Fibonacci Number - Wikipedia

10/03/2018 Fibonacci number - Wikipedia
Fibonacci number
In mathematics, the Fibonacci numbers are the numbers in the following
integer sequence, called the Fibonacci sequence, and characterized by the fact
that every number after the first two is the sum of the two preceding ones:[1][2]
Often, especially in modern usage, the sequence is extended by one more initial
term:
.[3]
A tiling with squares whose side lengths are
By definition, the first two numbers in the Fibonacci sequence are either 1 and 1,
successive Fibonacci numbers
or 0 and 1, depending on the chosen starting point of the sequence, and each
subsequent number is the sum of the previous two.
The sequence Fn of Fibonacci numbers is defined by the recurrence relation:
with seed values[1][2]
The Fibonacci spiral: an

or[5]
approximation of the golden spiral
created by drawing circular arcs
connecting the opposite corners of
squares in the Fibonacci tiling;[4] this
The Fibonacci sequence is named after Italian mathematician Leonardo of Pisa, known as
one uses squares of sizes 1, 1, 2, 3,
Fibonacci. His 1202 book Liber Abaci introduced the sequence to Western European 5, 8, 13 and 21.
mathematics,[6] although the sequence had been described earlier in Indian
mathematics.[7][8][9] The sequence described in Liber Abaci began with F1 = 1.
Fibonacci numbers are closely related to Lucas numbers in that they form a complementary pair of Lucas sequences
and . They are intimately connected with the golden ratio; for example, the closest rational approximations to the ratio
are 2/1, 3/2, 5/3, 8/5, ... .
Fibonacci numbers appear unexpectedly often in mathematics, so much so that there is an entire journal dedicated to their study, the
Fibonacci Quarterly. Applications of Fibonacci numbers include computer algorithms such as the Fibonacci search technique and the
Fibonacci heap data structure, and graphs called Fibonacci cubes used for interconnecting parallel and distributed systems. They also
appear in biological settings,[10] such as branching in trees, phyllotaxis (the arrangement of leaves on a stem), the fruit sprouts of a
pineapple,[11] the flowering of an artichoke, an uncurling fern and the arrangement of a pine cone's bracts.[12]
Contents
Origins
List of Fibonacci numbers
Use in mathematics
Relation to the golden ratio
Closed-form expression
Computation by rounding
Limit of consecutive quotients
Decomposition of powers of the golden ratio
Matrix form
Recognizing Fibonacci numbers
Non-Fibonacci numbers
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fibonacci_number 1/19
Combinatorial identities
Other identities
Cassini and Catalan's identities
d'Ocagne's identity
Power series
Reciprocal sums
Primes and divisibility
Divisibility properties
Primality testing
Fibonacci primes
Prime divisors of Fibonacci numbers
Periodicity modulo n
Right triangles
Magnitude
Applications
In nature
The bee ancestry code
The human X chromosome inheritance tree
Generalizations
See also
Notes
References
External links
Origins
The Fibonacci sequence appears in Indian mathematics, in connection with Sanskrit
prosody.[8][13] In the Sanskrit tradition of prosody, there was interest in enumerating all
patterns of long (L) syllables that are 2 units of duration, and short (S) syllables that are 1 unit
of duration. Counting the different patterns of L and S of a given duration results in the
Fibonacci numbers: the number of patterns that are m short syllables long is the Fibonacci
number Fm + 1.[9]
Susantha Goonatilake writes that the development of the Fibonacci sequence "is attributed in
part to Pingala (200 BC), later being associated with Virahanka (c. 700 AD), Gopāla (c. 1135),
and Hemachandra (c. 1150)".[7] Parmanand Singh cites Pingala's cryptic formula misrau cha
("the two are mixed") and cites scholars who interpret it in context as saying that the cases for
m beats (Fm+1) is obtained by adding a [S] to Fm cases and [L] to the Fm−1 cases. He dates
Pingala before 450 BC.[14]
However, the clearest exposition of the sequence arises in the work of Virahanka (c. 700 AD),
whose own work is lost, but is available in a quotation by Gopala (c. 1135):
Variations of two earlier meters [is the variation]... For example, for [a
meter of length] four, variations of meters of two [and] three being mixed, A page of Fibonacci's Liber Abaci
five happens. [works out examples 8, 13, 21]... In this way, the process from the Biblioteca Nazionale di
should be followed in all mātrā-vṛttas [prosodic combinations].[15] Firenze showing (in box on right) the
Fibonacci sequence with the
The sequence is also discussed by Gopala (before 1135 AD) and by the Jain scholar position in the sequence labeled in
Latin and Roman numerals and the
Hemachandra (c. 1150).
value in Hindu-Arabic numerals.
Outside India, the Fibonacci sequence first appears in the book Liber Abaci (1202) by
Fibonacci.[6] Fibonacci considers the growth of an idealized (biologically unrealistic) rabbit
population, assuming that: a newly born pair of rabbits, one male, one female, are put in a field; rabbits are able to mate at the age of one
month so that at the end of its second month a female can produce another pair of rabbits; rabbits never die and a mating pair always
produces one new pair (one male, one female) every month from the second month on. The puzzle that Fibonacci posed was: how many
pairs will there be in one year?
At the end of the first month, they mate, but there is still only 1 pair.
At the end of the second month the female produces a new pair, so now there are 2 pairs
of rabbits in the field.
At the end of the third month, the original female produces a second pair, making 3 pairs
in all in the field.
At the end of the fourth month, the original female has produced yet another new pair, and
the female born two months ago also produces her first pair, making 5 pairs.
At the end of the nth month, the number of pairs of rabbits is equal to the number of new pairs
(that is, the number of pairs in month n − 2) plus the number of pairs alive last month (that is,
n − 1). This is the nth Fibonacci number.[16] The number of rabbit pairs form the
Fibonacci sequence
The name "Fibonacci sequence" was first used by the 19th-century number theorist Édouard
Lucas.[17]
List of Fibonacci numbers

The first 21 Fibonacci numbers Fn for n = 0, 1, 2, …, 20 are:[18]
F0 F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 F6 F7 F8 F9 F10 F11 F12 F13 F14 F15 F16 F17 F18 F19 F20
0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 144 233 377 610 987 1597 2584 4181 6765
The sequence can also be extended to negative index n using the re-arranged recurrence relation
which yields the sequence of "negafibonacci" numbers[19] satisfying
Thus the bidirectional sequence is
F−8 F−7 F−6 F−5 F−4 F−3 F−2 F−1 F0 F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 F6 F7 F8
−21 13 −8 5 −3 2 −1 1 0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21
Use in mathematics
The Fibonacci numbers occur in the sums of "shallow" diagonals in
Pascal's triangle (see binomial coefficient):[20]
These numbers also give the solution to certain enumerative

problems.[21] The most common such problem is that of counting the
number of compositions of 1s and 2s that sum to a given total n: there
The Fibonacci numbers are the sums of the "shallow"
are Fn+1 ways to do this. diagonals (shown in red) of Pascal's triangle.
For example, if n = 5, then Fn+1 = F6 = 8 counts the eight compositions:
1+1+1+1+1 = 1+1+1+2 = 1+1+2+1 = 1+2+1+1 = 2+1+1+1 = 2+2+1 = 2+1+2 = 1+2+2,
all of which sum to 5.
The Fibonacci numbers can be found in different ways among the set of binary strings, or equivalently, among the subsets of a given set.
The number of binary strings of length n without consecutive 1s is the Fibonacci number Fn+2. For example, out of the 16 binary
strings of length 4, there are F6 = 8 without consecutive 1s – they are 0000, 0001, 0010, 0100, 0101, 1000, 1001 and 1010. By
symmetry, the number of strings of length n without consecutive 0s is also Fn+2. Equivalently, Fn+2 is the number of subsets S ⊂
{1,...,n} without consecutive integers: {i, i+1} ⊄ S for every i. The symmetric statement is: Fn+2 is the number of subsets S ⊂ {1,...,n}
without two consecutive skipped integers: that is, S = {a1 < … < ak} with ai+1 ≤ ai + 2.
The number of binary strings of length n without an odd number of consecutive 1s is the Fibonacci number Fn+1. For example, out of
the 16 binary strings of length 4, there are F5 = 5 without an odd number of consecutive 1s – they are 0000, 0011, 0110, 1100, 1111.
Equivalently, the number of subsets S ⊂ {1,...,n} without an odd number of consecutive integers is Fn+1.
The number of binary strings of length n without an even number of consecutive 0s or 1s is 2Fn. For example, out of the 16 binary
strings of length 4, there are 2F4 = 6 without an even number of consecutive 0s or 1s – they are 0001, 0111, 0101, 1000, 1010, 1110.
There is an equivalent statement about subsets.
Relation to the golden ratio
Closed-form expression
Like every sequence defined by a linear recurrence with constant coefficients, the Fibonacci numbers have a closed-form solution. It has
become known as "Binet's formula", even though it was already known by Abraham de Moivre:[22]
where
is the golden ratio ( A001622), and
[23]
Since , this formula can also be written as
To see this,[24] note that φ and ψ are both solutions of the equations
so the powers of φ and ψ satisfy the Fibonacci recursion. In other words,
and
It follows that for any values a and b, the sequence defined by
satisfies the same recurrence
If a and b are chosen so that U0 = 0 and U1 = 1 then the resulting sequence Un must be the Fibonacci sequence. This is the same as
requiring a and b satisfy the system of equations:
which has solution
producing the required formula.
Taking U0 and U1 to be variables, a more general solution can be found for any starting values:
where
Computation by rounding
Since
for all n ≥ 0, the number Fn is the closest integer to . Therefore, it can be found by rounding, that is by the use of the nearest integer
function:
or in terms of the floor function:
Similarly, if we already know that the number F > 1 is a Fibonacci number, we can determine its index within the sequence by
where can be computed using logarithms to other usual bases. For example, .
Limit of consecutive quotients

Johannes Kepler observed that the ratio of consecutive Fibonacci numbers converges. He wrote that "as 5 is to 8 so is 8 to 13, practically,
and as 8 is to 13, so is 13 to 21 almost", and concluded that these ratios approach the golden ratio .[25][26]
This convergence holds regardless of the starting values, excluding 0 and 0, or any pair in the conjugate golden ratio . This can be
derived from Binet's formula. For example, the initial values 3 and 2 generate the sequence 3, 2, 5, 7, 12, 19, 31, 50, 81, 131, 212, 343, 555,
…, etc. The ratio of consecutive terms in this sequence shows the same convergence towards the golden ratio.
Another consequence is that the limit of the ratio of two Fibonacci numbers offset by a particular finite deviation in index corresponds to
the golden ratio raised by that deviation. Or, in other words:
Animated GIF file showing successive tilings of the plane, and a

graph of approximations to the Golden Ratio calculated by dividing
successive pairs of Fibonacci numbers, one by the other. Uses the
Fibonacci numbers 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, 144
Decomposition of powers of the golden ratio

Since the golden ratio satisfies the equation
this expression can be used to decompose higher powers as a linear function of lower powers, which in turn can be decomposed all the
way down to a linear combination of and 1. The resulting recurrence relationships yield Fibonacci numbers as the linear coefficients:
This equation can be proved by induction on n.
This expression is also true for n < 1 if the Fibonacci sequence Fn is extended to negative integers using the Fibonacci rule
Matrix form
A 2-dimensional system of linear difference equations that describes the Fibonacci sequence is
alternatively denoted
which yields . As the eigenvalues of the matrix A are and corresponding to the respective
eigenvectors
and
and the initial value is
it follows that the nth term is
from which the nth element in the Fibonacci series as an analytic function of n is now read off directly:
Equivalently, the same computation is performed by diagonalization of A through use of its eigendecomposition:
where and . The closed-form expression for the nth element in the Fibonacci series is therefore
given by
which again yields
The matrix A has a determinant of −1, and thus it is a 2×2 unimodular matrix.
This property can be understood in terms of the continued fraction representation for the golden ratio:
The Fibonacci numbers occur as the ratio of successive convergents of the continued fraction for φ, and the matrix formed from successive
convergents of any continued fraction has a determinant of +1 or −1. The matrix representation gives the following closed expression for
the Fibonacci numbers:
Taking the determinant of both sides of this equation yields Cassini's identity,
Moreover, since An Am = An+m for any square matrix A, the following identities can be derived (they are obtained from two different
coefficients of the matrix product, and one may easily deduce the second one from the first one by changing n into n + 1),
In particular, with m = n,
These last two identities provide a way to compute Fibonacci numbers recursively in O(log(n)) arithmetic operations and in time
O(M(n) log(n)), where M(n) is the time for the multiplication of two numbers of n digits. This matches the time for computing the nth
Fibonacci number from the closed-form matrix formula, but with fewer redundant steps if one avoids recomputing an already computed
Fibonacci number (recursion with memoization).[27]
Recognizing Fibonacci numbers

The question may arise whether a positive integer x is a Fibonacci number. This is true if and only if one or both of or is a
perfect square.[28] This is because Binet's formula above can be rearranged to give
which allows one to find the position in the sequence of a given Fibonacci number.
This formula must return an integer for all n, so the radical expression must be an integer (otherwise the logarithm does not even return a
rational number).
Non-Fibonacci numbers
For , the th non-Fibonacci number (i.e., 4, 6, 7, 9, 10, 11, 12, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 22, ...) is
[29]
Combinatorial identities
Most identities involving Fibonacci numbers can be proved using combinatorial arguments using the fact that Fn can be interpreted as the
number of sequences of 1s and 2s that sum to n − 1. This can be taken as the definition of Fn, with the convention that F0 = 0, meaning no
sum adds up to −1, and that F1 = 1, meaning the empty sum "adds up" to 0. Here, the order of the summand matters. For example, 1 + 2
and 2 + 1 are considered two different sums.
For example, the recurrence relation
or in words, the nth Fibonacci number is the sum of the previous two Fibonacci numbers, may be shown by dividing the Fn sums of 1s and
2s that add to n − 1 into two non-overlapping groups. One group contains those sums whose first term is 1 and the other those sums whose
first term is 2. In the first group the remaining terms add to n − 2, so it has Fn-1 sums, and in the second group the remaining terms add to
n − 3, so there are Fn−2 sums. So there are a total of Fn−1 + Fn−2 sums altogether, showing this is equal to Fn.
Similarly, it may be shown that the sum of the first Fibonacci numbers up to the nth is equal to the (n + 2)-nd Fibonacci number minus
1.[30] In symbols:
This is done by dividing the sums adding to n + 1 in a different way, this time by the location of the first 2. Specifically, the first group
consists of those sums that start with 2, the second group those that start 1 + 2, the third 1 + 1 + 2, and so on, until the last group, which
consists of the single sum where only 1's are used. The number of sums in the first group is F(n), F(n − 1) in the second group, and so on,
with 1 sum in the last group. So the total number of sums is F(n) + F(n − 1) + ... + F(1) + 1 and therefore this quantity is equal to F(n + 2).
A similar argument, grouping the sums by the position of the first 1 rather than the first 2, gives two more identities:
and
In words, the sum of the first Fibonacci numbers with odd index up to F2n−1 is the (2n)th Fibonacci number, and the sum of the first
Fibonacci numbers with even index up to F2n is the (2n + 1)th Fibonacci number minus 1.[31]
A different trick may be used to prove
or in words, the sum of the squares of the first Fibonacci numbers up to Fn is the product of the nth and (n + 1)th Fibonacci numbers. In
this case note that Fibonacci rectangle of size Fn by F(n + 1) can be decomposed into squares of size Fn, Fn−1, and so on to F1 = 1, from
which the identity follows by comparing areas.
Other identities
Numerous other identities can be derived using various methods. Some of the most noteworthy are:[32]
Cassini and Catalan's identities

Cassini's identity states that
Catalan's identity is a generalization:
d'Ocagne's identity
where Ln is the n'th Lucas number. The last is an identity for doubling n; other identities of this type are
by Cassini's identity.
These can be found experimentally using lattice reduction, and are useful in setting up the special number field sieve to factorize a
Fibonacci number.
More generally,[32]
Putting k = 2 in this formula, one gets again the formulas of the end of above section Matrix form.
Power series
The generating function of the Fibonacci sequence is the power series
This series is convergent for and its sum has a simple closed-form:[33]
This can be proved by using the Fibonacci recurrence to expand each coefficient in the infinite sum:
Solving the equation
for s(x) results in the above closed form.
If x is the reciprocal of an integer k that is greater than 1, the closed form of the series becomes
In particular,
for all positive integers m.
Some math puzzle-books present as curious the particular value that comes from m=1, which is [34]
Similarly, m=2 gives
Reciprocal sums
Infinite sums over reciprocal Fibonacci numbers can sometimes be evaluated in terms of theta functions. For example, we can write the
sum of every odd-indexed reciprocal Fibonacci number as
and the sum of squared reciprocal Fibonacci numbers as
If we add 1 to each Fibonacci number in the first sum, there is also the closed form
and there is a nested sum of squared Fibonacci numbers giving the reciprocal of the golden ratio,
No closed formula for the reciprocal Fibonacci constant
is known, but the number has been proved irrational by Richard André-Jeannin.[35]
The Millin series gives the identity[36]
which follows from the closed form for its partial sums as N tends to infinity:
Primes and divisibility
Divisibility properties
Every third number of the sequence is even and more generally, every kth number of the sequence is a multiple of Fk. Thus the Fibonacci
sequence is an example of a divisibility sequence. In fact, the Fibonacci sequence satisfies the stronger divisibility property[37][38]
Any three consecutive Fibonacci numbers are pairwise coprime, which means that, for every n,
gcd(Fn, Fn+1) = gcd(Fn, Fn+2) = gcd(Fn+1, Fn+2) = 1.
Every prime number p divides a Fibonacci number that can be determined by the value of p modulo 5. If p is congruent to 1 or 4 (mod 5),
then p divides Fp − 1, and if p is congruent to 2 or 3 (mod 5), then, p divides Fp + 1. The remaining case is that p = 5, and in this case p
divides Fp.
These cases can be combined into a single formula, using the Legendre symbol:[39]
Primality testing
The above formula can be used as a primality test in the sense that if
, where the Legendre symbol has been replaced by the Jacobi symbol, then this is evidence that
n is a prime, and if it fails to hold, then n is definitely not a prime. If n is composite and satisfies the formula,
then n is a Fibonacci pseudoprime.
When m is large—say a 500-bit number—then we can calculate Fm (mod n) efficiently using the matrix form. Thus
≡ (mod n).
Here the matrix power Am is calculated using Modular exponentiation, which can be adapted to matrices--modular exponentiation for
matrices[40]
Fibonacci primes
A Fibonacci prime is a Fibonacci number that is prime. The first few are:
2, 3, 5, 13, 89, 233, 1597, 28657, 514229, … A005478.
Fibonacci primes with thousands of digits have been found, but it is not known whether there are infinitely many.[41]
Fkn is divisible by Fn, so, apart from F4 = 3, any Fibonacci prime must have a prime index. As there are arbitrarily long runs of composite
numbers, there are therefore also arbitrarily long runs of composite Fibonacci numbers.
No Fibonacci number greater than F6 = 8 is one greater or one less than a prime number.[42]
The only nontrivial square Fibonacci number is 144.[43] Attila Pethő proved in 2001 that there is only a finite number of perfect power
Fibonacci numbers.[44] In 2006, Y. Bugeaud, M. Mignotte, and S. Siksek proved that 8 and 144 are the only such non-trivial perfect
powers.[45]
1, 3, 21, 55 are the only triangular Fibonacci numbers, which was conjectured by Vern Hoggatt and proved by Luo Ming.[46]
Prime divisors of Fibonacci numbers

With the exceptions of 1, 8 and 144 (F1 = F2, F6 and F12) every Fibonacci number has a prime factor that is not a factor of any smaller
Fibonacci number (Carmichael's theorem).[47] As a result, 8 and 144 (F6 and F12) are the only Fibonacci numbers that are the product of
other Fibonacci numbers A235383.
The divisibility of Fibonacci numbers by a prime p is related to the Legendre symbol which is evaluated as follows:
If p is a prime number then
[48][49]
For example,
It is not known whether there exists a prime p such that
Such primes (if there are any) would be called Wall–Sun–Sun primes.
Also, if p ≠ 5 is an odd prime number then:[50]
Example 1. p = 7, in this case p ≡ 3 (mod 4) and we have:
For odd n, all odd prime divisors of Fn are congruent to 1 modulo 4, implying that all odd divisors of Fn (as the products of odd prime
divisors) are congruent to 1 modulo 4.[51]
For example,
All known factors of Fibonacci numbers F(i) for all i < 50000 are collected at the relevant repositories.[52][53]
Periodicity modulo n
If the members of the Fibonacci sequence are taken mod n, the resulting sequence is periodic with period at most 6n.[54] The lengths of the
periods for various n form the so-called Pisano periods A001175. Determining a general formula for the Pisano periods is an open
problem, which includes as a subproblem a special instance of the problem of finding the multiplicative order of a modular integer or of an
element in a finite field. However, for any particular n, the Pisano period may be found as an instance of cycle detection.
Right triangles
Starting with 5, every second Fibonacci number is the length of the hypotenuse of a right triangle with integer sides, or in other words, the
largest number in a Pythagorean triple. The length of the longer leg of this triangle is equal to the sum of the three sides of the preceding
triangle in this series of triangles, and the shorter leg is equal to the difference between the preceding bypassed Fibonacci number and the
shorter leg of the preceding triangle.
The first triangle in this series has sides of length 5, 4, and 3. Skipping 8, the next triangle has sides of length 13, 12 (5 + 4 + 3), and 5
(8 − 3). Skipping 21, the next triangle has sides of length 34, 30 (13 + 12 + 5), and 16 (21 − 5). This series continues indefinitely. The
triangle sides a, b, c can be calculated directly:
These formulas satisfy for all n, but they only represent triangle sides when n > 2.
Any four consecutive Fibonacci numbers Fn, Fn+1, Fn+2 and Fn+3 can also be used to generate a Pythagorean triple in a different way:[55]
Example 1: let the Fibonacci numbers be 1, 2, 3 and 5. Then:
Magnitude
Since Fn is asymptotic to , the number of digits in Fn is asymptotic to . As a consequence, for every integer d
> 1 there are either 4 or 5 Fibonacci numbers with d decimal digits.
More generally, in the base b representation, the number of digits in Fn is asymptotic to .
Applications
The Fibonacci numbers are important in the computational run-time analysis of Euclid's algorithm to determine the greatest common
divisor of two integers: the worst case input for this algorithm is a pair of consecutive Fibonacci numbers.[56]
Brasch et al. 2012 show how a generalised Fibonacci sequence also can be connected to the field of economics.[57] In particular, it is shown
how a generalised Fibonacci sequence enters the control function of finite-horizon dynamic optimisation problems with one state and one
control variable. The procedure is illustrated in an example often referred to as the Brock–Mirman economic growth model.
Yuri Matiyasevich was able to show that the Fibonacci numbers can be defined by a Diophantine equation, which led to his solving
Hilbert's tenth problem.[58]
The Fibonacci numbers are also an example of a complete sequence. This means that every positive integer can be written as a sum of
Fibonacci numbers, where any one number is used once at most.
Moreover, every positive integer can be written in a unique way as the sum of one or more distinct Fibonacci numbers in such a way that
the sum does not include any two consecutive Fibonacci numbers. This is known as Zeckendorf's theorem, and a sum of Fibonacci
numbers that satisfies these conditions is called a Zeckendorf representation. The Zeckendorf representation of a number can be used to
derive its Fibonacci coding.
Fibonacci numbers are used by some pseudorandom number generators.
They are also used in planning poker, which is a step in estimating in software development projects that use the Scrum (software
development) methodology.
Fibonacci numbers are used in a polyphase version of the merge sort algorithm in which an unsorted list is divided into two lists whose
lengths correspond to sequential Fibonacci numbers – by dividing the list so that the two parts have lengths in the approximate
proportion φ. A tape-drive implementation of the polyphase merge sort was described in The Art of Computer Programming.
Fibonacci numbers arise in the analysis of the Fibonacci heap data structure.
The Fibonacci cube is an undirected graph with a Fibonacci number of nodes that has been proposed as a network topology for parallel
computing.
A one-dimensional optimization method, called the Fibonacci search technique, uses Fibonacci numbers.[59]
The Fibonacci number series is used for optional lossy compression in the IFF 8SVX audio file format used on Amiga computers. The
number series compands the original audio wave similar to logarithmic methods such as µ-law.[60][61]
Since the conversion factor 1.609344 for miles to kilometers is close to the golden ratio (denoted φ), the decomposition of distance in
miles into a sum of Fibonacci numbers becomes nearly the kilometer sum when the Fibonacci numbers are replaced by their successors.
This method amounts to a radix 2 number register in golden ratio base φ being shifted. To convert from kilometers to miles, shift the
register down the Fibonacci sequence instead.[62]
In nature
Fibonacci sequences appear in biological settings,[10] in two consecutive Fibonacci numbers,
such as branching in trees, arrangement of leaves on a stem, the fruitlets of a pineapple,[11] the
flowering of artichoke, an uncurling fern and the arrangement of a pine cone,[12] and the family
tree of honeybees.[63] However, numerous poorly substantiated claims of Fibonacci numbers or
golden sections in nature are found in popular sources, e.g., relating to the breeding of rabbits
in Fibonacci's own unrealistic example, the seeds on a sunflower, the spirals of shells, and the
curve of waves.[64]
Przemysław Prusinkiewicz advanced the idea that real instances can in part be understood as
the expression of certain algebraic constraints on free groups, specifically as certain
Lindenmayer grammars.[65]
A model for the pattern of florets in the head of a Yellow Chamomile head showing
sunflower was proposed by H. Vogel in 1979.[66] the arrangement in 21 (blue) and 13
(aqua) spirals. Such arrangements
This has the form
involving consecutive Fibonacci
numbers appear in a wide variety of
plants.
where n is the index number of the floret and c is a constant scaling factor; the florets thus lie
on Fermat's spiral. The divergence angle, approximately 137.51°, is the golden angle, dividing
the circle in the golden ratio. Because this ratio is irrational, no floret has a neighbor at exactly
the same angle from the center, so the florets pack efficiently. Because the rational
approximations to the golden ratio are of the form F(j):F(j + 1), the nearest neighbors of floret
Illustration of Vogel's model for
number n are those at n ± F(j) for some index j, which depends on r, the distance from the
n = 1 … 500
center. It is often said that sunflowers and similar arrangements have 55 spirals in one
direction and 89 in the other (or some other pair of adjacent Fibonacci numbers), but this is
true only of one range of radii, typically the outermost and thus most conspicuous.[67]
The bee ancestry code

Fibonacci numbers also appear in the pedigrees of idealized honeybees, according to the following rules:
If an egg is laid by an unmated female, it hatches a male or drone bee.

If, however, an egg was fertilized by a male, it hatches a female.
Thus, a male bee always has one parent, and a female bee has two.
If one traces the pedigree of any male bee (1 bee), he has 1 parent (1 bee), 2 grandparents, 3 great-grandparents, 5 great-great-
grandparents, and so on. This sequence of numbers of parents is the Fibonacci sequence. The number of ancestors at each level, Fn, is the
number of female ancestors, which is Fn−1, plus the number of male ancestors, which is Fn−2.[68] This is under the unrealistic assumption
that the ancestors at each level are otherwise unrelated.
The human X chromosome inheritance tree

Luke Hutchison noticed that the number of possible ancestors on the X
chromosome inheritance line at a given ancestral generation also
follows the Fibonacci sequence.[69] A male individual has an X
chromosome, which he received from his mother, and a Y
chromosome, which he received from his father. The male counts as
the "origin" of his own X chromosome ( ), and at his parents'
generation, his X chromosome came from a single parent ( ).
The male's mother received one X chromosome from her mother (the
son's maternal grandmother), and one from her father (the son's
maternal grandfather), so two grandparents contributed to the male
descendant's X chromosome ( ). The maternal grandfather
received his X chromosome from his mother, and the maternal The number of possible ancestors on the X chromosome
grandmother received X chromosomes from both of her parents, so inheritance line at a given ancestral generation follows the
Fibonacci sequence. (After Hutchison, L. "Growing the
three great-grandparents contributed to the male descendant's X
Family Tree: The Power of DNA in Reconstructing Family
chromosome ( ). Five great-great-grandparents contributed to
Relationships".[69])
the male descendant's X chromosome ( ), etc. (Note that this
assumes that all ancestors of a given descendant are independent, but
if any genealogy is traced far enough back in time, ancestors begin to appear on multiple lines of the genealogy, until eventually a
population founder appears on all lines of the genealogy.)
Generalizations
The Fibonacci sequence has been generalized in many ways. These include:
Generalizing the index to negative integers to produce the negafibonacci numbers.

Generalizing the index to real numbers using a modification of Binet's formula.[32]
Starting with other integers. Lucas numbers have L1 = 1, L2 = 3, and Ln = Ln−1 + Ln−2. Primefree sequences use the Fibonacci
recursion with other starting points to generate sequences in which all numbers are composite.
Letting a number be a linear function (other than the sum) of the 2 preceding numbers. The Pell numbers have Pn = 2Pn − 1 + Pn − 2.
Not adding the immediately preceding numbers. The Padovan sequence and Perrin numbers have P(n) = P(n − 2) + P(n − 3).
Generating the next number by adding 3 numbers (tribonacci numbers), 4 numbers (tetranacci numbers), or more. The resulting
sequences are known as n-Step Fibonacci numbers.[70]
Adding other objects than integers, for example functions or strings – one essential example is Fibonacci polynomials.
See also
Elliott wave principle Lucas number
Embree–Trefethen constant The Fibonacci Association
Fibonacci numbers in popular culture Verner Emil Hoggatt Jr.
Fibonacci word Wythoff array
Notes
1. Beck & Geoghegan 2010.
2. Bóna 2011, p. 180.
3. A000045
4. John Hudson Tiner (200). Exploring the World of Mathematics: From Ancient Record Keeping to the Latest Advances in Computers
(https://books.google.com/books?id=CDEEAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA81). New Leaf Publishing Group. ISBN 978-1-61458-155-0.
5. Lucas 1891, p. 3.
6. Pisano 2002, pp. 404–5.
7. Goonatilake, Susantha (1998), Toward a Global Science (https://books.google.com/books?id=SI5ip95BbgEC&pg=PA126&dq=Viraha
nka+Fibonacci), Indiana University Press, p. 126, ISBN 978-0-253-33388-9
8. Singh, Parmanand (1985), "The So-called Fibonacci numbers in ancient and medieval India", Historia Mathematica, 12 (3): 229–44,
doi:10.1016/0315-0860(85)90021-7 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0315-0860%2885%2990021-7)
9. Knuth, Donald (2006), The Art of Computer Programming (https://books.google.com/books?id=56LNfE2QGtYC&pg=PA50&dq=rhyth
ms), 4. Generating All Trees – History of Combinatorial Generation, Addison–Wesley, p. 50, ISBN 978-0-321-33570-8, "it was natural
to consider the set of all sequences of [L] and [S] that have exactly m beats. ...there are exactly Fm+1 of them. For example the 21
sequences when m = 7 are: [gives list]. In this way Indian prosodists were led to discover the Fibonacci sequence, as we have
observed in Section 1.2.8 (from v.1)"
10. Douady, S; Couder, Y (1996), "Phyllotaxis as a Dynamical Self Organizing Process" (http://www.math.ntnu.no/~jarlet/Douady96.pdf)
(PDF), Journal of Theoretical Biology, 178 (3): 255–74, doi:10.1006/jtbi.1996.0026 (https://doi.org/10.1006%2Fjtbi.1996.0026)
11. Jones, Judy; Wilson, William (2006), "Science", An Incomplete Education, Ballantine Books, p. 544, ISBN 978-0-7394-7582-9
12. Brousseau, A (1969), "Fibonacci Statistics in Conifers", Fibonacci Quarterly (7): 525–32
13. Knuth, Donald (1968), The Art of Computer Programming (https://books.google.com/books?id=MooMkK6ERuYC&pg=PA100&dq=knu
th+gopala+fibonacci#v=onepage&), 1, Addison Wesley, ISBN 81-7758-754-4, "Before Fibonacci wrote his work, the sequence Fn had
already been discussed by Indian scholars, who had long been interested in rhythmic patterns... both Gopala (before 1135 AD) and
Hemachandra (c. 1150) mentioned the numbers 1,2,3,5,8,13,21 explicitly [see P. Singh Historia Math 12 (1985) 229–44]" p. 100 (3d
ed)..."
14. Agrawala, VS (1969), Pāṇinikālīna Bhāratavarṣa (Hn.). Varanasi-I: TheChowkhamba Vidyabhawan, "SadgurushiShya writes that
Pingala was a younger brother of Pāṇini [Agrawala 1969, lb]. There is an alternative opinion that he was a maternal uncle of Pāṇini
[Vinayasagar 1965, Preface, 121]. … Agrawala [1969, 463–76], after a careful investigation, in which he considered the views of
earlier scholars, has concluded that Pāṇini lived between 480 and 410 BC"
15. Velankar, HD (1962), ‘Vṛttajātisamuccaya’ of kavi Virahanka, Jodhpur: Rajasthan Oriental Research Institute, p. 101, ""For four,
variations of meters of two [and] three being mixed, five happens. For five, variations of two earlier – three [and] four, being mixed,
eight is obtained. In this way, for six, [variations] of four [and] of five being mixed, thirteen happens. And like that, variations of two
earlier meters being mixed, seven morae [is] twenty-one. In this way, the process should be followed in all mātrā-vṛttas"
16. Knott, Ron. "Fibonacci's Rabbits" (http://www.maths.surrey.ac.uk/hosted-sites/R.Knott/Fibonacci/fibnat.html#Rabbits). University of
Surrey Faculty of Engineering and Physical Sciences.
17. Gardner, Martin (1996), Mathematical Circus, The Mathematical Association of America, p. 153, ISBN 0-88385-506-2, "It is ironic that
Leonardo, who made valuable contributions to mathematics, is remembered today mainly because a 19th-century French number
theorist, Édouard Lucas... attached the name Fibonacci to a number sequence that appears in a trivial problem in Liber abaci"
18. Knott, R, "Fib table", Fibonacci (http://www.maths.surrey.ac.uk/hosted-sites/R.Knott/Fibonacci/fibtable.html), UK: Surrey has the first
300 Fn factored into primes and links to more extensive tables.
19. Knuth, Donald (2008-12-11), "Negafibonacci Numbers and the Hyperbolic Plane", Annual meeting (http://research.allacademic.com/m
eta/p206842_index.html), The Fairmont Hotel, San Jose, CA: The Mathematical Association of America
20. Lucas 1891, p. 7.
21. Stanley, Richard (2011). Enumerative Combinatorics I (2nd ed.). Cambridge Univ. Press. p. "121, Ex 1.35". ISBN 978-1-107-60262-5.
22. Weisstein, Eric W. "Binet's Fibonacci Number Formula" (http://mathworld.wolfram.com/BinetsFibonacciNumberFormula.html).
MathWorld.
23. Ball 2003, p. 156.
24. Ball 2003, pp. 155–6.
25. Kepler, Johannes (1966), A New Year Gift: On Hexagonal Snow, Oxford University Press, p. 92, ISBN 0-19-858120-3
26. Strena seu de Nive Sexangula, 1611
27. Dijkstra, Edsger W. (1978), In honour of Fibonacci (http://www.cs.utexas.edu/users/EWD/ewd06xx/EWD654.PDF) (PDF)
28. Gessel, Ira (October 1972), "Fibonacci is a Square" (http://www.fq.math.ca/Scanned/10-4/advanced10-4.pdf) (PDF), The Fibonacci
Quarterly, 10 (4): 417–19, retrieved April 11, 2012
29. Farhi, Bakir (10 May 2011). "An Explicit Formula Generating the Non-Fibonacci Numbers". arXiv:1105.1127v2 (https://arxiv.org/abs/11
05.1127v2) [math.NT (https://arxiv.org/archive/math.NT)].
30. Lucas 1891, p. 4.
31. Vorobiev, Nikolaĭ Nikolaevich; Martin, Mircea (2002), "Chapter 1", Fibonacci Numbers, Birkhäuser, pp. 5–6, ISBN 3-7643-6135-2
32. Weisstein, Eric W. "Fibonacci Number" (http://mathworld.wolfram.com/FibonacciNumber.html). MathWorld.
33. Glaister, P (1995), "Fibonacci power series", The Mathematical Gazette, 79 (486): 521, doi:10.2307/3618079 (https://doi.org/10.230
7%2F3618079), JSTOR 3618079 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/3618079)
34. Köhler, Günter (February 1985), "Generating functions of Fibonacci-like sequences and decimal expansions of some fractions" (http://
www.fq.math.ca/Scanned/23-1/kohler.pdf) (PDF), The Fibonacci Quarterly, 23 (1): 29–35, retrieved December 31, 2011
35. André-Jeannin, Richard (1989), "Irrationalité de la somme des inverses de certaines suites récurrentes", C. R. Acad. Sci. Paris Sér. I
Math., 308 (19): 539–541, MR 0999451 (https://www.ams.org/mathscinet-getitem?mr=0999451)
36. Weisstein, Eric W. "Millin Series" (http://mathworld.wolfram.com/MillinSeries.html). MathWorld.
37. Ribenboim, Paulo (2000), My Numbers, My Friends, Springer-Verlag
38. Su, Francis E (2000), "Fibonacci GCD's, please", Mudd Math Fun Facts (http://www.math.hmc.edu/funfacts/ffiles/20004.5.shtml), et
al, HMC
39. Williams, H. C. (1982), "A note on the Fibonacci quotient ", Canadian Mathematical Bulletin, 25 (3): 366–370,
doi:10.4153/CMB-1982-053-0 (https://doi.org/10.4153%2FCMB-1982-053-0), MR 0668957 (https://www.ams.org/mathscinet-getitem?
mr=0668957). Williams calls this property "well known".
40. Prime Numbers, Richard Crandall, Carl Pomerance, Springer, second edition, 2005, p.142.
41. Weisstein, Eric W. "Fibonacci Prime" (http://mathworld.wolfram.com/FibonacciPrime.html). MathWorld.
42. Honsberger, Ross (1985), "Mathematical Gems III", AMS Dolciani Mathematical Expositions (9): 133, ISBN 0-88385-318-3
43. Cohn, JHE (1964), "Square Fibonacci Numbers etc" (http://math.la.asu.edu/~checkman/SquareFibonacci.html), Fibonacci Quarterly,
2: 109–13
44. Pethő, Attila (2001), "Diophantine properties of linear recursive sequences II", Acta Math. Paedagogicae Nyíregyháziensis, 17: 81–96
45. Bugeaud, Y; Mignotte, M; Siksek, S (2006), "Classical and modular approaches to exponential Diophantine equations. I. Fibonacci
and Lucas perfect powers", Ann. Math., 2 (163): 969–1018, arXiv:math/0403046 (https://arxiv.org/abs/math/0403046) ,
Bibcode:2004math......3046B (http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2004math......3046B), doi:10.4007/annals.2006.163.969 (https://doi.org/
10.4007%2Fannals.2006.163.969)
46. Ming, Luo (1989), "On triangular Fibonacci numbers" (http://www.fq.math.ca/Scanned/27-2/ming.pdf) (PDF), Fibonacci Quart., 27 (2):
98–108
47. Knott, Ron, The Fibonacci numbers (http://www.maths.surrey.ac.uk/hosted-sites/R.Knott/Fibonacci/fibtable.html), UK: Surrey
48. Ribenboim, Paulo (1996), The New Book of Prime Number Records, New York: Springer, p. 64, ISBN 0-387-94457-5
49. Lemmermeyer 2000, pp. 73–4, ex. 2.25–28.
50. Lemmermeyer 2000, pp. 73–4, ex. 2.28.
51. Lemmermeyer 2000, p. 73, ex. 2.27.
52. Fibonacci and Lucas factorizations (http://mersennus.net/fibonacci/), Mersennus collects all known factors of F(i) with i < 10000.
53. Factors of Fibonacci and Lucas numbers (http://fibonacci.redgolpe.com/), Red golpe collects all known factors of F(i) with 10000 < i <
50000.
54. Freyd, Peter; Brown, Kevin S. (1993), "Problems and Solutions: Solutions: E3410", The American Mathematical Monthly, 99 (3): 278–
279, doi:10.2307/2325076 (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2325076)
55. Koshy, Thomas (2007), Elementary number theory with applications, Academic Press, p. 581, ISBN 0-12-372487-2
56. Knuth, Donald E (1997), The Art of Computer Programming, 1: Fundamental Algorithms (3rd ed.), Addison–Wesley, p. 343, ISBN 0-
201-89683-4
57. Brasch, T. von; Byström, J.; Lystad, L.P. (2012), "Optimal Control and the Fibonacci Sequence" (https://link.springer.com/article/10.10
07%2Fs10957-012-0061-2) (PDF), Journal of Optimization Theory and Applications, 154 (3): 857–78, doi:10.1007/s10957-012-0061-
2 (https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10957-012-0061-2)
58. Harizanov, Valentina (1995), "Review of Yuri V. Matiyasevich, Hibert's Tenth Problem"
(http://projecteuclid.org/euclid.rml/1204900767), Modern Logic, 5 (3): 345–355.
59. Avriel, M; Wilde, DJ (1966), "Optimality of the Symmetric Fibonacci Search Technique", Fibonacci Quarterly (3): 265–9
60. Amiga ROM Kernel Reference Manual, Addison–Wesley, 1991
61. "IFF", Multimedia Wiki (http://wiki.multimedia.cx/index.php?title=IFF#Fibonacci_Delta_Compression)
62. "Zeckendorf representation", Encyclopedia of Math (http://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/index.php/Zeckendorf_representation)
63. "Marks for the da Vinci Code: B–" (http://www.cs4fn.org/maths/bee-davinci.php). Maths. Computer Science For Fun: CS4FN.
64. Simanek, D. "Fibonacci Flim-Flam" (http://www.lhup.edu/~dsimanek/pseudo/fibonacc.htm). LHUP.
65. Prusinkiewicz, Przemyslaw; Hanan, James (1989), Lindenmayer Systems, Fractals, and Plants (Lecture Notes in Biomathematics),
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References
Ball, Keith M (2003), "8: Fibonacci's Rabbits Revisited", Strange Curves, Counting Rabbits, and Other Mathematical Explorations,
Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, ISBN 0-691-11321-1.
Beck, Matthias; Geoghegan, Ross (2010), The Art of Proof: Basic Training for Deeper Mathematics, New York: Springer, ISBN 978-1-
4419-7022-0.
Bóna, Miklós (2011), A Walk Through Combinatorics (3rd ed.), New Jersey: World Scientific, ISBN 978-981-4335-23-2.
Bóna, Miklós (2016), A Walk Through Combinatorics (4th Revised ed.), New Jersey: World Scientific, ISBN 978-981-3148-84-0.
Lemmermeyer, Franz (2000), Reciprocity Laws: From Euler to Eisenstein, Springer Monographs in Mathematics, New York: Springer,
ISBN 3-540-66957-4.
Lucas, Édouard (1891), Théorie des nombres (https://archive.org/details/thoriedesnombr01lucauoft) (in French), 1, Paris: Gauthier-
Villars, https://books.google.com/books?id=_hsPAAAAIAAJ.
Pisano, Leonardo (2002), Fibonacci's Liber Abaci: A Translation into Modern English of the Book of Calculation, Sources and Studies
in the History of Mathematics and Physical Sciences, Sigler, Laurence E, trans, Springer, ISBN 0-387-95419-8
External links
Periods of Fibonacci Sequences Mod m (http://www.mathpages.com/home/kmath078/kmath078.htm) at MathPages
Scientists find clues to the formation of Fibonacci spirals in nature (http://www.physorg.com/news97227410.html)
Fibonacci Sequence (http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b008ct2j) on In Our Time at the BBC.
Hazewinkel, Michiel, ed. (2001) [1994], "Fibonacci numbers" (https://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/index.php?title=p/f040020),
Encyclopedia of Mathematics, Springer Science+Business Media B.V. / Kluwer Academic Publishers, ISBN 978-1-55608-010-4
"Sloane's A000045 : Fibonacci Numbers" (http://oeis.org/A000045). The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS
Foundation.
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The sequence Fn of Fibonacci numbers is defined by the recurrence relation:

with seed values[1][2]

The Fibonacci spiral: an

List of Fibonacci numbers

0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 144 233 377 610 987 1597 2584 4181 6765

which yields the sequence of "negafibonacci" numbers[19] satisfying

Thus the bidirectional sequence is

F−8 F−7 F−6 F−5 F−4 F−3 F−2 F−1 F0 F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 F6 F7 F8

These numbers also give the solution to certain enumerative

For example, if n = 5, then Fn+1 = F6 = 8 counts the eight compositions:

1+1+1+1+1 = 1+1+1+2 = 1+1+2+1 = 1+2+1+1 = 2+1+1+1 = 2+2+1 = 2+1+2 = 1+2+2,

all of which sum to 5.

Relation to the golden ratio

is the golden ratio ( A001622), and

Since , this formula can also be written as

so the powers of φ and ψ satisfy the Fibonacci recursion. In other words,

It follows that for any values a and b, the sequence defined by

satisfies the same recurrence

which has solution

producing the required formula.

or in terms of the floor function:

Limit of consecutive quotients

Animated GIF file showing successive tilings of the plane, and a

Decomposition of powers of the golden ratio

This equation can be proved by induction on n.

and the initial value is

it follows that the nth term is

which again yields

Recognizing Fibonacci numbers

For example, the recurrence relation

A different trick may be used to prove

Cassini and Catalan's identities

Catalan's identity is a generalization:

Solving the equation

for s(x) results in the above closed form.

for all positive integers m.

Similarly, m=2 gives

and the sum of squared reciprocal Fibonacci numbers as

No closed formula for the reciprocal Fibonacci constant

The Millin series gives the identity[36]

Primes and divisibility

gcd(Fn, Fn+1) = gcd(Fn, Fn+2) = gcd(Fn+1, Fn+2) = 1.

2, 3, 5, 13, 89, 233, 1597, 28657, 514229, … A005478.

Prime divisors of Fibonacci numbers

If p is a prime number then

It is not known whether there exists a prime p such that

Also, if p ≠ 5 is an odd prime number then:[50]

Example 1. p = 7, in this case p ≡ 3 (mod 4) and we have:

Example 2. p = 11, in this case p ≡ 3 (mod 4) and we have:

Example 3. p = 13, in this case p ≡ 1 (mod 4) and we have:

Example 4. p = 29, in this case p ≡ 1 (mod 4) and we have:

Example 1: let the Fibonacci numbers be 1, 2, 3 and 5. Then:

More generally, in the base b representation, the number of digits in Fn is asymptotic to .

Fibonacci numbers are used by some pseudorandom number generators.

The bee ancestry code

If an egg is laid by an unmated female, it hatches a male or drone bee.

The human X chromosome inheritance tree

Generalizing the index to negative integers to produce the negafibonacci numbers.

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