© The College of Estate Management 2003

Paper 0447V1-0

Work programming

Contents

Aims

Learning outcomes

Foreword

1. Managing time
1.1 Time budgets

2. Work programming
2.1 Why programme work?
2.2 Control objectives
2.3 Programmes

3. Construction of programmes
3.1 Bar charts
3.2 Networks
3.3 Precedence diagrams
3.4 Comparison of precedence diagrams with critical path analysis (CPA)
3.5 Line of balance scheduling

4. Use of programmes
4.1 Timescales
4.2 Co-ordination and control
4.3 Progress reporting

5. Work measurement
5.1 Techniques of work measurement
5.2 Stages in work measurement

6. Method statements
6.1 Contents of method statements
6.2 Presentation
 Work programming Paper 0447 Page 2

Aims
This paper aims to:

z Highlight the time-dependent nature of work.

z Develop methods of time representation that are communicable and

controllable.

Learning outcomes
After studying this paper, you should be able to:

z Recognise the irreplaceability of time as a resource.

z Appreciate the need to budget for and manage time.

z Understand the relationship between programming time and the planning and
control functions of management.

z Appreciate the need for clear presentation of programmes of work.

z Recognise the application of different types of programmes to alternative

methods of production.

z Prepare simple time programmes to reflect the flexibility of or constraints

imposed by the work process.

z Recognise the importance of critical operations which determine work duration

and the use that can be made of float or spare time.

z Appreciate the uses of programmes for control purposes.

z Understand the principles of work measurement and the techniques that may
be applied to quantify work.

z Appreciate the factors influencing the rate at which work can be completed.
 Work programming Paper 0447 Page 3

Foreword
Of all the resources available within a business, time is the scarcest. Time is
irreplaceable and irreversible. ‘Tempus fugit’ (time flies) is a common refrain both in
business and social activities.

‘Time is money’ is another common expression. Anyone who employs labour, hires
plant or works within fixed fees recognises that the more time passes, the more costs
build up and profits drop. Managing time is thus a vital part of business activity and
one which is disregarded at your peril.

1 Managing time
How effectively do you use your time?

In answer to this question most people will say, ‘very effectively’, but a revealing
exercise is to analyse a working week by keeping a time log. At the end of each hour
make a note of how many minutes were spent on different activities such as meetings,
on the telephone, travelling, thinking, writing, reading and so on.

By the end of the week you will find, if you have kept an honest record, that the
proportion of time spent on positively developing or furthering the product or service
for which you are responsible is not as great as you perceived.

The perception and assignment of the right value for time is a fundamental part of the
production process and applies whether you work in an office or a factory, for a small
business or a large organisation.

Value for time is not as hard to appreciate as you might imagine. Consider the
following table:

TABLE 1 Cost of time

Salary/annum Time
£ 5 min 15 min 1 hour 1 day
35 000 £1.75 £5.25 £21.00 £147.00
30 000 £1.50 £4.50 £18.00 £126.00
25 000 £1.25 £3.75 £15.00 £105.00
20 000 £1.00 £3.00 £12.00 £84.00
15 000 £0.75 £2.25 £9.00 £63.00

This simply demonstrates that even a five-minute phone call has a value which, if it is
unnecessary or prolonged, costs the business money, both for the phone call itself and
through the inactivity of the person taking or making the call.

The following points indicate ways in which individual managers may make more
effective use of their time.

z Avoid procrastination: ie putting work off till another day.

z Single handle paperwork – pick it up and deal with it.
z Keep a tidy mind – maintain an organised desk and office.
z Develop a personal sense of time.
 Work programming Paper 0447 Page 4

z Produce time budgets/programmes for a day, a week or a month. Review

regularly.
z Prioritise activities – today, tomorrow and so on.
z Set time targets for individual tasks.
z Delegate effectively – don’t shoulder all the work.
z Avoid time-wasting meetings – consider the value to you.
z Learn to say no to requests.
z Control interruptions.
z Stay off the phone.
z Develop concise writing and speed reading.
z Use waiting and travel time effectively.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
How good are you at managing your time?
Against each of the points above place a tick if you already satisfy it or a cross if you do
not. How many ticks do you have and where do you need to improve?

1.1 Time budgets

Of the points above, the most important to management in general is time budgeting.
It is very easy to become preoccupied with day-to-day work to the extent that
managers can develop tunnel vision, and as the saying goes, ‘can’t see the wood for
the trees’.

It is necessary to maintain an all-round perspective not only of the fine detail in one
particular area but also of the wider picture and beyond. This ability to change focus
has been termed ‘helicopter vision’ as it is analogous to rapid ascent and descent,
giving a variety of views from the immediate vicinity to the middle ground and to the
horizon.

Planning or budgeting time for today’s work, tomorrow’s work and next week’s,
month’s or year’s work is a key management function; but research has shown that
managers are unskilled in this area. The diary (or time log) for an average manager
shows that less than 5 percent of their time is devoted to planning. And yet without
some formalised identification of the work to be undertaken it is impossible to
maintain control over it.

It is unrealistic to suggest that all work can be timetabled, as a degree of uncertainty

and ‘firefighting’ will exist. It is important, though, that the main tasks are planned in
advance so that priorities can be given to different jobs and the relationships that exist
between them are known. Managers are then able to identify progress, completions
and problems to date.
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2 Work programming
2.1 Why programme work?
Planning work and controlling work are so closely linked as to be inseparable.
However, there is a clear sequence between the two. No aspect of work, be it the
work of the individual, of others, of a project or a process, can be controlled unless it
has been planned.

The strict meaning of control is to keep operations on course by correcting deviations

from the planned programme. It is helpful at this point to set out the distinctions
between the different terminologies:

z Planning: to examine all the facts relating to a project and to develop a course
of action which will achieve the set objectives within the time allowed or the
resources available.

z Programming: to set down the plan to a timescale in such a manner that it can
be easily communicated to all involved.

z Controlling: to check the plan and/or programme at regular intervals in order

to measure actual achievement against planned achievement. This comparison
is passed on to management so that action can be taken in relation to the
programme and resources used.

You will notice that reference has been made to ‘work’ and to ‘projects’. Although in
principle the two are interchangeable, ‘work’ implies an ongoing continuum of
activity, whereas ‘project’ implies an activity of fixed term.

This should not lead to confusion, as work generally can be considered to break down
into a series of separate projects. So a project may be the preparation of sales
particulars, the conducting of a survey, producing a cost estimate, as well as
something much larger such as constructing a new office block or bridge.

Whether the project is large or small there will still be a start and finish to the activity
which can be defined and for which clear objectives can be set.

The combination of objectives and time permits the modern concept of control to be
realised. This is based on sound principles of practical planning and foresight to
produce actual means of measuring progress of work against predetermined output
standards.

We should now consider what is meant by output standards. Standards result from the
objectives and in a business sense this means making effective use of resources to
satisfy the needs of the consumer (an economic product) as well as the needs of the
organisation (a profit).

If resources are simply stated as labour, equipment, materials and money, the
common factor linking their effective or economic use is time. Each has a basic unit
cost (hourly rate, interest rate, hire rate) so that, apart from material cost which can be
assumed to be constant, as each resource is used for a longer time, so the overall cost
will accelerate.

Thus we can say that whilst planning is necessary to permit control to be exercised,
programming is essential if effective time and cost control is to be maintained.
 Work programming Paper 0447 Page 6

2.2 Control objectives

The objectives of control through the use of programmes are to:

z Show the most expeditious and economic method of carrying out the work
consistent with the available resources.

z Provide continuous productive work for all labour and equipment employed,
so reducing unproductive time to a minimum.

z Organise and control the work by early examination of all its aspects;
recognise and deal with possible difficulties, thereby ensuring smooth and
continuous progress.

z Give accurate information relating to the timescale for use of the resources
employed.

z Provide proper progress and control procedures.

z Contribute factual data for use in future estimating and programming.

Attainment of these objectives is dependent on overcoming the barriers to effective

planning.

External forces such as laws, government regulations, trade associations and the
action of competitors may impede or influence the effectiveness of planning. In
addition, obstacles from within the organisation may result from:

z The time span covered – difficult to programme far into the future.

z Unforeseen or unpredictable events – depending upon the circumstances and

the project.

z Mental ability – of the person producing the programme.

z Lack of information – effective programmes require full information.

z Human element – lack of interest or commitment from those providing

information.

z Costs of planning – short-term plans may be uneconomic to produce.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
Examine any work programme you have. Does it satisfy the objectives given above? What
are the limitations of the programme?
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2.3 Programmes
Programmes are the visual means of charting the sequence of a number of different
tasks, projects or activities against time. The following types of programmes may be
used for this planning:

z Bar charts
z Linked bar charts
z Bar charts from network analysis.
z Precedence diagrams
z Line of balance schedules.

Bar charts
The bar (or Gantt chart) is the format that has been longest used. The bar chart
requires a formalised layout but one easy to follow. Horizontally, a timescale is
shown which is usually related to a calendar. Vertically, a list of activities is given,
followed by columns showing periods on the timescale. The duration and sequence of
each activity is then plotted by the use of horizontal lines.

FIGURE 1 Bar chart

Year 20X2
Month October November December
Activity Week 28 5 12 19 26 2 9 16 23 30 7 14
Project X
Move office
Project Y
J Bloggs on leave
Project Z

Advantages

z Because of its widespread application and simplicity of presentation, this is the

most readily recognised format.

z Any draft programme can be converted to a bar chart.

z It illustrates clearly the relationship, in time, between two or more activities

and also the relationship between activities and specific calendar requirements.

z The start and finish of each activity in relation to the calendar is readily shown.

Disadvantages

z Bar charts are incapable of depicting in detail the multitude of interrelated

activities. There is no indication when one activity is delaying or is about to
disrupt another.

z They do not provide for a high degree of control.

z They may give too simple a picture, which can be misleading.

 Work programming Paper 0447 Page 8

In Figure 1 it is clear when each of the five activities are to be accomplished in

respect of the calendar dates, and to an outsider this may be sufficient. For those
working within the organisation it highlights the problems. For instance, J Bloggs
may be crucial to the completion of project Z; it may be impractical to continue work
on projects during the office move, or that project Y must be completed before
project X starts. Thus the bar chart only gives part of the picture, albeit simply and
clearly.

Linked bar charts

In this type of chart the visual benefits of the bar chart are retained but to these are
added an emphasis on dependencies. This is represented by vertical links between
the completion of one activity and the start of another.

FIGURE 2 Linked bar chart

Year 20X2
Month October November December
Activity Week 28 5 12 19 26 2 9 16 23 30 7 14
Project X
Move office
Project Y
J Bloggs on leave
Project Z

Advantages

z It possesses the bar chart’s merits of clarity of presentation and ease of

appreciation.

z The logical constraints illustrated provide a more realistic presentation of the

co-ordination needs of the project.

z It indicates either the independence of activities or conversely the inevitable

effect of a localised delay.

z The increased emphasis on sequence allows the technique to be used for more
complex projects than that of a bar chart.

Disadvantages

z Limit to the amount of linking that can be shown clearly.

z To ensure clarity in linking of activities, the relative position of activities

might have to be changed from their usual order.

Figure 2 shows the rearranged schedule of activities to take into account the
dependencies identified above, and these are shown by the vertical lines.

This chart now starts to indicate key dates, so that Project Y must finish in time for
the office move, and similarly Project Z must finish on time if J Bloggs is to catch the
plane.
 Work programming Paper 0447 Page 9

You will notice that Project X has been moved to an earlier scheduled start
commencing after the office move on the 9 November, although previously it started
on 23 November. What is uncertain from looking at the linked chart is the degree of
flexibility as to when activities are started and finished. All the link lines tell you is
the dependency where one activity cannot overlap with another. Thus we cannot be
sure whether Project X could start on 9, 16, 23 or even 30 November, only that it
must follow project Y.

Bar charts from network analysis

Project Network Analysis (PNA) is a far more scientific approach to scheduling time.
Whilst it is possible to use graph paper or a pin board to create bar and linked charts,
programmes produced by network analysis need the use of arithmetic.

The technique was created by the US Navy in the 1950s to control expenditure on the
Polaris missile programme and was known as PERT (Programme Evaluation and
Review Technique). Various refinements in the style and approach have led to the
technique being referred to as Critical Path Method, Critical Path Analysis and
Critical Path Scheduling. The general term is Network Analysis.

The programme or network produced concentrates on the logical relationship between

activities and their reference to the project completion. The network shows all the
relationships between activities, both their dependencies and their float time (the
flexibility in starting an activity), as well as their durations.

Because the sequence of activities and their durations are analysed mathematically,
the technique is able to identify the minimum time that it is possible to complete all
the activities in, and to single out those activities which are critical to achieving this
minimum time. The critical path is then the sequence of critical activities which must
be completed on time and whose starts are dependent on the completion of the
previous activity.

FIGURE 3 Bar chart derived from a network analysis

Year 20X2
Month October November December
Activity Week 28 5 12 19 26 2 9 16 23 30 7 14
Project X
Move office
Project Y
J Bloggs on leave
Project Z
Project N
Project P

Advantages

z Identification of potential problems is easier with PNA and their likely effects
may be determined.

z Critical activities and locations requiring concentrated supervision are

identified.
 Work programming Paper 0447 Page 10

z PNA is particularly suitable for the co-ordination and control of complex non-
repetitive projects.

z The concept of ‘float’ is used to give an element of flexibility in the allocation

of resources.

z A PNA illustrates explicitly the time and sequence of work proposed.

Disadvantages

z Expertise is required in the preparation and interpretation of PNA. This may

not always be immediately available.

z Programmes for large projects tend to become unmanageable unless split into
sections.

z The relationship of activity starts to the calendar are poorly shown.

Figure 3 demonstrates the increased information and thereby control that results from
using networking to produce bar charts.

If we say that J Bloggs is needed to supervise the office move and that Project Z must
be completed before the end of October, we have a fixed time sequence, whereby
Project Z must be completed before J Bloggs can go on leave, who in turn must be
back to oversee the office move.

Additionally, if Project P cannot start before 30 November and Project X must be

completed before project P starts and after Project Y and the office move have been
done, the sequence is extended.

Assuming the times for each activity are fixed, we can now identify the critical path
and the critical activities. These in order are: Project Z; J Bloggs on leave; move
office; Project X and Project P.

We have two non-critical activities. Projects N and Y are flexible: in other words
they have float time available. In Figure 3 Project N is shown as being able to start
during a five-week period, although it only lasts for two weeks. As it is not dependent
on any other activity, we can choose when it is done. Similarly with Project Y, which
is satisfying its restraint that it must finish before the office moves, although it could
have started a week earlier.

Separating out the critical activities from the non-critical ones gives us even greater
ability to control. From Figure 3 we now know:

z the key target dates to be met, ie the completion of each critical activity;
z the fixed dates, ie the office move;
z where to direct resources first – the critical activities;
z where to direct resources second – Project Y as least amount of float;
z where to direct resources third – Project N as most float.

Lastly, if the seven activities shown in Figure 3 together comprised parts of one
overall project, we would now know that the minimum time to complete it would be
12 weeks, so that a start on 28 September would allow completion on 21 December in
time for Christmas.
 Work programming Paper 0447 Page 11

Precedence diagrams
The bar charts produced above progressively display improved time control
information. They are, however, limited to basic statements of activity and calendar
time. In the majority of cases this is perfectly adequate for control purposes, but there
are occasions when it is helpful to display the programme of activities, making the
distinction between different types or forms of work. Typically we may wish to
differentiate between resource activities and activities conducted in different locations
or by different organisations, or perhaps to be allocated to different budgets.

In Figure 3 it would be possible to add an extra column to make this distinction next
to each activity and for a programme with few activities this would be acceptable. As
the size and complexity of the programme increases, this approach starts to lose
clarity, particularly when tracking the sequence of one type of work.

Precedence diagrams get around this problem by including the description of the
activity into the box on the programme and keeping the boxes separated into blocks
of work.

FIGURE 4 Precedence diagram

20X2
Category October November December
28 5 12 19 26 2 9 16 23 30 7 14 21

Office
Facilities
move

Staff leave J Bloggs

Float N Float
Projects
Float Y
X
P

Advantages

z Activities can be grouped (ie by type and location), both presentation and
understanding being thus assisted.

z The emphasis on sequence remains strong and the concept of ‘float’ is

retained.

z The technique is ideal for large complex projects.

Disadvantages

z Reference to calendar time remains only indirect.

z Expertise is required in both preparation and interpretation.
 Work programming Paper 0447 Page 12

In Figure 4 above the same information is given as in Figure 3. The sequence,

dependency and flexibility of activities are still clearly shown but now it is more
obvious whether each is a project, a labour resource or a facility activity. It is, though,
less clear as to the start and finish dates of the activity, a problem which increases the
further an activity is plotted away from the calendar axis.

Line of balance schedules (or elemental trend analysis)

This is a specific technique that is used for the programming of a large quantity of
repetitive activities such as would be found in manufacturing industry or housing
estate developments. It recognises that while the total time for producing one unit
may be constant, the rate of completion of different activities within each unit may
vary.

It requires a horizontal timescale and calendar; a cumulative output is shown

vertically. A line is drawn representing each activity throughout each unit and
fluctuations in output are represented by the change of direction of the line.

FIGURE 5 Line of balance schedule

Advantages

z ETA’s main advantage lies in its suitability for application to repetitive work
and strict activity sequencing.

z ETA is more sophisticated than the bar chart and simpler than a network
diagram.

z Factually, it contains all the information provided by the bar chart.

Disadvantages

z Not suitable for non-repetitive projects.

Each of the four activities A–D shown in Figure 5 represent a duration time and a rate
of working. Thus activity A is a task that takes two weeks to complete on each unit
and units can be completed at a rate of nine units every seven weeks.
 Work programming Paper 0447 Page 13

The rate of completion is affected by the amount of resources utilised and the speed at
which they can work. The slow rate of A may be due to insufficient labour or
inadequate equipment. Whatever the cause, the programming problem is evident.
Activity B can be completed much faster, but to avoid conflict between A and B on
unit 9, B cannot be started on unit 1 until week 6, which is four weeks after activity A
was completed.

This four weeks’ delay is termed a buffer time.

There is a converse problem between activities C and D. Here the activities diverge
rather than converge, so to complete all the units as fast as possible, D must be started
on unit 1 as soon as C has finished.

In practice the relationship between B and C would be aimed for so that the resources
used produce the same output rate. Even so, a small buffer time may still be
incorporated to avoid problems from ‘unforeseen’ delays.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
For each of the programme types considered suggest two uses:

a. Bar chart

b. Linked bar chart

c. Bar chart from network analysis

d. Precedence diagram

e. Line of balance schedules

 Work programming Paper 0447 Page 14

3 Construction of programmes
In this section we describe the basic steps for preparing work programmes.

3.1 Bar charts

These are widely used and are considered to be the most easily understood form of
programme. Their simplicity ensures that they are easy to prepare and even those not
trained in their use can normally understand what is intended.

The main points to remember in constructing a bar chart are:

z Compile a thorough list of activities and durations before constructing the

chart. Changes to a drawn chart at a later stage or the incorporation of
additional resources can be time-consuming.

z The time scale is always horizontal. The calendar should include week
number, dates, months and year as appropriate.

z Activities are shown in approximately the order in which they are to be carried
out, starting from top left and working across and down.

z Resources and quantities of work are generally omitted.

z Bars are drawn accurately to scale, indicating the correct start and finish of the
activity and the overall duration.

z The logical relationship between activities is not shown, although there may be
an implied relationship between two adjacent activities.

z Space should be left above or below each bar to allow progress to be recorded.
Note that progress is simply the proportion of an activity that has been
completed, whilst rate of progress indicates the time at which an activity
commenced and was completed.

As described earlier, linked bar charts are presented in the same way as bar charts
but with vertical lines to indicate dependency. We will come back to these in the
section on networks.

3.2 Networks
The preparation of a work programme using the network analysis technique follows
five stages:

1. Compilation of activity list and durations.

2. Construction of a logic or arrow diagram.
3. Analysis of the logic diagram to obtain overall duration and critical path.
4. Determination of float times.
5. Preparation of linked bar chart.
 Work programming Paper 0447 Page 15

1 Compilation of activity list and durations

We should first define what is meant by activity. Any project or item of work can be
broken down into a series of individual tasks. If these tasks can be considered to take
a specified time to complete and consume resources, then they are termed activities.

It is not always the case that resources have to be consumed. For instance, curing of
concrete takes time but no resources.

Before an activity list can be compiled, the basic approach, procedure or method has
to be decided. This means that from the outset there must be a broad scheme of how
the project is to be tackled. At the same time, the programmer should have an idea of
the parameters within which he is working. These parameters may be labour,
equipment, money or even time itself.

In many instances these parameters are fixed. There may be a limited number of
people that can be used; equipment available may be of a given number, type and
capability; the budget for the work may be predetermined; and lastly only limited
time may be available to complete the project.

All of these factors should be considered prior to and during compilation of the
activity list. Even with experience it is impossible to satisfy the parameters at the first
attempt, and for the inexperienced the simplest way to get started is to assume that all
resources are available and in unlimited quantity. By making this assumption,
concentration of effort is placed on the method to be adopted and the resourcing can
be considered later.

Frequently the method or procedure is predetermined. A wall cannot be built before

the footings are laid, a case cannot be brought to court before the evidence has been
collected, a fee cannot be quoted before the work involved has been assessed – and
part of this assessment is determining the timescales involved.

Similarly, there may be alternative methods or procedures available. The footing may
be dug by hand or machine; the wall may be built in brick or block; fee for client A
may be quoted before the fee for client B and so on.

We will come on to sequencing later, but the examples above serve to illustrate
individual activities which can be defined.

In analysing any type of project, there will always be a series of questions that can be
asked. Thus there will need to be answers to the ‘what, when, where, who, how and
why’ surrounding the work before an accurate activity list can be compiled.

This questioning approach is similar to that taken in method study, and indeed both
method study and work measurement can be used in the formulation of activity lists
and duration times.

Duration times should be commensurate with the work involved. It is preferable to

assess times from previous experience, but where this information is not available it
can be obtained using work measurement techniques or from published data. You
should, however, be cautious of claims made by equipment manufacturers, who will
market their products showing the best possible times obtainable from their product.
 Work programming Paper 0447 Page 16

In summary, the following points should be considered in compiling a list of activities

and durations:

z Activities should consume resources and/or time.

z Activities may be defined for a single resource or several resources.

z Consider resource constraints or parameters in defining activities.

z Consider what controls over resources will need to be exercised before

defining activities (eg costs, quantities, etc).

z Adopt a questioning approach.

z Use method study to analyse procedures.

z Use work measurement techniques as an alternative to recorded data to provide

activity durations.

z Be cautious of other people’s assessment of time.

z Attempt to produce a full and complete list of activities so that all resources
and time will be included in the programme.

z Cover the full timescale of the project.

In the following sections we will use the data in Table 2 to follow an example
through.

TABLE 2 Project Alpha activities and times

Project Alpha
Activity Duration (weeks)
A 2
B 1
C 3
D 2
E 4
F 3
G 1
H 2
J 2
K 3
L 2
M 3
N 1
P 1
Q 4
R 2
 Work programming Paper 0447 Page 17

2 Construction of logic or arrow diagram

In compiling the list of activities to be undertaken, we must give thought to the
sequence and method of compiling different tasks. However, the list gives no
indication of dependencies and constraints between activities.

If the activity list summarises all the work to be done, the logic or arrow diagram
summarises the method and procedure.

The effectiveness of network analysis depends greatly on the accuracy and

completeness of the logic, as represented in the arrow diagram.

The notation used in constructing the diagram is:

z Activities consuming resources and/or time are shown as arrows

z Points in time marking the start or finish of an activity are known as events or
nodes and are shown as circles

z Dummy activities consuming neither resources nor time indicate sequential

relationships and are used:

{ to maintain logical relationships;

{ to separate parallel activities for identification.

They are shown as dotted arrows

The network consists of a series of arrows and circles. Events are numbered so that
any activity can be referred to by the event numbers at the tail and the heads of the
arrow. These are sometimes known as the ‘ij’ values.

Examples of logic construction and their meaning are given in Table 3.

It is important that events are numbered so that the i value at the tail is always smaller
than the j value at the head of the arrow. This is good practice to ensure that there are
no loops in the network.

Equally there should be no duplication of event numbers and no activity should be

allowed to dangle, that is, with no succeeding activity (unless it is the final one).

Following these rules the arrow diagram is constructed and the descriptions and
durations are entered alongside the respective arrow.

Taking our Project Alpha example, we cannot draw the arrow diagram until we have
determined the activity sequence (and the restraints imposed).

From our previous discussion we could now summarise these as shown in Table 4.
 Work programming Paper 0447 Page 18

TABLE 3 Arrow diagram construction

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TABLE 4 Project Alpha sequencing

Project Alpha
Activity Duration Sequence
A 2 First activity
B 1 Commences same time as A
C 3 Follows B
D 2 Follows A
E 4 Starts after B completed
F 3 Follows C
G 1 Follows D
H 2 Follows E
J 2 Starts after F and G completed
K 3 Follows J
L 2 Follows H
M 3 Follows L
N 1 Follows M
P 1 Follows K
Q 4 Follows K
R 2 Follows N and Q but cannot start until P is completed.

The arrow diagram from this information is shown in Figure 6.

FIGURE 6 Arrow diagram for Project Alpha

3 Analysis of logic diagram

Figure 6 sets out the sequence of activities that we intend to follow to complete
Project Alpha. It defines our method.

It does not give us any indication as to how long it will take to complete activities A
to R or which are the critical activities.

The analysis of the network consists of:

z Calculating the earliest possible and latest permissible times for each event and
the project duration.
 Work programming Paper 0447 Page 20

z Finding the critical path which is the sequence of activities that occupies the
longest time.

z Determining the float available for non-critical activities.

Project duration
This is found by making a forward pass through the network, adding the durations
together.

Above each event, two boxes are drawn. On the forward pass the earliest event time
is written in the left-hand box.

The earliest event time is the earliest possible time that an event can occur, assuming
all previous activities take the time estimated for them. In effect the earliest event
time dictates the earliest possible time that any following activities can commence.

Consider the following network:

Event 1 is the first event and event 5 the last. Starting at event 1, in the box above,
zero is entered to signify the start of the project. The duration of activity 1–2 is one,
so above event 2 a one is entered. Between events 2 and 3 there is a dummy activity,
so the one at event 2 is carried over to event 3. There are two routes to arrive at event
4. Going via activity 2–4 the time is three, and via 3–4 the time is two. These values
are placed in brackets by the heads of the respective arrows and the highest value
entered above event 4. Finally the value of six is entered in the box above event 5 and
this is the project duration time for all the events.

Critical path
This is found by making a backward pass through the network, subtracting the
durations of each activity.

The resulting latest event time is written in the right-hand box. The latest event time
is the latest possible time that an event can occur if the total project time is not to be
exceeded.

This time we start at the end event and place 6 in the right-hand box above the
event 5.

Above event 4 a three is entered and at event 3 a two is entered.

 Work programming Paper 0447 Page 21

There are two routes to event 2 and similar rules to the forward pass above apply.
This time the subtracted values are placed in brackets at the tail of the arrows and the
lowest value selected. Thus one is entered at event 2 and the check is to ensure that
we arrive back at event 1 with a value of zero.

You will notice that at some events the values in both boxes are the same, meaning
that the earliest and latest times that an event can occur are identical. There is
therefore no spare time to complete the activities between such events and these
activities are consequently critical. The sequence of critical activities through the
network is the critical path and is indicated by a bold (or coloured) line.

The critical path determines the longest time to work through all the activities in the
network, and in large networks there may be more than one critical path. As discussed
earlier, it indicates those activities where control and allocation of resources must be
placed if the project duration is to be met. Any delay to a critical activity
automatically extends the duration time.

This is not the case with non-critical activities which have spare time associated with
them. This spare time is known as float and different values can be calculated for it.

The analysed network for Project Alpha is shown in Figure 7.

FIGURE 7 Analysed arrow diagram for Project Alpha

 Work programming Paper 0447 Page 22

4 Determination of float times

Float is the ‘spare’ time available to an activity. The different types of float are
summarised in Figure 8.

FIGURE 8 Definitions of float

Total float is the total time available from the earliest to the latest finishing time of
an activity. If the finish of an activity is delayed beyond this point, then it will
become critical.

Free float is the time available for a particular activity between its earliest finish and
the earliest start of the next activity. Delay in finishing an activity by a period greater
than its free float will delay the start of subsequent activities.

Interfering and independent floats are rarely used for control purposes.

The different types of float are useful in deciding the priorities for resourcing non-
critical activities, ie smallest total float first, and if total floats for two activities are
the same, use free float to decide.

Float times for Project Alpha are scheduled in Table 5.

 Work programming Paper 0447 Page 23

TABLE 5 Float values for Project Alpha activities

ij Activity Duration Tail Head Total Free

(weeks) EET LET EET LET float float
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)
1–2 A 2 0 0 2 4 2 0
1–4 B 1 0 0 1 1 0 0*
4–5 C 3 1 1 4 4 0 0*
2–3 D 2 2 4 4 6 2 0
4–9 E 4 1 1 5 8 3 0
5–6 F 3 4 4 7 7 0 0*
3–6 G 1 4 6 7 7 2 2
9–10 H 2 5 8 7 10 3 0
6–7 J 2 7 7 9 9 0 0*
7–8 K 3 9 9 12 12 0 0*
10–11 L 2 7 10 9 12 3 0
11–12 M 3 9 12 12 15 3 0
12–14 N 1 12 15 16 16 3 3
8–13 P 1 12 12 13 16 3 0
8–14 Q 4 12 12 16 16 0 0*
14–15 R 2 16 16 18 18 0 0*
13–14 Dummy 0 13 16 16 16 3 3
Total float = (e) – (b) – (a)
Free float = (d) – (b) – (a)
NB: Critical activities marked * have zero floats.

5 Preparation of linked bar chart

Whilst the logic or arrow diagram provides full and complete information, it does not
present the information in a simple and clear manner that can be understood by
anyone.

The bar chart is therefore used to convey the information generated from the analysis,
using the earliest/latest event times to determine the position of the activities, and the
floats to define the slots for non-critical activities. The vertical link lines are used to
maintain the logical relationships.

The linked bar charts for Project Alpha are shown in Figures 9a and 9b and these
represent the time parameters for the project.

Summary: bar charts from networks

The principal steps in the production of a project network bar chart are shown below:

Step 1 Prepare activity list

The project must be divided into its constituent activities and consideration
given to their sequential relationship. This may be as part of preparation of a
method statement.

Step 2 Draw arrow diagram

The arrow diagram is drawn to represent the sequence of activities as a
simple, clear network of lines.
 Work programming Paper 0447 Page 24

Step 3 Estimate activity durations

The time each activity is likely to take must be estimated as closely as
possible.

Step 4 Analyse network

The minimum project time is calculated as the longest time sequence from
start to finish. This sequence is termed the critical path and any delay to its
activities must delay project completion.

Spare time available to other activities on other sequences in the network is

known as float. Float helps to determine priorities between activities. The
smaller the float, the more priority must be given.

Step 5 Prepare bar chart

Take care to maintain logic relationships and showing floats.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

a. Work through the Project Alpha example carefully to understand the networking
procedure.

b. Answer the following:

i. What influences the compilation of activities?

ii. Where can activity durations be found from?

iii. What does the logic or arrow diagram show?

iv. How is the project duration determined?

v. How are critical activities determined?

vi. What is the effect of delaying critical activities?

vii. What is float time used for?

viii. Why is it necessary to produce a linked bar chart?

 Work programming Paper 0447 Page 25

FIGURE 9a Linked bar chart for Project Alpha (based on earliest starts)
 Work programming Paper 0447 Page 26

FIGURE 9b Linked bar chart for Project Alpha (based on latest starts)
 Work programming Paper 0447 Page 27

3.3 Precedence diagrams

Precedence diagrams differ from arrow diagrams only in the notation used.
Precedence diagrams are sometimes referred to as activity-on-node diagrams. The
description indicates the essential difference between precedence diagrams and arrow
diagrams. Activities in a precedence diagram are shown as boxes which contain all
the information relevant to an activity. The logical relationships between the activities
are shown by means of arrows.

The advantages claimed for precedence diagrams are:

z They are simpler to construct than arrow diagrams.

z There are no dummy activities.
z All the information relating to the activity is clearly visible.

The construction of a precedence diagram follows exactly the pattern used to

construct an arrow diagram. (Figure 10.)

Note that since there are no events, there can be no ij numbers on a precedence
diagram, and thus it is usual to identify each activity by means of a code number. The
code number can be any unique identification which we care to select. Overlapping
sequences in the precedence diagrams can be shown just as easily as in arrow
diagrams and the analysis is similar.

It is interesting to note that precedence diagrams were introduced simply as a result of

producing a computer algorithm to solve arrow diagram networks. The algorithm
most commonly used identifies those activities which precede the activity currently
being analysed and thus the concept of precedence diagrams was established. Many
computer programs convert the arrow diagram into precedence mode before the
mathematical analysis commences.

3.4 Comparison of precedence diagrams with critical path

analysis (CPA)

Generally the precedence diagram performs the same function as the arrow diagram.
The important differences are:

z Arrow network planning is activity oriented whilst precedence diagrams are

node oriented and tend towards a more generalised process representation.
Thus the precedence diagram method can lose some of the detailed approaches
that are such a feature of the critical path method of analysis (or activity-on-
the-arrow method as it is sometimes called).
z It can be easier to find suitable computer software based on the arrow network
than the precedence method.
z Dummy and ladder construction, which some regard as an unproductive
feature of CPA, is not necessary in precedence diagrams, making for a clearer
and simpler sequence.
z Some people consider that CPA is easier to prepare than precedence.
z Some users claim that because of their simpler representation, precedence
networks are more readily understood by site personnel and are more easily
amended.
z Integrated cost control systems can be easier to install in the case of
precedence diagrams.
z Lead and lag times can be included in precedence networks, but they are not
normally incorporated in CPA; however, they can be useful.
 Work programming Paper 0447 Page 28

FIGURE 10 Precedence diagram for Project Alpha

 Work programming Paper 0447 Page 29

3.5 Line of balance scheduling

The line of balance schedule works on the principle of continuity of work for each of
the resources which are to be used in the construction of each individual unit. For
example, the network (which you will note is a straight line network) shown below
indicates the construction sequence and durations of activities for one garage. A total
of 10 units have to be built and the contractor has decided that a completion, or
handover, rate of six units per week following completion of the first garage would
be appropriate.

The line of balance diagram is drawn as shown in Figures 11 and 12.

FIGURE 11 Straight line network for one garage

FIGURE 12 Line of balance schedule for 10 garages

Note: the angle of the line linking similar activities on the diagram is determined by
plotting the number of units to be handed over per week plus one on the vertical
scale, against one week on the horizontal time scale. Figure 12 is simplified in as
much as the handover rate and thus production rate for all the gangs used on the
construction of a house are identical.
 Work programming Paper 0447 Page 30

4 Use of programmes
4.1 Timescales
We defined earlier ‘helicopter vision’ and it is important that the size and perspective
of the plan or programme produced is clearly stated. The programme may encompass
a range of different timescales. We can have:

z Five-year programmes setting out the activities of the organisation in broad

terms.

z Annual programmes indicating when particular projects are due to start and
finish.

z Project programmes to cover the duration of a particular piece of work for a

particular client.

z Four- to six-weekly programmes analysing the activities to be carried out in

the immediate short term.

z Weekly programmes to identify which tasks will be done by whom on which

day.

z Daily programmes to indicate resourcing needs during the working day.

These different programmes fit inside each other like a Russian doll, so that as you go
down the list each magnifies a part of the previous programme to give greater clarity
and detail.

SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTION
Which of these programmes does your organisation make use of and for what purposes?

4.2 Co-ordination and control

The result of this increasing attention to detail as the programmes are subdivided is
that greater forward thinking has to be given to what is involved in each activity,
leading to the more effective preparation for the work and improved utilisation of
resources.

In this way, effort is planned for and co-ordinated. Equally, if the actual work is
monitored against the plan, control can be maintained and this is most effective when
short-term plans are used.

In this last respect, programme and review as a fundamental duty of management is

difficult to achieve if the timescale is either too long or too short. A long period
between reviews can lead to the work straying too far off course for any action to be
taken to rectify the problem, and by the same token too short a period can result in
managers spending their whole time watching the work in progress and not looking
ahead.
 Work programming Paper 0447 Page 31

4.3 Progress reporting

A result of this last comment is that there is generally little point in trying to
programme the hours in a day unless there are particular time constraints – such as if
a piece of equipment is only available for a specified period, or there are specific
appointments to be kept.

Operationally targets can be set from a weekly programme and it can be more
beneficial to record on a daily basis the actual work done rather than the programmed
work as a means of producing historical time data for future programming.

This progress recording may be made on a time sheet or marked directly on to the bar
chart, although the latter is only indicative and not quantifiable.

5 Work measurement
Work measurement is the ‘application of techniques designed to establish the time for
a qualified worker to carry out a specified job at a defined level of performance’. The
technique can be used to quantify time for use in programming work.

Work measurement may be used to:

z Compare the times taken to carry out a task using two or more different
methods.
z Plan the work so that targets are realistic.
z Enable equipment and labour to be utilised as fully as is practicable.
z Enable realistic labour budgeting to be carried out which will provide better
cost control.
z Enable more accurate costing to be performed.
z Provide a basis for assessing fairer and more realistic bonus and other
incentive schemes.

Additionally it is an essential source of data for:

z The planning of work by supplying standard times for labour or equipment.

z The estimation of costs for labour or equipment.
z The control of work in progress by producing data upon which those in control
of production can act.
z The production of standards for financial incentives.
z The supply of factual information to assist employers and unions in
consultations on productivity.
z Operator training.

5.1 Techniques of work measurement

The principal techniques are:

y Time study Direct work measurement

y Synthesis
y Analytical estimating Indirect work measurement
y Activity sampling
 Work programming Paper 0447 Page 32

Time study is a direct and traditional method of work measurement which accounts
for the majority of analyses conducted. However, indirect methods are desirable and
essential in many instances. In the case of a new task it is impossible to conduct direct
studies, and where jobs are to be undertaken for a short period of time, there may be
insufficient time to carry out a time study. Indirect methods have many advantages in
terms of consistency and accuracy, and their scope and value especially in the
construction industry is continually being increased.

Whichever technique is appropriate, the basic aim is the same – to provide a positive
and equitable measurement of the work required to complete a task.

As far as study and measurement are concerned, mental work is considered to be of

importance but is considered to be too difficult to measure directly. Hence in work
measurement:

z Physical human work is measured

z Equipment work is measured
z Mental human work is allowed for.

Many work measurement procedures are undertaken as a prerequisite to the design

and implementation of an incentive payment scheme. More important than this is the
use of work standards for estimating, costing, planning and control.

5.2 Stages in work measurement

The main stages in work measurement are:

1. Select the task to be measured and the method by which it is to be performed.

2. Define the various elements which go to make up the task.
3. Measure the work, compile data and define standard times. Measurement can
be divided into direct measurement and indirect measurement.

1 Selection
As the technique of work measurement is fairly expensive, the tasks which are
selected for study should be those in which changes are likely to provide the greatest
benefit to the organisation concerned.

The operatives who are to be used for the study should be carefully selected in
consultation with the first line supervisor and any other managers involved. The
method which the operative is to use must be clearly defined and the operative must
be able and willing to perform the task using the defined method. In some cases the
method may be the one which the operative has used for years, but when trying to
investigate a new method, sufficient time will usually be allowed, before measuring,
to enable the operative to become familiar with the new procedure.

2 Definition of elements
Most tasks can be broken down into a series of smaller units or elements. The way in
which this will be done will depend upon the time taken for each small unit, the type
of measuring equipment available, the technique of measuring to be employed and
the purpose for which the study is being carried out.

3a Direct measurement
The technique used to quantify the work will depend upon whether the work is
repetitive or not.
 Work programming Paper 0447 Page 33

Time study
If the work to be measured is repetitive, as in most factory environments, then some
form of time study may be used. As an element of a task is performed, the time taken
to carry out the element is measured, generally using a stopwatch, and the time
recorded. The operative must be told he is being recorded and the reasons for the
study should be given so as to avoid any misunderstanding.

The start and finish of the particular element must be accurately defined and
everything that happens between the two points must be recorded. A number of
cycles of the task may be recorded at one time and the number of cycles, together
with the number of items produced or area of surface covered, must be stated in the
record for each timing.

The quality of work should be assessed by a qualified person who should make a
rating of how he felt the operative performed. The rating should be based on how well
he thinks the operative was working compared with what a physically and mentally
fit, qualified operative, without undue exertion, would do in an average working day
after allowance has been made for rest time (see later on).

Data obtained from direct time studies are recorded, and even after a comparatively
short period, a substantial amount of data may have been accumulated and will prove
invaluable as a library of standards.

There are several factors that affect the results obtained when carrying out work
measurement:

z The methods used by operatives to perform a task are seldom exactly the same.
To overcome these differences, the elements used should, as far as practicable,
be small enough to eliminate differences in overall task method.

z The task may be interrupted during its performance. By using small elements
the interruptions can be isolated and allowed for.

z Operatives will have varying degrees of skill and also work with varying
amounts of enthusiasm. By rating the performance of the operative against a
standard, this difference can be allowed for. The standard will to some extent
be subjective but with adequate training it should be possible to arrive at a
situation where all qualified persons would rate the working of an operative at
the same or close rating.

z The timed task may not include rest periods but the operative would not be
able to continue throughout the working day without some breaks. Special rest
allowances are therefore made to allow for this.

z The materials used by the operative may vary from one performance of the
task to another. By measuring several performances, some of the effects of this
variation can be removed.

Rating
This is the numerical value used to denote the rate of working. The factors that affect
the rate at that work is performed are:

z Those within the operative’s control.

z Those outside the operative’s control.
 Work programming Paper 0447 Page 34

z Within operative’s control

{ Operative’s physical and mental abilities and his abilities acquired

through training and experience.
{ Operative’s attitude of mind, interest, desire for promotion and other
psychological factors unrelated to the job.
{ Acceptable variations in the quality of the product.

z Outside operative’s control

{ Changes in the operating efficiency of equipment during its useful life.

{ Minor changes in methods and conditions under which the job is
performed.
{ Changes in climate, lighting and temperature.
{ Variations in the quality of the materials worked upon although within
the specified limits.

Factors within operative’s control are taken into account by rating the operator
observed.

Factors outside operative’s control are taken into account by ensuring that a
representative sample of tasks is studied.

The assessment of rating is made by comparing the observed rate of working with the
mental concept of a standard rate of working. The ability to rate therefore depends on
the individual’s accuracy of his concept of standard rating and his ability to compare
the observed rating with his concept to the nearest five points.

The British Standard scale should be adopted, and rating is usually done with
reference to standard performance, ie 100 on BS scale. Thus an operative considered
to be working faster than normal standard would be rated at, say, 110 or 125, and
similarly a value less than 100 is working more slowly than the standard.

Calculation of allowances
When the elements which make up a task have been measured and the rating of each
piece of work recorded, a calculation is made to find the number of basic minutes for
the work.

For example: if a man takes 25 minutes to perform a task and, using a 100 scale, his
rating is regarded as 80, then the number of basic minutes for the task would be:

80
25 × = 20 basic minutes.
100

Rest and personal allowances will vary depending upon a number of things, and
figures from 6 percent upwards are used.

Some of the highest allowances should be given for very heavy work in high
temperatures. Low temperature working also warrants high allowances. The amount
of physical and mental strain and the work environment are other factors which affect
the rest allowance made. A personal allowance to cover time spent in performing the
essential bodily functions (usually 5 to 7 percent) is also added.

Calculation of work content

In the example above, the basic minutes were 20. If the rest allowance was 15 percent
and the personal allowance 5 percent, the calculation of the number of standard
minutes for the work would be carried out as follows:
 Work programming Paper 0447 Page 35

20 × 1.15 × 1.05 = 24 SMS per task.

The standard minute is a unit of work, not a unit of time.

To this basic work content allowances may be added for work contingencies and
contingency for delay, both of which are outside the operator’s control. This will give
the standard time for the work. The above allowances are summarised in Figure 13.

FIGURE 13 Building up of standard time

Relaxation allowance

Selected Fatigue Personal

basic time/s allowance needs
allowance

Work
Work content (basic) in
contingency
standard units of work
allowance

Work content (total) in standard units of work Delay

contingency
allowance

Standard time

Concept of measuring work

In the working environment the supervisor has the measure of the performance of
their workforce. They learn to direct work to different people, depending on the
nature and circumstances of the work and the abilities of the individual. This
subjective approach is based on experience and knowledge and creates problems
when supervisors are absent or changed.

It is therefore necessary to overcome this problem, and provide a measurement which

is reasonably accurate and, by its application, will supply not only a basis for
measurement but also a basis for motivation. Measurement must be based upon a
universally accepted unit. The unit for human work is termed a ‘standard unit of
work’. A unit of work consists partly of work and partly of relaxation. The proportion
of work to relaxation varies with the nature of the job.

All physical work can be reduced to this unit whatever the nature of the task, since
the standard minute allows for work and contingency plus a rest allowance. If the
standard minute or hour is correctly formulated, work of widely varying kinds and
circumstances can be compared equitably.
 Work programming Paper 0447 Page 36

3b Indirect measurement
Should the need arise to produce an item which differs only marginally from one
produced at present, there is no need for a complete work measurement analysis since
much of the information is available. It may not even be necessary to study that
proportion of the job that differs, since this may resemble part of the previous job for
which work measurement data is available. On occasion, therefore, the times for a
new job may be constructed entirely from existing data, and this approach is
especially beneficial for dealing with non-repetitive operations.

Synthesis
Synthetic data are reliable and consistent since they have normally resulted from
many studies conducted over a long period of time. They can be used to establish
standards for short-run work on which there would be insufficient time to conduct a
direct time study, and to construct standards for jobs not yet begun. A practical
advantage is that there is no need for a stopwatch; but it can be expensive and time-
consuming to develop standard data. It is normal to synthesise basic times to which
allowances must be added. The need to rate the job under consideration is avoided
and, since the synthetic data will probably have been derived from numerous studies,
the consequences of inaccuracies in the initial studies are avoided.

Analytical estimating
This is a work measurement technique whereby the time required to carry out
elements of a task at a defined level of performance is established partly from
knowledge and experience of the elements concerned and partly from synthetic data.
Where analytical estimating is applied, there will be insufficient synthetic data
available to allow time standards to be established. Consequently standards must be
constructed using whatever data is available, plus estimates of basic times for the
remaining elements.

Activity sampling
Techniques described so far are available for short cycle work. When it is necessary
to establish work standards in situations where long irregular work cycles are
conducted or where many different jobs are performed, these techniques may be
inappropriate. In such circumstances activity sampling can be used. This consists of
the random or regular (depending on the nature of the work being observed) visual
sampling and recording of activities in order to establish the proportion of time
individuals or equipment are working, idle etc.

The task is broken down into definable elements. Observations are made at random
intervals over a period of time and a record of the element being performed (including
any rest element) is made. At the end of the stipulated period, the percentage of
observations of each of the elements gives an indication of the time spent on each
one. This method is obviously far less accurate than a full time study, but it is
generally less expensive, as the observer can observe several tasks simultaneously.
 Work programming Paper 0447 Page 37

FIGURE 14 Activity sampling pattern if operative observed full-time

True pattern if operative observed full-time:

Official breaks 1.25 hours

Working 5.75 hours
Resting 2 hours

Results if operative observed at random intervals as shown by arrows:

8
Resting 8 observations × 7.75 = 2.48 hours
25
17
Working 17 observations × 7.75 = 5.27 hours
25
Total 25 observations

Because of the small number of observations taken, the accuracy is not very high, but
this can be improved by taking more observations. In practice, the working section
would be divided into the various elements which go to make up the task.

6 Method statements
The results of work measurement may be used to provide specific solutions to
production problems such as what is the most effective factory, site or office layout or
how long it takes to process some data, a component or a task.

Work measurement can be used to analyse the cost efficiency of a task and the results
summarised in a method statement.

The objectives of method statements are:

z To enable management to reach decisions based upon performance.

Performance depends on quantities, resources and time.
z To enable data concerning new techniques and/or equipment to be assessed
against existing ones.
z To ensure outputs and durations of different methods incorporated into the
same process are matched realistically.
z To summarise resource requirements for a method.
z To summarise time requirements for a method.
z To summarise cost requirements for a method.
 Work programming Paper 0447 Page 38

6.1 Contents of method statements

A method statement should include information on:

z The task or operation. The specific nature of the item of work to be

undertaken.
z The quantity of work. The size or scale of the task, eg number of units of
area, volume or items to be processed at one operation.
z The method of work. Definition of the exact process to be followed.
z Sequence of work. Definition of what point in the overall process the task or
operation is to be accomplished.
z Equipment requirement. Definition of all the equipment needed to
accomplish the task.
z Labour requirement. Identification of the number and category of labour
needed to operate equipment and to process the task.
z Output rate. Assessment of the rate at which work can be completed utilising
the labour and equipment defined.
z Duration of task. Determined from the quantity and output rate.

Whilst the task and quantity of work may be fixed, the method, sequence and
resources may be varied to obtain different output rates and duration.

It is the number and type of equipment and labour together with any material costs
that will set the cost for the task.

6.2 Presentation
In many instances method statements may be given as a written summary of the work
to be undertaken but, particularly when there is a need to compare alternatives, it can
be useful to summarise the information in a table.

FIGURE 15 Method statement form

Operation Quantity Method Sequence Equipment Labour Output Duration

It is, however, impractical, although not impossible, to break down every single task
into its component parts for assessment. In the main it is preferable to use historical
records to provide information.

It is, though, good management practice to keep all aspects of the individual activities
in mind and not just the overall job, and constantly remain alive to the fact that there
may be a better way.