Seoul 2000 FISITA World Automotive Congress F2000A014

June 12-15, 2000, Seoul, Korea

All-Wheel Drive / Four-Wheel Drive Systems and Strategies

Sankar Mohan
New Venture Gear, Inc. Troy, MI 48083 USA

Modern Four-Wheel Drive (4WD) systems have become very sophisticated and infused with electronic control technology.
These 4WD vehicles offer the appeal of an active lifestyle made possible by the assurance of a safe and secure vehicle, on-
and off-road, along with the imp roved hauling and towing capabilities for people and equipment. The emphasis has been
shifting from mere traction enhancement to on-road safety and handling improvement. There has also been a successful
move to incorporate the above benefits in smaller, more fuel-efficient Front-Wheel-Drive (FWD) based vehicles generally
called All-Wheel Drive (AWD) systems. This paper attempts to explain the control tactics, strategies and the philosophies
behind various traction control systems.

Keywords: Four-Wheel-Drive, All-Wheel-Drive, Traction control

INTRODUCTION to describe the various functions and architectures. In this

Four-Wheel Drive (4WD) systems have come a long and the following sections we will describe the generally
way since the 1940s. From simple mechanical devices accepted nomenclature along with some of the regional
applied in military utility vehicles, they have evolved into variations.
the sophisticated systems infused with control technology
that are available in modern, high speed, on-road vehicles.
The improved mobility attained in difficult terrain by
providing traction on all four tire patches was the major
incentive to incorporate 4WD systems in drive trains. The
early systems were cumbersome to engage into 4WD and
required driving skills beyond the capability of the average
driver. The popularity of 4WD vehicles has soared
because of the appeal of an active life style made possible
by the assurance of a safe and secure vehicle, on- and off-
road, along with the improved hauling and towing Yaw

capabilities for people and equipment. Only lately have the

4WD systems themselves become more user friendly.
Since most people use the 4WD vehicles as on-road
transportation, the emphasis has been shifting from mere
traction enhancement to on-road safety and handling
improvement. At the same time, there has been a
successful move to incorporate the above benefits in
smaller, more fuel efficient front-wheel-drive (FWD) based Figure 1 Steering Geometry
vehicles. These drive line architectures are generally called
All-Wheel Drive (AWD) systems. This paper attempts to
explain the control tactics and strategies and the
philosophies behind various traction control systems.
Towards this end, the paper also recounts for ready
reference, the basic vehicle dynamics principles involved
in the description of a vehicle's performance.

BASIC DEFINITIONS
4WD/AWD systems were developed in many different
geographic markets and across different vehicle platforms,
Figure 2 Tire Patch
and so there is no universally accepted set of terminology

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 The Ackerman steering geometry of a typical front THE TRANSFER CASE – This may also be called Transfer
wheel steered vehicle is shown in the Figure 1. As seen Gearbox, Power Take-off Unit, PTU or PTO. This is an
from the drawing, during a turn, the outer wheels must additional gearbox used to get the 4WD architecture. In
travel a longer path and so must rotate faster than the inner Rear Wheel Drive (RWD) based vehicles, the Transfer
wheels. Similarly, the front axle must turn faster than the Case distributes the torque to the two axles via the
rear axle. If the driveline does not permit these differences propeller shafts. In Front Wheel Drive (FWD) based
in speeds, there could be undesirable driveline wind-up, vehicles, the Power Take Off Unit allows the drive shaft to
especially on dry pavements where the relatively high the rear axle to be connected to the transmission. The ratio
surface friction prevents the tires from slipping easily. This of the front axle torque (F%) to the rear axle torque (R%) is
could lead to poor fuel economy, undesirable tire called the torque split ratio (F:R) of the transfer case. Some
scrubbing (‘crow-hop’) and damage to the driveline even transfer cases have an added ‘low range’ to provide extra
during moderate maneuvers. gear reduction for extreme torque demands at lower
speeds. Typical transfer cases are designed to have
DRIVELINE ARCHITECTURES multiple modes of operation. Depending on the
Typical 4WD/AWD drivelines are shown in Figures 3 implementation, the selection of the operating mode could
and 4. The engine rotation is modified by the transmission be manual or electric and the switching times and the
and distributed to the wheels by the transfer case through preconditions for switching might vary. The primary
the propeller or drive shafts and the axles. The key modes are described below.
characteristics of the various elements relevant to traction Two Wheel Drive (2WD) Mode - In this mode only
control will be summarized here. one axle (typically the rear axle) is driven. The drive to
Engine
the other axle is disconnected. The operating torque
split ratio is 0:100.
Axle Shaft Axle Shaft
Four Wheel Drive (4WD) Mode - Here, depending on
Coupling the nature of torque transfer to the axles, we can
Center Diff
Power Take-off

Propshaft
Axle
define three sub-modes.
Axle Diff
Transaxle
Axle Diff Axle Shaft
Part-time Mode - The front and rear axle drives are
Axle Shaft
rigidly coupled in the transfer case. Since the
driveline does not permit any speed
differentiation between the axles and would cause
Figure 3 AWD Vehicle driveline wind-up, this mode is recommended only
for ‘part-time’ use in off-road or loose surface
conditions where driveline wind-up is unlikely.
Depending on the road condition and the weight
Axle Shaft Axle Shaft
over the axles, up to full torque could go to either
axle.
Center Diff
Transmission Axle Diff Full-time Mode - Both axles are driven at all times,
Engine Axle
Propshaft

Propshaft Coupling but an inter-axle differential permits the axles to

Axle
Transfer Case
Axle Shaft
turn at different speeds as needed. This allows
Axle Diff
Axle Shaft
the vehicle to be driven ‘full-time’ in this mode,
irrespective of the nature of the road surface,
Figure 4 4WD Vehicle without fear of driveline wind-up. With standard
bevel gear differentials the torque split is 50:50.
THE ENGINE - Modern vehicles have engines that are Planetary differentials can provide asymmetric
typically fuel injected and controlled by an electronic torque splits as needed. A system that operates
control unit. Ignition spark control allows the engine permanently in the full-time mode is sometimes
power to be controlled in small ranges, but with quicker called the ‘All-the-Time 4WD’, 'All-Wheel-Drive'
response times. Direct fuel control affords a wider range of or ‘AWD’. If the inter-axle differential is locked
power regulation but with a somewhat slower response out, then the mode reverts to a ‘part-time mode’.
time. On-Demand Mode - In this mode, the transfer
case operates primarily in the 2WD mode. Torque
THE TRANSMISSION - In manual transmissions, as the is transferred to the secondary axle ‘on-demand’
name implies, the control is left up to the driver. Automatic or as needed, by modulating the transfer clutch
transmissions, especially the electronically controlled ones from ‘open’ to a rigidly coupled state, while
can be easily integrated into traction control systems to avoiding any driveline wind-up. The torque
control the torque to the wheels. modulation may be achieved by active
electronic/hydraulic control systems, or by
passive devices, based on wheel slip or wheel

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 torque, as described in the section on traction DIFFERENTIAL - The center differential is located in the
control systems. transfer case or the PTU, between the two outputs. The
In addition to these basic modes, there could be axle differential is in the axle, between the two axle drive
implementations that combine these modes. For shafts.
example, the system could have a clutch across the
center differential, capable of modulating the front axle The differential distributes the input rotation to the two
torque from a Full-time mode with the 30:70 torque outputs that are allowed to turn at different speeds, and
split of the center differential rather than from the 0:100 can be thought of as a torque balancing device between
torque split of the 2WD mode. the two driven elements. A schematic drawing of a generic
AXLE – The axle consists of the structural housing, (bevel gear or planetary) differential is shown in Figure 5.
differential and the drive shafts to each wheel. A propeller The 'open' differential does not have the optional torque
shaft from the Transfer Case drives the input gear of the bias device ‘x’ shown. In ‘true’ differentials, if one of the
axle differential. The axles allow the wheels to rotate at outputs slows down, there is a corresponding speed up of
different speeds during turns by distributing the torque the other output. In other words, the input speed always

Figure 5 4WD Modes

through the axle differential. The rigid axle unit, which remains the average of the two output speeds. This
integrates all above elements, is typically connected to the kinematic relationship also constrains the input torque in
chassis via the suspension elements. The independent such differentials to be limited by the smaller of the two
axle unit, housing just the differential is rigidly attached to output torques. The biasing device ‘x’ across the
the chassis and half shafts and Constant Velocity (CV) differential partially removes this limitation and allows the
joints connect the outputs from the differential to the differential to transmit more torque to the outputs than an
wheels that are connected to the chassis via the open differential. This biasing may be dependent on the
suspension elements. The axle drive shafts could be speed difference between the two outputs (speed sensitive
permanently connected to the wheels (live axles) or could limited slip), the torque at the outputs (torque sensitive
permit disconnecting the wheel(s) (disconnect axles) to limited slip) or some external criterion as determined by a
prevent drag losses when the axle is not being driven. The control logic (active, intelligent limited slip). In some
disconnect device could be a manual or a power-actuated quasi-differential devices, the differential action is
mechanism. achieved simply by permitting one output to overrun the
other.

BASIC VEHICLE DYNAMICS

The primary motive forces on the vehicle are applied at
the tire patches in contact with the road surface. The total
maximum friction force at the tire patch is limited by the
contact load and the coefficient of friction (µ) with the

Figure 6 3
road. The longitudinal component of this force is the high and tires roll without much side-slip. But due to
maximum available tractive/braking force and the imperfections in the steering geometry and driveline
transverse or lateral component is the maximum available couplings there could be some tire scuffing. This effect
steering force. The actual traction and steering forces will would become pronounced if the drivetrain does not permit
also depend on the wheel relative slip, the wheel slip angle speed differentiation either within or between the axles.
and the road condition as shown in Figures 7 and 8. It must The driveline and suspension wind-up and subsequent
be noted that ‘on-road’ surfaces generate peak traction at release of this energy, through tire slippage on the road
relatively low slip where as ‘off-road’ surfaces like gravel surface, results in an uneven combination of linear and
generate maximum traction at much higher slip. yaw motion. This movement known as 'crow-hop' could be
annoying in the least or cause driveline failure at the worst.
The effect also feeds back to the driver as a stiffening of
the steering effort.

Figure 7 Friction Circle

Referring to Figure 8, if the applied wheel drive torque is

Figure 8 Traction vs Slip
increased, the wheel slip at the tire patch increases to
generate the traction. The initial slip mechanism is due to At higher cornering speeds, the lateral accelerations
elastic deformation of the tire walls. The slip gradually experienced by the vehicle become significant. Lateral
increases as the treads start sliding on the road. Once the steering forces are required at the wheels to push the
applied torque exceeds the maximum traction available at vehicle into the desired path. This requires all the wheels
the tire patch, the wheel will get into a run-away slip to operate under some side slip condition. As described in
condition as may be seen in Figure 8. Even if only one of the sections on tire patch mechanics and vehicle dynamics,
the wheels slips, the traction at an axle is reduced due to its the load and the coefficient of friction limit the total friction
influence on the other wheel through the open differential. force at the tire. So acceleration or braking during
In addition to the loss of traction, the available steering cornering could reduce the available lateral steering forces
force also reduces at the slipping wheel and this affects at the tires. If this happens at the front wheels, the vehicle
directional stability of the vehicle. As discussed earlier, would want to go straight, turn less than intended and
drivetrains, especially with open differentials will lose understeer. If the rear wheels have insufficient steering
overall traction at an axle if either or both of the two wheels force, they slide outward and the vehicle would turn into
lose traction. This would happen if the road surface the corner and oversteer. Any other phenomenon like
provides a low coefficient of friction (µ) with the tire. It dynamic load transfer or camber change due to the
could also happen if the load at the tire patch is reduced suspension will change the magnitude and or direction of
due to dynamic load transfer or due to suspension effects. the steering forces at the tires and will influence the
During vehicle launch from low µ surfaces, tire spin up cornering ability.
should be avoided to reduce the chances of getting stuck. Braking also could affect the vehicle’s handling ability.
On snow covered surfaces the problem occurs because the Premature lock up of the front wheel during braking will
spinning tire tends to push away the top layer, compact cause loss of steering ability. If lock up occurs at the rear
the inner layer and polish it into an extremely low µ surface wheels, the stability of the vehicle itself is compromised
further reducing available traction. On sand or mud, the and the vehicle might end up spinning about its vertical
spinning action buries the wheel and increases the effort axis due to amplification of any yaw disturbance.
needed to get out.
Tire spin up during launch, even with straightened NEED FOR TRACTION CONTROL
wheels, would cause the vehicle to be susceptible to yaw The ideal drivetrain allows the driver to propel the
disturbances and cause the rear end to swing around or vehicle in the intended direction and speed in a manner
‘fishtail’. With steering input, as during cornering, the that promotes the ease and ability to maintain control. This
vehicle behavior is very dependent on the speed. In low requires not only a capacity to respond to the driver's
speed turning maneuvers, the steering angles are typically inputs in a predictable manner but also the ability to feed

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back useful information to the driver. In the final analysis, maximum available tire force may be controlled by
it is the performance of the driver/vehicle system (loosely adjusting the tire slip at the tire patch (Figures 2 and 8).
called the 'handling') that is important in assessing the Most control systems leave the steering to the driver and
success or limitation of a particular traction control attempt to control the tire slip to achieve both traction and
implementation. Although the primary contributor is the stability improvement. Taking a closer look at Figure 8, we
drivetrain, the steering, suspension and braking systems realize that the operating point along the slip curve is
also influence the vehicle's handling performance. determined by the matching of the maximum available
Ultimately, the laws of physics dictate the static and resisting force at the tire patch and the applied torque at
dynamic limits of performance of the vehicle under all road, the wheel. Under quasi steady-state operation, within the
load and speed conditions. peak limit, if the applied torque is altered, the tire slip
The typical driver uses the vehicle, most of the time, changes till a matching tire force can be generated.
well below its dynamic limit. It is desirable to enhance the Beyond the peak limit, of course, there is runaway slip of
tractive/braking ability and the directional stability of the the tire. This opens up three avenues for control.
vehicle, thus allowing the driver to expand the envelope of
performance without reducing safety and the sense of 1. Reapportion the applied torque among the wheels.

Tire Patch Torque Control

Reapportion Control amount of Torque
Torque
Reduce Torque Increase Torque
Reduce applied Absorb excess
Torque Torque
Control Devices Limited Slip Power Management Selective Brake Active Torque
Clutches Application Control
Figure 9: Tire Patch Torque Control

control. This in essence is the purpose of the traction This is the approach taken by all limited slip
control system. To restate this in simpler terms, the traction differentials and on-demand torque transfer clutches.
control system should improve the mobility at low speeds 2. Control the amount of applied torque in the drive train.
and in difficult terrain by improving the tractive This is the approach taken by engine and transmission
performance, and improve the safety and handling at control integration with traction control (power
higher speeds by improving the directional stability. To management).
the average driver, this would translate to better 3. Absorb the excess torque at the tire patch. This is the
performance and safer handling even under adverse approach taken by the brake based traction and
driving conditions. The ways in which traction and stability control systems (eg. ESP- Electronic Stability
directional stability might be compromised was described Program).
in the previous section on vehicle dynamics.
Limited Slip Differentials And On-Demand Torque Transfer
TACTICS FOR TRACTION CONTROL Clutches. These devices may be passive devices with
Before we discuss the strategies of control, let us look operating characteristics dependent on some intrinsic
at the tactics available for control. Since the only active physical phenomenon inherent to the device or active
external forces on the vehicle comes from the tire patches, devices that use an external logic to control their
our sole option is to control or influence the tire patch characteristic. Passive units widely used are the slip
dynamics. As seen earlier, the effective maximum friction sensitive mechanisms like the viscous or Gerodisc
force obtainable at each tire patch is governed by the couplings as well as the torque sensitive devices like the
normal force and the available coefficient of friction, both Torsen or the Suretrac differentials. All active clutches use
of which are difficult to influence. Many independent a control system that utilizes other vehicle operating
suspension systems maintain tire/ground contact by parameters to decide when, how long and how strongly to
allowing a larger jounce range for the wheels. Some activate the clutch. The extent of these control systems is
advanced active suspension control systems do adjust the defined by technical considerations like the level of
effective dynamic load at the tire patch. But mostly we complexity and adaptations required as well as by cost
have control over only two of the key elements. First, the considerations. Obviously, the active clutches lend
apportioning of the tire force between the tractive and themselves to integration with other vehicle subsystems
steering forces may be controlled by manipulating the tire for a more effective overall traction and stability control
slip angle via the steering (Figures 2 and 7). Second, the system.

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Power Management. As mentioned earlier, most modern oversteer may be countered by the application of the outer,
engines and automatic transmissions are electronically front wheel brake and understeer may be countered by
controlled and may easily be adapted and integrated into application of the inner, rear wheel brake. Although quick
the traction and stability control system. acting, effective and acceptable, this method is essentially
Brake Based Traction And Stability Control Systems. a braking maneuver and so reduces the speed performance
Lately a number of systems have been introduced in the slightly.
market based on the principle of selectively applying the Recently some carmakers have introduced yaw control
individual wheel brakes to achieve slip reduction, descent based on intentionally varying the torque split between the
control or yaw control. wheels to generate the desired yaw-moment. The additive
Yaw Control. Yaw motion is the rotation of the vehicle tractive effort might give them some advantage over the
about the vertical axis through its center of mass and the subtractive nature of the brake-based systems. It is too
'yaw-rate' is the speed of that rotation. The effect of the early to say whether these systems offer significant
external applied forces about the axis through the center of performance improvements consistent with the added
mass is the ‘yaw-moment’. Vehicle motion along the road mechanical complexity, weight and cost.
surface may be thought of as a combination of linear and
CONTROL SYSTEMS STRATEGIES
Intended Path There is no universal strategy that will satisfy all types
of drivers under all kinds of driving conditions. The
particular strategy employed depends on the limitations of
the vehicle, the philosophy behind the calibration and of
course cost. Advances in electronics and miniaturization
and micromachined sensors have allowed the development
of sophisticated systems that are fast enough to do the
real time computations necessary and yet are small enough
to be packaged and affordable. As the cost of providing
advanced technology comes down, it becomes feasible to
apply it more universally. It also becomes increasingly
outer front wheel
is braked
desirable to coordinate and integrate the control of the
various vehicle subsystems like engine, transmission,
inner rear wheel
is braked steering, brakes and suspension and benefit from their
interactions rather than allow them to operate
Understeer Oversteer independently.
The philosophy that defines the calibration or tuning of
Figure 10 Yaw Control the control system is dependent on the relative emphasis
placed on making the vehicle safer for even the unskilled
yaw motion. Ideally, during straight line launch, there is no driver and the desire to enlarge the operating envelope of
yaw motion. Any yaw indicates an imbalance or left to the vehicle under adverse driving conditions. The control
right assymetry in the tractive forces at the wheels. During system should minimize abrupt changes in the behavior of
cornering, the vehicle yaws at a rate proportional to the the vehicle within its extended operating envelope. It
linear speed (V) and inversely proportional to the turning should also be predictable and provide sufficient feedback
radius (r). Under rolling or no-slip conditions, the steering and warning to the driver when approaching the vehicle’s
angle, wheelbase and the track of the vehicle determine its critical dynamic limits.
turning radius. The vehicle also experiences a lateral Some carmakers, with safety in mind, have chosen to
acceleration corresponding to (V2/r). By measuring the intervene aggressively and early on to prevent the driver
individual wheel speeds, steering angle, throttle position, from pushing the vehicle beyond ‘safe’ limits. This
brake pressure and lateral acceleration, the control system approach necessarily involves power management and
can determine the driver’s intent and the desired yaw-rate. takes away absolute throttle control from the driver close
To judge the vehicle’s response to the driver input to these limits. Other manufacturers, with an eye on
requires the additional measurement of the actual yaw-rate performance, have allowed the driver some leeway in
using a yaw-rate sensor. Comparing the desired to the applying minor corrections using steering, throttle and
actual yaw-rate allows the controller to apply corrective brake and enforce throttle and brake control only to
yaw-moment. prevent the vehicle from losing total control and becoming
The brake based yaw-rate control is an extension of the unsafe.
Antilock Brake System (ABS) and shares many of its Many of the current systems allow the driver to switch
components. The control program selectively applies the off the traction control setting. It is quite possible that in
brakes of the four wheels to create a correcting moment to the future, manufacturers can allow the driver the option of
offset the yaw-rate. Typically, as illustrated in Figure 10, a graduated calibration setting somewhat similar to the

6
‘soft’ and ‘sporty’ setting seen in some electronically [3] Ikushima, Yoshihiro et al, A Study on the Effects of the
controlled automatic transmissions. Active Yaw Moment Control, (SAE 950303), 1995
[4] Matsuo, Yoshiaki et al, Intelligent Four-Wheel-Drive
SUMMARY System, (SAE 930670), 1993.
Even though there will always be a market segment that [5] Mohan, Sankar K. et al, A Survey of 4WD Traction
utilizes the simp le, stand-alone transfer cases and PTUs, Control Systems and Strategies, (SAE 952644), 1995
the advanced traction control systems of the future will [6] Mohan, Sankar K., AWD/4WD Systems and Strategies,
benefit from integration with the other subsystems like Advanced Transmission Design & Performance Vol.8,
engine, transmission, brakes and suspension. The thrust (GPC'99), 1999.
will be to enhance the traction, stability and safety of the [7] Ohba, Mitsuru et al, Development of a New
vehicles under adverse, off-road as well as high speed on- Electronically Controlled 4WD System: Toyota
road driving conditions. The specific control strategy Active Torque Control 4WD, (SAE 1999-01-0744),
employed should take into consideration the nature of the 1999
vehicle, the anticipated driving pattern, the expectations of [8] Shinohara, Minoru et al, Nissan Electronically
the driver in that market segment and the relative emphasis Controlled Four Speed Automatic Transmission,
placed on safety and performance. Technological (SAE 890530), 1989.
advancements will ensure that future traction control [9] Yamaguchi, Jack, Toyota Vehicle Stability Control
systems will be more transparent, safer, lighter, more System., Automotive Engineering, Aug. 1995.
efficient and more complex in a ‘systems’ sense. [10] Yamomoto, M., Active Control Strategy for Improved
Handling and Safety, (SAE 911902), 1991.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS [11] Zomotor, A. et al, Mercedes - Benz 4MATIC, An
The author wishes to thank the numerous professional Electronically Controlled Four Wheel Drive System
colleagues who have enriched the author’s knowledge and for Improved Active Safety., (SAE 861371), 1986.
experience of the drivetrain technology. The author is
especially grateful to Dan Miller for his assistance in ------------------
preparing this paper.

REFERENCES
[1] Gillespie, Thomas D., Fundamentals of Vehicle
Dynamics, SAE Publications Book, 1992.
[2] Hoeck, Michael., The Influence of Various 4WD
Driveline Configurations on Handling and Traction
on Low Friction Surfaces, (SAE 1999-01-0743), 1999