BASICS

TO THE EDITOR
LETTERS
TO
Why  
BACK

Countries Trade
Brad McDonald

I
f there is a point on which most economists agree, Though a country may be twice as productive as its
it is that trade among nations makes the world bet- trading partners in making clothing, if it is three times
ter off. Yet international trade can be one of the most as productive in making steel or building airplanes it
contentious of political issues, both domestically and will benefit from making and exporting these products
between governments.­ and importing clothes. Its partner will gain by export-
When a firm or an individual buys a good or a service ing clothes—where it has a comparative but not absolute
produced more cheaply abroad, living standards in both advantage—in exchange for these other products (see
countries rise. There are other good reasons consumers box). The notion of comparative advantage also extends
and firms buy abroad—the product may better fit their beyond physical goods to trade in services—such as writ-
needs than similar domestic offerings or it may not be ing computer code or providing financial products.­
available domestically. Foreign producers also benefit by Because of comparative advantage, trade raises the liv-
making more sales than by selling solely at home and by ing standards of both countries. Douglas Irwin (2009) calls
earning foreign exchange that can be used to purchase comparative advantage “good news” for economic devel-
foreign-made products.­ opment. “Even if a developing country lacks an absolute
Still, even if societies as a whole gain when countries advantage in any field, it will always have a comparative
trade, not every individual or company is better off. When advantage in the production of some goods” and will trade
a firm buys a foreign product because it is cheaper, it profitably with advanced economies.­
benefits—but the (more costly) home producer loses a sale. Differences in comparative advantage may arise for sev-
However, the buyer usually gains more than the domestic eral reasons. In the early 20th century, Swedish economists
seller loses. Generally, the world is better off when coun- Eli Heckscher and Bertil Ohlin identified the role of labor
tries import products that are produced more efficiently and capital, so-called factor endowments, as a determinant
and cheaply abroad. The exception is if the foreign costs of
production do not include social costs, such as pollution.­ Comparative advantage
But those who feel they are adversely affected by for- Even a country that is more efficient (has absolute advan-
eign competition have long opposed international trade. tage) in everything it makes would benefit from trade.
Soon after economists such as Adam Smith and David Consider an example:
Ricardo established the economic basis for free trade, Country A: One hour of labor can produce either three
British historian Thomas B. Macaulay was observing the kilograms of steel or two shirts. Country B: One hour
practical problems governments face in deciding whether of labor can produce either one kilogram of steel or one
to embrace the concept: “Free trade, one of the greatest shirt.
blessings which a government can confer on a people, is in Country A is more efficient in both products. Now
almost every country unpopular.” suppose Country B offers to sell Country A two shirts in
Two centuries later trade debates still resonate.­ exchange for 2.5 kilograms of steel.
To produce these additional two shirts, Country B
Why countries trade diverts two hours of work from producing (two kilograms)
Ricardo observed that trade was driven by comparative steel. Country A diverts one hour of work from producing
rather than absolute costs (of producing a good). One (two) shirts. It uses that hour of work to instead produce
country may be more productive than others in all goods, three additional kilograms of steel.
in the sense that it can produce any good using fewer inputs Overall, the same number of shirts is produced: Country
(such as capital and labor) than other countries require to A produces two fewer shirts, but Country B produces two
produce the same good. Ricardo’s insight was that such a additional shirts. However, more steel is now produced
country would still benefit from trading according to its than before: Country A produces three additional kilo-
grams of steel, while Country B reduces its steel output by
comparative advantage—exporting products for which its
two kilograms. The extra kilogram of steel is a measure of
absolute advantage was greatest and importing those for
the gains from trade.
which its absolute advantage was comparatively less.­

48    Finance & Development December 2009

of advantage. The Heckscher-Ohlin proposition maintains domestic industries vary. Tariffs are much higher in certain
that countries tend to export goods whose production makes sectors (such as agriculture and clothing manufacturing)
intensive use of relatively abundant factors of production. and among certain country groups (such as less-developed
Countries rich in capital—such as factories and machinery— countries). Many countries have substantial barriers to trade
export capital-intensive products, while those rich in labor in services in areas such as transportation, communications,
export labor-intensive products. Economists today think and the financial sector; others have policies that welcome
that although factor endowments matter, there are also other foreign competition.­
important influences on trade patterns (Baldwin, 2008).­ Moreover, trade barriers affect some countries more
Recent research shows that when trade opens up, it is fol- than others. Often hardest hit are less-developed countries
lowed by adjustment not only across industries, but within whose exports are primarily low-skilled, labor-intensive
them as well. Increased competition from foreign firms products that industrialized countries often protect. The
puts pressure on profits, forcing less-efficient firms to con- United States, for example, is reported to collect about
tract, making room for more efficient firms. Expansion and 15 cents in tariff revenue for each $1 worth of imports from
new entry introduce better technologies and new product Bangladesh (Elliott, 2009), compared with 1 cent for each
varieties. Likely most important, trade enables greater selec- $1 worth of imports from some major western European
tion across different types of goods (say refrigerators). This countries—even though imports of a particular prod-
explains the prevalence of intra-industry trade (for example, uct from Bangladesh face the same or a lower tariff than a
countries that export household refrigerators may import similarly classified product imported from western Europe.
industrial coolers), which the factor endowment approach World Bank economists calculated that exporters from low-
does not encompass.­ income countries face barriers on average 50 percent higher
There are clear efficiency benefits from trade that result than those of major industrialized countries (Kee, Nicita,
in more products—not only more of the same products, but and Olarreaga, 2006).­
greater product variety. For example, the United States imports Members of the World Trade Organization, which ref-
four times as many varieties (say different types of cars) as it did erees international trade, are engaged in a complex effort
in the 1970s, while the number of countries supplying each good to reduce and level out government-imposed obstacles to
has doubled. An even greater benefit may be the more efficient trade in a round of negotiations begun in Doha, Qatar, in
investment spending that results from firms’ access to a wider 2001. The talks cover a wide range of issues, many of them
variety and quality of intermediate and capital inputs (think politically sensitive, including elimination of remaining
optical lenses rather than cars). ­ farm export subsidies, limiting domestic farm subsidies,
Economic models used to assess the impact of trade typi- and sharply cutting advanced economies’ tariffs on farm
cally neglect technology transfer and pro-competitive forces and industrial products. Doha also seeks to address other
such as the expansion of product varieties. This is because crucial issues such as barriers to trade and investment in
these influences are difficult to model, and results that do services, trade rules in areas such as fishery subsidies and
incorporate them are subject to greater uncertainty. Where antidumping, and customs and trade facilitation.­
this has been done, however, researchers have concluded that If successful, the Doha Round could yield hundreds of bil-
the benefits of trade reforms—such as reducing tariffs and lions of dollars in annual global benefits. But some groups
other nontariff barriers to trade—are much larger than sug- have sought to delay and to dilute the deal. A focus on the
gested by conventional models.­ greater good, together with ways to help the relatively few
that may be adversely affected, can help deliver a fairer and
Why trade reform is difficult economically more sensible trading system. n ­
Trade contributes to global efficiency. When a country
opens up to trade, capital and labor shift toward industries Brad McDonald is a Deputy Division Chief in the IMF’s
in which they are used more efficiently. Societies derive a Strategy, Policy, and Review Department.­
higher level of economic welfare. But these effects are only
part of the story.­
Trade also brings dislocation to firms and industries that References:
cannot cut it. Such firms often lobby against trade. So do their Baldwin, Robert E., 2008, The Development and Testing of
workers. They often seek barriers such as import taxes (called Heckscher-Ohlin Trade Models: A Review (Cambridge, Massachusetts:
tariffs) and quotas to raise the price or limit the availability of MIT Press).­
imports. Processors may try to restrict exports of raw mate- Elliott, Kimberly Ann, 2009, “Opening Markets for Poor Countries:
rials to artificially depress the price of their own inputs. By Are We There Yet?” Center for Global Development Working Paper 184
contrast, the benefits of trade are diffuse, and its beneficiaries (Washington).­
often do not recognize how trade benefits them. ­ Irwin, Douglas A., 2009, Free Trade Under Fire (Princeton, New Jersey:
Princeton University Press, 3rd ed.).­
Trade policies Kee, Hiau Looi, Alessandro Nicita, and Marcelo Olarreaga, 2006,
Reforms since World War II have substantially reduced gov- “Estimating Trade Restrictiveness Indices,” World Bank Policy Research
ernment-imposed trade barriers. But policies to protect Working Paper 3840 (Washington).

Finance & Development December 2009   49