Motivation

- for temperament, cognitive/behavioral

- process by which activities are started, traits

directed, and continued

- so that physical/psychological needs or Approaches Based on Needs and Drives

wants are met

- movere (to move in Latin)

Need
- requirement of some material that is
Extrinsic motivation
essential to the survival of the organism

- person performs an action because it - it leads to psychological tension, physical

leads to an outcome that is separate from arousal (which motivates to fulfill the
the person
need/ease the tension) aka drive
- motivated from external/extrinsic rewards

- ex: giving child money for every A

Drive-reduction theory
- bonus by the end of the month if I - p ro p o s e s c o n n e c t i o n b e t i n t e r n a l
perform well
physiological states and outward behavior

- Primary drives

Intrinsic motivation
- involve survival needs of the body
- person performs an action because the (hunger/thirst)

act itself is fun/rewarding, challenging, - Acquired/Secondary drives

satisfying in some internal manner

- learned through experience/
- outcome and level of effort can vary conditioning

(depends on type of motivation)

- need for money/social approval/
- Teresa Amabile: children’s creativity was addiction (need to smoke, etc)

affected by the kind of motivation for

which they worked
Homeostasis
- extrinsic motiv. decreased the degree - tendency of the body to maintain a steady
of creativity
state

- body thermostat

Instincts and the Evolutionary Approach - if there is a primary drive needed = body is
in the state of imbalance

Instincts
- thus, stimulating behavior to balance (e.g.
- biologically determined and innate hunger)

patterns of behavior that exist in both

people and animals

- theories: human instinct to reproduce is

responsible for sexual behavior, etc

William McDougall

- proposed 18 instincts

- including flight (running away), pugnacity

(aggressiveness), acquisition (gathering
possessions)

- others added more, but they typically just

named these instincts

Instinct approaches have faded away

- they may describe human behavior, but

cannot explain it

- but caused the realization: that some

human behavior are controlled by
hereditary factors
* However, it does not explain human
motivation, only explaining the actions
 people take to reduce tension created by - need for achievements = closely linked to
needs
personality factors (esp. view of self)

- Why do people really eat when they’re - self = beliefs a person has abt his or her
not hungry?
own abilities and relationships w/ others)

- Sometimes arousal isn’t reduced, but - this can affect their perception of success/
increased
failure
- this is due to the different types of - locus of control: people who assume that
needs/effects of arousal/incentives/etc they have control in their lives are
attached to many forms of behavior
considered to be internal in locus of
control

What are the three types of needs?

- external if they feel like they are controled
by others/luck/fate

McClelland’s Theory
- Affiliation, Power, and Achievement Needs People’s theories abt themselves can affec
- motivation highlights importance of the their level of achievement motivation and
three psychological needs: affiliation, their willingness to keep trying to achieve
power, and achievement success

- Need for affiliation (nAff)

- ex: the way we see intelligence

- human beings have a psych. need for - do we see it as something changeable,

friendly social interactions/ something we can work with (thus,
relationships w/ others
internal/external locus of control)

- seek to be liked by others

- helplessness for students who usually fail,
- to be held in high regard by those or students who fail rarely

around them
- these can be shaped through experience
- high aff. = good team players
and effort (developing new strategies,
- high in achievement = can run over motivated to master tasks)

u to be successful
- sometimes praise is bad—constructive
- Need for power (nPow) criticism is good (praise for effort, use of
- power is not about reaching a goal, strategies, etc)

but having control over other

people

- would want to have influence over

others, make an impact on them

- status and prestige

- money for them is an achievement

- will put their own ideas before you

- Need for achievement (nAch)

- involves strong desire to succeed in
attaining goals (both realistic and
challenging)

- high in this = look for careers and

hobbies with a lot of feedback
- highly successful people

- others fulfill this through ways that

lead only to their personal success,
aka they just want the challenge

How do people get to be high achievers?

Personality and nAch: Carol Dweck’s Self-

Theory of Motivation
 - does not explain the motivation behind all
What are the key elements of arousal and behavior

incentive approaches to motivation?

Humanistic approaches

Arousal Approaches
Stimulus motive
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
- one that appears to be unlearned but - Abraham Maslow

causes an increase in stimulation

- several levels of needs that i must strive to
- such as: curiosity, playing, exploration
meet before ahieveing the highest level of
personality fulfillment (self-actualization)

Optimum arousal
- from basic needs of survival to the highest
- Arousal theory: people are said to hae an needs at the top (hierarchy)

optimal (best/ideal) level of tension

- higher than this = transcendence, search
- Yerkes-Dodson law, relationship bet. task for spiritual meaning beyond one’s
performance and arousal (test: high immediate self

anxiety or boredom), referring to stimulus - can shift down to a lower need from top
activity, not arousal level
(move up and down)

- arousal effect is modified by difficulty level - temporarily achieved self-actualization:

of task
peak experiences

Sensation seeker
Does this theory apply universally?
- person who needs more arousal
- backed up by little scientific support

- need more complex, varied sensory - based on personal observations of people

experiences than others
only vs empirically gathered observations

- may be related to temperament

- lower needs do not be needed to be
satisfied before moving on to a higher
Incentive approaches
need

- I ate the pie even if I wasn’t hungry!

- cross-culturally, this does not hold (he
- Incentives: things that attract or lure made the study from Americans only)

people into action

- behavior is explained in terms of the Self-determination theory (SDT)

external stimulus and its rewarding - by Richard Ryan, Edward Deci

properties

- three inborn and universal needs that help

- these rewarding prop. exist independently people gain a cmplete sense of self and
of any needed/level of arousal
whole healthy relations w/ others

- can cause to ppl to act upon the incentive

 - Autonomy: need to be in control of - picky overeater

one’s own behavior and goals (i.e. self-

determination)
Lateral hypothalamus (LH)

- Competence: need to be able to - influence onset of eating when insulin

master the challenging tasks of one’s levels r up

life
- stops eating to the point of starvation

- Relatedness: need to feel a sense of

b e l o n g i n g , i n t i m a c y, s e c u r i t y i n Hypothalamus: seen as complex

relationships w others
- weight set point (weight u try to maintain)

- can be best accomplished w/ a supportive

environment for development
Metabolism

- for intrinsic motivation

- speed at which the body burns available
- knowledge that his actions are self- energy

determined vs than controlled by others

- basal metabolic rate (BMR): rate at which
body burn energy while resting

But don’t we sometimes do things for - BMR usually increases from 10 to 80

both kinds of motives? years, decreases over age

- Yes, can be both: when a teacher works

for bills, but also helps young people
Social components of hunger

- How universal: some are individualistic - culture and gender

(needs over group) or collectivistic

Obesity

Physiological Components of Hunger - condition in which the body weight of a

What happens in the body to cause person is 20% or more over the ideal body
hunger, and how do social factors weight for that person’s height

influence a person’s experience of

- may vary definitions

- heredity

hunger?
- hormones (leptin) play roles in controlling
appetite (can lead to overeat)

Walter Cannon: stomach contractions/

hunger pangs => caused hunger, presence
- overeating (building stronger economies,
food supplies are stable)

of food will stop contractions

- but this is not all cases

- industrialized socities where we work
more, then, there is less time to prepare
meals -> dines out instead

Hormonal influences

- insulin response after we begin to eat

- insulin, glucagon = hormones secreted EMOTION

by pancreas to control level of fats/ “mot” — to move in Latin (motive, emotion)

proteins/carbs (glucose for blood - defined as the “feeling aspect of

consciousness”

sugar)

- Insulin = reduces level of glucose in - elements: certain physical arousal, a

bloodstream (causes more hunger after certain behavior that reveals the feeling to
eating begins due to drop of blood the outside world, an inner awareness of
sugar)
the feeling

- High blood sugar = more insulin

released
Physiology of emotion
- leads to low blood sugar, increased - sympathetic nervous system creates
appetite, overeating
arousal once we experience emotion

- Glucagon = increases level

- increased heart rate. rapid breathing.
- leptin: hormone that controls appetite
pupils dilate.

- amygdala: small area located within the

Role of hypothalamus:
limbic system on each side of the brain;
Ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH)

 assoc. w/ emotions such as fear and Cannon-Bard theory of emotion

pleasure, facial expressions n emotions

- Walter Cannon, Philip Bard

- emotional stimuli travel here

- emotion and physiologialarousal occur
- damaged: cannot distinguish emotions, more or less at the same time

cannot be conditioned to be fearful

- sensory information that comes into the
- subcortical, cortical areas (processing brain is sent simultaneously (by the
emotional info)
thalamus) to both the cortex and the
- left frontal lobe: positive
organs of the sympathetic nervous
- right: negative feelings: sadness, system

anxiety, depression
- however, there is also alternate pathway
to provide feedback from these organs to
Display rules can vary from culture to cortex: vagus nerve (a cranial nerve)
culture
(thus, weakens this theory)

- how an emotion is expressed may be det.

by the culture (is not entirely universal) (on Schachter-Singer and Cognitive Arousal
displaying emotions)
Theory of Emotion (Two Factor Theory)

- d i ff e re n t f ro m i n d i v i d u a l i s t i c a n d - physical arousal and labeling of arousal

collectivistic cultures
based on cues from environment must
happen before emotion occurs
Subjective experience: labelling emotion
- Angry/Happy Man (exposure to two diff.
- third element: interpreting subjective contexts, same physical symptoms of
feeling by giving it a label
arousal (cause of it was both
- cognitive element, as the labelling epinephrine)

process is a matter of retrieving - stressed the importance of cognition, or

memories/seeing the context of the thinking, in the determination of emotions.

emotion/coming up w a solution
- Physiological arousal has to be
interpreted cognitively before it is
James-Lange theory of emotion
experienced as a specific emotion.
- a stimulus produces a physiological
reaction
The Facial Feedback Hypothesis: Smile,
- arousal of flight or flight sympathetic you’ll feel better
nervous syndrome
- Charles Darwin: facial expressions
- physical arousal led to labelling of evolved in lieu w communicating
emotion
intentions (threat/fear/etc) and these are
- said, erroneously, that people w spinal universal vs being spec to a culture

cord injuries feel otherwise (which is - expression = same as emotion; emotions

WRONG)
are expressed freely on the face,

 i n t e n s i fi e s e m o t i o n
(happier u are, the more u
smile)

Facial feedback
hypothesis

- assumes that facial

expressions provide
feedback to the brain
concerning expressed
emotions (intensifies and
causes the emotion)

- If the facial feedback

hypothesis is correct,
then people who have
facial paralysis on both
sides of the face should
be unable to experience
emotions in a normal
way.

LAZARUS AND THE

cognitive-mediational
THEORY
- most important aspect of
any emotional experience
is how the person
interprets, or appraises,
the stimulus that causes
the emotional reaction.

- To mediate means to
“come between” and in
this theory the cognitive
appraisal mediates by
coming between the
stimulus and the
emotional response to
that stimulus.

- the appraisal of the

situation would come
before both the physical arousal and the
experience of emotion.

- the interpretation of the arousal that

results in the emotion of fear