvalue –8 and eigenvector {-0.5, 0.25,

1}
4. Calculation of intermediate eigenvalues - deflation
Using orthogonality of eigenvectors, a modified matrix A* can be

established if the largest eigenvalue λ1 and its corresponding eigenvector x1 are
known.
A*=A- λ1 x1 (x1)T
The power method can be employed to obtain the largest eigenvalue of A*,
which is the second largest eigenvalue of A.
Proof:
-4-
______________________________________________________________________________
Example
⎡1 1 1 ⎤
Using iterative methods to find eigenvalues and eigenvectors of ⎢⎢1 2 2⎥⎥ .
⎢⎣1 2 3⎥⎦
-5-
______________________________________________________________________________
5. Transformation methods
Ax = λ x => P-1APx = λ P-1 P x
For an orthogonal matrix P, P-1 = PT
PTAPx = λ PT P x => A*x = λ x
If A is symmetrical, A*=PTAP is also symmetrical.
In this course, we only consider A as a 2x2 matrix.
Select a ‘rotation matrix’ as P,
⎡cos α − sin α ⎤
P= ⎢
⎣ sin α cos α ⎥⎦
With a proper α , A* can be written as a diagonal matrix. Then, eigenvalues

can be determined.
Example:
-6-
______________________________________________________________________________
6. Dunkerley’s formula
Dunkerley’s formula gives the approximate value of the fundamental frequency

of a composite system in terms of the natural frequencies of its component parts.
Flexibility matrix
Dunkerley’s formula
-7-
______________________________________________________________________________
Example
-8-
______________________________________________________________________________
7. Rayleigh’s method
Rayleigh principle:
The frequency of vibration of a conservative system vibrating about an equilibrium

position has a stationary value in the neighborhood of a natural mode. This
stationary value, in fact, is a minimum value in the neighborhood of the
fundamental natural mode.
Rayleigh’s method
The above equation can be used to find an approximate value of the first natural
frequency of the system. For this, we select a trial vector X to represent the first
natural mode X(1) and substitute it on the right hand side of the above equation.
This yields the approximate value of ω12. Because Rayleigh’s quotient is
stationary, remarkably good estimates of ω12 can be obtained even if the trail
vector X deviates greatly from the true natural mode X(1). Obviously, the estimated
value of the fundamental frequency ω1 is more accurate if the trail vector X chosen
resembles the true natural mode X(1) closely.
-9-
______________________________________________________________________________
Example
- 10 -
______________________________________________________________________________
Lecture 16: Numerical Solution

1. Introduction
For complex loading time histories, the closed-form solutions become

impossible to obtain and therefore we must resort to numerical methods.
All numerical methods compute solution at discrete time steps and are based on
some assumption regarding the solution over a given time interval.
The choice of a suitable time step is critical.
It is important to understand Accuracy and Stability of numerical methods.
An accurate numerical solution is close to the exact solution of the differential

equation.
The stability refers to the largest time step that can be used without solution
becoming unbounded due to accumulation of errors.
An unconditionally stable method results in the solution staying bounded even

with very large time step.
For conditionally stable methods, the stability criteria are generally defined in
terms of natural frequencies or period of vibration.
Equations of motion
The solution at time ti is known:
The solution at time ti+1 is unknown:
-1-
______________________________________________________________________________
2. Newmark’s constant average acceleration method
The acceleration is assumed to be constant over the interval time.
Numerically updates from ti to ti+1
At time ti, the acceleration, velocity and displacement are known. The force
is prescribed.
-2-
______________________________________________________________________________
For Multiple degree of freedom systems
3. Newmark’s linear acceleration method
The acceleration is assume to be linear over the interval
-3-
______________________________________________________________________________
Numerically updates from ti to ti+1
At time ti, the acceleration, velocity and displacement are known. The force
is prescribed.
For Multiple degree of freedom systems
4. General Newmark’s method
-4-
______________________________________________________________________________
Solution procedure in the incremental form
-5-
______________________________________________________________________________
Solution algorithm
-6-
______________________________________________________________________________
5. Example
-7-
______________________________________________________________________________
6. Stability
Constant average acceleration method: Unconditionally stable. Use a step size

based on a trade-off between the desired accuracy and computational effort.
Linear acceleration method: For single degree of freedom system, solution is

stable when Δt=T/10.
-8-
______________________________________________________________________________
7. Finite difference method (Optional)
Approximation to derivatives
-9-
______________________________________________________________________________
Central difference method for SDOF systems
Example
- 10 -
______________________________________________________________________________
Finite difference method for multidegree of freedom systems
8. Runge-Kutta Method for SDOF systems (Optional)
Runge-Kutta method
Example
- 11 -
______________________________________________________________________________
Lecture 17: Response Spectra

Reading materials: Sections 6.1, 6.2, and 6.3
1. Concepts
In practical dynamic analysis situations we are interested in the maximum

response.
The graph showing the variation of the maximum response (maximum

displacement, velocity, acceleration, or any other quantity) with the natural
frequency (or natural period) of a single degree of freedom system to a specified
forcing function is known as the response spectrum.
A response spectrum is a plot of maximum response of a single degree of

freedom system subject to a specific input, such as step loading and triangular
pulse versus period of vibration or another suitable quantity.
Example: Response spectra for a rectangular pulse loading
T: fundamental period of the structure
umax: maxium deflection over time
ustatic: deflection if load F is treated as a static load
Гmax: maximum dynamic load magnification factor
-1-
______________________________________________________________________________
2. Response Spectrum of Sinusoidal Pulse
Find the response spectrum for the sinusoidal pulse force using the initial
conditions x(0)=v(0)=0
-2-
______________________________________________________________________________
-3-
______________________________________________________________________________
3. Usage of Response Spectrum
SDOF systems
Period of vibration:
Maximum displacement
MDOF systems
Equations of motion
Undamped free vibration mode shapes and frequencies
Modal coordinates
Damped modal equations
-4-
______________________________________________________________________________
Solution
We know
Here,
4. Response spectra using Duhamel’s integral
In the above examples, the input force is simple and hence a closed form
solution has been obtained for the response spectrum. If the input force is arbitrary,
we can find the response spectrum only numerically.
The peak displacement response of an undamped SDOF system subjected to a

given load F(t) can be expressed via Duhamel’s integral
Loading phase: t < td
-5-
______________________________________________________________________________
where F0 is the load magnitude.
Free vibration phase: t >= td
where utd and vtd are displacement and velocity at the end of the forced vibration
phase.
Rectangular Pulse
-6-
______________________________________________________________________________
-7-
______________________________________________________________________________
Step force with ramp: maximum DLF occurs at the constant load phase.
-8-
______________________________________________________________________________
5. Response spectra using Numerical Integration
It is difficult to determine simple analytical expressions for maximum DLF for

complicated loading.
Equation of motion for a SDOF system
Let
then
-9-
______________________________________________________________________________
Half Sine Pulse
Equation of motion
- 10 -
______________________________________________________________________________
- 11 -
______________________________________________________________________________
Lecture 18: Earthquake-Response Spectra

Reading materials: Sections 6.4, and 6.5
1. Introduction
The most direct description of an earthquake motion in time domain is provided

by accelerograms that are recorded by instruments called Strong Motion
Accelerographs.
The accelerograph records three orthogonal components of ground acceleration

at a certain location.
The peak ground acceleration, duration, and frequency content of earthquake

can be obtained from an accelerograms. An accelerogram can be integrated to
obtain the time variations of the ground velocity and ground displacement.
A response spectrum is used to provide the most descriptive representation of

the influence of a given earthquake on a structure or machine.
-1-
______________________________________________________________________________
2. Structures subject to earthquake
It is similar to a vehicle moving on the ground. In both cases there is relative

movement between the vibrating system (structures or machines) and the ground.
ug(t) is the ground motion, while u(t) is the motion of the mass relative to ground.
If the ground acceleration from an earthquake is known, the response of

the structure can be computed via using the Newmark’s method.
Example: determine the following structure’s response to the 1940 El

Centro earthquake. 2% damping.
-2-
______________________________________________________________________________
1940 EL Centro, CA earthquake
Only the bracing members resist the lateral load. Considering only the
tension brace.
-3-
______________________________________________________________________________
Neglecting the self weight of the members, the mass of the equivalent
spring-mass system is equal to the total dead load.
-4-
______________________________________________________________________________
3. Earthquake design spectra
Given a earthquake ground acceleration, there is no difficulty to compute

response using Newmark’s method as the previous example. Therefore, we can
generate a response spectrum for that earthquake.
We are interested in the maximum relative displacement, velocity, and

total accelerations. These quantities are generally referred to as
spectral displacement, Sd = maxt | u(t) |
spectral velocity, Sv = maxt | v(t) |
spectral acceleration, Sa = maxt | a(t) + ag(t) |
Earthquake response spectra are plots of these quantities as a function of

undamped natural period vibration
Response spectra for the El Centro 1940 earthquake. (no damping

situation)
-5-
______________________________________________________________________________
Time-histories of ground accelerations from different earthquakes are

quite different, the resulting spectra will also be very different.
We generate earthquake design spectra by averaging spectra from past

earthquakes to design structures to resist earthquakes.
Earthquake Design Spectra
Pseudospectral quantities
spectral displacement, Sd = maxt | u(t) |
pseudospectral velocity, Spv = ω Sd
pseudospectral acceleration, Spa = ω2 Sd
First obtain pseudospectral velocity Spv
spectral displacement, Sd = Spv / ω
pseudospectral acceleration, Spa = ω Spv
Spectra for 1940 El Centro
For very low periods, the spectral acceleration plot shows essentially a
constant range above the ground acceleration line.
-6-
______________________________________________________________________________
For high periods, the spectral displacement plot shows essentially a constant
range above the ground displacement line.
In the intermediate range, the spectral velocity plot shows essentially a

constant range above the ground velocity line.
-7-
______________________________________________________________________________
Design Pseudospectral velocity spectrum
Amplification factors
Example An 80 ft tall water tower as modeled below is to be designed

for a site with median probability of an earthquake similar to the Northridge,
CA earthquake of 1994.
Determine design bending moment at the base. (2% damping)
-8-
______________________________________________________________________________
-9-
______________________________________________________________________________
Lecture 19: Continuous Systems

1. Introduction
Discrete systems vs Continuous systems
We have so far dealt with discrete systems where mass, damping, and elasticity
were assumed to be present only at certain discrete points in the system.
In continuous systems it is not possible to identify discrete masses, damping, or

springs. We must consider the continuous distribution of the mass, damping, and
elasticity and assume that each of the infinite number of points of system can
vibrate.
If a system is modeled as a discrete one, the governing equations are ODEs.
If a system is modeled as a continuous one, the governing equations are PDEs.
2. Axial Vibration of Bars
Governing Equation
-1-
______________________________________________________________________________
Initial conditions and boundary conditions
-2-
______________________________________________________________________________
Free vibration solution for uniform bars
-3-
______________________________________________________________________________
Free vibration of a fixed-free bar
-4-
______________________________________________________________________________
Natural frequencies of a bar carrying a mass
-5-
______________________________________________________________________________
Vibrations of a bar subjected to initial force
-6-
______________________________________________________________________________
3. Torsional vibration of a shaft or rod
Governing Equation
Solution
-7-
______________________________________________________________________________
4. Transverse vibration of beams
Governing Equation
-8-
______________________________________________________________________________
-9-
______________________________________________________________________________
Free vibration solution for uniform beams
Equation of motion
Separation of variable method
The original PDE becomes two ODEs
- 10 -
______________________________________________________________________________
Solution for the first ODE
Solution for the second ODE
or
General solution of the original PDE
Free vibration solution for a simply supported beams
- 11 -
______________________________________________________________________________
Boundary conditions
so
Apply BCs
To obtain non-trivial solution, we have
Therefore,
The coefficients are
- 12 -
______________________________________________________________________________
and the mode shapes are
The first four mode shapes
Complete free vibration solution
If the following initial conditions are given
We have
- 13 -
______________________________________________________________________________
5. Modal superposition approach (optional)
Orthogonality property of free vibration mode shapes
The free vibration mode shapes of continuous systems satisfy orthogonality

condition.
Modal superposition
Modal equations
- 14 -
______________________________________________________________________________
since
- 15 -
______________________________________________________________________________
Lecture 20: Energy Method

1. Rayleigh’s energy method
Rayleigh’s method is based on the principle of conservation of energy.
The energy in a dynamic system consists of the kinetic energy and the potential
energy.
The kinetic energy is stored in the mass and is proportional to the square of the
velocity. The potential energy includes strain energy that is proportional to elastic
deformations and the work done by the applied forces.
The total energy must remain constant.
For a simple spring-mass system, the potential energy is zero when the mass is
passing through the static equilibrium position. At this time, the acceleration is
zero while the velocity is maximum. Therefore, the kinetic energy is at its
maximum. When the mass is at its extreme position, the kinetic energy is zero and
the potential energy is at its maximum.
Tmax = Umax
-1-
______________________________________________________________________________
Example 1:
-2-
______________________________________________________________________________
2. Rayleigh’s energy method: Effective mass
The energy method can be used for multimass systems or for distributed mass
systems, provided the motion of every point in the system is known.
In systems in which masses are joined by rigid links, levers, or gears, the
motion of various masses can be expressed in terms of the motion x& of some
specific point and the systems is simply one of a single DOF, because only one
coordinate is necessary. The kinetic energy can then be written as
1
T = meff x& 2
2
where meff is the effective mass or an equivalent lumped mass at the specified
point.
If the stiffness at that point is also known, the natural frequency can be
calculated from the simple equation
k
ωn =
meff
Example: Determine the effect of the mass of the spring on the natural
frequency.
-3-
______________________________________________________________________________
Example:
-4-
______________________________________________________________________________
3. Principle of virtual work (Optional)
The principle of virtual work is associated with the equilibrium of bodies, and
may be stated as follows: If a system in equilibrium under the action of a set of
forces is given a virtual displacement, the virtual work done by the forces will be
zero.
The terms used in this statement are defined as follows.
A virtual displacement δr is an imaginary infinitesimal variation of the

coordinate given instantaneously. The virtual displacement must to compatible
with the constraints of the system.
Virtual work δW is the work done by all the active forces in a virtual
displacement. Because there is no significant change of geometry associated with
the virtual displacement, the force acting on the system are assumed to remain
unchanged for the calculation of δW .
Example
-5-
______________________________________________________________________________
4. Rayleigh’s energy method for continuous systems
A continuous system is approximated by an equivalent single degree of

freedom. The assumption is regarding deformation shape of this system
beam bending, the deflection is assumed to be
Strain energy
where
Kinetic energy
where
Equations of motion
-6-
______________________________________________________________________________
Example of fixed-pinned beam
-7-
______________________________________________________________________________
5. Alternate form of the Rayleigh’s energy method
For a conservative system, the total energy remains constant.
At different time, for example, time 1 and 2, we have
For a simple spring-mass system, we have
Rayleigh’s method for continuous systems needs integration to compute

equivalent mass and stiffness. To avoid integration in the energy method for
continuous systems, the mass is assumed to be lumped at few points. The static
deflected shape is computed by applying concentrated loads on those points.
Beam bending
-8-
______________________________________________________________________________
Example
-9-
______________________________________________________________________________
Lecture 21: Energy Method (Con’t)

1. Rayleigh’s energy method for MDOF systems
Discrete MDOF systems can be reduced to equivalent SDOF systems by using

the Rayleigh’s energy method. The assumption needed is regarding the
deformation shape of the system.
Equations of motion
Assume the system vibrates as the follows,
then
mψu&&(t ) + kψu (t ) = 0
multiplying by
where
-1-
______________________________________________________________________________
Natural frequency,
Example,
Assume the deformation shape is obtained from static deflection due to the
weights.
Static deflection
-2-
______________________________________________________________________________
2. Rayleigh’s energy method for continuous systems
Take Beams as an example
The kinetic energy of the beam
y& ρA( x )dx

1 l 2 1 l 2
2 ∫0 2 ∫0
T= &
y dm =
The maximum kinetic energy can be found by assuming a harmonic variation

y ( x, t ) = Y ( x )cos ωt
ω2
∫0 ρA(x )Y (x )dx
l
Tmax = 2
2
The potential energy of the beam is the same as the work done in deforming the
beam. By neglecting the work done by the shear forces, we have
1 l 1 l ∂2 y ∂2 y
U = ∫ Mdθ = ∫ ( EI 2 ) 2 dx
2 0 2 0 ∂x ∂x
and
d 2Y (x ) 2
= ∫ EI ( x )(
1 l
U max ) dx
2 0 ∂x 2
By equating Tmax to U max , we have
d 2Y ( x ) 2
∫0 EI (x )( ∂x 2 ) dx
l
w =
2
∫ ρA(x )Y (x )dx
l 2
0
-3-
______________________________________________________________________________
Example: Fundamental frequency of a tapered beam
3. Rayleigh-Ritz method
For continuous systems.
The basis of the FEM.
Rayleigh’s method approximates a continuous system by an equivalent SDOF

system via assuming a single deformation shape.
In Rayleigh-Ritz method, a continuous system is reduced to a discrete MDOF

system. The number of DOF is equal to the number of Ritz modes chosen.
Considering the case of beam bending. The beam deflection is approximated by
-4-
______________________________________________________________________________
where
Other expressions
Potential due to strain energy energy
Stiffness
Work done by the external force
where
-5-
______________________________________________________________________________
Kinetic energy
where
Equations of motion
-6-
______________________________________________________________________________
Example
-7-
______________________________________________________________________________
Lecture 22: Finite element method: Axial vibrations of bars

1. Introduction
Discretization
Assembly and solution
2. Governing equations
Axial vibrations of a long slender bar
initial conditions
-1-
______________________________________________________________________________
boundary conditions
u(x0, t)=ux0
3. Axial vibration element
Finite element approximation
-2-
______________________________________________________________________________
4. Energy
kinetic energy due to distributed mass
kinetic energy due to concentrated mass
Total kinetic energy
-3-
______________________________________________________________________________
Strain energy
work done by the distributed applied force
work done by the concentrated loads
Total work done
-4-
______________________________________________________________________________
U=Us-W
6. Assembly and Solution
The element equations are derived in the above with local coordinates.
Assemble the element equations into the global equations based on the global
coordinates.
Apply the boundary conditions.
Numerically solve the equations of motion.
-5-
______________________________________________________________________________
7. Example 1
General element equations
Element 1
⎛ 1.869 0.9345 ⎞⎛ u&&1 ⎞ ⎛ 490000 − 490000 ⎞⎛ u1 ⎞ ⎛ 0 ⎞

⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ 0.9345 1.869 &&
⎠⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝
u − 490000 490000 ⎠⎝ u 2 ⎠ ⎝ 0 ⎠
Element 2
⎛ 1.335 0.6675 ⎞⎛ u&&2 ⎞ ⎛ 350000 − 350000 ⎞⎛ u2 ⎞ ⎛ 0 ⎞

⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ 0.6675 1.335 &&
⎠⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎝
u − 350000 350000 ⎠⎝ u3 ⎠ ⎝ 0 ⎠
-6-
______________________________________________________________________________
Element 3
⎛ 0.801 0.4005⎞⎛ u&&3 ⎞ ⎛ 210000 − 210000⎞⎛ u3 ⎞ ⎛ 0 ⎞

⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ 0.4005 0.801 &&
⎠⎝ 4 ⎠ ⎝
u − 210000 210000 ⎠⎝ u 4 ⎠ ⎝ 0 ⎠
Considering concentrated mass and force on node 4, the element equations for
Element 3 could be written as:
⎛ 0.801 0.4005 ⎞⎛ u&&3 ⎞ ⎛ 210000 − 210000 ⎞⎛ u 3 ⎞ ⎛ 0 ⎞

⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ 0.4005 100.801⎠⎝ u 4 ⎠ ⎝ − 210000 210000 ⎠⎝ u 4 ⎠ ⎝ F (t )⎠
&&
Form of global equations
Assemble of elements
Element 1
-7-
______________________________________________________________________________
Element 2
Element 3
-8-
______________________________________________________________________________
Global equations of motion
Apply BCs
Note: for nonzero BCs
Solutions
Newmark’s method
-9-
______________________________________________________________________________
Lecture 23: Finite element method: vibrations of trusses

1. Plane truss element
In terms of local coordinates
or
Assume that there is no distributed force.
-1-
______________________________________________________________________________
Degree of freedom
Nodal forces
In terms of global coordinates
where
Equations of motion
-2-
______________________________________________________________________________
Finally,
where
Or
-3-
______________________________________________________________________________
Example
Element 1
-4-
______________________________________________________________________________
Element 2
-5-
______________________________________________________________________________
Element 3
-6-
______________________________________________________________________________
Element 4
-7-
______________________________________________________________________________
Element 5
Element 6
-8-
______________________________________________________________________________
Boundary conditions
Equations of motion
-9-
______________________________________________________________________________
2. Space truss element
- 10 -
______________________________________________________________________________
- 11 -
______________________________________________________________________________
Lecture 24: Finite element method: Beams and Frames

1. Beam element
Nodal variables
Nodal loads: vertical loads and moments
Nodal degree of freedom: vertical displacements and rotations
-1-
______________________________________________________________________________
Potential
Kinetic energy
Kinetic energy due to the distributed mass
-2-
______________________________________________________________________________
Kinetic energy due to the concentrated masses at nodes
work done by external loads
work done by the distributed load
work done by the concentrated loads and moments
-3-
______________________________________________________________________________
Equations of motion
Example
-4-
______________________________________________________________________________
Element 1
Element 2
-5-
______________________________________________________________________________
Element 3
-6-
______________________________________________________________________________
Boundary conditions
-7-
______________________________________________________________________________
2. Plane Frame element
-8-
______________________________________________________________________________
Lecture 25: Large scale systems

Reading materials: 10.1 and 10.2
1. Guyan Reduction
Finite element discretization results in a large dynamic system. Therefore,

computation is intensive.
One approach is reducing the size of the eigenvalue problem that must be
solved to compute the mode shapes and frequencies.
Generalized eigenvalue problem
In the reduction process, choosing an appropriate set of DOFs that are to be

retained. Those DOFs are called master DOFs while the ones eliminated are called
slave DOFs.
Relationship between the total DOFs (#n) and the master DOFs (#m)s
Static equilibrium equations
-1-
______________________________________________________________________________
Example 1
-2-
______________________________________________________________________________
Reduced matrices
-3-
______________________________________________________________________________
For original problem
2. Inverse iteration
An iterative method to compute frequencies and modes shapes for multi-degree

freedom systems.
Rearrange
Dynamic matrix
-4-
______________________________________________________________________________
Example 2
-5-
______________________________________________________________________________
-6-
STRUCTURAL DYNAMICS
Final Year - Structural Engineering BSc(Eng)

Structural Dynamics
Contents
1. Introduction to Structural Dynamics 1
2. Single Degree-of-Freedom Systems 8

a. Fundamental Equation of Motion
b. Free Vibration of Undamped Structures
c. Free Vibration of Damped Structures
d. Forced Response of an SDOF System
3. Multi-Degree-of-Freedom Systems 20
a. General Case (based on 2DOF)
b. Free-Undamped Vibration of 2DOF Systems
4. Continuous Structures 28
a. Exact Analysis for Beams
b. Approximate Analysis – Bolton’s Method
5. Practical Design 42
a. Human Response to Dynamic Excitation
b. Crowd/Pedestrian Dynamic Loading
c. Damping in Structures
d. Rules of Thumb for Design
6. Appendix 54
a. References
b. Important Formulae
c. Important Tables and Figures
D.I.T. Bolton St ii C. Caprani

Structural Dynamics
1. Introduction to Structural Dynamics

Modern structures are increasingly slender and have reduced redundant strength
due to improved analysis and design methods. Such structures are increasingly
responsive to the manner in which loading is applied with respect to time and hence
the dynamic behaviour of such structures must be allowed for in design; as well as
the usual static considerations. In this context then, the word dynamic simply means
“changes with time”; be it force, deflection or any other form of load effect.
Examples of dynamics in structures are:

- Soldiers breaking step as they cross a bridge to prevent harmonic excitation;
- The Tacoma Narrows Bridge footage, failure caused by vortex shedding;
- the London Millennium Footbridge: lateral synchronise excitation.
(a) (b)
Figure 1.1
The most basic dynamic system is the mass-spring system. An example is shown in
Figure 1.1(a) along with the structural idealisation of it in Figure 1.1(b). This is known
as a Single Degree-of-Freedom (SDOF) system as there is only one possible
displacement: that of the mass in the vertical direction. SDOF systems are of great
D.I.T. Bolton St 1 C. Caprani

Structural Dynamics
importance as they are relatively easily analysed mathematically, are easy to

understand intuitively, and structures usually dealt with by Structural Engineers can
be modelled approximately using an SDOF model (see Figure 1.2 for example).
Figure 1.2
If we consider a spring-mass system as shown in Figure 1.3 with the properties m =

10 kg and k = 100 N/m and if give the mass a deflection of 20 mm and then release
it (i.e. set it in motion) we would observe the system oscillating as shown in Figure
1.3. From this figure we can identify that the time between the masses recurrence at
a particular location is called the period of motion or oscillation or just the period, and
we denote it T; it is the time taken for a single oscillation. The number of oscillations
per second is called the frequency, denoted f, and is measured in Hertz (cycles per
second). Thus we can say:
1
f = (1.1)
T
We will show (Section 2.b, equation (2.19)) for a spring-mass system that:
1 k
f = (1.2)
2 m

Structural Dynamics
In our system:
1 100
f = = 0.503 Hz
2 10
And from equation (1.1):
1 1
T= = = 1.987 secs
f 0.503
We can see from Figure 1.3 that this is indeed the period observed.
25
20
k = 100 N/m
15
10
Displacement (mm)
-5
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 m = 10 kg
-10
-15
-20
Period T
-25
Tim e (s)
Figure 1.3
To reach the deflection of 20 mm just applied, we had to apply a force of 2 N, given

that the spring stiffness is 100 N/m. As noted previously, the rate at which this load is
applied will have an effect of the dynamics of the system. Would you expect the
system to behave the same in the following cases?
- If a 2 N weight was dropped onto the mass from a very small height?
- If 2 N of sand was slowly added to a weightless bucket attached to the mass?
Assuming a linear increase of load, to the full 2 N load, over periods of 1, 3, 5 and 10
seconds, the deflections of the system are shown in Figure 1.4.

Structural Dynamics
Dynamic Effect of Load Application Duration
40
35
30
Deflection (mm)
25
20
15
1-sec
10 3-sec
5-sec
5
10-sec
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Tim e (s)
Figure 1.4
Remembering that the period of vibration of the system is about 2 seconds, we can
see that when the load is applied faster than the period of the system, large dynamic
effects occur. Stated another way, when the frequency of loading (1, 0.3, 0.2 and 0.1
Hz for our sample loading rates) is close to, or above the natural frequency of the
system (0.5 Hz in our case), we can see that the dynamic effects are large.
Conversely, when the frequency of loading is less than the natural frequency of the
system little dynamic effects are noticed – most clearly seen via the 10 second ramp-
up of the load, that is, a 0.1 Hz load.

Structural Dynamics
Case Study – Aberfeldy Footbridge, Scotland

Aberfeldy footbridge is a glass fibre reinforced polymer (GFRP) cable-stayed bridge
over the River Tay on Aberfeldy golf course in Aberfeldy, Scotland (Figure 1.5). Its
main span is 63 m and its two side spans are 25 m, also, tests have shown that the
natural frequency of this bridge is 1.52 Hz, giving a period of oscillation of 0.658
seconds.
Figure 1.5: Aberfeldy Footbridge
Figure 1.6: Force-time curves for walking: (a) Normal pacing. (b) Fast pacing
Footbridges are generally quite light structures as the loading consists of

pedestrians; this often results in dynamically lively structures. Pedestrian loading

Structural Dynamics
varies as a person walks; from about 0.65 to 1.3 times the weight of the person over
a period of about 0.35 seconds, that is, a loading frequency of about 2.86 Hz (Figure
1.6). When we compare this to the natural frequency of Aberfeldy footbridge we can
see that pedestrian loading has a higher frequency than the natural frequency of the
bridge – thus, from our previous discussion we would expect significant dynamic
effects to results from this. Figure 1.7 shows the response of the bridge (at the mid-
span) when a pedestrian crosses the bridge: significant dynamics are apparent.
Figure 1.7: Mid-span deflection (mm) as a function of distance travelled (m).
Design codes generally require the natural frequency for footbridges and other
pedestrian traversed structures to be greater than 5 Hz, that is, a period of 0.2
seconds. The reasons for this are apparent after our discussion: a 0.35 seconds load
application (or 2.8 Hz) is slower than the natural period of vibration of 0.2 seconds (5
Hz) and hence there will not be much dynamic effect resulting; in other words the
loading may be considered to be applied statically.

Structural Dynamics
Look again at the frog in Figure 1.1, according to the results obtained so far which
are graphed in Figures 1.3 and 1.4, the frog should oscillate indefinitely. If you have
ever cantilevered a ruler off the edge of a desk and flicked it you would have seen it
vibrate for a time but certainly not indefinitely; buildings do not vibrate indefinitely
after an earthquake; Figure 1.7 shows the vibrations dying down quite soon after the
pedestrian has left the main span of Aberfeldy bridge - clearly there is another action
opposing or “damping” the vibration of structures. Figure 1.8 shows the Undamped
response of our model along with the Damped response; it can be seen that the
oscillations die out quite rapidly – this obviously depends on the level of damping.
Damped and Undamped Response
25
20
k = 100 N/m
15
10
Displacement (mm)
-5
0 5 10 15 20 m = 10 kg
-10
-15
Undamped
-20
Damped
-25
Time (s)
Figure 1.8
Damping occurs in structures due to energy loss mechanisms that exist in the
system. Examples are friction losses at any connection to or in the system and
internal energy losses of the materials due to thermo-elasticity, hysteresis and inter-
granular bonds. The exact nature of damping is difficult to define; fortunately
theoretical damping has been shown to match real structures quite well.

Structural Dynamics
2. Single Degree-of-Freedom Systems
a. Fundamental Equation of Motion
u(t)
mu
k
F (t ) cu F (t )
m ku
c
(a) (b)
Figure 2.1: (a) SDOF system. (b) Free-body diagram of forces
Considering Figure 2.1, the forces resisting the applied loading are considered as:
1. a force proportional to displacement (the usual static stiffness);
2. a force proportional to velocity (the damping force);
3. a force proportional to acceleration (D’Alambert’s inertial force).
We can write the following symbolic equation:
Fapplied = Fstiffness + Fdamping + Finertia (2.1)
Noting that:
Fstiffness = ku
Fdamping = cu (2.2)
Finertia = mu
that is, stiffness × displacement, damping coefficient × velocity and mass ×

acceleration respectively. Note also that u represents displacement from the
equilibrium position and that the dots over u represent the first and second
derivatives with respect to time. Thus, noting that the displacement, velocity and
acceleration are all functions of time, we have the fundamental equation of motion:
mu (t ) + cu (t ) + ku (t ) = F (t ) (2.3)
This is the standard form of the equation. In the case of free vibration when there is
no external force, F (t ) , we write the alternative formulation:

Structural Dynamics
u (t ) + 2 u (t ) + 2
u (t ) = 0 (2.4)
which uses the following notation,

c k
2 = ; 2
= (2.5) and (2.6)
m m
where
c
= ; ccr = 2m = 2 km (2.7) and (2.8)
ccr
is called the undamped circular natural frequency and its units are radians per
second (rad/s). is the damping ratio which is the ratio of the damping coefficient,
c , to the critical value of the damping coefficient ccr ; we will see what these terms
physically mean.
In considering free vibration only, the general solution to (2.4) is of a form

u = Ce t
(2.9)
When we substitute (2.9) and its derivates into (2.4) we get:
( 2
+2 + 2
) Ce t
=0 (2.10)
For this to be valid for all values of t, we get the characteristic equation:
2
+2 + 2
=0 (2.11)
the solutions to this equation are the two roots:
2 ± 4 2 2
4 2
1,2 =
2 (2.12)
= ± 2
1
Therefore the solution depends on the magnitude of relative to 1. We have:
1. < 1 : Sub-critical damping or under-damped;
Oscillatory response only occurs when this is the case – as it is for almost all
structures.
2. = 1 : Critical damping;
No oscillatory response occurs.
3. > 1 : Super-critical damping or over-damped;
No oscillatory response occurs.

Structural Dynamics
b. Free Vibration of Undamped Structures

We will examine the case when there is no damping on the SDOF system of Figure
2.1 so = 0 in equations (2.4), (2.11) and (2.12) which then become:
u (t ) + 2
u (t ) = 0 (2.13)
2
+ 2
=0 (2.14)
1,2 = ±i (2.15)
respectively, where i = 1 . Using these roots in (2.13) and by using Euler’s

equation we get the general solution:
u ( t ) = A cos t + B sin t (2.16)
where A and B are constants to be obtained from the initial conditions of the system
and so:
u0
u ( t ) = u0 cos t + sin t (2.17)
where u0 and u0 are the initial displacement and velocity of the system respectively.
Noting that cosine and sine are functions that repeat with period 2 , we see that
( t1 + T ) = t1 + 2 (Figure 2.3) and so the undamped natural period of the SDOF
system is:
2
T= (2.18)
The natural frequency of the system is got from (1.1), (2.18) and (2.6):
1 1 k
f = = = (2.19)
T 2 2 m
and so we have proved (1.2). The importance of this equation is that it shows the
natural frequency of structures to be proportional to k . This knowledge can aid a

m
designer in addressing problems with resonance in structures: by changing the
stiffness or mass of the structure, problems with dynamic behaviour can be
minimized.

Structural Dynamics
30
20
k = 100 N/m
10
Displacement (mm)
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 m = 10 kg
-10
-20
(a)
-30
(b)
Time (s) (c)
Figure 2.2: SDOF free vibration response for (a) u0 = 20mm , u0 = 0 , (b) u0 = 0 ,
u0 = 50mm/s , and (c) u0 = 20mm , u0 = 50mm/s .
Figure 2.2 shows the free-vibration response of a spring-mass system for various
initial states of the system. It can be seen from (b) and (c) that when u0 0 the
amplitude of displacement is not that of the initial displacement; this is obviously an

important characteristic to calculate. The cosine addition rule may also be used to
show that equation (2.16) can be written in the form:
u (t ) = C cos ( t + ) (2.20)
where C = A2 + B 2 and tan = B . Using A and B as calculated earlier for the

A
initial conditions, we then have:
u (t ) = cos ( t + ) (2.21)
where is the amplitude of displacement and is the phase angle, both given by:
2
u0 u0
= u + 2
0 ; tan = (2.22) and (2.23)
u0
The phase angle determines the amount by which u (t ) lags behind the function
cos t . Figure 2.3 shows the general case.

Structural Dynamics
Figure 2.3 Undamped free-vibration response
Examples
Example 2.1
A harmonic oscillation test gave the natural frequency of a water tower to be
0.41 Hz. Given that the mass of the tank is 150 tonnes, what deflection will
result if a 50 kN horizontal load is applied? You may neglect the mass of the
tower.
Ans: 50.2 mm
Example 2.2
A 3 m high, 8 m wide single-bay single-storey frame is rigidly jointed with a
beam of mass 5,000 kg and columns of negligible mass and stiffness of EIc =
4.5×103 kNm2. Calculate the natural frequency in lateral vibration and its
period. Find the force required to deflect the frame 25 mm laterally.
Ans: 4.502 Hz; 0.222 sec; 100 kN
Example 2.3
An SDOF system (m = 20 kg, k = 350 N/m) is given an initial displacement of
10 mm and initial velocity of 100 mm/s. (a) Find the natural frequency; (b) the
period of vibration; (c) the amplitude of vibration; and (d) the time at which the
third maximum peak occurs.
Ans: 0.666 Hz; 1.502 sec; 25.91 mm; 3.285 sec.

Structural Dynamics
c. Free Vibration of Damped Structures
Figure 2.4: Response with critical or super-critical damping
When taking account of damping, we noted previously that there are 3, cases but
only when < 1 does an oscillatory response ensue. We will not examine the critical
or super-critical cases. Examples are shown in Figure 2.4.
To begin, when < 1 (2.12) becomes:
1,2 = ±i d (2.24)
where d is the damped circular natural frequency given by:
d = 1 2
(2.25)
which has a corresponding damped period and frequency of:

2
Td = ; fd = d
(2.26) and (2.27)
d 2
The general solution to equation (2.9), using Euler’s formula again, becomes:
u (t ) = e t
( A cos d t + B sin d t) (2.28)
and again using the initial conditions we get:
u0 + u0
u (t ) = e t
u0 cos d t+ d
sin d t (2.29)
d

Structural Dynamics
Using the cosine addition rule again we also have:

u (t ) = e t
cos ( d t+ ) (2.30)
In which
2
u0 + u0 u0 u0
= u +2
0 ; tan = (2.31) and (2.32)
d u0 d
Equations (2.28) to (2.32) correspond to those of the undamped case looked at

previously when = 0.
25
20
15
10
Displacement (mm)
-5
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 m = 10 kg
-10
(a)
k = 100 N/m
-15
(b) varies
-20 (c)
-25 (d)
Time (s)
Figure 2.5: SDOF free vibration response for:

(a) = 0 ; (b) = 0.05 ; (c) = 0.1 ; and (d) = 0.5 .
Figure 2.5 shows the dynamic response of the SDOF model shown. It may be clearly
seen that damping has a large effect on the dynamic response of the system – even
for small values of . We will discuss damping in structures later but damping ratios
for structures are usually in the range 0.5 to 5%. Thus, the damped and undamped
properties of the systems are very similar for these structures.
Figure 2.6 shows the general case of an under-critically damped system.

Structural Dynamics
Figure 2.6: General case of an under-critically damped system.
Estimating Damping in Structures

Examining Figure 2.6, we see that two successive peaks, un and un + m , m cycles
apart, occur at times nT and ( n + m ) T respectively. Using equation (2.30) we can
get the ratio of these two peaks as:

un 2m
= exp (2.33)
un + m d
where exp ( x ) e x . Taking the natural log of both sides we get the logarithmic
decrement of damping, ! , defined as:

un
! = ln = 2m (2.34)
un + m d
for low values of damping, normal in structural engineering, we can approximate this:
! " 2m (2.35)
thus,
un
= e! " exp ( 2m ) " 1 + 2m (2.36)
un + m
and so,
un un + m
" (2.37)
2m u n + m

Structural Dynamics
This equation can be used to estimate damping in structures with light damping
( < 0.2 ) when the amplitudes of peaks m cycles apart is known. A quick way of
doing this, known as the Half-Amplitude Method, is to count the number of peaks it
takes to halve the amplitude, that is un + m = 0.5un . Then, using (2.37) we get:
0.11
" when un + m = 0.5un (2.38)
m
Further, if we know the amplitudes of two successive cycles (and so m = 1 ), we can
find the amplitude after p cycles from two instances of equation (2.36):
p
u
un + p = n +1 un (2.39)
un
Examples
Example 2.4
For the frame of Example 2.2, a jack applied a load of 100 kN and then
instantaneously released. On the first return swing a deflection of 19.44 mm
was noted. The period of motion was measured at 0.223 sec. Assuming that
the stiffness of the columns cannot change, find (a) the effective weight of the
beam; (b) the damping ratio; (c) the coefficient of damping; (d) the undamped
frequency and period; and (e) the amplitude after 5 cycles.
Ans: 5,039 kg; 0.04; 11,367 kg·s/m; 4.488 Hz; 0.2228 sec; 7.11 mm.
Example 2.5
From the response time-history of an SDOF system given, (a) estimate the
damped natural frequency; (b) use the half amplitude method to calculate the
damping ratio; and (c) calculate the undamped natural frequency and period.
Ans: 2.24 Hz; 0.0512; 2.236 Hz; 0.447 sec. (see handout sheet for figure)
Example 2.6
Workers’ movements on a platform (8 × 6 m high, m = 200 kN) are causing
large dynamic motions. An engineer investigated and found the natural period
in sway to be 0.9 sec. Diagonal remedial ties (E = 200 kN/mm2) are to be
installed to reduce the natural period to 0.3 sec. What tie diameter is required?
Ans: 28.1 mm.

Structural Dynamics
d. Forced Response of an SDOF System

u(t)
k
F (t ) = F0 sin #t
m
c
Figure 2.7: SDOF undamped system subjected to harmonic excitation
So far we have only considered free vibration; the structure has been set vibrating by
an initial displacement for example. We will now consider the case when a time
varying load is applied to the system. We will confine ourselves to the case of
harmonic or sinusoidal loading though there are obviously infinitely many forms that a
time-varying load may take – refer to the references (Appendix - 6.a) for more.
To begin, we note that the forcing function F ( t ) has excitation amplitude of F0 and
an excitation circular frequency of # and so from the fundamental equation of motion

(2.3) we have:
mu (t ) + cu (t ) + ku (t ) = F0 sin #t (2.40)
The solution to equation (2.40) has two parts:

• The complementary solution, similar to (2.28), which represents the transient
response of the system which damps out by exp ( t ) . The transient response
may be thought of as the vibrations caused by the initial application of the load.
• The particular solution, u p ( t ) , representing the steady-state harmonic response
of the system to the applied load. This is the response we will be interested in as
it will account for any resonance between the forcing function and the system.
The particular solution will have the form

u p ( t ) = A cos #t + B sin #t (2.41)
After substitution in (2.40) and separating the equation by sine and cosine terms, we
solve for A and B to get and follow the procedure of (2.21) to get:
u p (t ) = sin ( #t ) (2.42)

Structural Dynamics
In which
F0 12
2 %
( )
2
+ (2 % )
2
= 1 %2 ; tan = (2.43) and (2.44)
k 1 %2
where the phase angle is limited to 0 < < and the ratio of the applied load
frequency to the natural undamped frequency is:
#
%= (2.45)
the maximum response of the system will come at sin ( #t ) =1 and dividing (2.42)
by the static deflection F0 k we can get the dynamic amplification factor (DAF) of the
system as:
12
( ) + (2 % )
2 2
DAF D = 1 %2 (2.46)
1
D% =1 = (2.47)
2
Figure 2.8: Variation of DAF with damping and frequency ratios.

Structural Dynamics
Figure 2.8 shows the effect of the frequency ratio % on the DAF. Resonance is the
phenomenon that occurs when the forcing frequency coincides with that of the
natural frequency, % = 1 . It can also be seen that for low values of damping, normal
in structures, very high DAFs occur; for example if = 0.02 then the dynamic
amplification factor will be 25. For the case of no damping, the DAF goes to infinity -
theoretically at least; equation (2.47).
Measurement of Natural Frequencies

It may be seen from (2.44) that when % = 1 , = 2 ; this phase relationship allows
the accurate measurements of the natural frequencies of structures. That is, we
change the input frequency # in small increments until we can identify a peak
response: the value of # at the peak response is then the natural frequency of the
system. Example 2.1 gave the natural frequency based on this type of test.
Examples
Example 2.7
The frame of examples 2.2 and 2.4 has a reciprocating machine put on it. The
mass of this machine is 4 tonnes and is in addition to the mass of the beam.
The machine exerts a periodic force of 8.5 kN at a frequency of 1.75 Hz. (a)
What is the steady-state amplitude of vibration if the damping ratio is 4%? (b)
What would the steady-state amplitude be if the forcing frequency was in
resonance with the structure?
Ans: 2.92 mm; 26.56 mm.
Example 2.8
An air conditioning unit of mass 1,600 kg is place in the middle (point C) of an
8 m long simply supported beam (EI = 8×103 kNm2) of negligible mass. The
motor runs at 300 rpm and produces an unbalanced load of 120 kg. Assuming
a damping ratio of 5%, determine the steady-state amplitude and deflection at
C. What rpm will result in resonance and what is the associated deflection?
Ans: 1.41 mm; 22.34 mm; 206.7 rpm; 36.66 mm.

Structural Dynamics
3. Multi-Degree-of-Freedom Systems
a. General Case (based on 2DOF)
u1 (t ) u2 (t )
k1 F1 (t ) F2 (t )
k2
m1 m2
c1 c2
(a)
m1u1 F1 m2u2
c1u1 m1 c2 u c2 u m2 F2
k1u1 k2 u k2 u
(b) (c)
Figure 3.1: (a) 2DOF system. (b) and (c) Free-body diagrams of forces
Considering Figure 3.1, we can see that the forces that act on the masses are similar
to those of the SDOF system but for the fact that the springs, dashpots, masses,
forces and deflections may all differ in properties. Also, from the same figure, we can
see the interaction forces between the masses will result from the relative deflection
between the masses; the change in distance between them.
For each mass, Fx = 0 , hence:
m1u1 + c1u1 + k1u1 + c2 ( u1 u2 ) + k2 ( u1 u2 ) = F1 (3.1)
m2u2 + c2 ( u2 u1 ) + k2 ( u2 u1 ) = F2 (3.2)
In which we have dropped the time function indicators and allowed u and u to
absorb the directions of the interaction forces. Re-arranging we get:
u1m1 +u1 ( c1 + c2 ) +u2 ( c2 ) +u1 ( k1 + k2 ) +u2 ( k 2 ) = F1
(3.3)
u2 m2 +u1 ( c2 ) +u2 ( c2 ) +u1 ( k2 ) +u2 ( k 2 ) = F2

Structural Dynamics
This can be written in matrix form:
m1 0 u1 c +c c2 u1 k +k k2 u1 F
+ 1 2 + 1 2 = 1 (3.4)
0 m2 u2 c2 c2 u2 k2 k2 u2 F2
Or another way:
Mu + Cu + Ku = F (3.5)
where:
M is the mass matrix (diagonal matrix);
u is the vector of the accelerations for each DOF;
C is the damping matrix (symmetrical matrix);
u is the vector of velocity for each DOF;
K is the stiffness matrix (symmetrical matrix);
u is the vector of displacements for each DOF;
F is the load vector.
Equation (3.5) is quite general and reduces to many forms of analysis:
- Free vibration:
Mu + Cu + Ku = 0 (3.6)
- Undamped free vibration:
Mu + Ku = 0 (3.7)
- Undamped forced vibration:
Mu + Ku = F (3.8)
- Static analysis:
Ku = F (3.9)
We will restrict our attention to the case of undamped free-vibration – equation (3.7) -
as the inclusion of damping requires an increase in mathematical complexity which
would distract from our purpose.

Structural Dynamics
b. Free-Undamped Vibration of 2DOF Systems
The solution to (3.7) follows the same methodology as for the SDOF case; so
following that method (equation (2.42)), we propose a solution of the form:
u = a sin ( t + ) (3.10)
where a is the vector of amplitudes corresponding to each degree of freedom. From

this we get:
u= 2
a sin ( t + )= 2
u (3.11)
Then, substitution of (3.10) and (3.11) into (3.7) yields:

2
Ma sin ( t + ) + Ka sin ( t+ )=0 (3.12)
Since the sine term is constant for each term:

2
K M a=0 (3.13)
We note that in a dynamics problem the amplitudes of each DOF will be non-zero,
hence, a 0 in general. In addition we see that the problem is a standard
eigenvalues problem. Hence, by Cramer’s rule, in order for (3.13) to hold the
2
determinant of K M must then be zero:
2
K M =0 (3.14)
For the 2DOF system, we have:

K 2
M = ( k2 + k1 ) 2
m1 k2 2
m2 k22 = 0 (3.15)
2
Expansion of (3.15) leads to an equation in called the characteristic polynomial of
2 2
the system. The solutions of to this equation are the eigenvalues of K M .
There will be two solutions or roots of the characteristic polynomial in this case and
an n-DOF system has n solutions to its characteristic polynomial. In our case, this
2 2 2
means there are two values of ( 1 and 2 ) that will satisfy the relationship; thus
there are two frequencies for this system (the lowest will be called the fundamental
2
frequency). For each n substituted back into (3.13), we will get a certain amplitude
vector a n . This means that each frequency will have its own characteristic displaced
shape of the degrees of freedoms called the mode shape. However, we will not know
the absolute values of the amplitudes as it is a free-vibration problem; hence we

Structural Dynamics
express the mode shapes as a vector of relative amplitudes, n , relative to, normally,
the first value in a n .
As we will see in the following example, the implication of the above is that MDOF
systems vibrate, not just in the fundamental mode, but also in higher harmonics.
From our analysis of SDOF systems it’s apparent that should any loading coincide
with any of these harmonics, large DAF’s will result (Section 2.d). Thus, some modes
may be critical design cases depending on the type of harmonic loading as will be
seen later.
Example of a 2DOF System

The two-storey building shown (Figure
3.2) has very stiff floor slabs relative to the
supporting columns. Calculate the natural
frequencies and mode shapes.
EI c = 4.5 × 103 kNm 2
Figure 3.2: Shear frame problem.
u1 (t ) u2 (t )
k1 k2
m1 m2
Figure 3.3: 2DOF model of the shear frame.
We will consider the free lateral vibrations of the two-storey shear frame idealised as
in Figure 3.3. The lateral, or shear stiffness of the columns is:

Structural Dynamics
12 EI c
k1 = k2 = k = 2
h3
2 ×12 × 4.5 × 106
k=
33
= 4 × 106 N/m
The characteristic polynomial is as given in (3.15) so we have:
8 ×106 2
5000 4 × 106 2
3000 16 × 1012 = 0
15 × 106 4
4.4 × 1010 2
+ 16 × 1012 = 0
This is a quadratic equation in 2

and so can be solved using a = 15 × 106 ,
b = 4.4 × 1010 and c = 16 × 1012 in the usual expression
b ± b 2 4ac
2
=
2a
Hence we get 2
1 = 425.3 and 2
2 = 2508 . This may be written:
425.3 20.6 3.28

2
n = hence n = rad/s and f = n = Hz
2508 50.1 2 7.97
To solve for the mode shapes, we will use the appropriate form of the equation of
motion, equation (3.13): K 2
M a = 0 . First solve for the E = K 2
M matrix
and then solve Ea = 0 for the amplitudes a n . Then, form n .
In general, for a 2DOF system, we have:

k1 + k2 k2 m1 0 k +k 2
m1 k2
En = 2
n = 1 2 n
2
k2 k2 0 m2 k2 k2 n m2
For 2
1 = 425.3 :
5.8735 4
E1 = × 106
4 2.7241
Hence
5.8735 4 a1 0
E1a1 = 106 =
4 2.7241 a2 0
Taking either equation, we calculate:

Structural Dynamics
5.8735a1 4a2 = 0 a1 = 0.681a2 1

1 =
4a1 + 2.7241a2 = 0 a1 = 0.681a2 0.681 1
Similarly for 2
2 = 2508 :
4.54 4
E2 = × 106
4 3.524
Hence, again taking either equation, we calculate:

4.54a1 4a2 = 0 a1 = 0.881a2 1
2 =
4a1 3.524a2 = 0 a1 = 0.881a2 0.881 1
The complete solution may be given by the following two matrices which are used in
further analysis for more complicated systems.
425.3 1 1
2
n = and =
2508 1.468 1.135
For our frame, we can sketch these two frequencies and associated mode shapes:
Figure 3.4.
Figure 3.4: Mode shapes and frequencies of the example frame.

Structural Dynamics
Larger and more complex structures will have many degrees of freedom and hence
many natural frequencies and mode shapes. There are different mode shapes for
different forms of deformation; torsional, lateral and vertical for example. Periodic
loads acting in these directions need to be checked against the fundamental
frequency for the type of deformation; higher harmonics may also be important.
As an example; consider a 2DOF idealisation of a cantilever which assumes stiffness

proportional to the static deflection at 0.5L and L as well as half the cantilever mass
‘lumped’ at the midpoint and one quarter of it lumped at the tip. The mode shapes are
shown in Figure 3.5. In Section 4(a) we will see the exact mode shape for this – it is
clear that the approximation is rough; but, with more DOFs it will approach a better
solution.
Mode 1
Mode 2
Figure 3.5: Lumped mass, 2DOF idealisation of a cantilever.

Structural Dynamics
Case Study – Aberfeldy Footbridge, Scotland

Returning to the case study in Section 1, we will look at the results of some research
conducted into the behaviour of this bridge which forms part of the current research
into lateral synchronise excitation discovered on the London Millennium footbridge.
This is taken from a paper by Dr. Paul Archbold, formerly of University College
Dublin.
Mode Mode Measured Predicted

Type Frequency Frequency
(Hz) (Hz)
1 L1 0.98 1.14 +16%
2 V1 1.52 1.63 +7%
3 V2 1.86 1.94 +4%
4 V3 2.49 2.62 +5%
5 L2 2.73 3.04 +11%
6 V4 3.01 3.11 +3%
7 V5 3.50 3.63 +4%
8 V6 3.91 4.00 +2%
9 T1 3.48 4.17 20%
10 V7 4.40 4.45 +1%
11 V8 4.93 4.90 -1%
12 T2 4.29 5.20 +21%
13 L3 5.72 5.72 +0%
14 T3 5.72 6.07 +19%
Table 1: Modal frequencies Figure 3.6: Undeformed shape
Table 1 gives the first 14 mode and associated frequencies from both direct
measurements of the bridge and from finite-element modelling of it. The type of mode
is also listed; L is lateral, V is vertical and T is torsional. It can be seen that the
predicted frequencies differ slightly from the measured; however, the modes have
been estimated in the correct sequence and there may be some measurement error.
We can see now that (from Section 1) as a person walks at about 2.8 Hz, there are a
lot of modes that may be excited by this loading. Also note that the overall
fundamental mode is lateral – this was the reason that this bridge has been analysed
–it is similar to the Millennium footbridge in this respect. Figure 1.7 illustrates the
dynamic motion due to a person walking on this bridge – this is probably caused by
the third or fourth mode. Several pertinent mode shapes are given in Figure 3.7.

Structural Dynamics
Mode 1:
1st Lateral mode
1.14 Hz
Mode 2:
1st Vertical mode
1.63 Hz
Mode 3:
2nd Vertical mode
1.94 Hz
Mode 9:
st
1 Torsional mode
4.17 Hz
Figure 3.7: Various Modes of Aberfeldy footbridge.

Structural Dynamics
4. Continuous Structures
a. Exact Analysis for Beams

General Equation of Motion
Figure 4.1: Basic beam subjected to dynamic loading: (a) beam properties and
coordinates; (b) resultant forces acting on the differential element.
In examining Figure 4.1, as with any continuous structure, it may be seen that any
differential element will have an associated stiffness and deflection – which changes
with time – and hence a different acceleration. Thus, any continuous structure has an
infinite number of degrees of freedom. Discretization into an MDOF structure is
certainly an option and is the basis for finite-element dynamic analyses; the more
DOF’s used the more accurate the model (Section 3.b). For some basic structures
though, the exact behaviour can be explicitly calculated. We will limit ourselves to
free-undamped vibration of beams that are thin in comparison to their length. A
general expression can be derived and from this, several usual cases may be
established.

Structural Dynamics
Figure 4.2: Instantaneous dynamic deflected position.
Consider the element A of Figure 4.1(b); Fy = 0 , hence:
V ( x, t )
p ( x, t ) dx dx f I ( x, t ) dx = 0 (4.1)
x
after having cancelled the common V ( x, t ) shear term. The resultant transverse
inertial force is (mass × acceleration; assuming constant mass):

2
v ( x, t )
f I ( x, t ) dx = mdx (4.2)
t2
Thus we have, after dividing by the common dx term:
V ( x, t ) 2
v ( x, t )
= p ( x, t ) m (4.3)
x t2
which, with no acceleration, is the usual static relationship between shear force and
applied load. By taking moments about the point A on the element, and dropping
second order and common terms, we get the usual expression:
M ( x, t )
V ( x, t ) = (4.4)
x
Differentiating this with respect to x and substituting into (4.3), in addition to the
2
relationship M = EI v (which assumes that the beam is of constant stiffness):
x2
4
v ( x, t ) 2
v ( x, t )
EI +m = p ( x, t ) (4.5)
x4 t2
With free vibration this is:
4
v ( x, t ) 2
v ( x, t )
EI 4
+m =0 (4.6)
x t2

Structural Dynamics
General Solution for Free-Undamped Vibration

Examination of equation (4.6) yields several aspects:
• It is separated into spatial ( x ) and temporal ( t ) terms and we may assume that
the solution is also;
• It is a fourth-order differential in x ; hence we will need four spatial boundary
conditions to solve – these will come from the support conditions at each end;
• It is a second order differential in t and so we will need two temporal initial
conditions to solve – initial deflection and velocity at a point for example.
To begin, assume the solution is of a form of separated variables:
v ( x, t ) = ( x )Y (t ) (4.7)
where ( x) will define the deformed shape of the beam and Y ( t ) the amplitude of
vibration. Inserting the assumed solution into (4.6) and collecting terms we have:
EI 1
4
( x) = 1 Y (t )
2
= constant = 2
(4.8)
m ( x) x 4
Y (t ) t 2
This follows as the terms each side of the equals are functions of x and t separately
and so must be constant. Hence, each function type (spatial or temporal) is equal to
2
and so we have:
4
( x) =
EI 4
2
m ( x) (4.9)
x
Y (t ) + Y (t ) = 0
2
(4.10)
Equation (4.10) is the same as for an SDOF system (equation (2.4)) and so the
solution must be of the same form (equation (2.17)):
Y0
Y ( t ) = Y0 cos t + sin t (4.11)
In order to evaluate we will use equation (4.9) and we introduce:

2
m
4
= (4.12)
EI
And assuming a solution of the form ( x ) = G exp(sx) , substitution into (4.9) gives:
(s 4 4
) G exp ( sx ) = 0 (4.13)
There are then four roots for s and when each is put into (4.13) and added we get:
( x ) = G1 exp ( i x ) + G2 exp ( i x ) + G3 exp ( x ) + G4 exp ( x) (4.14)

Structural Dynamics
In which the G ’s may be complex constant numbers, but, by using Euler’s

expressions for cos, sin, sinh and cosh we get:
( x ) = A1 sin ( x ) + A2 cos ( x ) + A3 sinh ( x ) + A4 cosh ( x) (4.15)
where the A ’s are now real constants; three of which may be evaluated through the
boundary conditions; the fourth however is arbitrary and will depend on .
Simply-supported Beam
Figure 4.3: First three mode shapes and frequency parameters for an s-s beam.
The boundary conditions consist of zero deflection and bending moment at each end:
2
v
v ( 0, t ) = 0 and EI ( 0, t ) = 0 (4.16)
x2
2
v
v ( L, t ) = 0 and EI ( L, t ) = 0 (4.17)
x2
Substituting (4.16) into equation (4.14) we find A2 = A4 = 0 . Similarly, (4.17) gives:
( L ) = A1 sin( L) + A3 sinh( L) = 0
(4.18)
'' ( L ) = 2 A1 sin( L) + 2 A3 sinh( L) = 0
from which, we get two possibilities:

Structural Dynamics
0 = 2 A3 sinh( L)
(4.19)
0 = A1 sin( L)
however, since sinh( x) is never zero, A3 must be, and so the non-trivial solution
A1 0 must give us:
sin( L) = 0 (4.20)
which is the frequency equation and is only satisfied when L = n . Hence, from
(4.12) we get:
2
n EI
n = (4.21)
L m
and the corresponding modes shapes are therefore:
n x
n ( x ) = A1 sin (4.22)
L
where A1 is arbitrary and normally taken to be unity. We can see that there are an
infinite number of frequencies and mode shapes ( n ) as we would expect from

an infinite number of DOFs. The first three mode shapes and frequencies are shown
in Figure 4.3.
Cantilever Beam
This example is important as it describes the sway behaviour of tall buildings. The
boundary conditions consist of:
v
v ( 0, t ) = 0 and ( 0, t ) = 0 (4.23)
x
2 3
v v
2 ( ) ( L, t ) = 0
EI L , t = 0 and EI (4.24)
x x3
Which represent zero displacement and slope at the support and zero bending
moment and shear at the tip. Substituting (4.23) into equation (4.14) we get A4 = A2
and A3 = A1 . Similarly, (4.24) gives:
'' ( L ) = 2
A1 sin( L) 2
A2 cos( L) + 2
A3 sinh( L) + 2
A4 cosh( L) = 0
(4.25)
''' ( L ) = 3
A1 cos( L) + 3
A2 sin( L) + 3
A3 cosh( L) + 3
A4 sinh( L) = 0
where a prime indicates a derivate of x , and so we find:

A1 ( sin( L) + sinh( L) ) + A2 ( cos( L) + cosh( L) ) = 0
(4.26)
A1 ( cos( L) + cosh( L) ) + A2 ( sin( L) + sinh( L) ) = 0

Structural Dynamics
Solving for A1 and A2 we find:
A1 ( cos( L) + cosh( L) ) ( sin( L) + sinh( L) )( sin( L) + sinh( L) ) = 0

2
(4.27)
( cos( L) + cosh( L) ) ( sin( L) + sinh( L) )( sin( L) + sinh( L) ) = 0
2
A2
In order that neither A1 and A2 are zero, the expression in the brackets must be zero
and we are left with the frequency equation:
cos( L) cosh( L) + 1 = 0 (4.28)
The mode shape is got by expressing A2 in terms of A1 :
sin( L) + sinh( L)
A2 = A1 (4.29)
cos( L) + cosh( L)
and the modes shapes are therefore:
sin( L) + sinh( L)
( x ) = A1 sin( x) sinh( x) + ( cosh( x) cos( x) ) (4.30)
cos( L) + cosh( L)
n
where again A1 is arbitrary and normally taken to be unity. We can see from (4.28)
that it must be solved numerically for the corresponding values of L The natural
frequencies are then got from (4.21) with the substitution of L for n . The first
three mode shapes and frequencies are shown in Figure 4.4.
Figure 4.4: First three mode shapes and frequency parameters for a cantilever.

Structural Dynamics
b. Approximate Analysis – Bolton’s Method
We will now look at a simplified method that requires an understanding of dynamic

behaviour but is very easy to implement. The idea is to represent, through various
manipulations of mass and stiffness, any complex structure as a single SDOF system
which is easily solved via an implementation of equation (1.2):
1 KE
f = (4.31)
2 ME
in which we have equivalent SDOF stiffness and mass terms.
Consider a mass-less cantilever which carries two different masses, Figure 4.5:
Figure 4.5: Equivalent dynamic mass distribution for a cantilever.
The end deflection of a cantilever loaded at its end by a force P is well known to be
PL3 and hence the stiffness is 3EI . Therefore, the frequencies of the two
3EI L3
cantilevers of Figure 4.5 are:
1 3EI 1 3EI
f1 = 3
; and f E = ; (4.32) and (4.33)
2 M1 x 2 M E L3
And so, if the two frequencies are to be equal, and considering M 1 as the mass of a
small element dx when the mass per metre is m , the corresponding part of M E is:
3
x
dM E = mdx (4.34)
L
and integrating:
L 3
x
ME = mdx
0
L (4.35)
= 0.25mL

Structural Dynamics
Therefore the cantilever with self-mass uniformly distributed along its length vibrates
at the same frequency as would the mass-less cantilever loaded with a mass one
quarter its actual mass. This answer is not quite correct but is within 5%; it ignores
the fact that every element affects the deflection (and hence vibration) of every other
element. The answer is reasonable for design though.
Figure 4.6: Equivalent dynamic mass distribution for an s-s beam
Similarly for a simply supported beam, we have an expression for the deflection at a
point:
Px 2 ( L x )
2
x = (4.36)
3EIL
and so its stiffness is:
3EIL
Kx = (4.37)
x ( L x)
2 2
Considering Figure 4.6, we see that, from (4.31):

3EIL 48 EI
= (4.38)
x ( L x ) M1
2
2
L3 M E
and as the two frequencies are to be equal:
(L x)
L 2
M E = 16 x 2
mdx
L4 (4.39)
0
= 8 /15mL
which is about half of the self-mass as we might have guessed.
Proceeding in a similar way we can find equivalent spring stiffnesses and masses for
usual forms of beams as given in Table 1. Table 4.1 however, also includes a

Structural Dynamics
refinement of the equivalent masses based on the known dynamic deflected shape
rather than the static deflected shape.
Table 4.1: Bolton’s table for equivalent mass, stiffnesses and relative amplitudes.
Figure 4.7: Effective SDOFs: (a) neglecting relative amplitude; (b) including relative
amplitude.

Structural Dynamics
In considering continuous beams, the continuity over the supports requires all the
spans to vibrate at the same frequency for each of its modes. Thus we may consider
summing the equivalent masses and stiffnesses for each span and this is not a bad
approximation. It is equivalent to the SDOF model of Figure 4.7(a). But, if we allowed
for the relative amplitude between the different spans, we would have the model of
Figure 4.7(b) which would be more accurate – especially when there is a significant
difference in the member stiffnesses and masses: long heavy members will have
larger amplitudes than short stiff light members due to the amount of kinetic energy
stored. Thus, the stiffness and mass of each span must be weighted by its relative
amplitude before summing. Consider the following examples of the beam shown in
Figure 4.8; the exact multipliers are known to be 10.30, 13.32, 17.72, 21.67, 40.45,
46.10, 53.89 and 60.53 for the first eight modes.
Figure 4.8: Continuous beam of Examples 1 to 3.
Example 1: Ignoring relative amplitude and refined ME

From Table 4.1, and the previous discussion:
EI 8 1
KE = ( 48 × 3 + 101.9 ) ; and M E = mL 3 × + ,
L3 15 2
1 EI
and applying (4.31) we have: f = (10.82 )
2 mL4
The multiplier in the exact answer is 10.30: an error of 5%.
Example 2: Including relative amplitude and refined ME

From Table 4.1 and the previous discussion, we have:
48 EI 101.9 EI EI
KE = 3× 3
×1 + 3
× 0.4108 = 185.9 3
L L L

Structural Dynamics
M E = 3 × 0.4928mL ×1 + 0.4299mL × 0.4108 = 1.655mL
and applying (4.31) we have:

1 EI
f = (10.60 )
2 mL4
The multiplier in the exact answer is 10.30: a reduced error of 2.9%.
Example 3: Calculating the frequency of a higher mode
Figure 4.9: Assumed mode shape for which the frequency will be found.
The mode shape for calculation is shown in Figure 4.7. We can assume supports at
the midpoints of each span as they do not displace in this mode shape. Hence we
have seven simply supported half-spans and one cantilever half-span, so from Table
4.1 we have:
48 EI 101.9 EI
KE = 7 × ×1 + × 0.4108
( 0.5L ) ( 0.5 L )
3 3
EI
= 3022.9
L3
M E = 7 × 0.4928m ( 0.5 L ) ×1 + 0.4299m ( 0.5 L ) × 0.4108
= 1.813mL
again, applying (4.31), we have:
1 EI
f = ( 40.8 )
2 mL4
The multiplier in the exact answer is 40.45: and error of 0.9%.
Mode Shapes and Frequencies

Section 2.d described how the DAF is very large when a force is applied at the
natural frequency of the structure; so for any structure we can say that when it is
vibrating at its natural frequency it has very low stiffness – and in the case of no

Structural Dynamics
damping: zero stiffness. Higher modes will have higher stiffnesses but stiffness may
also be recognised in one form as
M 1
= (4.40)
EI R
where R is the radius of curvature and M is bending moment. Therefore, smaller
stiffnesses have a larger R and larger stiffnesses have a smaller R . Similarly then,
lower modes have a larger R and higher modes have a smaller R . This enables us
to distinguish between modes by their frequencies. Noting that a member in single
curvature (i.e. no point of contraflexure) has a larger R than a member in double
curvature (1 point of contraflexure) which in turn has a larger R than a member in
triple curvature (2 points of contraflexure), we can distinguish modes by deflected
shapes. Figures 4.3 and 4.4 illustrate this clearly.
Figure 4.10: Typical modes and reduced structures.
An important fact may be deduced from Figure 4.10 and the preceding arguments: a
continuous beam of any number of identical spans has the same fundamental
frequency as that of one simply supported span: symmetrical frequencies are
similarly linked. Also, for non-identical spans, symmetry may exist about a support
and so reduced structures may be used to estimate the frequencies of the total
structure; reductions are shown in Figure 4.10(b) and (d) for symmetrical and anti-
symmetrical modes.

Structural Dynamics
Examples:
Example 4.1:
Calculate the first natural frequency of a simply supported bridge of mass 7
tonnes with a 3 tonne lorry at its quarter point. It is known that a load of 10 kN
causes a 3 mm deflection.
Ans.: 3.95Hz.
Example 4.2:
Calculate the first natural frequency of a 4 m long cantilever (EI = 4,320 kNm2)
which carries a mass of 500 kg at its centre and has self weight of 1200 kg.
Ans.: 3.76 Hz.
Example 4.3:
What is the fundamental frequency of a 3-span continuous beam of spans 4, 8
and 5 m with constant EI and m? What is the frequency when EI = 6×103
kNm2 and m = 150 kg/m?
Ans.: 6.74 Hz.
Example 4.4:
Calculate the first and second natural frequencies of a two-span continuous
beam; fixed at A and on rollers at B and C. Span AB is 8 m with flexural
stiffness of 2EI and a mass of 1.5m. Span BC is 6 m with flexural stiffness EI
and mass m per metre. What are the frequencies when EI = 4.5×103 kNm2
and m = 100 kg/m?
Ans.: 9.3 Hz; ? Hz.
Example 4.5:
Calculate the first and second natural frequencies of a 4-span continuous
beam of spans 4, 5, 4 and 5 m with constant EI and m? What are the
frequencies when EI = 4×103 kNm2 and m = 120 kg/m? What are the new
frequencies when support A is fixed? Does this make it more or less
susceptible to human-induced vibration?
Ans.: ? Hz; ? Hz.

Structural Dynamics
5. Practical Design Considerations
a. Human Response to Dynamic Excitation
Figure 5.1: Equal sensation contours for vertical vibration
The response of humans to vibrations is a complex phenomenon involving the

variables of the vibrations being experienced as well as the perception of it. It has
been found that the frequency range between 2 and 30 Hz is particularly
uncomfortable because of resonance with major body parts (Figure 5.2). Sensation

Structural Dynamics
contours for vertical vibrations are shown in Figure 5.1. This graph shows that for a
given frequency, as the amplitude gets larger it becomes more uncomfortable; thus it
is acceleration that is governing the comfort. This is important in the design of tall
buildings which sway due to wind loading: it is the acceleration that causes
discomfort. This may also be realised from car-travel: at constant velocity nothing is
perceptible, but, upon rapid acceleration the motion if perceived ( F = ma ).
Figure 5.2: Human body response to vibration
Response graphs like Figure 5.1 have been obtained for each direction of vibration
but vertical motion is more uncomfortable for standing subjects; for the transverse
and longitudinal cases, the difference has the effect of moving the illustrated bands
up a level. Other factors are also important: the duration of exposure; waveform
(which is again linked to acceleration); type of activity; and, psychological factors. An
example is that low frequency exposure can result in motion sickness.

Structural Dynamics
b. Crowd/Pedestrian Dynamic Loading

Lightweight Floors
Figure 5.3: Recommended vibration limits for light floors.
Vibration limits for light floors from the 1984 Canadian Standard is shown in Figure
5.2; the peak acceleration is got from:
I
a0 = ( 0.9 ) 2 f (5.1)
M
where I is the impulse (the area under the force time graph) and is about 70 Ns and
M is the equivalent mass of the floor which is about 40% of the distributed mass.
This form of approach is to be complemented by a simple analysis of an equivalent

SDOF system. Also, as seen in Section 1, by keeping the fundamental frequency
above 5 Hz, human loading should not be problematic.

Structural Dynamics
Crowd Loading
This form of loading occurs in grandstands and similar structures where a large
number of people are densely packed and will be responding to the same stimulus.
Coordinated jumping to the beat of music, for example, can cause a DAF of about
1.97 at about 2.5 Hz. Dancing, however, normally generates frequencies of 2 – 3 Hz.
Once again, by keeping the natural frequency of the structure above about 5 Hz no
undue dynamic effects should be noticed.
In the transverse or longitudinal directions, allowance should also be made due to the
crowd-sway that may accompany some events a value of about 0.3 kN per metre of
seating parallel and 0.15 kN perpendicular to the seating is an approximate method
for design.
Staircases can be subject to considerable dynamic forces as running up or down

such may cause peak loads of up to 4-5 times the persons bodyweight over a period
of about 0.3 seconds – the method for lightweight floors can be applied to this
scenario.
Footbridges
As may be gathered from the Case Studies of the Aberfeldy Bridge, the problem is
complex, however some rough guidelines are possible. Once again controlling the
fundamental frequency is important; the lessons of the London Millennium and the
Tacoma Narrows bridges need to be heeded though: dynamic effects may occur in
any direction or mode that can be excited by any form of loading.
An approximate method for checking foot bridges is the following:

umax = ust K (5.2)
where ust is the static deflection under the weight of a pedestrian at the point of
maximum deflection; K is a configuration factor for the type of structure (given in
Table 5.1); and is the dynamic response factor got again from Figure 5.4. The
maximum acceleration is then got as umax = 2

umax (see equations (2.30) and (3.11)

Structural Dynamics
for example, note: 2

= 2 f ). This is then compared to a rather simple rule that the
maximum acceleration of footbridge decks should not exceed ±0.5 f .
Alternatively, BD 37/01 states:

“For superstructures for which the fundamental natural frequency of vibration
exceeds 5Hz for the unloaded bridge in the vertical direction and 1.5 Hz for
the loaded bridge in the horizontal direction, the vibration serviceability
requirement is deemed to be satisfied.” – Appendix B.1 General.
Adhering to this clause (which is based on the discussion of Section 1’s Case Study)
is clearly the easiest option.
Also, note from Figure 5.4 the conservative nature of the damping assumed, which,
from equation (2.35) can be seen to be so based on usual values of damping in
structures.
Table 5.1: Configuration factors for footbridges.
Table 5.2: Values of the logarithmic decrement for different bridge types.

Structural Dynamics
Figure 5.4: Dynamic response factor for footbridges
Design Example
A simply-supported footbridge of 18 m span has a total mass of 12.6 tonnes and
flexural stiffness of 3×105 kNm2. Determine the maximum amplitude of vibration and
vertical acceleration caused by a 0.7 kN pedestrian walking in frequency with the
bridge: the pedestrian has a stride of 0.9 m and produces an effective pulsating force
of 180 N. Assume the damping to be related to = 0.05 . Is this a comfortable bridge
for the pedestrian (Figure 5.1)?
The natural frequency of the bridge is, from equations (2.19) and (4.21):
3 × 108
f = = 3.17 Hz
2 × 182 12600 /18
The static deflection is:
700 × 183
ust = = 0.2835 mm
48 × 3 × 108

Structural Dynamics
Table 5.1 gives K = 1 and Figure 5.4 gives = 6.8 and so, by (5.2) we have:
umax = 0.2835 × 1.0 × 6.8 = 1.93 mm
and so the maximum acceleration is:
umax = ( 2 × 3.17 ) × 1.93 × 10 3 = 0.78 m/s 2

2
umax = 2
We compare this to the requirement that:
umax 0.5 f
0.5 f
0.78 0.89 m/s 2
And so we deem the bridge acceptable. From Figure 5.1, with the amplitude 1.93 mm
and 3.17 Hz frequency, we can see that this pedestrian will feel decidedly
uncomfortable and will probably change pace to avoid this frequency of loading.
The above discussion, in conjunction with Section 2.d reveals why, historically,
soldiers were told to break step when crossing a slender bridge – unfortunately for
some, it is more probable that this knowledge did not come from any detailed
dynamic analysis; rather, bitter experience.

Structural Dynamics
c. Damping in Structures
The importance of damping should be obvious by this stage; a slight increase may
significantly reduce the DAF at resonance, equation (2.47). It was alluded to in
Section 1 that the exact nature of damping is not really understood but that it has
been shown that our assumption of linear viscous damping applies to the majority of
structures – a notable exception is soil-structure interaction in which alternative
damping models must be assumed. Table 5.3 gives some typical damping values in
practice. It is notable that the materials themselves have very low damping and thus
most of the damping observed comes from the joints and so can it depend on:
• The materials in contact and their surface preparation;
• The normal force across the interface;
• Any plastic deformation in the joint;
• Rubbing or fretting of the joint when it is not tightened.
Table 5.4: Recommended values of damping.
When the vibrations or DAF is unacceptable it is not generally acceptable to detail

joints that will have higher damping than otherwise normal – there are simply too
many variables to consider. Depending on the amount of extra damping needed, one
could wait for the structure to be built and then measure the damping, retro-fitting
vibration isolation devices as required. Or, if the extra damping required is significant,
the design of a vibration isolation device may be integral to the structure.

Structural Dynamics
The devices that may be installed vary; some are:

• Tuned mass dampers (TMDs): a relatively small mass is attached to the primary
system and is ‘tuned’ to vibrate at the same frequency but to oppose the primary
system;
• Sloshing dampers: A large water tank is used – the sloshing motion opposes the
primary system motion due to inertial effects;
• Liquid column dampers: Two columns of liquid, connected at their bases but at
opposite sides of the primary system slosh, in a more controlled manner to
oppose the primary system motion.
These are the approaches taken in many modern buildings, particularly in Japan and
other earthquake zones. The Citicorp building in New York (which is famous for other
reasons also) and the John Hancock building in Boston were among the first to use
TMDs. In the John Hancock building a concrete block of about 300 tonnes located on
the 54th storey sits on a thin film of oil. When the building sways the inertial effects of
the block mean that it moves in the opposite direction to that of the sway and so
opposes the motion (relying heavily on a lack of friction). This is quite a rudimentary
system compared to modern systems which have computer controlled actuators that
take input from accelerometers in the building and move the block an appropriate
amount.

Structural Dynamics
d. Design Rules of Thumb
General
The structure should not have any modal frequency close to the frequency of any
form of periodic loading, irrespective of magnitude. This is based upon the large
DAFs that may occur (Section 2.d).
For normal floors of span/depth ratio less than 25 vibration is not generally a
problem. Problematic floors are lightweight with spans of over about 7 m.
Human loading
Most forms of human loading occur at frequencies < 5 Hz (Sections 1 and 5.a) and
so any structure of natural frequency greater than this should not be subject to undue
dynamic excitation.
Machine Loading
By avoiding any of the frequencies that the machine operates at, vibrations may be
minimised. The addition of either more stiffness or mass will change the frequencies
the structure responds to. If the response is still not acceptable vibration isolation
devices may need to be considered (Section 5.c).
Approximate Frequencies
The Bolton Method of Section 4.b is probably the best for those structures outside
the standard cases of Section 4.a. Careful thought on reducing the size of the
problem to an SDOF system usually enables good approximate analysis.
Other methods are:
1 g
• Structures with concentrated mass: f =
2
18
• Simplified rule for most structures: f =
where is the static deflection and g is the acceleration under gravity.

Structural Dynamics
Rayleigh Approximation
A method developed by Lord Rayleigh (which is always an upper bound), based on
energy methods, for estimating the lowest natural frequency of transverse beam
vibration is:
L 2
d2y
EI dx
dx 2
2
1 = 0
L
(5.3)
2
y dm
0
This method can be used to estimate the fundamental frequency of MDOF systems.
Considering the frame of Figure 5.5, the fundamental frequency in each direction is
given by:
Qi ui mi ui
2
1 =g i
=g i
(5.4)
Qi ui2 mi ui2
i i
where ui is the static deflection under the dead load of the structure Qi , acting in the
direction of motion, and g is the acceleration due to gravity. Thus, the first mode is
approximated in shape by the static deflection under dead load. For a building, this
can be applied to each of the X and Y directions to obtain the estimates of the
fundamental sway modes.
Figure 5.5: Rayleigh approximation for the fundamental sway frequencies of a

building.

Structural Dynamics
Figure 5.6: Rayleigh method for approximating bridge fundamental frequencies.
Likewise for a bridge, by applying the dead load in each of the vertical and horizontal
directions, the fundamental lift and drag modes can be obtained. The torsional mode
can also be approximated by applying the dead load at the appropriate radius of
gyration and determining the resulting rotation angle, Figure 5.6.
This method is particularly useful when considering the results of a detailed analysis,
such as finite-element. It provides a reasonable approximate check on the output.

Structural Dynamics
6. Appendix
a. References
The following books/articles were referred to in the writing of these notes; particularly
Clough & Penzien (1993), Smith (1988) and Bolton (1978) - these should be referred
to first for more information. There is also a lot of information and software available
online; the software can especially help intuitive understanding. The class notes of
Mr. R. Mahony (D.I.T.) and Dr. P. Fanning (U.C.D.) were also used.
1. Archbold, P., (2002), “Modal Analysis of a GRP Cable-Stayed Bridge”,
Proceedings of the First Symposium of Bridge Engineering Research In
Ireland, Eds. C. McNally & S. Brady, University College Dublin.
2. Beards, C.F., (1983), Structural Vibration Analysis: modelling, analysis and
damping of vibrating structures, Ellis Horwood, Chichester, England.
3. Bhatt, P., (1999), Structures, Longman, Harlow, England.
4. Bolton, A., (1978), “Natural frequencies of structures for designers”, The
Structural Engineer, Vol. 56A, No. 9, pp. 245-253; Discussion: Vol. 57A, No. 6,
p.202, 1979.
5. Bolton, A., (1969), “The natural frequencies of continuous beams”, The
Structural Engineer, Vol. 47, No. 6, pp.233-240.
6. Case, J., Chilver, A.H. and Ross, C.T.F., (1999), Strength of Materials and
Structures, 4th edn., Arnold, London.
7. Clough, R.W. and Penzien, J., (1993), Dynamics of Structures, 2nd edn.,
McGraw-Hill, New York.
8. Cobb, F. (2004), Structural Engineer’s Pocket Book, Elsevier, Oxford.
9. Craig, R.R., (1981), Structural Dynamics – An introduction to computer
methods, Wiley, New York.
10. Ghali, A. and Neville, A.M., (1997), Structural Analysis – A unified classical
and matrix approach, 4th edn., E&FN Spon, London.
11. Irvine, M., (1986), Structural Dynamics for the Practising Engineer, Allen &
Unwin, London.
12. Kreyszig, E., (1993), Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 7th edn., Wiley.
13. Smith, J.W., (1988), Vibration of Structures – Applications in civil engineering
design, Chapman and Hall, London.

Structural Dynamics
b. Important Formulae
Section 2: SDOF Systems

Fundamental equation of motion mu (t ) + cu (t ) + ku (t ) = F (t )
Equation of motion for free vibration u (t ) + 2 u (t ) + 2

u (t ) = 0
Relationship between frequency, circular frequency,
1 1 k
period, stiffness and mass: Fundamental frequency f = = =
T 2 2 m
for an SDOF system.
c
Coefficient of damping 2 =
m
k
Circular frequency
2
=
m
c
Damping ratio =
ccr
Critical value of damping ccr = 2m = 2 km
u (t ) = cos ( t + )
General solution for free-undamped vibration 2
u0 u0
= u + 2
0 ; tan =
u0
d = 1 2
Damped circular frequency, period and frequency 2

Td = ; fd = d
d 2
u (t ) = e t
cos ( d t+ )
2
u0 + u0
= u + 2
;
General solution for free-damped vibrations 0
d
u 0 u0
tan =
u0 d
un
Logarithmic decrement of damping = ln = 2m
un + m d
0.11
Half-amplitude method when un + m = 0.5un
m

Structural Dynamics
p
u
Amplitude after p-cycles un + p = n +1 un
un
Equation of motion for forced response (sinusoidal) mu (t ) + cu (t ) + ku (t ) = F0 sin t
u p (t ) = sin ( t )
( )
12
F0
+ (2 )
2
General solution for forced-damped vibration = 1 2 2
;
k
response and frequency ratio
2
tan = 2
=
1
( )
12
+ (2 )
2 2
Dynamic amplification factor (DAF) DAF D= 1 2
Section 3: MDOF Systems

Fundamental equation of motion Mu + Cu + Ku = F
Equation of motion for undamped-free
Mu + Ku = 0
vibration
General solution and derivates for free- u = a sin ( t + )

undamped vibration u= 2
a sin ( t + )= 2
u
2
Frequency equation K M a=0
m1 0 u1 k +k k2 u1 0
General solution for 2DOF system + 1 2 =
0 m2 !u2 " k2 k2 !u2 " !0 "
Determinant of 2DOF system from

K 2
M = ( k2 + k1 ) 2
m1 k2 2
m2 k22 = 0
Cramer’s rule
Composite matrix E= K 2
M
Amplitude equation Ea = 0
Section 4: Continuous Structures

# 4 v ( x, t ) # 2 v ( x, t )
Equation of motion EI +m = p ( x, t )
#x 4 #t 2
Assumed solution for free-undamped
v ( x, t ) = ( x )Y (t )
vibrations

Structural Dynamics
( x ) = A1 sin ($ x ) + A2 cos ($ x )
General solution
+ A3 sinh ($ x ) + A4 cosh ($ x )
# 2v
v ( 0, t ) = 0 and EI ( 0, t ) = 0
Boundary conditions for a simply #x 2
supported beam # 2v
v ( L, t ) = 0 and EI ( L, t ) = 0
#x 2
2
n EI
Frequencies of a simply supported beam n =
L m
Mode shape or mode n: (A1 is normally n x
n ( x ) = A1 sin
unity) L
#v
v ( 0, t ) = 0 and ( 0, t ) = 0
#x
Cantilever beam boundary conditions
# 2v # 3v
EI 2 ( L, t ) = 0 and EI 3 ( L, t ) = 0
#x #x
Frequency equation for a cantilever cos($ L) cosh($ L) + 1 = 0
sin($ x) sinh($ x) +
sin($ L) + sinh($ L)
Cantilever mode shapes n ( x ) = A1 ×
cos($ L) + cosh($ L)
( cosh($ x) cos($ x) )
1 KE
Bolton method general equation f =
2 ME
Section 5: Practical Design

I
a0 = ( 0.9 ) 2 f
Peak acceleration under foot-loading M
I & 70 Ns M & 40% mass per unit area
Maximum dynamic deflection umax = ust K'
Maximum vertical acceleration umax = 2

umax
BD37/01 requirement for vertical acceleration ±0.5 f

c. Important Tables and Figures
Section 2: SDOF Systems
D.I.T. Bolton St
Undamped free-vibration response
58
Structural Dynamics
Variation of DAF with damping and frequency ratios
General case of an under-critically damped system
C. Caprani
Section 4: Continuous Structures
D.I.T. Bolton St
59
First three modes for an s-s beam and cantilever
Structural Dynamics
Bolton’s table
Equivalent dynamic mass distributions
C. Caprani
D.I.T. Bolton St
60
Structural Dynamics
Recommended vibration limits for light floors.
C. Caprani
Equal sensation contours for vertical vibration
D.I.T. Bolton St
61
Configuration factors for footbridges.
Structural Dynamics
Dynamic response factor for footbridges
C. Caprani

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53/58:153 Lecture 1 Fundamental of Vibration

People became interested in vibration when the first musical instruments,

The general terminology of “Vibration” is used to describe oscillatory motion

The Vibration of a system involves the transfer of its potential energy to

The terminology of “Forced Vibration” is used for the study of motion as a

If no energy is lost or dissipated in friction or other resistance during

If the system is damped, some energy is dissipated in each cycle of vibration

Vibration analysis procedure

Step 1: Mathematical modeling

3. Other Basic Concepts of Vibration

A vibratory system, in general, includes a means for storing potential

The minimum number of independent coordinates required to determine

A large number of practical systems can be described using a finite

Some systems, especially those involving continuous elastic members,

4. Plane truss example (Matrix method)

Stiffness matrix and unknown variables

5. Period and Frequency

“Period of vibration” is the time that it takes to complete one cycle. It is

“Frequency” is the number of cycles per second. It is measured in Hz (1

Frequency of vibration: f = (1/T) Hz or ω = (2π/T) radians/s

T=(2 π/ω) = (1/T)

6. Dynamic loads on structures

7. Importance of dynamic analysis

Fatigue phenomenon can be caused by repeated application of the load. The

Dynamic Load Magnification factor (DLF) is the ratio of the maximum

The small period of vibration results in a small DLF.

Fatigue phenomenon can be caused by repeated application of the load. The

8. Types of Vibratory Motion

Oscillatory motion may repeat itself regularly, as in the case of a simple

If the motion is repeated after equal intervals of time, it is called periodic

It is described by sine or cosine functions.

A is the amplitude while ω is the frequency (radians/sec)

A harmonic motion can be written in terms of exponential functions.

A harmonic motion could be written as

Alternative forms for harmonic motion

Generally, a harmonic motion can be expressed as a combination of sine and

The motion repeats itself exactly.

A general vibratory motion doesn’t have a repeating pattern.

Lecture 2: Spring-Mass Systems

The basic vibration model of a simple oscillatory system consists of a mass, a

If damping in moderate amounts has little influence on the natural frequency, it

An undamped spring-mass system is the simplest free vibration system. It has

3. Free vibration solution

Example 1: A ¼ kg mass is suspended by a spring having a stiffness of

A weight W=80lb suspended by a spring with k = 100 lb/in. Determine the

4. Free Vibration of an undamped torsional system

Damping dynamic systems

Spring-mass systems with viscous damping:

Introducing the damping ratio,

b) Overdamped system: ξ >1

c) Underdamped or lightly damped system: 0 < ξ <1

The above can be classified as critically damped motion; nonoscillatory motion;

Underdamped or lightly-damped motion: 0 < ξ < 1

Example: A weight w = 80lb suspended by a spring with k=100lb/in. The

Logarithmic decrement: If there are the displacements at two consecutive

The logarithmic decrement is defined as

The dissipated energy in the first cycle,

Overdamped (Nonoscillatory) motion: ξ >1

Example: A weight w = 80lb suspended by a spring with k=100lb/in. The