14 TO TELL THE TRUTH: CODES OF OBJECTIVITY IN PHOTOJOURNALISM DONA SCHWARTZ ‘Recent mats media scholarship has shed consider- abl light on Journals objectivity asa social ‘onsteuct. Seminal studies Dy reseatehers ke ‘Tuchman 1978), Gans (1979), Epstein (1973), and Fehiman (980) have revealed the relationships among work routines, profesional norms and v3 tes and he institutional contexts which news- ‘making tes place. Examining news production sa soclalactvity has helped to place objectivity ‘rthin anappropriatecatutl fame allowing us to se it 33 professional value and ast of com= Imunicatne sratepies employed by journalists. ‘While the newsmaking routines associated with print and broadcast journalism have received Significant scolaaly attention, supesingly Hite scratiny has been dicted towards news photog- ‘apy, or photojournalism, Both history and popula lore have encouraged ‘us to view photographs as direct, unmediated transcriptions ofthe real word rather than see- ing them as code symbolic artifacts whose form tnd content transmit identifable points of view. ‘Statements of the kind made by Lady Elizabeth aslake, published inthe London Quarter Review for 1857, epresnt the enduring popula attitude towards the medium of photogrphy: [Potogsaphy i the sworn witness of every thing presented to her view. What are hee tuneting tecords In the service of mechani,1 Sehwart Toate Tt: Codes of Obectvtyn Photojournalism 223 ‘engineering, sology, and natura history, but facts of the most sterling and stubborn Kind? ets whi ate neither the province of at nor of description, but that of 3 new foun of Communica between man and man—ne- ther leer, message, nor petore—which now ppl lisp te space Between tern? Since the intcduction of photography, viewers hve svested the medium with aleve of author fy and credblity unparalleled by other modes fof communication. The iconic similarity of the [photograph tts subject masks the distinction Dberween Imageand reality, and obscures the sige riicance of the picturesmaking process in the Construction cf 2 photographic message. Like ‘Lady Eastlake, most contemporary viewers con- rine to think ot he photograph a « transper fent window on the world, capturing the reality Inront ofthe samera lens. ‘The fatty attributed to the photographic mage contribated to the emergence of ts te- portria we nthe latter prt ofthe nineteenth ‘century. During this period of photographic ex: perlmentation, energetic camera operators ex- plored 4 variety of ues for this new medium “They employed photographs for atti, com: ‘mercial, and saentfc purposes at the same time ‘thatthe use ofthe photograph as a documentary record was expinding nthe United States, Jacob isis the mostrequently cited pioneer of photo {ouralism,utiizing photography asa par of his reportorialapyrates to cover the police beat’ [New York City daring the 1880s and 1890s. Du ‘ng the Ite 1800s it also became clea 19 news- paper publishers that using illustrations boosted the ctculatiors of their pediodicals. The eeu tance of editon and publishers to senstionalize ‘or cheapen ther publications with photogzaphs save way with the development of increasingly Felable and stndardized reproduction technol- ‘ogy and the prospect of increased sles. BY the 1920s photogrphs became a regolar part ofthe ews diet "Jension between the natural and the symbolic fs an inherent aspect of photography To view ‘ers possessing Ute familiarity with the processes (of photographic image-making and the choices shaping the appearance of the final punted photograph, the image seems unquestionably truthful, generated by the subject matter isl, rather than the agency and te intent ofthe pho. togeapher. However, when the many varlables fnwolved in the photographic production process are examined, the conventionally constructed, Symbolic character of photography becomes un. eniable. The Konic linkage of subject and im- ‘age causes an ontological conundrum unique to ‘Photography. Fr this eason photography offers 4 productive locus forthe study of abjectivty 3s {Social phenomenon Photojournalists, highly skilled manipulators of the mesium, must negtite the tension between the natural and the symbolic in photography dur lng the course oftheir everyday work routines. Al fous plitojutnalists ate onstanly involved nthe manufacture of imagery and they actively employ a st of leamed codes and convention, they sill must work to legitimize photography as 2 meaium that ‘captures’ the news. They must n= siston the objectivity of their pictures tthe same time that they attempt to demonstrate their mas- tery of the craft? Thus, the relationship between oatent and form plas a pivotal ole in defining ‘photojournalism. Asan objective newsgathering acuity, photojournalists vew content 3s primar, ‘while form server ap vehicle, dmperepely ‘wansporting content to the viewer. The metoric ‘surrounding the practice of photojournalism con- figures form as transparent, and thereby newt For example, Fank Hoy, a photojournalism profes sor, advises aspiring photojournalists ‘The praccal test of any compositional device ie whether the sewer can understand the con: tent, When the viewer noies 3 form oF com: positon, i has called attention to Hel atthe ‘expense of the message, Content must com munca withthe vewer 3 clealy thatthe ewer doesn't even atice the compestional sevice Ho, 1986: 169) FHoy's advice suggests that photojournalist, learn to integrate the dualism of photography {nto a single conceptual package rendering hnews photographs simultaneously natural and124 Part Fie Imagesin the Nows: Photojournalism symbolic through a communicational code of tras, As use the term, naturalism eters to {communicative strategy which seeks to obscure the articulatory apparatus ullzed in the produc tion of a message, diminishing the perceived pres- fence of an author and the significance of intent oF point of view. To quote Hoy (1986: 76), In many instances the photograph is dntrpetie, Jn that it can also presenta pint of view—the Photographers personal Intellectual, stance pinion, or unigue attitude toward the sub ects A ts best, however, the single photograph overcomes ts ‘oneview disadvantage by com: rmunicating the significance ofa ene or event. To do this the photojournalist must know the Story ana nave met lade inthe fame, He Drshe mut question the resulting photograph, asking whether is true to the natute of the particularnews ‘This approach to photography exploits the iconic nature of the medium and suggests that photo- fraphs are authored by the subject matter they fepict, with the able assistance of the skilled photojournalist, ‘Workinglrom the assumption that news photo- ‘graphs are socially constructed artifacts, thei ap pearance shaped by the institutional context of the mass media organization in which they are produced (, Rosenblum, 1978), this discussion ‘examines how the code of journalistic objectivity is expressed in photographic terms and the sym boli strategies photojournalists are taught toem- ploy inorder to make pictues that ell the truth. DEFINING PHOTOJOURNALISM. [A compretensive catalogue of the communica- tive codes of photojournalism is readily avatlable in photojaurnalism textbooks. Written by jour nalism school faculty members (most of whom hhave come from the ranks of professional photo- journalists photojournalism textbooks detail the jhoto-teckniques, typical work routines, profes- ‘ional ethis, and visual aesthetics of news pho- tography, These how-to-dosit manuals offer the aspiring photojournalist a complete introduction to canons of profesional practice, framed with ina distinctive set of values and beliefs which School the eader in th cultute of the profession. ‘An analysis of these texts reveals one mechan: {sm by which professional practices and codes are perpetuated Ivan attempt to explicate the roe of photog- raphy in journalism 1 have analyzed the eight photojournalism textbooks currently listed in Books in Pin. The high degree of correspondence found among these texts, expressed in recurrent profesional thetorie and aesthetic prescriptions, lunderscores the existence ofa functioning code of Dhotojournalistic practice. Examples from these Sources wll beused to construct a composite view ‘of photojournalists’ approach to objectivity Acommon presupposition find in these texts Js that photojournalism’ primary responsibility Js to engage and inform a non-speciaized mass readership. Frank Hoy (1986: 5-7) lists a set of Characteristics defining photojournalism that jstrate these ideas. photojournalism is communication phos ‘ography. The communication can express a photojournalis’s view of a subject, but the message communicates more than personal selleenpresion. ‘The aim of the photojoutnalst is to. com rinicate a clear message so the viewer can. Understand the situation quickly. The power fof a great photograph isthe power of an m= mediately understood message. The simpler the ‘composition the bette the photograph photojournaisn ports... you should re- port news so readers ish they had been there photojournalism deals with peopl. To suc ‘eed the photojournalist must havea reat n= terest people, People ae the prime ingredient Jnboth ends ofthe photoournalstic mesage— ‘they ate the subjects and the viewers photojournalism communicates to a mass ‘uence. This means that the message must be1 Schwartz To Telthe Truth: Codes of Objectityin Photojournalism 25 «concise and immediately understood by many ‘ilerent people. Pevate images or meanings have no place n photojournalism. A photojour alist can produce lasting images, even at, but the immediate message must effectively com: municate to amass audience Photojournalisen texts are rife with inferences about the needs and desires of readers, although the characteriitions are rarely supported by any explicit evidence. Instead, photojournalists carve fot thei roles and responsibilities in response to fan audience censtructed on the foundation of ‘occupational wisdom’ and common sense.” CONTENT: FIRES, ACCIDENTS, AND CRIME Content plays a major role in defining, photo- journalism, and the code of photojournalism in cludes a conception of what is and what is not news photography. Photojournalists adhere to 4 conception of news values espoused by print Journalists, and because their images often ilus- trate reporters’ stories a clear parallel can be found between the kinds of stories newspapers run and the kinds of images staff photographers produce, Photojournalists recognize a inite se of picture-making categories, categories which are formalized through National Press Photograph ers Association (nrta) competitions, held nation- ally each month, Picture categories include: spot news, general n= ws, features, sports action, sports feature, portrat/personality (close-ups), environ- ‘mental portrait, pictorial, food illustration, fash fon illustration, and editorial illustration [News photography categories warrant particu- lar concern here, because news pictures demand the photographer's reportorial skills as an impar- tial observer Photojournalists distinguish be- teen two typKs of news assignments, and these distinctions are routinely discussed in photojour- nalism texts. Spot news refers to the coverage of ‘unanticipated eents, photographed as they hap- pen or soon afterwards, Disasters acts of violence, and conflict predominate. General news, in con- trast, refers to lanned news events, such as press conferences, speeches, ceremonies, or parades. Kobre (1980: 100) defines news in contradis: tinction to feature photography, writing that A news picture portrays something new. News fs timely. Therefore news pictures get stale auicky Feature pictures, on the other hand, are expected to exhibit a quality of timelessness, depicting subject matter not necessarily defined bya specit- ie time or place. Features pictures record com- ‘monplace occurtences, while Anes picture accrues value when (1) its subjct fs famous, 2) the event sof large magnitude ‘0 (3) the outcome i tragic (Kobe, 1980: 101), According to Kobre (1980: 102) even the act of shooting 3 news photo differs from shooting @ feature photo in that photographers surrender control fo the nevs event itself ‘With hard news the event controls the photog raphe, Photographers ump inta action when thes edtoe assigns them to cover aplanecrash or 2 tain wreck. When they reach the scene, they Timit their involvement to recording the tage ‘They certainly would not rearrange the bodies and wreckage fora mote artist picture angle Despite the assertion that photojournalists re cord events when they cover news assignments photo texts give clear instructions detailing how A news event should be photographed in order to produce the most complete narrative retelling Kobee, in particular, gives lengthy descriptions fof three major types of spot news asigments— fires, accidents and disasters, and celme—and he offers both a rationale for the newsworthiness fof each and a list of specific photo possibilities, described in detail. His advice reads lke a film storyboard, pre-scripting the visual narrative ‘Why should photojournalists shoot fire pl tures? Because, explains Kobre, even though ‘ahey have read the news about fies, people want to se pictures of the disaster, and photographs “can show not only the emotions of the partici Pants, but also the size of the fre better than.128 Parte Imagesin the News Photojournalism words car deseribe it’ (Kobre, 1980; 52). Photo coverage should include 1. a record shot fan overall shot, perhaps from a high angle, In exer to establish the location and the size ofthe fie; the human side ofthe tragedy firetghters at work: 5. the psychological attraction of the fire ‘te crowd stares with wide eyes and open ‘mouths, seemingly transfixed’); 6, the economic angle—the type of building bburning ts proximity to other buildings in the neighbourhood, the extent of the dam: age, the cause of the fire, Investigators at work 7, thescene ofthe fre on the following day— charred buildings, residents returning to ‘examine belongings. “The list of photos Kobre suggests makes pos. sible the construction of a visual narrative filled with drama, excitement, and pathos. While the hhewsworthiness of the report receives signifi fant attention in Kobre’s text, the Importance ff emoticnal impact isa recursing theme in this land other discussions of spot news photography {see especially Rothstein, 1979 and Hoy, 1986), Because photojournalists assert that photography ‘operates primarily atthe level of emotional ce- Sponse,pctures exemplifying good news photog- raphy ae said to ‘grab at the heartstrings of the reader’ (Cobre, 1980: 55) Like fies, ‘accidents make news! so photojou nalists reed to know how to photograph them. obre (1960: 61-3) offers four reasons for shoot: ing accidents and disasters. First ‘accidents and disastersoceur and to"tecord what goes on in the city and to keep readers informed about what's happening constitute to of the major roles of, the pres. Second, ‘readers are curlous about acc ‘dents. Third, ‘people want to see what they read about” And fourth, ‘accident pictures grab the femotiora side ofthe reader. the picture brings the tragedy home’. Kobre acknowledges that ‘while acidents are al different, they aso ‘have Certain points in common for the photographer to look for’ As before, he generates list of shots the photographer can make, Kobre advises photographers to ‘concentrate on. the human element of any tragedy’, because ‘ead fs folate to people pictures. A straightforward. record shot should be made because ‘the viewer wants to see the relationship of the cars to one nother and to the highway’. Symbolic pictures an be used to imply what occurred, affording, editors the option of wsing a picture lacking it. feral (gory) detail, Photographers can sometimes ‘make pictures that show the cause ofan accident, fand they should attempt to portray its effect on people in the surrounding area (eg, traffic jams). 1 follow-up story might look atthe frequency of fccidents in the area, To ound out the coverage, the photogrepher should try t9 portray peopl’ responses, how they adapt to their misfortune’ (Kobre, 1980: 63-4). ‘White crimes may be difficult to photograph asthey oceut, Kobre (1980: 67,70) suggests that a ‘photographer with good news sense can learn 10 predict some situations that might erupt into vio- fence, an important skill because ‘crime, almost any Kind, makes a printable story In most news- paper offices throughout the country’ According to Kobre, photos of crime personalize the mean: ing of ‘abstract crime figures’ for readers. News worthiness aside, photojournalists should shoot Grime pictures because they ‘river the attention Of the viewer Kobre (1980: 70) substantiates his Claim by citing the popularity of 1v cop shows News photography differs from 1V representa tions, however, in that [actual news photos take the viewer from the fantasy realm of television to the real crisis in the streets. Crime photos inthe paper remind the viewer that felonies don stop at 11 P.M. they cat be switched t0 another channel, ot turned off at bedtime, Building on what he considers to be evidenc of public Interest in crime photographs, Kobr (4980: 70) asserts further: ‘The public's insatiable curiosity about crime photos accounts also for editors’ continued1 Schwartz To Tell the Truth: Codes of Objectivity in Photojournalism 27 use of such photos. Few readers can ress specting 3 photo of a mugging n progess oF 2 grocery store hold-up. Perhaps readers’ curiosity for crime pictures lies ima ceep-seated belief that criminals look diferent from regular peopl Even though psychologists have disproved the notion ofthe ‘rina face’ the reader checks to see ifthe conviet Ins close-set eyes or 2 lowered brow — just asthe reader suspected ‘The circular reasoning exhibited here legitim izes crime asa worthy spot news subject, and the photojournalist’, (and editors) responsibilty t0 Satisy perceived viewer interest perpetuates this type of photographic coverage News as marie, With the three examples of spot news coverage Kobre offers, the importance of narrative becomes clear. In each case, photo- Journalists are directed to compile ase of photo- fraphs which will allow an editor to assemble a Sequential visual representation of a news event, telling the story ‘9s it occurred: Since very few Stories utilze more than a single photograph, each individual image should be able to tell Something significant about the event in case {is used alone, In each example reviewed, the photographic strategy includes making a shot 10 establish the scene; photographs of participants, ‘whether victims of authorities, representing the nature and extent of confict, injury, oF damage Photographs showing the modus operandi; and photos representing the effect ofthe incident. In all cases, plotographers are instructed to seek out opportunites to represent the affective dimen- sons of the stories they shoot, personalizing the news and allowing for reader identification and empathy: As the suggested photo possibilities ‘make clear, drama isan important story element because drama draws and holds viewer attention, provoking a more emphatic impact and legtim: laing the ublty of visual illustrations Kobre compares the photojournalist’s job with that of the movie director: when Gone with the Wind was shot, the ditector carefully planned ‘ech shot. Photojournalists do the same thing, but they ‘work under the pressure of the mo- ment’ without the luxury of retakes. Going beyond notions of appropriate content, Kobre suggests a specific formal approach to “directing” 4 photo assignment, assuring visual variety and complete coverage of the event. The establishing, shot should be taken front a high angle using 2 wide angle lens. Medium shots ‘contain all the ‘story-telling’ elements of the scene... compress {ng the important elements into one image’. The close-up adds drama and ‘slams the reader into ceyeballto-eyeball contact with the subject. The close-up elicits empathy inthe reader Unlizing these strategies allows the photojout nalist to produce a dramatic visual narrative. The fact that Kobre employs comparisons from ent tinment media—television and film—warrants note. By invoking these comparisons, Kobre im- plicitly frames news photographs within the do- television show, photojournalism benefits from conflict, excitement, action, and emotion. Pic- tures exhibiting these qualities ate assumed to satity readers visual appetites. The photographic Strategies Kobre recommends require a simultan- ous conception of news photographs3s impartial recordings of events and as dramatic photoplays. This conceptual merger resembles the format of docudrama, an emergent gente of television en: tertainment that packages fact in the conventions of naratve ction Extending this further, Kobre advises that even general news assignments can take on the drama And excitement of spot news Ifthe photojoural- Ist approaches them in a way that demonstrates the uniqueness of the event. The photographer can pottay the ‘avout’ of a meeting thcough the creative application of framing techniques, catching the moment, and using Jong lens and light, the photographer can help portay for the reader the excitement, the tn sion, the opposition, and the resolution ofthe meeting (Kobre, 1980: 79), Similar, Hoy vi photographer is cs that with general news the sull aiming to get a spontaneous phot, so look for candids asthe event unfolds, After you have28 Part Fie Images inthe News: Photojournalism covered.a mater of sill events, you ean am tieipate the action (1986: 60) ‘While explicit manipulation may violate pro- fessional noms, setting out with a pre-conceived Soryboatd does no, Prior knowledge about news ‘ents and the conventions guiding editors’ dec Sion eliit fom photojournalists a routine work Sfrategy that ensures predictability and aesthetic continuity. People and posing Because people pictures are 8 staple of phetojournalism, photo texts offer exten- ie advice on establishing rapport with subjects. To pose of not to pose people when shooting an awards ceremony, a mug shot, ofan environments {I portrait mises questions of professional ethics. oy (19/9 4) addneses the suc i this way: rethaps ene of the most confusing myths of potojounaism is that posing or directing @ Jabjectisunethial The second most confusing Inyth fs thatthe vast majority of good photo- Traps you see i) magazines and newspapers Te totaly candid. The old photojournalism Saying, ‘ake a piture, don just tke one’ ap- presto imaginative thinking. I also applies £0 the many situations where some posing of the Subject sneeded to get more than a snapshot 'A working photojuralist cannot consistently cover asignments without being willing an able to pose, direct, or otherwise enlst the cooper ion of subjects It tial todo all of hist feta eter, more story-telling, photograph. ‘Tips for making subjects look natural abound: when photographed in familiar surroundings {subject is more likely to ‘be himsel’; look for festutes that give an informal appearance: coax people to do shat they normally do; when there Fr too little time to wait for a natural response fr to estblish rapport, provoke @ reaction; ask for a demonstration to ‘elicit the natural ham. In people o tell the subject exactly what (0 do, Rothstein (1979: 44) echoes Hoy when he ad- dresses the ethics of re-enactments Ia is text “The re-enactment of a news event ia problem for evey photographer's conscience. I'can be resolved nly when the photographer honestly believes that his directions are creating a true picture of what actually happened. Ditection by the photographer supposes a conception of faat the final pent wil be ike. I should add to the fealism of each pleture by coordina Ing the events or subjects before the camera tomake the visual impact more effective, Dit- ‘etlon has its greatest value when i 5 least tiscernible Kobre suggests that photojournalists ask sub- jects to wear profesional costumes (ala coat, fOr ‘Example, and to pose them infront of identify: {ng props that will indicate thei significance. He so spells out the meanings viewers will atach to aifferent kinds of lighting and compositions. Highskey ight wll be perceived as upbeat’, while Shadows will lead toa sombre image. A balanced Composition will suggest stability, while an off- balance composition will produce tension. Close- ‘ups suggest intimacy. ‘constant admonition underlying the discus sons of useful strategies is that the use ofthese picture-making techniques should not be dis- Eetnible to the viewer. Photojournalists strive fo construct naturalism; the pictures they make need not actualy be spontaneous or candid, but they should appear as if they rect actual Behay~ four, The photographer bears responsibilty for the honesty of his or her portrayals of individuals lind events the image fs tue to the spet of the Subject, the means to that end are justified —the photograph must tll the story. Form: While the range of subjects appropriate tornews photography contribute tothe communi- tative codes of photojournalism, form plays an Important role in distinguishing photojournal- fam from other Kinds of photographic practice. Photojournalist strive to make form transparent, fan unobtrusive vehicle for content. Yet despite the prominence of this notion, formal codes can bbe ceadlly identified by examining news photo fraphs. The aesthetics of photojournalism re- (pute the active manipulation of form in order to fhainain the illusion of naturalism, in his discussion of techniques of good com- poxition, Kerns (1980: 76) offers this advice: