International Journal of Physics, 2017, Vol. 5, No.

4, 141-146
Available online at http://pubs.sciepub.com/ijp/5/4/6
©Science and Education Publishing
DOI:10.12691/ijp-5-4-6

The Theory of Virtual Particles as an Alternative to

Special Relativity
Liudmila B. Boldyreva*

The State University of Management, Russia

*Corresponding author: [email protected]

Abstract Special relativity (SR) made it possible to explain a number of physical phenomena, which shows that
its postulates: the principle of constancy of the speed of light and the principle of relativity (the latter suggests the
invariance of physical laws with respect to Lorentz’ transformations reflecting the dependence of mass and size of
moving bodies on their speed) are based on the properties of a physical process. It is shown in this paper that such a
process is the creation in the physical vacuum of a virtual particles pair by the quantum entity that is a singularity in
electric and/or magnetic fields and such properties are properties of this virtual particles pair, in particular, the
dependence of its mass and size on the speed of the entity creating the pair. Based on the properties of virtual
particles we may assume that theory of virtual particles may be an alternative to SR, it may describe the physical
phenomena without using the four-dimensional kinematic formalism, remaining in the framework of the model of
three-dimensional space and independent time. A substantiation of this assumption is that the equations describing
the physical phenomena derived in SR can be derived as well by taking into account the creation of virtual particles
pairs by quantum entities while using the Galilean addition of velocities.
Keywords: special relativity, virtual particle, Doppler effect for light, spin-orbit interaction, relationship between
mass and energy, quantum mechanics
Cite This Article: Liudmila B. Boldyreva, “The Theory of Virtual Particles as an Alternative to Special
Relativity.” International Journal of Physics, vol. 5, no. 4 (2017): 141-146. doi: 10.12691/ijp-5-4-6.

interaction of the virtual particles pair that constitutes a

photon with virtual particles pairs created by quantum
1. Introduction entities that constitute the inertial reference system.
It is shown in this paper that the theory of virtual
Special relativity (SR) made it possible to explain a particles may be an alternative to SR, it may describe the
number of physical phenomena, some of them as it was physical phenomena without using the four-dimensional
formerly supposed might be described only by the kinematic formalism, remaining in the framework of the
formalism of SR (for example, the spin-orbit interaction of model of three-dimensional space and independent time.
electron in an atom, the phenomena relating to optics of A substantiation of this assumption is that the equations
moving bodies, in particular, the transverse Doppler effect describing the physical phenomena derived in SR can be
for light) [1]. The fact that SR may describe physical derived as well by taking into account the creation of
phenomena correctly shows that SR postulates: the virtual particles pairs by quantum entities while using the
principle of constancy of the speed of light and the Galilean addition of velocities.
principle of relativity (the latter suggests the invariance of Based on such properties of virtual particles pair as the
physical laws with respect to Lorentz’ transformations existence of spin, electric dipole moment, mass [2,3], it is
reflecting the dependence of mass and size of moving possible: 1) to obtain the relationship U = mc 2 between
bodies on their speed) are based on the properties of a energy U and mass m, 2) to obtain the equation for spin-
physical process. orbit interaction of atomic electron (determining the fine
It is shown in this paper that such a process is the structure of energy levels of atoms), 3) to deduce the
creation in the physical vacuum of virtual particles pair by equation for the longitudinal and transverse Doppler
the quantum entity, which is a singularity in electric
and/or magnetic fields, and such properties are properties effects for light (which coincides accurate to β 2 inclusive
of this virtual particles pair. Lorentz transformations with the equation describing the Doppler effect in SR [4]),
reflecting the dependence of mass and size of a moving 4) to describe the origin of spin magnetic moment of
entity on its speed express essentially the dependence of elementary spin-1/2 fermions [5], 5) to develop a model of
mass and size of virtual particles pair created by the magnetic field created by moving charges [6].
moving quantum entity on its speed. It is shown also that Note. It is well-known that derivation of the
the second SR postulate (the principle of constancy of the relationship U = mc 2 was performed by Einstein both
speed of light in all inertial systems) is associated with the with and without the mathematical formalism of SR while
142 International Journal of Physics

analyzing the pressure of light on matter [7]. As shown in From this it follows: first, an electric field Ev exists
this work, the Einstein’s derivation is based essentially on between the virtual particles inside the virtual particles
the properties of virtual particles pair that constitutes the pair; secondly, the virtual particles pair is an electric
photon. dipole, the electric dipole moment dv of the pair is
directed oppositely to electric field Ev [13]:
1.1. Some Properties of a Virtual Particles
Pair dv ↑↓ Ev . (4)
In this paper the term “quantum entity” is used. It As it is shown in [6]:
refers to the entity whose behavior is described by a
wavefunction. If the entity has an electric charge and/or dv ↑↓ Sv . (5)
dipole magnetic moment and/or dipole electric moment, it
is said to be a singularity in electric and/or magnetic fields. 1.2. The Mass-energy Relationship
According to contemporary concepts of quantum
mechanics, the quantum entity that is a singularity in The photon in the pure state (not interacting with other
electric and/or magnetic fields produces in the physical objects) has circular polarization. That is, the photon
vacuum a pair of oppositely charged virtual particles electric component E ph performs circular motion in the
having spin [2,3]. The number of physical phenomena plane perpendicular to its velocity c:
explained by the properties of virtual particles pairs
created by quantum entities is continuously being increased. E ph ⊥ c , (6)
Among such phenomena are the van der Waals force
between two atoms, Casimir effect (attraction between a with frequency of circulation equal to photon frequency
pair of electrically neutral metal plates), Lamb shift of ω ph . As the photon is a quantum entity that is a
atomic levels, the spontaneous emission of a photon singularity in electric and magnetic fields, it is itself a
during the decay of excited atom or excited nucleus, the so virtual particles pair. Consequently, electric field E ph is
called near-field of radio antennas [8,9]. The virtual
particles pair has the following properties [2,3]. electric field Ev existing between virtual particles inside
1) The virtual particles pair is created in the region the virtual particles pair that constitutes the photon:
whose size is of the same order of magnitude as the E ph = Ev . (7)
wavelength of quantum entity that created this pair. The
wavelength  q of any quantum entity relates to its Thus the precession of E ph , according to (4), (5) and
momentum pq as [10]: (7), means the precession motion of both spin Sv and
 q =  / pq , (1) electric dipole moment dv of virtual particles pair that
constitutes the photon; the frequency of precession ωv is
where  is Planck’s constant. determined by equality (3). In turn, the precession motion
2) The virtual particles pair has spin, Sv , such as of electric dipole moment dv means a circular motion of
Sv =  . (2) mass mv of the pair (that is, of mass of electric dipole)
with frequency ωv . Consequently, the energy Wm
The spin of those particles has the same properties as
spin of real particles, i.e. has no definite direction and by associated with mass mv contains two terms. The first
the magnitude of spin the magnitude of its projection onto term is the kinetic energy mv c 2 / 2 of translational motion
a preferential direction is meant: that can be interpreted as
a precession of the spin about the preferential direction. of the center of mass, in which all the mass mv is
The precession frequency ωv of virtual particles pair is assumed to be contained. (An inertial frame of reference
equal to the frequency of wavefunction of quantum entity where the source of photon is at rest is considered.
creating this pair [11]. For example, for virtual particles According to experimental data the speed of light relative
to the source is equal to c.) The second term is defined [14]
pair that constitute the photon of frequency ω ph it holds
as: J vωv / 2 , where J v is the angular momentum
that
connected with the circular motion of mass mv . Thus the
ωv = ω ph . (3) energy Wm is determined as
3) The virtual particles pair has mass mv that manifests Wv mv c 2 + J vωv / 2 .
= (8)
itself, for example, in that the pair of virtual particles that
constitutes a photon may be converted in the decay of the Equation (8) is written for the virtual particles pair that
latter into a pair of real particles of nonzero mass [10]. constitutes a photon, and taking into account the property
4) As follows from experiments, virtual particles 4 of virtual particles (Section 1) the following may be
conserve energy and momentum [12]. accepted: Wm = U ph ( U ph is the photon energy).
5) In the virtual particles pair the virtual particles have Taking into account equality (3) and assuming that for
opposite electric charges qv . The electric properties of the virtual particles pair that constitutes a photon J v =  ,
virtual particles are the same as those of real particles. equation (8) may be written as
 International Journal of Physics 143

U ph = mv ⋅ c 2 / 2 +  ⋅ ω ph / 2. (9) equation (11), p ph = mv c , that is, p ph is defined by the

properties of the virtual particles pair that constitutes the
Using the expression for the photon frequency photon. Thus one may state that in this case Einstein while
ω ph = U ph /  (10) deriving the relationship between energy and mass used the
properties of virtual particles pair that constitutes the photon.
in equation (9) we have for m v :
1.3. The Doppler Effect for Light
mv = U ph / c 2 . (11) (Longitudinal and Transverse)
The right side of expression (11) determines the In this Section it will be shown that using the equation
“relativistic” mass m ph of photon [15], and consequently (13) for the energy associated with the photon mass, it is
the equation (11) is equivalent to the following equation: possible to describe both the longitudinal and the
transverse Doppler effect on the basis of the Galilean
m ph = U ph / c 2 . (12) addition of velocities, see also [4].
Consider an inertial frame of reference fixed relative to
Using equations (11) and (12) in equation (9) we obtain the detector, where the source of light is moving at
the expression for the photon energy in an inertial frame velocity v. The source of light is assumed to be at rest
of reference where the source of photon is at rest. with respect to the Earth, and according to experimental
data the speed of light relative to the source is equal to c.
U ph= m ph ⋅ c 2 / 2 +  ⋅ ω ph / 2. (13) It is also experimentally established [10] that the
Due to creation of virtual particles pair by the quantum absorption of light occurs in quanta of energy ωd , where
entity, the total mass M of quantum entity of nonzero rest ωd is the frequency of the light being detected. If the
mass equals the sum of two summands: the rest mass m0 mass of the detector as well as the mass of the source are
of the quantum entity and mass mv of virtual particles great, both the motion of the source due to recoil in the
emission of photon and the motion of the detector due to
pair created by the entity.
the pressure of light can be neglected. Then in the
M
= m0 + mv . (14) interaction of the photon and the detector all the energy
U ph of the photon in the inertial frame fixed relative to
If for determining the mass mv of virtual particles pair
created by a quantum entity of nonzero rest mass to use an the detector is equal to the detected energy ωd , that is,
equation analogous to that used for determining the mass U ph = ωd . For determining the frequency ωd ,
of virtual particles pair that constitutes a photon (equation equations (10), (12) and (13) are used. Taking into
(11)), then we have: account that the first summand in equation (13) defines
the kinetic energy of “relativistic” mass of photon and that
mv = U q / c 2 , (15)
the detector moves relative to the source at velocity v, the
where U q is the energy of the quantum entity that created equation for determining the frequency ωd has the form:

the virtual particles pair of mass mv . If U q = m0u 2 / 2 (u ω ph (c + v )2 ω ph

=ωd + , (16)
is the quantum entity speed), then using equation (15) in 2c 2 2
= m0 + m0u 2 / 2c 2 . This
equation (14) we have: M ( ) where ω ph is the photon frequency in the frame of the
2
expression for M at u << c accurate to ( u / c ) coincides source of photons. Introducing the vector w directed from
the source to the detector, w= c + v , equation (16) can be
with Lorentz transformation [1]: expressed as:
m0  u2  u2   (w )2 1 
M = = m0 1 + + o , =ωd ω ph  + . (17)
 2c 2  c2   2 ⋅ c2 2 
1 − u 2 / c2     

(
where o u 2 / c 2 ) are summands of a lower order of Quantity w / c can be derived from the following
2
equation: c 2 = ( w − v ) = w2 + v 2 − 2 w ⋅ v cos θ ( θ is the
magnitude than u 2 / c 2 .
Note. It is known that Einstein also derived the angle between vectors w and v). Dividing both sides of this
relationship between energy and mass without using the equation by c 2 and denoting β = v / c we obtain
mathematical formalism of SR while analyzing the
pressure of light on matter [7]. His derivation is based on ( w / c )2 − 2β cos θ ( w / c ) − (1 − β 2 ) =0 . Hence
the fact that the momentum which is imposed on matter
by a short flash of light is equal to its energy divided by c. / c β cos θ ± 1 − β 2 sin 2 θ
w=
This means that in Einstein’s derivation the photon
momentum p ph equals p ph = U ph / c . According to = β 2 − β 2 sin 2 θ ± 1 − β 2 sin 2 θ .
144 International Journal of Physics

Taking into account that w / c > 0 we obtain only one We will show, using the electron in a hydrogen atom as
an example, that it is the moment М that determines the
solution: w=/ c β cos θ + 1 − β 2 sin 2 θ using which in spin-orbit interaction of quantum entity moving in electric
Eq. (17), we obtain: field. Let us assume that the specific charge of the virtual
particle created by electron is proportional to the specific
 2 2 β2  electron charge (note that the experiments conducted by
ω=
d ω ph  1 + β cos θ ⋅ ( β cos θ + 1 − β sin θ ) − .
 2  W. Kaufmann on deflection of beta-rays emitted by

radium make one believe that the mass of electron is
To an accuracy of β 3 the expression for ωd may be purely of electromagnetic nature [16]) that is, to e / me (e
written as: and me are respectively the electric charge and mass of
electron). Thus 2qv / mv = e / me . Using the latter equality,
 β2 
1 + β cos θ + β 2 cos 2 θ −  equations (1) and (15), and the expression for Bohr’s
ωd = ω ph  2 , (18)
 β3 3  magneton µ B =e ⋅  ( 2 ⋅ me ⋅ c ) in equation (19), we obtain
−
 2
cos θ +
β
2
( )
cos3 θ + o β 3 

for dv :

µ B ⋅U q
( )
where o β 3 are summands of a lower order of dv =
c ⋅ pq
. (21)

magnitude than β 3 . Equation (18) coincides accurate to

The energy of electron in a hydrogen atom is equal to
β 2 inclusive (at ϑ = π / 2 accurate to β 3 inclusive) with its kinetic energy (without taking into account its rest
the equation describing Doppler's effect in SR [1]: energy), i.e. U q = mq u 2 / 2 and pq = mq u . Using the
1− β 2 expressions for U q and pq in the equation (21) we obtain:
ωd = ω ph
1 − β cos θ
µB ⋅ u
dv = . (22)
 2 2 β2  2⋅c
1 + β cos θ + β cos θ − 
= ω ph  2 . If for the virtual particles pair created by electron
 β3 
− 3 3 3
cos θ + β cos θ + o( β )  moving at velocity u (u<<c) it holds that
 2 
dv ↑↑ u, (23)
Let us consider the special cases. If cos θ = 0 , the
formula describing the transverse Doppler effect follows then from equations (20), (22) and (23) it follows:
µB
( )
ωd ω ph 1 − β 2 / 2 . If cos θ = 1 or =
from Eq. (18):= M
2⋅c
( u × E ) and the right side of expression for M is
cos ϑ = −1 , the formula describing the longitudinal the same as that for maximum value of the spin-orbit
Doppler effect follows from Eq. (18): interaction energy of the electron in a hydrogen atom:
ω= ( 2
d ω ph 1 + β + β / 2 ) or ω= ( 2
d ω ph 1 − β + β / 2 ) (U s −o=
)max
µB
2⋅c
( u × E ) . In this case E is the electric
respectively.
Note. In the case discussed above, the source of light is field strength produced by the atomic nucleus at the
at rest relative to the Earth. However, Eq. (18) will not location of the electron. The equation for U s −o was
change if the source does move with respect to the Earth derived by L. Thomas with due account of general
and the photon’s speed is made equal to the fundamental requirements of relativistic invariance (introducing the
constant c with respect to the Earth, with the energy being infinitesimal rotation of electron) [17].
transformed according to Eq. (16). As follows from equations (4), (6) and (7), dv ⊥ c , that
is, the deflection angle θv between precessing electric
1.4. The Spin-orbit Interaction dipole moment dv of the virtual particles pair that
A pair of oppositely charged virtual particles is an constitutes the photon and the photon velocity c equals
electric dipole, whose electric dipole moment dv we shall π / 2 . According to (23), at u<<c the deflection angle θv
determine according to property 1 of virtual particles pair between the precessing electric dipole moment dv of the
(see Section 1) as follows [13]: virtual particles pair created by electron and electron
dv = qv  q , (19) velocity u may be taken to be equal to zero. Consequently,
while the speed of quantum entity changes from 0 to c, the
where qv is the charge of a virtual particle,  q is the angle θv between precessing electric dipole moment of
wavelength of quantum entity creating the pair. In the the virtual particles pair created by this entity and its
electric field E a moment M will act on the electric dipole: velocity changes in the range from 0 to π / 2 (Figure 1(a)).
That is, the value of sin (θv ) changes from 0 to 1 and we
M
= dv × E. (20)
may introduce the expression:
 International Journal of Physics 145

sin (θv ) = u / c. (24) constitute the inertial system (and determine, in fact, its
inertial properties). One of the first works containing the
According to equation (5), angle θv determines also the physical interpretation of the equalization of the speed of
deflection angle between precessing spin Sv of virtual light in inertial systems to a definite value is the work by
Fox [18]. The studies by Fox were directed at supporting
particles pair and velocity u of quantum entity that created
the Ritz emission theory, according to which the
this pair. Thus projection ( Sv )u of spin Sv on velocity u fundamental constant c is the speed of light with respect to
while taking into account the equation (2) is determined the source in the vacuum and the Galilean addition of
by expression: velocities holds [19]. Fox used the extinction theorem of
Ewald and Oseen [20]. The theorem states that if an
( Sv )u =
 ⋅ cos (π + θv ) . (25) incident electromagnetic wave traveling at a speed c
appropriate to vacuum enters a dispersive medium, its
Using equation (24) in equation (25) and taking that θv fields are cancelled by part of the fields of the induced
varies in the range from 0 to π / 2 , we obtain: dipoles (macroscopically, by the polarization) and
replaced by another wave propagating with a phase
( Sv )u =− ⋅ cos (θv ) =− 1 − v2 / c2 . (26) velocity characteristic of the medium. The incident wave
is extinguished by interference and replaced by another
wave. The motion of the source and the speed of light
relative to it are irrelevant in this theorem. There are,
however, some experiments that are not explained by the
extinction theorem, for example the experiment performed
at CERN, Geneva, in 1964 [21]. In this experiment photons
were produced by the source moving at speed of 0.99975c
relative to the measurement devices. Photons’ speed was
measured by time of flight over paths up to 80 meters;
Figure 1. The characteristics of the virtual particles pair created by a within experimental error it was found that the speed of the
charged quantum entity: variant (a) – the quantum entity has a negative photons was equal to c relative to the same measurement
charge, variant (b) – the quantum entity has a positive charge. Sv is spin, devices. The extinction theorem, in which the interaction
( Sv )u is the projection of spin on the direction of velocity u, θv is the of a photon and a medium takes place by means of the
magnetic and electric components of photon, does not
angle between u and dv , dv is the electric dipole moment
explain the results of the experiment. The equalization of
Note. If the quantum entity has an electric charge, then the speed of light found in experiments indicates the
existence of some other interaction in addition to that.
electric field Eq of this entity acts on the electric dipole
Taking into account the creation of virtual particles pairs
moment of the virtual particles pair created by the entity, by quantum entities, the extinction theorem must be extended
that is moment M q= d v ×Eq exists. Then the action of by considering the interaction of virtual particles pair
moment M q results in that the angle θv between dv and created by the photon and the virtual particles pairs created
by quantum entities that constitute the medium. As follows
u varies in the range from π to π + π / 2 , while the speed from Section 3, in the equalization of the speed of light the
of positively charged quantum entity changes from 0 to c photon energy is transformed according to equation (16).
(Figure 1(b)). In this case, using equation (24) we obtain
for ( Sv )u :
2. Conclusion
( Sv=
)u 2
 1− v / c . 2
(27)
I. Special relativity is based on the properties of virtual
Thus according to equations (26) and (27), the value of particles pairs created by quantum entities in the physical
spin of virtual particles pair created by both positively vacuum.
charged and negatively charged quantum entity decreases 1) For the photon the relationship U = mc 2 is a
in the direction of its motion (at velocity u) by relationship between energy U of the virtual particles pair,
1 − u 2 / c 2 times, which is equal to the Lorentz which constitutes the photon, and the pair’s mass m (c is
the group speed of light).
transformation [1].
2) The total mass M of a moving quantum entity is the
sum of two masses: the rest mass m0 of this entity and the
1.5. The Equalization of Speed of Light in
mass of the virtual particle pair created by the moving
Inertial Systems quantum entity. If the energy of quantum entity equals its
The second SR postulate (the principle of constancy of kinetic energy and speed u of the entity meets the
the speed of light) states: in all inertial systems the speed condition u << c , then expression for M accurate to
of light has the same value when measured with length– ( u / c )2 coincides with Lorentz transformation:
measures and clocks of the same kind. In this Section it
will be shown that this postulate may be due to the m0  u2  u2  
interaction of virtual particles pair created by a photon M = = m0 1 + + o ,
 2c 2  c2  
with virtual particles pairs created by quantum entities that 1 − u 2 / c2   
146 International Journal of Physics

(
where o u 2 / c 2 ) are summands of a lower order of 4) Using equation (28) for transformation of frequency
of photon when it passes from one inertial system to
magnitude than u 2 / c 2 . another inertial system moving relative to the first one at a
3) The value of spin of virtual particles pair created by speed v, the formula describing the longitudinal and
quantum entity (both positively charged and negatively transverse Doppler effects for light can be derived.
charged) decreases in the direction of motion by
1 − u 2 / c 2 times, which corresponds to Lorentz References
transformation.
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