TOPIC 4: SPORT PSYCHOLOGY

Definition:

Sports psychology is essentially the study of how the mind affects physical activity and
athletic performance. According to the American Psychological Association, “sports
psychology addresses the interactions between psychology and sport performance,
including the psychological aspects of optimal athletic performance, the psychological care
and well-being of athletes, coaches, and sport organizations, and the connection between
physical and psychological functioning.”

4.1 Factors that can influence an individual in physical activities

Personality – definitions:
 “The sum total of an individual’s characteristics which make him unique”
(Hollander).

 “Personality is the more or less stable and enduring organisation of a persons

character, temperament, intellect and physique which determines the unique
adjustment to the environment” (Eysenck).
 Personality - people's characteristic patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behaviours

Personality Types (Eysenck’s):

Hans Eysenck (1916-1997) developed a very influential trait theory of personality,
which has successful infiltrated the public mind set with regards to how we think about
personality in day-to-day life.

Eysenck recognised the following personality types:

1.Introvert – orientation toward the internal private world of one's self and one's inner
thoughts and feelings, rather than toward the outer world of people and things
Characteristics:
 Shy
  Timid
 Reserved
 Aloof
 Self sufficient

2.Extrovert - an orientation of one's interests and energies toward the outer world of
people and things rather than the inner world of subjective experience Characteristics
 Adventurous
 Confident
 Sociable
 Group dependent,
 Enthusiastic

3.Stable: Characterised by 'predictability and consistency in emotional reactions, with

absence of rapid mood changes.

Characteristics:

 Calm
 even-tempered

4. Unstable (Neuroticism): characterized by a chronic level of emotional instability and

proneness to psychological distress anxious, moody, unpredictable & illogical

5. Psychoticism: a dimension of personality ... characterized by aggression, impulsivity,

aloofness, and anti-social behaviour, indicating a susceptibility to psychosis and
psychopathic disorders.

6. Self-Control: the ability to be in command of one's behaviour (overt, covert,

emotional, or physical) and to restrain or inhibit one's impulses

Personality Theories: Include the following:

1. Trait Theory “States that People are born with established personality characteristics”

 Inherited at birth.
 Stable
 Enduring
 Consistent in all situations
As per this theory the Behaviour of a person is as a result of function of personality

The advantage of this theory is it can be easily measured through questionnaires whereas
the disadvantage is it does not take into account environmental influences. It is not a true
indicator of behaviour.

In this approach to the study of human personality, Trait theorists are primarily interested
in the measurement of traits, which can be defined as habitual patterns of behaviour,
thought, and emotion. CATTELL (1965) identified 16 personality traits CATTELL
16 PERSONALITY FACTOR TEST

• Cattell identified 16 traits that he believed everyone has to some degree.

• He used the results of his 16PF questionnaire to develop personality profiles.

The following personality trait list describes some of the descriptive terms used for each of
the 16 personality dimensions described by Cattell.

1. Abstractedness: Imaginative versus practical

2. Apprehension: Worried versus confident
3. Dominance: Forceful versus submissive
4. Emotional Stability: Calm versus high-strung
5. Liveliness: Spontaneous versus restrained
6. Openness to Change: Flexible versus attached to the familiar
7. Perfectionism: Controlled versus undisciplined
8. Privateness: Discreet versus open
9. Reasoning: Abstract versus concrete
10. Rule-Consciousness: Conforming versus non-conforming
11. Self-Reliance: Self-sufficient versus dependent
 12. Sensitivity: Tender-hearted versus tough-minded.
13. Social Boldness: Uninhibited versus shy
14. Tension: Impatient versus relaxed
15. Vigilance: Suspicious versus trusting

2. Social Learning Theory (Bandura)

“All behaviour is learned through interaction with the environment”

BEHAVIOUR = FUNCTION OF ENVIRONMENT

The disadvantage here is that it does not consider inherited behaviour (traits)

3. Interactionist Theory

“Behaviour occurs from the interaction between inherited traits and learned experiences”

BEHAVIOUR = FUNCTION OF PERSONALITY × ENVIRNOMENT

4.Concentric Ring Theory (Hollander 1967)

PSYCHOLOGICAL
CORE

TYPICAL
REPONSES

ROLE-RELATED
BEHAVIOUR
Hollander believed that personality could be represented by 3 concentric rings, with the
innermost ring being the most difficult to penetrate. The boundary line of each layer gets
wider as you get closer to the centre of the model which shows that each layer is harder to
enter. As you move closer to the centre, your ‘real’ personality begins to surface

1. PSYCHOLOGICAL CORE – the real you, the core concept of self that individuals are
unwilling to reveal.
2. TYPICAL RESPONSES – represents how individuals are likely to respond in a situation.
3. ROLE-RELATED BEHAVIOUR – how an individual responds in a specific situation. This may
be an uncharacteristic behaviour.

5.Psychodynamic Theory (Freud, 1933)

• Freud believed that personality is made up of 3 components: id ego and super ego.
• The id represents our basic instincts over which we have no control eg. Sleeping
when tired or in sports, a need to win.
• The ego seeks to satisfy the basic need. To ‘win at all costs’ a player may might resort
to aggressive actions, fouling opponents or other forms of cheating.
• The super ego is the moral arm or social conscience. It judges whether behaviour is
acceptable. In sporting situations it helps to control aggression and keep players
within the rules of the game.
ID, EGO & SUPER EGO interact to produce individual patterns of behaviour in sport
Personality is formed from the conflict of SEEKING, RELEASING and INHIBITING behaviour

4.2 ATTITUDES

Definition:

 A learned behavioural predisposition. (Linked with personality)

  Enduring opinions about objects and/or situations - predispose individuals to certain
behaviours. Attitudes can be positive – encouraging involvement, or negative –
discouraging involvement. Baron and Byrne (1977) attitudes are “relatively enduring
organisations of feelings, beliefs and behaviour tendencies toward other persons,
groups, ideas or objects". Attitudes can affect behaviour positively or negatively.
Predispositions that can affect behaviour towards an attitude object
Summary of attitudes:

Learned through experience

Predispose people to respond in certain way

Consistent

Behaviour reflects evaluative component.

Formation of Attitudes: Attitudes are mainly formed through experiences.

 Coaches/ teachers
 Parents
 Friends/ peers
 Past experiences
 Prejudice
 Media

Socialisation: The process of mixing and relating to other people

The Triadic Model: Three components of attitudes –

Cognitive - concerned with beliefs this is known as the information component – FITNESS
TRAINING KEEPS ME Fit

Affective (emotional) - refers to evaluation - reflects values. This is known as the emotional
component I ENJOY TRAINING
Behavioural - refers to behaviour. This concerns how a person intends to behave towards
an attitude object I ATTEND TRAINING SESSIONS REGULARLY

Theories of Attitude:

1. Cognitive Dissonance Theory (Festinger)

If a person holds two ideas that oppose and conflict with each other an element of
discomfort arises. Emotional conflict is called DISSONANCE

To reduce this feeling of dissonance, the impact of one of the conflicting ideas could be
lessened and therefore an attitude would change.

Updating knowledge or providing a person with new information can change the cognitive
component

Providing a person with new and positive experiences can modify the affective component

If a skill is simplified or if some form of guidance is used to make execution easier, the
behavioural component of attitude can be changed Remember METHODS OF GUIDANCE
from SKILL ACQUISITION

2. Persuasive Communication Theory

You need to be aware of most effective way of persuading someone to change their
attitude. In this theory:

 the person must pay attention so as to understand

 accept
 retain the message being given
 the coach must be expert; be trustworthy
 the message must be clear; be unambiguous; be balanced between pros and cons

4.3: Arousal and its effect on performance

 • a state of mental and physical preparedness for action this is the level of inner drives
which forces the sportsperson to strive to achieve

• needs to be under control and at the right level depending on the task

• Results to a faster heart rate, faster breathing rate & sweating

• Improves the ability to focus (concentrate) & response to danger

RETICULAR ACTIVATING SYSTEM

• RAS is a system within the brain which causes arousal

• extroverts have lower levels of intrinsic arousal than introverts

• hence extroverts seek situations of high arousal

• introverts seek low arousal situations

There are several theories as to how arousal affects performance:

1. Drive Reduction Theory/ Hull Theory

The Drive Reduction Theory was created by behaviourist Clark Hull (1943). Hull believed that
behaviour was one of the ways that an organism maintains this balance. His
term drive refers to a state of tension or arousal caused by biological or physiological needs.

Drive Reduction Theory suggests that the more an athlete is aroused the better her/his
performance. A very high arousal level would result in a high performance. However, this
only happens when skills are well-learned. In contrast, if the athletic skill is not well-learned,
performance will deteriorate as arousal increases. Therefore, Drive Reduction Theory
suggests that novices and less skilled people tend rather not to perform well under
pressure. In novices the skill level decreases due to poor habits and techniques. Habits are
described as the performance which is dominant within an individual. Experienced athletes
tend to perform better under pressure due to their superior skills and the use of stress
management techniques.
This theory helps explain why beginners find it difficult to perform well under pressure.
Often beginner’s skill level decreases if they are competing in a relay race using new skills.
However, it also explains how experienced athletes perform better under pressure using
well-learned skills, e.g. good tennis players play better against stronger opponents.

The major weakness of the Drive Reduction Theory is its’ inability to explain why humans do
things which put them into a stressed or unfulfilled state, and why they often fail under high
arousal. While excitement can certainly help an athlete perform, there is a point where the
anxiety becomes too much and actually prevents from high quality performing (Harmison,
2006).

2. Inverted U hypothesis
The Inverted U Hypothesis suggests that optimal performance occurs at an intermediate
level of arousal while both low and high levels of arousal will result in impaired
performance. This proposal is made based on the Yerkes-Dodson law (named after the
researchers who discovered it) which predicts an inverted U-shaped function between
arousal and performance (Yerkes, Dodson, 1908).

In sport, this means that a little excitement and stress associated with competition can have
a positive effect, but a situation that is too stressful is detrimental. However, the optimal
levels of arousal vary between people doing the same task. Even more, for the same person
doing different tasks optimal levels of arousal may vary. However, in general one could
expect that athletes may perform badly because they are over- or under-aroused. In
addition, the optimum arousal levels tend to be lower for more complicated tasks.

The Inverted U Hypothesis is an appealing explanation for performance flaws. In many ways
this explanation fits into the observations from sport performers but in reality is too
simplistic.

In addition to what the Inverted U hypothesis predicts, it is important to consider that

beginners usually need a greater amount of attention to the performance while an expert
can perform the same skill more or less automatically. When the beginner has a high level of
arousal he/she can get distracted and tends not to give the same amount of attention to the
skill. This leads to the deterioration of performance.
Also, beginners tend to rely heavily on cues and signals within the environment to perform
the right skills in the right situations and at the right moment. However, when arousal
increases their focus on the essential cues and signal declines and they will lose
concentration and become unable to react to the proper cues. Therefore novices normally
perform better with lower levels of arousal than an expert would need.

Moreover, the optimum level of arousal can also vary in relation to the skill being
performed. Sports that incorporate major muscle groups or gross skills such as weightlifting
may benefit from having higher levels of arousal, whereas activities which incorporate finer
skills and high coordination such as archery or gymnastics may benefit from lower levels of
arousal.

4.4 ANXIETY
An emotional state, similar to fear, associated with arousal and accompanied by feelings of
nervousness and apprehension” associated with

– physiological (somatic) arousal

– psychological (cognitive) arousal

– feelings of nervousness

– feelings of apprehension

Anxiety can be recognised on three levels (Karageorghis 2007)[1]:

 Cognitive - by particular thought process (Nervous about situation

 Somatic - by physical response (the body reaction)
 Behavioural - by patterns of behaviour (Constantly changing situation)

Cognitive Somatic Behavioural

Indecision Increased blood pressure Biting fingernails

Sense of confusion Pounding heart Lethargic movements
Feeling heavy Increased respiration rate Inhibited posture
Negative thoughts Sweating Playing safe
Poor concentration Clammy hands and feet Going through the motions
Irritability Butterflies in the stomach Introversion
Fear Adrenaline surge Uncharacteristic displays of
Forgetfulness Dry mouth extroversion
Loss of confidence Need to urinate Fidgeting
Images of failure Muscular tension Avoidance of eye contact
Defeatist self-talk Tightness in neck and Covering face with hand
Feeling rushed shoulders
Feeling weak Trembling
Constant dissatisfaction Incessant talking
Unable to take Blushing
instructions Pacing up and down
Thoughts of avoidance Distorted vision
Twitching
Yawning
Voice distortion
Nausea
Vomiting
Diarrhoea
Loss of appetite
Sleeplessness
Loss of libido

Causes of anxiety in sport

-fear of failing or a bad performance

-fear of bad feedback or evaluation points

-fear of the competition from the event

-fear of an injury occurring and the athlete having no control SPORT COMPETITION
ANALYSIS

Cognitive techniques for controlling anxiety and stress

• Imagery – by method of relaxing by creating mental images to escape the immediate

effects of stress. The principle is to recreate an environment that is very relaxing.

• Visualisation – the process of creating a mental image of what you want to happen or feel,
locking into the ‘perfect performance’.

• Attention control – maintaining concentration on appropriate cues. This aims to improve

the performer’s ability to focus on appropriate cues then the number of errors caused by
other distractions is reduced.

• Self-talk – developing positive thoughts about one’s actions. Is vital that self-talk remains
positive and focus on self-instructing motivational content

Somatic techniques for controlling anxiety and stress

• Centering – using deep breathing as a way of refocusing your concentration. Requires the
performer to focus particularly on the rate of breathing and maintaining a slow, steady pace

• Progressive muscular relaxation (PMR) – learning to be aware of the tension present in

muscles and removing it by relaxing. This is done by alternating extreme tension that is held
for a few seconds the releasing the tension to relax.

Theories of Anxiety

1. Multidimensional Anxiety Theory

Demonstrates that when someone has anxious thoughts he/she will have poorer
performance. This theory distinguishes between somatic and cognitive anxiety:
Cognitive anxiety represents the mental component of anxiety and is caused by negative
expectations about success or about negative self-evaluation. Thus, cognitive anxiety is
worrying and negative thoughts.
Somatic anxiety reflects physiological elements of the anxiety that develops directly from
autonomic arousal. This is perceived as ‘butterflies’ in the stomach, tense muscles, sweating
and nausea.
The theory makes two predictions:
1. There is a negative linear relationship between cognitive anxiety and performance
2. There is an inverted U relationship between somatic anxiety and performance
Multidimensional Anxiety theory suggests that somatic anxiety should decline once
performance begins but cognitive anxiety may remain high if self-confidence is low. Anxiety
felt by the body will have an effect on performance much like that of the inverted U
hypothesis

2. Catastrophe Model of Anxiety

The Catastrophe Model of Anxiety proposes four specific relationships between cognitive
anxiety, physiological arousal and performance (Hardy, 1990, 1996):
Cognitive anxiety (worry) has a positive linear relationship with performance when
physiological arousal is low (see Figure);
Cognitive anxiety will have a negative relationship with performance when physiological
arousal is high;

3. When cognitive anxiety is low, physiological arousal has an inverted U-shaped

relationship with performance;

4. When cognitive anxiety is high, increased levels of physiological arousal lead to a

catastrophic drop in athletic performance. Furthermore, once this catastrophic drop in
performance has occurred, a large reduction in physiological arousal is required to bring
performance back on to a higher level, again.

Thus, prior to the performance, an important mental task of athlete is to achieve a mental
state where physiological arousal is at her optimal, rather moderate level, without worry
thoughts. Usually, this means that physiological arousal is maintained by optimal warm-up
and behavioural and mental precompetitive routines whereas worry thoughts are avoided
by concentrating on personal challenge and excitement.

Zone of optimum functioning (zof) - Hanin

 • optimum level of arousal is not always at mid-point of the inverted U

• best performance will vary between sportspeople

• some athletes will peak at low arousal

• other athletes will peak at medium arousal

• further athletes will peak at high arousal for the same task

The zone

• an athlete’s best performance will be in a zone (not just a point of optimum

performance)

• different athletes will respond differently to the same arousal situations

• they will have different zones of arousal

• optimum performances depend on personality, skill / task, degree of habit

• habit = strength and permanence of a correctly learned skill

Peak flow theory by Csikzentmihalyi

• flow is an optimal experience

• which is intrinsically rewarding

• flow is a period of peak performance

• when the performer feels totally involved

• without effort

• without having to concentrate

• if skill level exceeds task demands (task is too easy)

• performer is bored

• if task demands exceed skill level (task is too hard)

• performer becomes anxious

Peak flow occurs when:

• task demands match skill level of performer

• actions of performer become automatic

• concentration is total without effort

• performer feels in control without effort

• performer loses self-consciousness

• time appears to speed up

• or time appears to slow down

• performer feels exhilarated by activity

Peak flow is achieved when:

• performer has positive mental attitude

• performer controls anxiety

• performer maintains concentration and confidence (maintains focus)

• peak fitness is maintained

Choking

• high arousal can cause a performer to have negative thoughts

• negative thoughts of failure or lack of success can creep in if a performer is over-

aroused

• these thoughts can affect the performer’s confidence and create an almost complete
inability to perform skills properly

• this is choking and is an aspect of inverted U theory

• examples are:

• the snooker player who misses an easy shot when in the final frame of an
important match

• the golfer who misses the fairway from the tee when in the lead in a
competition
 • this particularly applies to sports which use a fine skill

• choking can be controlled by cognitive management techniques (see slides below)

• anxiety affects arousal, and these theories can also apply to how anxiety affects
performance

Stress and stressors

Stress: a response of the body to any demands made on it

STRESSORS an event that triggers the stress response, CAN BE:

Social

• disapproval of parents / peers

• rejection by peers / parents

• isolation from normal social interactions

Chemical / biochemical

• harm by ingestion of substances

Bacterial

• illness caused by micro-organisms

Physical

• injury / pain / exhaustion

Climatic

• extremes of weather

• hot weather for endurance activities

• rain and cold on bare skin

Psychological
 • mismatch between perception of demands of task

• and ability to cope

Effect of stress on performance

Inhibition

• inhibition of performance

Performance of skills

• stress may act directly on the information processing of skill

• motor elements of skill are performed less well

• muscles tense

• muscular control is reduced

Concentration

• concentration is difficult

• span of attention is narrowed

Symptoms of stress

Physiological symptoms

• increased heart rate

• increased blood pressure

• increased sweating

• increased breathing rate

• decreased flow of blood to the skin

• increased oxygen uptake

• dry mouth
Psychological symptoms

• worry

• feeling overwhelmed

• inability to make decisions

• inability to concentrate

• inability to direct attention appropriately

• narrowing of attention

• feeling out of control

Behavioural symptoms

• rapid talking

• nail biting

• pacing

• scowling

• yawning

• trembling

• raised voice pitch

• frequent urination

The management of stress

Relaxation techniques

Imagery relaxation

• think of a place with associations of warmth and relaxation

• imagine the activity or technique

 • practise in non-stressful situations

• use prior to competition

Progressive relaxation training (part)

• learn to tense then deeply relax separate muscle groups

Centring

• control of physiological symptoms of stress by focusing on control of the diaphragm

and deep breathing

Self-directed relaxation training

• focus on each of the major muscle groups in turn

• allow breathing to become slow and easy

• visualise the tension flowing out of a muscle group

• until completely relaxed

• eventually combine muscle groups

• and achieve total relaxation quickly

Biofeedback

• monitor skin temperature

– cold if stressed

– warm if unstressed

• galvanic skin response

– electrical conductivity of skin increases when moist

– tense muscle cause sweating

• electromyography
 – electrodes taped to specific muscles

– can detect electrical activity

– hence tension in muscle

Self-talk

• talking through the process of a competitive situation

• talking positively, building self-confidence

Cognitive stress management

• control of emotions and thought processes

• linked to attributions

• eliminate negative feelings

• develop self-confidence

Mental preparation for performance

Mental rehearsal

• consciously imagine a performance

• rerun a past experience

• preview hope-for success

• helps concentration

• helps focus on strengths and weaknesses

• positive effect on skill learning

• but not as good as actual practice

Goal setting

• success is more likely because :

 • learning is focused

• uncertainty is reduced

• confidence is increased

• practice is planned and structured

• evaluation and feedback are specific

4.5 Aggression versus Assertion

Aggression refers to intent to harm outside the laws of the game which can also be a
response or action with the intention of causing injury or harm.

Causes of aggression

Nature of the game (contact/non-contact)

Wide division between scores

oPrevious experiences could cause grudges or scores to settle

oFrustration caused by poor form, opposition & referee’s decisions

oHostile crowds oVenue – home or away oExcessively high arousal levels

oExtrinsic rewards

What about these sports? In some sports aggression is part of the game, e.g. in boxing you
can punch above the waist and in rugby you can use hard tackles to intimidate an opponent.
This is called INSTRUMENTAL AGGRESSION Instrumental aggression is done within the rules
of the game, in other words it is controlled and channelled.

This is very similar to ASSERTION Assertive behaviour: Does not attempt to harm & is within
rules & spirit of the game.

Differences between aggression and assertion

• Aggression:
• Behaviour intended to cause harm

• Outside of the rules

• Uncontrolled

Assertion:

• Behaviour used to reach a nonviolent goal

• Within the rules

• Channelled and controlled Think of examples of aggressive and assertive behaviour from
sport. They might be your own experiences or famous examples.

Aggression in sport

It is important, in the study of aggression, to distinguish between different types of

aggressive behaviour that may occur

1. Hostile aggression: The motive is to harm an opponent. The chief intention of the
aggressor is to inflict injury. Aggressive actions are outside the rules of the game, it is
dysfunctional in the context of any sport. Anger is involved

2.Instrumental or channelled aggression: There is intention to harm. The chief motivation is

to gain an unfair advantage over your opponent. Anger is not in evidence

Assertion

Does not intend to harm. The chief motivation is to complete the skill. It is within the rules
and spirit of the game. It involves robust and forceful play

Assertion is functional play

Antecedents of aggression: - a list of all the possible causes of aggressive behaviour in

sport

 Excessive arousal levels

 Hostile crowds
 Frustration with self or others
  Heavy loss
 Extrinsic rewards
 Grudges with rivals
 Contact sports
 Venue
Theories of aggression

A number of theories have been put forward to explain the causes of aggression in sport

They fall under one of the following categories

1. Trait theories – Nature -the cause comes from genetic, inherited personality traits –

2. Social learning theories – Nurture. The cause comes from observing and copying the
behaviour of significant others.

3. Interactionist perspectives – a combination of both above

Trait theory of aggression

• Developed form the work of Freud and then Lorenz

• It suggests that aggression is genetically inherited

• A trait of violence lies within everyone

• Aggressive energy is constantly building up and needs to be released

• Sport can be a way of releasing aggression in a positive way ( channelled aggression)

or negative ( hostile aggression)

Social learning theory

• Based on the work of Bandura

• Suggests that aggression is nurtured through the environment

• Aggression is learned from observing and copying high status role models.
 • If the aggressive behaviour is reinforced it becomes an accepted mode of behaviour
and becomes part of their behaviour

Interactionist theories: frustration-aggression hypothesis his suggests that frustration

always leads to aggression, and that aggression always stems from frustration.

If the Rugby player tries to achieve a goal/target and his opponent stops them then the
player will develop frustration, leading to more aggression.

The idea that frustration leads to aggression makes sense, and it fits into many of our
observations about Rugby. However, there are far more examples where Rugby players do
not commit aggressive acts. Their responses involve non-aggressive action, or simply
despair.

Furthermore, many aggressive behaviours occur without being due to frustration.

This suggests that the frustration-aggression relationship may not be as inevitable as the
hypothesis suggests and most current researchers do not accept the linking role of
aggressive drive as inevitable.

Another theory (aggressive-cue theory) suggests that frustration increases arousal, rather
than leading directly to aggression, and it is this increase in arousal that was most likely to
produce the aggressive response. But again, increasing arousal itself is insufficient to lead
directly to aggressive behaviour unless there were cues in the environment.

These cues in Rugby could be items such as:

 the aggression-related activity – Rugby

 aggression-related people – specific player, coach or fan
 aggression-related places – a pitch where an aggressive incident had occurred previously

Methods to eliminate aggressive behaviour

• Positively reinforce non aggressive behaviour

• Punish aggressive play

• Withdraw/ substitute player

• Change the athlete’s attitude - show detrimental effect upon rest of team

• Set process rather than outcome goals

• Implement stress management/relaxation techniques

• Lower arousal levels

• Reward non – aggressive role models

• Attribute success to skill not intimidation