Bioclimatic Architecture and Cyprus

BIOCLIMATIC
ARCHITECTURE
and Cyprus
Petros Lapithis
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Bioclimatic Architecture and Cyprus
Dr Lapithis Petros holds the position of Professor, coordinator of the MA Architecture

programme and coordinator of the Sustainable Design Unit at the Architecture De-
partment, University of Nicosia, Cyprus. Lapithis holds a doctorate degree in Passive
Solar Architecture, an M.Sc. in Architecture, and an M.Sc. in Environmental Design and
Engineering. Lapithis is also the recipient of a Certificate in Education for Teachers of
Architecture and a Higher Diploma in Mechanical Engineering.
His research interests include sustainable design, issues of quality of life, energy con-
servation, bioclimatic architecture and solar energy design. His research work has been
supported by various research grants and has been published in International Confer-
ence Proceedings and Journals as well as other media. Lapithis has also participated
in EU programmes such as COST C16 project “Improving the quality of existing urban
building envelopes” and COST C23 project “Strategies for a Low Carbon Built Environ-
ment project”.
Dr Lapithis is the principal of P.A. Lapithis Architecture, founded in 1995, which gives
emphasis to new and emerging technologies for buildings and specialises on energy
conservation. He works with private and public clients on pilot projects, research pro-
grammes and new product technology ventures. He is a consultant on refurbishment
and renovation of old buildings and design of new.
Copyright © 2018 by Pantheon Cultural Association
Any part of this publication can not be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted,
in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise,
without permission of the participants work.
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Published by Pantheon Cultural Association, P.O.B. 25353, Nicosia 1309, Cyprus.

[email protected]
Printed in Nicosia, Cyprus
ISBN: 978-9963-9789-8-4
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Preface and Acknowledgements
“Bioclimatic Architecture and Cyprus” sets out to demonstrate that bioclimatic archi-
tecture is a viable energy-saving concept which can be applied in the context of Cyprus
through both research and hands on examples. A principal aim of the research revealed
in this publication was to develop an understanding of the criteria needed for an appro-
priate bioclimatic architecture that is sensitive to both energy use and climatic condi-
tions.
For this purpose, the climatic conditions Cyprus, thermal comfort, passive solar systems,
comparison of vernacular and contemporary buildings, energy uses, building and ener-
gy legislations, education in bioclimatic architecture and building examples (academic
and professional) were studied, concluding that passive solar design may be successfully
applied through the design of modern buildings in Cyprus.
A crucial argument that transpires from this research is whether environmentally respon-
sible architecture should be regarded as a specialisation within architectural education
or whether the entire spectrum of architecture should be taught as a science and as an
art that is equally accountable to man and to the environment. This begs the question:
Shouldn’t architecture always be ecologically responsible?
This book brings local case studies to the forefront in an attempt to give a concrete
understanding on bioclimatic architecture. It entails of a compilation of student design
projects from the Department of Architecture, of the University of Nicosia as well as built
projects by the author which address bioclimatic design approaches.
I would like to extend my appreciation by acknowledging the contribution of all students

who have participated in the various courses that I have taught on various aspects of Bio-
climatic Architecture such as the Sustainable Design course, the Space and Light course,
the Bioclimatic Architecture course, the Energy Efficient Buildings course, the Sustain-
able Design Unit and the Design for Diversity Unit from the first years of its inception.
Deep appreciation is extended to Dr Anna Papadopoulou for her stimulating interest

and valuable advice throughout my work, and for extending her valuable knowledge and
time to assist in my research. To Melissa Hekkers for her personal input and proofreading
of the book. I also wish to thank my family, my daughter Lara, my colleagues (practicing
and academic) and my friends for a lifetime of support and friendship, without whose
love, understanding and moral support, this work might never have been completed.
This book is dedicated to designers of buildings, every single one of whom, from student
to senior partner, have an important role to play in the reduction of energy consumption
in buildings around the world. The goal of this book is to transcend knowledge without
any monetary benefit. The book is available for free.
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“Bioclimatic architecture refers to the design of buildings and spaces (interior – exte-
rior – outdoor) based on local climate, aimed at providing thermal and visual comfort,
making use of solar energy and other environmental sources. Basic elements of bio-
climatic design are passive solar systems which are incorporated onto buildings and
utilise environmental sources (for example, sun, air, wind, vegetation, water, soil, sky) for
heating, cooling and lighting the buildings” (CRES, 2017).
“Passive solar systems are the integrated parts – elements of a building which function
without mechanical parts or additional energy supply and are used for heating as well
as cooling buildings naturally. Passive solar systems are divided into three categories:
Passive Solar Heating Systems, Passive (Natural) Cooling Systems and Techniques,
Systems and Techniques for Natural Lighting” (CRES, 2017).
“Green building (also known as green construction or sustainable building) refers to

both a structure and the application of processes that are environmentally responsible
and resource-efficient throughout a building’s life-cycle: from planning to design, con-
struction, operation, maintenance, renovation, and demolition (Wikipedia, 2017).
“Sustainable architecture seeks to minimize the negative environmental impact of

buildings by efficiency and moderation in the use of materials, energy, and develop-
ment space and the ecosystem at large. Sustainable architecture uses a conscious ap-
proach to energy and ecological conservation in the design of the built environment”
(Wikipedia, 2017).
“Solar architecture is an approach that takes in account the sun to harness clean and
renewable solar power. It is related to the fields of optics, thermics, electronics and
materials science. Both active and passive solar housing skills are involved in solar ar-
chitecture”. (Wikipedia, 2017)
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Contents
Preface and Acknowledgements 3
OVERVIEW OF CYPRUS9
Introduction9
Climatic Conditions in Cyprus11
Comfort Zones in Cyprus18
Learning through History19
Building Legislations20
Demographic and Housing Data22
Energy Consumption23
Renewable Energy Sources24
Energy Performance Building Directive31
Environmental Education34
Key principles of Sustainable Design36
THERMAL COMFORT39
Introduction39
Heat Exchange Between the Body and the Environment 39
Thermal Comfort Zone42
Effect of Environmental Factors on Thermal Comfort46
Effect of Subjective Factors on Thermal Comfort48
Psychometric Chart for Nicosia49
Bioclimatic Chart for Nicosia50
Humphreys’ Comfort Chart52
Predicting Thermal Comfort53
Conclusion 56
PASSIVE SOLAR SYSTEMS59
Introduction59
Definitions and Elements of Passive Solar Design59
Applicability of Passive Solar Heating Systems in Cyprus 61
Thermal Storage71
Thermal Insulation78
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Building Shape and Orientation79
Glazing80
Internal Shading Devices81
External Shading Devices 81
Natural Ventilation 86
Occupant Behaviour in Passive Solar Houses93
Conclusion 94
TRADITIONAL vs CONTEMPORARY BUILDINGS97
Introduction97
Neolithic Age 97
Traditional Buildings98
Contemporary Buildings 102
Comparison Analysis: Traditional vs Contemporary109
EXPERIMENTAL SOLAR HOUSE113
Introduction113
Design Considerations 114
Construction of the Experimental Solar House132
Monitoring of the Experimental Solar House140
Temperature 141
Summer Daytime and Night Time Ventilation 150
Relative Humidity152
Wind Data159
Comparison of the Monitored Data and Ecotect Predictions161
Comparison of the Monitored Results with the Comfort Charts163
User Response for the Experimental Solar House165
Experimental Solar House - 15 years after166
Utility bills173
Conclusion177
BUILT PROJECTS181
House in Oroklini182
House in Psematismenos186
House in Lakatamia 190
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House in Kyperounta 194
House in Archangelos198
House in Agios Andreas 202
House in Vavla206
STUDENT DESIGN PROJECTS211
Space & Light Course212
Sustainable Design Course222
Building Blocks for Social Sustainability Workshops232
Bioclimatic Architecture Course238
Energy Efficient Buildings Course244
Sustainable Design Unit Studios248
Bioclimatic Strategies: Images261
References277
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OVERVIEW OF CYPRUS
THERMAL COMFORT
PASSIVE SOLAR SYSTEMS
TRADITIONAL vs CONTEMPORARY BUILDINGS
EXPERIMENTAL SOLAR HOUSE
BUILT PROJECTS
STUDENT DESIGN PROJECTS
Bioclimatic Strategies: Images
References
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OVERVIEW OF CYPRUS
Introduction
Cyprus is the third largest island (covering only 9.251 km2)in the Mediterranean, found
at the crossroads of Europe, Asia and Africa. The Mycenaean and the Achaean brought
their civilisation to the island over 3,000 years ago. Many others passed through, includ-
ing the Phoenician, Assyrian, Egyptians, Persians, Romans, Crusaders, Venetians, Otto-
mans and British. Prehistoric settlements, ancient Greek temples, Roman theatres and
villas, early Christian basilicas, Byzantine churches and monasteries, Crusader castles,
Gothic churches and Venetian fortifications can be witnessed across the island.
Figure 1.1. Map of the Mediterranean (Google Maps, 2017)
The island gained its independence in 1960 and was proclaimed a Republic. During the
period 1960-73 Cyprus went through a fast and almost uninterrupted growth. Despite
a breakdown due to the Turkish invasion, in 1974 and the occupation of 38% of its terri-
tory by military forces, the economy recovered soon after and a substantial growth was
achieved. From 1975-1993, Cyprus once again witnessed additional economic growth,
accompanied by an expansion of social services. Today the people of Cyprus who live
in the Government controlled area of the country, enjoy a high level of education, low
unemployment and a good standard of health care. Crime is maintained at low levels.
69% of the population lives in urban areas which cover 9.6% of the island. By the 1st of
May 2004, Cyprus became a full member-state of European Union.
Every building has different values, problems and on occasion, heritage (Nomikos, 2004).
From a thermal environment standpoint, each inhabited building complex in Cyprus falls
under one of the following categories:
1. The climate is totally ignored. The claim is that a climate sensitive design is not re-
quired because the climate extremes are not severe.
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2. Only winter conditions are considered. The idea is to minimise the heating require-
ments in order to save fuel and ignore the problem of overheating summer.
3. The climatic constraints influence the design of houses.
Generally, the third design option is found in vernacular houses throughout the country
but contemporary houses always seem to be built either to ignore the climate or, in the
best of cases, consider the winter conditions only, and provide an inadequate shading
arrangement for the summer.
Figure 1.2. Map of Cyprus (Google Maps, 2017)
In an attempt to evaluate some of the current housing habits in Cyprus, a questionnaire

was compiled (Lapithis 2003). The results of the questionnaire were taken from contem-
porary residential buildings, with mostly four or five residents, in urban areas of Nicosia.
From the outcome of the questionnaire, it transpired that most dwellings in Cyprus
are constructed with little or no insulation and this is the most likely cause for the high
percentage of summer and winter discomfort as well as noise complaints. Most other
complaints stated (e.g. poor natural lighting) are the result of unsuccessful bioclimatic
orientated design. All this suggests the need for better, more bioclimatic appropriate
constructions, with adequate insulation and proper orientation with respect to the sun.
The research was focused on the residential sector because increased energy efficiency
in residential buildings is still regarded as a ‘new’ field. It also assists the government’s
aim to comply with the EU energy regulations, due to the present challenges Cyprus is
facing with its accession to the European Union.
The research also set out to demonstrate that passive solar architecture is a viable en-
ergy-saving concept which can be applied in the context of Cyprus. A principal aim of
the research was to develop an understanding of the criteria needed for an appropriate
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Overview of Cyprus
passive solar architecture that is sensitive to both energy use and climatic conditions.
Through the research the following parameters were studied:
• The climate of Cyprus
• The comfort zone of the average Cypriot
• Examples of historical and traditional housing which can be shown to inform passive
solar architecture in Cyprus
• The energy uses of the island
• Building and energy legislations
The results of these studies show that passive solar design is an appropriate energy-sav-
ing strategy for Cyprus. Monitoring the Experimental Solar House led to various con-
clusions regarding its performance as well as indications for further development and
improvement.
Climatic Conditions in Cyprus

Taking local climatic conditions into consideration, the significance of design (Konya,
1980) is essential in order to employ the appropriate strategies for the design and selec-
tion of the most suitable passive solar systems. Stein (Stein, 1977) addresses two view-
points. Firstly, that respect for the climate is firmly tied to the aim of conserving energy
by building design. And secondly, a building that is designed to exclude and ignore site
and climate would be completely irrelevant with its surroundings.
The principal climatic elements, with regard to human comfort and building design, are
solar radiation, temperature, humidity, wind, precipitation and other such specific charac-
teristics. Bioclimatic architecture, indeed any architecture, cannot persist without being
as site-specific as possible, especially in an island like Cyprus where bioclimatic design
can be the best solution for the design of energy efficient buildings (Lapithis,1994) (Lapi-
this, 2003). Climate is one of the ultimate site-specification criteria, while it is important
to note that human activities have the potential of changing climate.
Cyprus has an intense Mediterranean climate with a typical seasonal rhythm concerning
temperature, rainfall and weather in general. The central Troodos massif, rising to 1951
metres and, to a lesser extent, the long narrow Pentadaktylos mountain range, with
peaks of about 1,000 metres, play an important part in the meteorology of Cyprus. The
predominantly clear blue skies and high sunshine periods give large seasonal and daily
variations between the temperature of the coast and the interior of the island that also
cause considerable climate change effects, especially near the coasts.
Its average hottest peak reaches 41°C in the summer and drops to an approximate of
5°C in the winter. Relative humidity ranges from 40-60%, and a large daily temperature
range is noted with up to 18°C difference between day and night. Thus Cyprus’s climate
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calls for the need of cooling in the summer, and the large amount of solar radiation
during the summer may easily be used for heating in winter.
In summer the island is mainly under the influence of a shallow trough of low pressure
extending from the great continental depression centred over Southwest Asia. It is a
season of high temperatures with almost cloudless skies. Rainfall is almost negligible
but isolated thunderstorms sometimes occur. Thus the rainfall estimates to less than 5%
of the total in the average year.
In the winter months Cyprus is near the track of fairly frequent small depressions that
cross the Mediterranean Sea from west to east between the continental anticyclone of
Eurasia and the overall low-pressure belt of North Africa. These depressions give rise to
periods of disturbed weather usually lasting from one to three days and produce most
of the annual precipitation, the average fall from December to February being about
60% of the annual total.
Snow occurs rarely in the lowlands and on the Kyrenia range, however snow falls fre-
quently every winter on ground above 1,000 metres. This snowfall occurs usually by
the first week of December and ends by the middle of April. Although snow cover is
not continuous during the coldest months it may lie to considerable depths for several
weeks especially on the northern slopes of the highest Troodos peaks (Meteorological
Services, 1993).
The climate of Cyprus can be summarised as:
• Cyprus is within the Mediterranean temperate zone
• Hot summers rise to an approximate of 41°C in its warmest month
• Mild winters drop to an approximate of 5°C in its coldest month
• Average humidity of 40-60% (sustaining within the comfort zone limits)
• Large daily temperature range (up to 18°C difference between night and day)
• The large amount of solar radiation which varies from 3.48 KWh/m²day in midwinter
to 8.82 KWh/m²day in midsummer, result in the potential for solar energy usage in
winter
• The predominantly clear blue skies and high sunshine periods give large seasonal
and daily variations between the temperature of the coast and the interior of the
island that also cause considerable climate change effects especially near the coasts
• At Latitude 35° North, Longitude 33° East, Cyprus has a day length of 9.8 hours in
December to 14.5 hours in June
• Snow falls frequently every winter on ground above 1,000 metres. Usually during
the first week of December and ends by the middle of April
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Overview of Cyprus
Climatic Zones
The climatic zones are valid for both the heating and the cooling period (Meteorological
Service, 1993).
Climatic zones Cumulative tem- Heating pe- Cooling pe- Mean Tem- Mean tem-
peratures for heat- riod <200C riod <200C perature for perature
ing periods <20 C (months)
0
(months) heating pe- for cooling
riod (0C) period (0C)
Z1 26667 6 4 14.2 25.8

Coastal areas
Z2 32739 6 4 13.2 27.2
Flat areas in the
interior
Z3 40439 6 4 12.6 26
Semi-mountain
areas
Z4 64278 8 2 11.6 25.2
Mountain areas
Table 1.1 Climatic Zones of Cyprus (Meteorological Service, 1993)
Figure 1.3 Climatic zones (Mete-

orological Service, 1993)
Air Temperatures
Cyprus experiences hot summers and mild winters, but this generalisation must be mod-
ified by the consideration of altitude, which lowers temperatures by about 5°C per 1,000
metres and that of marine influence, giving cooler summers and warmer winters adjacent
to most of the coastlines and especially along the west coast (Meteorological Services,
1993). The seasonal difference between mid-summer and mid-winter is quite large, at
18°C inland and about 14°C on the coasts.
Maximum temperature differences between day and minimum temperatures at night are
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also quite large, especially inland during the summer. In winter these differences are
8 to 10°C on the lowlands, and 5 to 6°C on the central plain and 9 to 12°C elsewhere.
In July and August the mean daily temperature ranges between 29°C on the central
plain and 22°C on the Troodos mountains, while the average maximum temperature for
these months ranges between 36°C and 27°C respectively. In January the mean daily
temperature is 10°C on the central plain and 3°C on the mountains respectively.
Figure 1.4 Monthly variation of air temperatures at Nicosia (Athalassa) 1991-2000 (Meteorological
Service, 2017)
Sea Temperatures
In the open sea, temperatures rise to 27°C in August and rise above 22°C during the six
months from June to November. During each of the three coolest months, January to
March, average sea temperature drops only to about 16 or 17°C.
Near all coastal areas, three or four metres deep inside the water, temperatures are
similar to those of the open sea and lie within the range 15 to 17°C in February and 23
to 28°C in August.
There are no significant daily changes of seawater temperature except on the coast in
the very shallow waters, of depths less than one meter (Meteorological Services, 1993).
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Overview of Cyprus
Soil Temperatures
Seasonal change in mean soil temperatures range approximately from 10°C in January
to 33°C in July at 10 centimetres depth, and from 14 to 18°C at one metre. On the
mountain ranges, at 1,000 metres above sea level, these mean seasonal values are low-
ered by about 5°C.
Absorption of large amounts of solar energy during the day and high radiation losses
in clear skies at night causes a wide daily range of soil temperatures in summer. On the
soil surface the daily variation on a typical July day in the lowlands is between 15°C near
dawn to near 60°C during mid afternoon. At only 5 centimetres deep, the variation is
reduced to between 24 and 42°C and at 50 centimetres depth there is no daily temper-
ature change (Meteorological Services, 1993).
Relative Humidity
Elevation above mean sea level and distance from the coast also have considerable ef-
fects on the relative humidity, which to a large extent are a reflection of temperate differ-
ences. Humidity may be described as average or high at 65 to 95% during winter days.
Near midday, in summer, humidity is very low with values on the central plain usually a
little over 30% and occasionally as low as 15% (Meteorological Services, 1993).
Fog is infrequent and usually confined to the early mornings but there are longer periods
of fog in the mountains during the winter when clouds often envelop the highest peaks.
Visibility is generally good or excellent but on a few days each spring the atmosphere
becomes hazy when dust is blown in from the Arabian and African Deserts (Meteorolog-
ical Services, 1993).
Winds
Over the eastern Mediterranean’s general surface winds are mostly westerly or south-west-
erly in the winter and north-westerly or northerly in the summer. Over the island in its
entirety however, winds are quite variable in direction with the hypsometry of the land
and local heating effects a significant role in determining local wind direction and speed.
Differences of temperature between sea and land are built up daily during predomi-
nant periods of clear skies and cause considerable sea and land breezes throughout the
summer. Whilst these are mostly pinpointed near the coasts, they regularly penetrate
far inland during the summer, reaching the capital city, Nicosia, and often bringing a
welcomed temperature drop as well as an increase in humidity (Meteorological Services,
1986).
Gales are infrequent over Cyprus but may occur especially on exposed coasts with win-
ter depressions. Small whirlwinds are common in summer and appear mostly near mid-
day as “dust devils” on the hot dry central plain. Vortices, approaching a diameter of
100 meters or so, with the characteristics of water spouts at sea and of small tornadoes
on land, very rarely occur in a thunderous weather. Localised damage caused by these
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vortices haves been reported on a few occasions but in general Cyprus suffers relatively
little wind damage (Meteorological Services, 1993).
Figure 1.5 Mean annual wind speed (m/s) -10m (Meteorological Service, 2017)
Sunshine
All parts of Cyprus enjoy quite a sunny climate. In the central plain and eastern lowlands
the average number of hours of bright sunshine for the whole year is 75% of the time,
when the sun is above the horizon. Over the whole six months of summer, there is an
average of 11.5 hours of bright sunshine per day whilst in winter it is reduced to only 5.5
hours during the cloudiest months, December and January. Even on the high mountains
the cloudiest winter months have an average of nearly 4 hours bright sunshine per day
and in June and July the figure reaches 11 hours (Meteorological Services, 1990).
Figure 1.7 3D Sun Path Diagram

(35oN latitude) (Marsh, 2017)
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Overview of Cyprus
Figure 1.6 Sun Path Diagram (35oN

latitude) (Watson, 1993). The sun path
diagram for the given latitude can be
used to determine the sun’s position
for any hour of the year.
Solar Radiation
The monthly mean total solar radiation on a horizontal surface on clear days at represent-
ative locations of the central plain, coastal and mountain areas varies from about 3.48
kWh/m²day in midwinter to 8.82 kWh/m²day in midsummer (Meteorological Services,
1993). The mean daily solar radiation on a horizontal surface varies from 3.32 kWh/m²-
day in December to 8.12 kWh/m²day in July in low land areas, and from 2.20 kWh/m²day
to 7.77 kWh/m²day in the respective months on the high mountains. The direct solar
radiation at normal incidences at noon varies from 0.85 kW/m² in winter to 0.91 kW/m²
in summer. Thus it is seen that Cyprus enjoys a very sunny climate. The long periods of
bright sunshine and the high amount of insulation, even on the high mountains, are very
important factors in making solar energy a variable option.
Figure 1.8 Global solar radiation

(solaris, 2017)
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Comfort Zones in Cyprus

The principal climatic elements, with regard to human comfort and building design,
are solar radiation, temperature, humidity, wind, precipitation and other such specific
characteristics. Using the psychometric chart, Olgyay’s (Olgyay, 1963) bioclimatic chart,
Humphreys’ comfort chart and Szokolays (Szokolay, 1985) equation, specifically adapt-
ed for Nicosia, an average comfort zone was derived and applicable in Cyprus. The fol-
lowing conclusions were made concerning thermal comfort in Cyprus: (Lapithis, 2003)
• Thermal comfort zones depend on regional climate
• An average of 19.5°C – 29°C is the proposed temperature, within comfort zone

limits
• An average of 20-75% is the proposed relative humidity, within the comfort zone
limits
• The best thermal comfort is achieved during the months of April, May, October and
November. These months needed no extra heating or cooling
• The results (Lapithis, 2003) showed that in order to achieve thermal comfort con-
ditions, ventilation is required during the summer months (June, July, August and
September). In this case, natural ventilation actually occurs, or if there are no breez-
es, then ceiling fans are needed
• In the months of December, January, February and March passive solar gains are
used to achieve thermal comfort
• It must be noted that steps should be taken to avoid over heating during the summer
• The same is to be said for passive cooling needs in the summer
• The results show that all heating requirements are covered through solar energy,
while natural ventilation or ceiling fans cover all the cooling needs
The research also concluded that it is impossible to accurately specify final tempera-
tures and relative humidity for the average person, because of the following factors:
• Psychological: It is impossible to define a person’s psychology within the house in-

definitely. For example, although one may be a little cold, a good view of the sun,
and a sense of well-being may easily stray the specific individual from seeking heat.
• Physiological: It is impossible to define a person’s body mass, temperature or the

amount of clothing one may be wearing.
• Practical: Passive solar design requires simple passive habits, which cannot be mon-
itored mechanically. It is impossible for example, to be 100% sure that windows
will be opened and closed, substantially enough, in order to preserve the required
indoor temperature.
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Overview of Cyprus
Learning through History

This research investigates the influence of the application of passive solar systems in
traditional and contemporary architectural forms in Cyprus. It focuses on a typical Cyp-
riot family house, and aims towards the development of a specific regional architecture,
which is sensitive to both energy use and climatic conditions.
Without advanced technical knowledge, many ancient societies in Cyprus developed

urban and architectural forms based on an empirical knowledge of the principles of pas-
sive thermal control. Ancient Cypriot buildings were designed with an intimate knowl-
edge of the site and climate, in order to achieve these ancient ideals, without today’s
existing dependence on mechanical control of the indoor environment.
Much contemporary architectural design, however, has lost most of this intimate knowl-
edge. Orientation, design and construction now depend on the economic use of the site
or construction. Buildings are considered in terms of cost and profit. Traditional knowl-
edge of planning has been replaced by space standards and guidelines. The harmony
between the building, the site and the communities’ lifestyles has been lost.
The improvement of the thermal performance of buildings using passive design tech-
niques is a matter which has always received the attention of architects. Since the oil
crisis of 1973 however, this concern has grown to form what was then called solar and
bioclimatic architecture and is now referred to as green or sustainable. Recently, the de-
velopment of energy calculation techniques using computers has made the simulation
of the thermal performance of buildings relatively easy. The investigation in detail of the
complex relationship between the external and internal environment as well as the effect
of the building envelope on this relationship can now be easily studied.
Although preceding important presences in Cyprus’ architectural culture, the founda-

tions of modern Cypriot architecture were laid by a generation of architects who com-
pleted their studies in architecture abroad as the island did not allocate a local university.
As the level of education grew, the field of architecture began to expand and architects
were taught to embrace new attitudes and ways of thinking.
Traces of architecture on the island can be found as far back as the Neolithic period.
Cyprus however, is not known for its long periods of peace and stability due to its ge-
opolitical position. It is hence only natural that the growth and consolidation of local
architecture is internationally influenced.
Approximately since 9000 BC and up until the mid 20th century AD, construction meth-
ods have varied only slightly (Lapithis, 2003) (Lapithis, 2004) (Lapithis, 2005). The con-
struction of buildings was made economical through the use of materials found on loca-
tion such as stone, wood, reeds, earth and terracotta. Structural solutions were simple
and effective. For example, the length of trees available and used as roof rafters deter-
mined the dimensions of room widths.
The architectural design of contemporary buildings (Lapithis, 2004) (Lapithis, 2005) in

Cyprus (post 1970) is mostly based on the educational experience of local architects. As
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most Cypriot architects were educated all over the world, their designs are profoundly
influenced by western architecture and have an evident tendency to recreate an interna-
tional architectural style without considering the advantages of traditional architecture,
the distinctive climatic conditions and social life is prevalent. Despite the fact that there
are some fine examples of contemporary buildings based on correct design principles
and a better understanding of the local climatic conditions, the great majority of con-
temporary buildings are erected without consideration of climatic conditions as well as
their influence on the comfort and well-being of occupants. This is mainly due to the
lack of knowledge about the thermal performance of contemporary constructional ma-
terials and methods, and consequently the shortage of building regulations.
Before Cypriot independence in 1960, specialised building tradesmen constructed

dwellings. In particular, the existence of an itinerant building team was crucial because
as they moved from place to place, they learned a lot from local architecture and influ-
enced the methods of construction and building types in other regions. Local people
began to travel abroad and influenced construction by bringing prototypes from other
countries.
Thermal performance of traditional, contemporary and solar houses have been re-
searched in relation to climate and in terms of the various aspects necessary for under-
standing such performances (Lapithis, 2003) (Lapithis, 2004) (Lapithis, 2005). Taking into
account the general characteristics of dry climate and the requirements it imposes on
a home’s design as well as the thermal performance of traditional and contemporary
houses, it may be concluded that Cypriot traditional houses have proved to be superi-
orly energy-efficient when compared to contemporary houses.
Building Legislations
Cyprus is a presidential parliamentary democracy and administratively is separated into
Districts (6 altogether) that are managed by the District Officers appointed by the Gov-
ernment. In addition, there are two types of local authorities, the Municipalities (33) and
the Communities (352), which are governed by separate laws. Municipalities form the
core of the local government structure in urban areas and in tourist centres, whereas
Communities constitute the local government structure, in rural areas. Communities
with a population of over 5.000 inhabitants or smaller Communities with sufficient eco-
nomic resources to function properly and independently have the opportunity to be-
come Municipalities. The Mayors and the Municipal Council of the Municipalities, as
well as the Presidents and the Community Councils of the Communities, are elected di-
rectly by the citizens for a five-year term. The Municipalities and the Communities have
their own budget. They are responsible for the construction, maintenance of streets,
provision of local services and the appearance of public areas, the protection of public
health etc. The main sources of their revenues are state subsidies, taxes and fees.
The planning system is highly centralised. The Minister of Interior is the Planning Au-
thority and is responsible for the preparation and publication of Development Plans. As
such there are the “’Local Plans’’ and the detailed “’Area Schemes’’ for urban areas and
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Overview of Cyprus
the “’Policy Statement for the Countryside’’ for rural areas. The General Development
Plans contain a set of land uses including public facilities and zoning maps as well as
policies, provisions and regulations to guide the development. The major advisor to the
Minister is the Town Planning Board. The Department of Town Planning and Housing
provides technical assistance and expertise.
The Town and Country Planning Law has been enacted, as a whole, on the 1st of De-
cember 1990. The responsibility of issuing Planning Permits rests with ten distinct Plan-
ning Authorities, which are the Director of Town Planning and Housing Department, all
five Divisional Town Planning Officers in the districts, as well as the four main Municipal
Councils of the island. In cases of urban complexes made up of several Municipalities
and Community Councils, a new proposal of establishing a joint Planning Authority for
the whole conurbation area (covered by each Local Plan) is currently under considera-
tion by the Ministry of Interior. Building Permits can be issued by the 24 Municipalities
(since 9 out of the 33 are under occupation) for the Municipal Areas and the five District
Officers, for the rural areas.
The Law, considering the kind of development, specifies the appropriate drawings and
any other documents, certificates etc... which have to be submitted with application
form to the Planning Authority. Three main issues can be mentioned here:
1. There is not any legal obligation to submit designs or calculations for thermal, acous-
tic, light and fire performance of a conventional building within the application form.
2. Although civil engineering calculations have to be submitted at the building permit

application process, these drawings are roughly checked and the responsibility for
any structural failure remains on the civil engineer’s side.
3. According to a recent regulation of 2000 all new constructions, renovations and gen-
erally any structure, have to be inspected by authorised engineers. Therefore, in-
spections are compulsory for freelance practitioners, though are not compulsory for
Responsible Authorities. For this very reason, the enforcement of the Planning and
Building laws is not so effective.
All building modifications require a “’building permit’’ and moreover, the modifications
that are regarded as “’substantial’’ require an additional “’planning permit’’ in ad-
vance. The specific provision is unclear and therefore depends on the discretion of the
respective Town Planning Authorities, to judge whether a modification is substantial or
not. The painting of a building for example does not require any permit, simply because
it is not regarded as a substantial modification. Therefore designers are not obliged to
ask for approval of any drawing concerning painting.
There is no specific data concerning maintenance, renovations, modifications, etc. of

building envelopes. Indicative data however suggest that the average Cyprus family
does not pay a lot of attention to these matters, that people can extent the period es-
timated to finish the various works as long as possible and that they must proceed to
the necessary works only when the performance of their building is intolerable, or dan-
gerous, always looking for the absolute minimum expense. In the vast majority of cases,
-21-
improvements are related only to the painting of buildings.
No specific legislation was ever passed before the 80’s concerning incentives for organ-
ised housing complexes. The only regulatory tools were the commonly used town plan-
ning restriction which concerned plot ratio, plot coverage, maximum height, maximum
number of stories, a general aesthetic framework and some indirect density standards
concerning the minimum surface in relation to the size of housing units. This is actually
the very reason why multi-story family buildings were very few till the 80’s. Some sort of
incentives for organised housing complexes, up to three stories, were introduced in the
revised statutory local plans in 2003.
There are no specific regulations concerning architectural and functional aspects. The
authority that is responsible for issuing the Planning Permit decides whether a certain
development rests within the environment of the surrounding area. There are however
indirect density standards, concerning the minimum size of housing units. Practice how-
ever is much different especially as far as the aesthetic control is concerned. Problems
also arise when dealing with the incorporation of small but vital structures, like solar
panels, antennas etc.
Demographic and Housing Data

The Statistical Services of Cyprus provides basic demographic data approximately every
10 years. The last two census of population were carried out in 1992 and 2001 (Statis-
tical Services, 2001):
• The total number of persons enumerated in 2001, in the area controlled by the Cy-
prus Government, was 689.565.
• The total number of units was 286,000 in 2000.
• Almost 85,000 of these units were built in the period from 1960-1980.
• Out of the total number of units, nearly 60,000 are apartment blocks and 125,000
are detached or semi-detached houses.
• Number of new dwellings completed in 2000 are 5,000
• Average dwelling area 189m2
• Average construction cost was 568 Euros per m2 .
• From the above data it can be derived that the average number of persons per
dwelling, was 3,23 for 1992 and 3,06 for 2001.
• In addition to that the number of square meters per person, was 49,5 for 1992 and
61 for 2001.
• The average construction period required for completion of a project was about 1.5
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Overview of Cyprus
years (Ministry of Commerce and Industry, 1994). Only for 22% of all projects, the
period required for completion extended from 2 to 4 years. Nearly 61% of residential
buildings are reported to have completed within a period of 18 months.
• Most of the new dwellings were found in Nicosia (29.3%), followed by Limassol
(26.1%), Larnaca (17.5%), Paphos (15.6%) and Ammochostos (11.5%). Two thirds of
the new dwellings were constructed in urban areas, reflecting a high level of urbani-
sation.
• In 1994, 8,079 dwellings were completed in the private sector, with an average floor-
ing space of 170 m² and 5.4 rooms per dwelling. Of these dwellings 56% were con-
structed with central heating installation and 95% with a solar water heater.
• From the new houses completed in the private sector, 64.3% were single houses,
21.5% were semi-detached, and 14.2% upper-floor houses. The average number of
bedrooms per house was 3.0. Living floor space was 131.1m² whereas useful floor
space constituted 178.1 m² out of an average total housing area of 206.5 m².
• Out of the 8.079 dwellings completed in the private sector, 2.294 or 28.4% were
reported for holiday purposes or as a second homes use. The distribution with these
categories is 1,384 holiday apartments, 476 holiday houses and 434 secondary
homes. As expected, the vast majority of dwellings intended for holiday purposes
are located mainly in the coastal districts, Ammochostos 29.4%, Limassol 25.2%,
Paphos 24.8% and Larnaca 15.0%. Nicosia accounted for only 5.6%, mainly second-
ary homes.
Energy Consumption
With the exception of solar energy, Cyprus has no other energy resources of its own and
has to rely heavily on fossil fuel imports. The energy consumption is predominantly oil
based. The only other form of commercial energy used is coal. Coal is used occasionally
for cement production, when its price is more competitive to that of heavy fuel oils. More
than 94% of the total primary energy consumed in Cyprus is currently imported from oth-
er, energy-producing countries. This creates not only a profound ecological imbalance
but also presents a serious impact on state funds. With the exception of solar energy
(Greenpeace Mediterranean, 1999), Cyprus has no other energy resource of its own and
has to rely heavily on the import of fossil fuel.
The contribution of solar energy to meet the primary energy needs of the country is es-
timated to be 5.9% (Synergy, 1995). Thus, more than 94% of the total primary energy is
supplied by imports.
The cost of imported energy for the year 1992 amounted to 145.7 millions CY pounds,
representing 63% of the domestic exports. Due to the developmental nature of the
economy of Cyprus, energy consumption is increasing rapidly. The per capita annual
energy consumption in Cyprus is 2.28 toe, which is well above the world average of 1.59
toe/capita and below that of the European Community.
-23-
The low population, the almost exclusive reliance on oil for the energy needs, the rel-
atively high cost of electricity, the reasonably high level of technology and the popular
acceptance of solar and wind energy (even without any incentives), make the renewable
energy options, particularly solar energy, extremely viable from a technical, social and
economic standpoint.
The total annual energy consumption of residential buildings in Cyprus is 15.1% of the
annual consumption of energy (Ministry of Commerce and Industry and the Department
of Statistics and Research, 1994), while in Europe it is 9-15% (Burton et al. 1990).
According to Carvalho et al. (1991) comparing Cyprus to the European Community and
regarding the economic activity and energy consumption, it is assessed that there is
great potential for energy conservation and improvement of efficiency in Cyprus.
Total annual energy consumption refers to all energy sources those being, electricity
and fossil fuels. The industrial sector consumes less electricity and yet its total energy
consumption is greater than any other sector. For 1000kWh to be produced, 0.344 toe
is required.
It may be remarked that the generation of electricity accounts for 36% of the total ener-
gy requirements of the country and that the efficiency of production of electricity from
oil corresponding to 0.344 toe/1000kWh is low, compared to the international values
typified by 0.22 to 0.23 toe/1000 kWh.
The contribution of domestic resources, and in particular solar energy, to meeting the
primary needs of the country was estimated at 5.9%. Thus more than 94% of the total
primary energy consumption was dominated by imports of crude oil and oil products.
The total annual (1993) energy consumption (electricity included by the domestic sec-
tor) in Cyprus comprises of 15.1% with electricity at 34%. Based on consumption by
households, a rate of growth of 4.6% is indicated between 1992 and 1993. In terms of
end-use of energy in households, water heating holds the highest place being half of
the total consumption, and more than half of the electricity.
Data was collected for carbon dioxide emissions per capita from 1990 (6.8 metric tons)
through 2004 (8.2 metric tons) showing an increase of 1.4 metric tones. Cyprus is 47 on
the rank as ranked by their metric tons of carbon dioxide emissions per capita in 2004.
Renewable Energy Sources

The need for renewable energy sources is one of Cyprus’ greatest concerns. Renew-
able energy technologies harness energy sources such as sunlight, wind, water, and
plant material. Unlike fossil fuels, these sources are self-replenishing and most often
inexhaustible. Concern about the environmental impact of renewable energy is small
in comparison to those of non-renewable energy. The adverse effects that do exist
usually can be lessened or eliminated through proper planning. However, as the use of
renewable energy technologies continues to grow, environmental impact will need to
be addressed. Some of these impacts are outlined below.
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Overview of Cyprus
No energy technology is free of environmental concerns. Most renewable energy tech-

nologies produce very little air and water pollution relative to fossil fuels and nuclear
power. The areas of greatest environmental concern are the impacts caused by the con-
struction and operation of renewable energy power plants. These concerns are largely
addressed through proper siting of facilities, and by taking measures to ensure that any
environmental impact is controlled, reduced, or eliminated. In addition to these generic
environmental concerns, there are specific concerns for each type of renewable energy
technology.
Cyprus has ratified different agreements such as the Kyoto Protocol in 1999, the United
Nations Framework convention on climate change (UNFCCC) in 1997 and the Vienna
Convention in 1992. The Memorandum of Understanding on the implementation of the
EEA Financial Mechanism 2004-2009 between the Republic of Iceland, the Principality
of Liechtenstein, the Kingdom of Norway and the Republic of Cyprus was signed on
16 September 2005. The Memorandum of Understanding on the implementation of
the Norwegian Financial Mechanism 2004-2009 between the Kingdom of Norway and
the Republic of Cyprus was signed on 19 May 2005. Under both Financial Mechanisms
projects in the following priority sectors and specific fields of intervention for Cyprus will
be supported such as; Integrated pollution prevention and control, reduction of CO2
emissions and management of selective solid waste and possible recycling, promote
sustainable natural resources management and efficient use, sustainable forest manage-
ment and implementation of management plans for Natura 2000 sites.
The Cyprus government has set amongst the main objectives of the Cyprus Energy Pol-
icy the development of Renewable Energy Sources (RES), energy conservation and
harmonisation of the energy sector with the Aquis-Communataire. The national action
plan for RES and energy efficiency calls for doubling of RES contribution to the coun-
try’s energy balance from 4,5% to 9% by 2010 and increasing the contribution of RES in
Electricity production to 6% by 2010. Within the framework of the national action plan
for RES and energy efficiency, the support scheme for energy conservation and the
promotion of renewable energy sources has been operational since 2004 and modified
versions were in force until 2010. The Ministry of Commerce, Industry and Tourism has
examined several amendments of the existing support scheme in order to be more func-
tional and effective. The most important amendments are:
• Increase of the maximum eligible installed capacity per unit of photovoltaic that are
financed from 5 kW to 20 kW and the maximum amount of grant from 16200 Euro to
65000 Euro per unit.
• Increase of the maximum amount of grant provided for the installation of small wind
systems with capacity up to 30 kW from 30800 Euro to 51300 Euro per unit.
• Grant of 1200 Euro for purchasing a hybrid or fuel flexible vehicle and grant of 700
Euro for purchasing an electric or a low CO2 emission vehicle.
• Grant for energy saving investments in thermal insulation, estimated up to 21 million

Euro in the next two years.
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• Energy saving campaign using compact fluorescent lamps worth 4.3 million Euro
until 2010, which are given free of charge to electricity consumers.
The EAC (Electricity Authority of Cyprus, 2014), as a semi-governmental organization,

generated the law of 2003 for the promotion of the use of RES and energy conservation
investments:
• Provided the legal framework for the preparation and implementation of schemes
for the promotion of RES.
• Imposed a levy of 0.22 Euro cents/KWh on all electricity consumed. The proceeds
are utilised to finance activities aimed to promote the use of RES.
• The special RES fund is managed by an independent committee (Kassinis 2007).
This legislative framework empowered the actions and the measures taken towards
strategic objectives.
From the first Renewable Energy and Energy Conservation Action Plan in 1985 to the
Action Plan 2002-2010 for RES in Cyprus and the implementation of energy policies for
the development of RES was a long process for the Electricity Authority of Cyprus (EAC).
A legislative framework has been created in order to provide the necessary background
for the application of the action plan and legally support schemes for the promotion of
RES. The EAC achieved today’s Energy Performance of Buildings Directive (EPBD) by
the process presented below:
• The first formulation of Renewable Energy and Energy Conservation Action Plan
took place in 1985 and was then revised in 1998
• Operation of a first grants scheme (1998) (sectors of the manufacturing industry,

hotels and agriculture)
• Following the above was the establishment of: The Applied Energy Centre (AEC)
and The Cyprus Institute of Energy (CIE) (2000)
• EAC agreed to purchase electricity generated from RES
• Transmission System Operator (TSO) an independent authority (2003)
• Then procedures were specified for licensing and interconnecting wind and photo-
voltaic installations to the national grid
• The formulation of an Action Plan (2002-2010) for RES in Cyprus
• Legislative framework for the promotion of RES and conservation of energy (Apr
2003)
• Cyprus Energy Regulatory Authority (CERA) (Jan 2004)
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Overview of Cyprus
• New grant schemes (Feb 2004)
• New enhanced grant schemes for RES (Jan 2006)
All the above actions have provided a background for the implementation of the pol-
icies. The actions taken by the EAC can be separated into two levels: the legislative
framework and the measures for the achievement of strategic objectives.
Biomass
Most of the biomass energy (heat and electricity) used today comes from the combus-
tion of wood, agricultural residues, and MSW. If the biomass is produced and harvested
in a sustainable fashion, then there is no net increase in carbon dioxide production, since
plants consume carbon dioxide in photosynthesis. Particulate in air emissions can be
controlled through efficient combustion and treatment of the combustion gases.
An alternative to direct combustion of biomass is gasification, where biomass is heated

in an airtight chamber and then oxidised to produce a medium Btu content gas. This
gas can be burned in a furnace, boiler, or gas turbine to produce heat and electricity.
Gasification has the benefit of being more energy-efficient and less polluting than direct
combustion. Gasification technologies have been developed on a small scale, and are
being scaled up for electric power plant applications.
Incinerating MSW is of more environmental concern, mainly because of the non-bio-

mass materials that are contained in MSW such as plastics, heavy metals in batteries,
and chemicals in household cleaning and maintenance products. The European Union
has strict regulations regarding air emissions and disposal of ash from MSW incinerators,
while Cyprus has only recently established such regulations.
Methane generated in sewage treatment plants, landfills, and anaerobic digestion sys-
tems on farms is an extremely clean fuel. The combustion of methane for energy is less
detrimental to the environment, as methane is considered much less hazardous as a
greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide.
Agricultural crops, trees, and even waste paper can be converted to alcohol fuels for
transportation. Corn, sugar cane, and other high sugar content crops are used to pro-
duce ethanol. Biodiesel is produced from soy-beans and rapeseed. The conversion of
these biomass materials to liquid biofuels poses few environmental hazards. The com-
bustion of these fuels creates less overall air pollution than gasoline and petroleum die-
sel.
Geothermal Power plants
Vast amounts of energy can be obtained by tapping the heat trapped in rocks, water,
and steam beneath the earth’s surface. Air pollutants from geothermal power facilities
include hydrogen sulphide, benzene, radon, ammonia, and boron. Liquid effluents may
-27-
contain toxic elements such as mercury and arsenic. There is speculation that some
geothermal power plant operations, such as injection of fluids into the ground, may
cause seismic activity. On the other hand, removal of large quantities of water from the
ground can cause the land to sink or subside. The geothermal industry uses filters and
scrubbers to control air and liquid pollutants, as well as mufflers to reduce noise. In Cy-
prus, geothermal power plants do not exist, mainly because the geographical potential
does not exist. The areas of environmental concern associated with geothermal energy
are air pollutants, solid wastes, brine disposal, noise, seismic disturbance, and land sub-
sidence. The type and extent of these impacts is highly site specific, as they depend on
the nature of the geothermal resource.
Wind Energy
Wind is an abundant source of clean mechanical and electrical energy. Some of the en-
vironmental concerns of using wind energy on a large scale are the land requirements,
noise, and visual pollution. Careful wind machine design and siting, however, can re-
duce these impacts. Wind farms can be used for other purposes, such as agriculture
and ranching.
Wind studies have been conducted for Cyprus, both indicating that mean wind speeds
are enough for introducing wind energy and the goal to achieve 10% wind power is
possible (European Wind Energy Association, 1998) (Pashardes et al. 1995) (Metsovio
Polytechnic at al. 1998). It is essential to establish a firm target towards wind power as
an energy source, where there is potential for exploiting wind as an energy source.
Solar Thermal Energy
Solar thermal systems typically concentrate sunlight to generate heat. This heat may
be used directly for water and space heating, industrial processes, or to produce steam
for operating electricity-production turbines. Examples of solar thermal systems range
from the solar hot water heaters on the top of thousands of homes in Cyprus to the solar
thermal-electric ‘power tower’ in Barstow, California (Caddet, 1994). While operating,
solar thermal systems produce no air pollution or solid wastes. The most significant
environmental impacts associated with solar thermal technologies are the great land
area requirements and visual impacts of utility-scale systems. Some solar thermal sys-
tems use antifreeze solutions or other fluids for heat transfer. These fluids are generally
non-toxic, but must be handled and disposed of correctly.
Cyprus has excellent conditions for grid connected solar thermal power generation.
Appropriate site locations for solar thermal electricity are normally in arid to semi-arid
countries situated in the sun-belt, which includes the Mediterranean region, and natu-
rally Cyprus. Considering the similarities between Crete and Cyprus, there is no reason
why the suggested THESEUS power plant could not be implemented in Cyprus. A
100MW plant could generate close to 10% of today’s consumed electricity in Cyprus.
(Greenpeace, 1999)
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Overview of Cyprus
Photovoltaic Systems
Solar electric or photovoltaic (PV) technology has advanced significantly and could be-
come a major source of energy throughout Cyprus. PV systems use solar cells to convert
sunlight directly into electricity. PV cells have no moving parts, are easy to install, require
little maintenance, contain no fluids, consume no fuels, produce no pollution, and have
a long life span. PV systems pose little harm to the environment, and have brought
electricity to remote areas where power lines do not reach. In Cyprus, most homes are
already grid connected. This means that the electricity is supplied via national grid. By
utilising the national grid, expense of the batteries can be avoided. The whole national
grid can be used as a giant battery. The Experimental Solar House is one of the first grid
connected house, with others following.
Active Systems
A large portion of a building’s annual domestic hot water (DHW) needs can be supplied
by a relatively inexpensive active hydronic system using about 9m2 of collectors for a
typical residence. A heat exchanger, usually in the hot-water tank, keeps the working
fluid separate from the potable water supply. Such a system, however requires a backup
energy source, but may pay for itself in energy savings.
High-temperature solar collector panels may be used to power an Absorption-Chiller

Air Conditioning. Such systems are relatively expensive but may be cost-effective in
climates where plentiful sunshine and a substantial need for air conditioning exist. Also,
Heat Pumps may be used in conjunction with solar panels. Solar heat boosts the heat
pumps source during the winter, and during the summer the heat pump can discharge
heat to the outdoors at night through the collectors.
The Cyprus government has helped the promotion of active solar energy by the follow-
ing actions:
• Making solar water heating mandatory in refugee housing.
• Providing loans to individual and hoteliers for installation of solar water heaters.
• Technical support: consisting of testing of collectors, advice to industry for improve-

ment of products and to consumers for efficient utilisation.
• Making the materials used for the construction of solar water heaters duty free.
All these measures have helped the promotion of solar energy. The technical support
has been of increasing importance, becoming practically critical now that further expan-
sion of market depends on quality and product diversification. It is about time to act the
same way for passive solar energy. The domestic hot water market for individual houses
is closing upon saturation. However, replacement of old units and installations in new
houses do represent a significant share of the market. Hot water systems for apartment
buildings and hotels will probably constitute the largest share of the market in the near
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future. However, efficient collectors and careful system design are essential for the ex-
ploitation of this market. Air collectors with multiple uses (e.g. drying of agricultural
products, heating of water, heating of green houses, house heating) represent another
large share of the future market.
Passive Solar
The energy required for heating and cooling of buildings is approximately 6,7% of the
total world energy consumption. By proper environmental design, at least 2,35% of the
world energy output can be saved (Agrawal, 1988). Within Cyprus, in the coastal and
central areas, energy needs for cooling can amount to two or three times those for heat-
ing, on an annual basis (Goulding. 1993). Utilisation of the basic principles of heat trans-
fer, coupled with the local climate, and exploitation of the physical properties of con-
struction materials, could make the control of the comfort conditions in the interior of
buildings possible. Even in areas with average maximum ambient temperature around
31.7°C, comfortable conditions inside buildings can be achieved by means of proper
building design (Shaviv, 1984) that frequently makes the use of air-conditioning units in
dwellings unjustified. It is estimated (Commission of the European Communities, 1990)
that an increase of 9mtoe (million tons of oil equivalent) per annum in the total technical
potential solar contribution (all potential solar usage is exploited) is possible in all EU
countries by the year 2010, compared to 1990, if passive cooling is applied in dwellings.
Passive cooling strategies in the design of buildings in Cyprus should be considered,

since the extensive use of air-conditioning units is associated with the following prob-
lems:
• Wide use of air-conditioning units has caused a shift in electrical energy consump-
tion in the summer season and an increased peak electricity demand (Argiriou et al.,
1993). Peak electric loads impose an additional strain on national grids, which can
only be covered by development of extra new power plants.
• Increased electrical energy production contributes to exploitation of the finite fossil

fuels, to atmospheric pollution and to climatological changes (Akbari et al., 1988)
(Brow, 1988).
• Heat rejection during the production process (for electrical energy and air-condi-
tioning units) and from the operation of air-conditioning units themselves, increases
the phenomenon of the ‘urban heat island’ (Akbari et al., 1988) (the climate mod-
ification due to urban development, which produces generally warmer air in cities
than the surrounding countryside).
• Ozone-layer depletion can be caused by CFCs and HFCs (the most common refrig-
erants of currently used air-conditioning units) from possible leakage during manu-
facture, system maintenance or unit failure (DOE, 1992).
• Increase indices of illness symptoms (lethargy, headache, blocked or runny nose, dry
or sore eyes, dry throat and sometimes dry skin and asthma), known as ‘sick building
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Overview of Cyprus
syndrome’ (Burge, 1991) is reported in people working in air–conditioned buildings.
• Occupants’ dissatisfaction with indoors comfort conditions.
• Economic and political dependence of Cyprus with limited natural resources on oth-
er countries, richer in natural resources.
• Installation of air-conditioning units presents an extra cost in the construction of a

building, followed by an additional operation and maintenance cost (King, 1993).
• Expenses for importation of A/C units: countries with hot climates exhibit an in-
creased rate of sales of air-conditioning units. In Cyprus, sales of packaged air con-
ditioning have increased by 900% over recent years (Santamouris, 1990), with 80%
of them delivered to the residential sector (King, 1993).
A few Cypriot architects are now designing new houses and retrofitting older houses to
passively use the sun and other environmental factors to reduce energy costs. Passive
solar systems are characterised by having few or no moving parts. Typically, the south
side of the buildings have extensive areas of insulating glass (or even a greenhouse),
the east and west sides have less glass; and the north side, which receives no sun and
is exposed to winter winds has little or no glass. The orientation is of course reversed in
the Southern Hemisphere. Roof overhangs jut out over the south-facing glass, in order
to admit sunlight to the building in the winter, when the sun is low in the sky and heating
loads are high, and to keep sunlight out of the building’s interior in the summer, when
the sun’s path is higher. Effective insulation is considered an essential element of passive
design.
Energy Performance Building Directive

The energy performance of the building means the quantity of energy that a building
consumes or an estimation of consumption required for the different needs of the build-
ing. This could include heating, water heating, cooling, ventilation, and lighting. This is
estimated with different values in conjunction with the thermal insulation, the technical
specifications and the specifications of the electrical and mechanical fittings, the design
and the placement of the building in coordination with the climate, the building’s expo-
sure to the sun and the influence of neighbouring buildings, the energy production from
the same building and other factors that influence the energy demand.
Regulations for the energy performance of buildings have been adopted in compliance
with the EPBD directive 2002/91/EC. (Cyprus Institute of Energy, 2012). Minimum energy
efficiency requirements for new buildings have been set. The Cyprus reference residen-
tial building includes all the minimum technical characteristics such as the building shell
thermal code, energy efficiency of HVAC equipments, mandatory installation of solar
thermal system for hot water, provisions for the installation of a photovoltaic system. A
national calculation method named SBEMCY, based on a reference building, has been
developed and is applied to prove and get a building permit for a new building that
passes the minimum requirements (B class building) and also for the issuance of an en-
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ergy performance certificate.
New legislative regulations for the mandatory inspection of boilers and air conditioning
systems have been enacted but until the end of 2009 they had not been implemented.
Due to the hot climate conditions, the use of split air conditioning units is standard in
Cyprus and therefore air conditioning constitutes a significant part of electricity con-
sumption and maximum power demand during peak seasons.
A financial support scheme has been in place providing grants for existing dwellings
in energy efficiency improvements including thermal insulation, double glazing, solar
thermal water heaters and geothermal heat pumps.
For Cyprus the methodology that was prepared concerns:
• Buildings that are used as residences.
• Buildings that are not used as residences of smaller area (1000m2) which do not have
a central system of air treatment.
• The methodology is in place to calculate the energy needs of a building in heating,

refrigeration and production of hot water for use.
• Comparison of individual energy needs of real buildings with the building of report.
• Includes parameters as efficiency of instruments, contribution RES etc.
• The final result will lead to the certification of building.
The categories of buildings that are excluded from the obligation of observation of
minimal requirements of energy output and for publication of certificate of energy attri-
bution of building are the following:
• Buildings and memorials that are officially protected because of particular architec-
tural or historical value.
• Buildings that are used exclusively as spaces of religious adoration.
• Temporary buildings with a duration of use of maximum two years.
• The section of an industrial installation where the production is carried out.
• Rural or non lived in buildings which have low energy requirements.
• Isolated buildings with a total useful area of under 50m2.
• The present regulations are implemented in all cases of construction of new build-
ings as well as in cases of buildings of total useful surface above 1000m2 that suffer
radical renovation. It is comprehended that in the cases of buildings of total useful
surface above 1000m2 that suffer radical renovation, their energy output is upgrad-
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Overview of Cyprus
ed so that it fills the requirements of the minimal energy attribution of a building, at

the level of the judgement of the appropriate authorities; that is technical, functional
and economical feasible.
Energy performance certificates:
• By the of provisions of the roads and building (Energy Performance of Buildings)

regulations 2006 and article 8 of the present law, at the manufacture, the sale or the
leasing of a building an energy performance certificate (EPC) has to be given either
to the tenant or the new owner of the building.
• The certificate of the building energy performance includes reports in order to allow
the interested parties to compare and evaluate the energy performance.
• The EPC certificate of energy attribution of building is accompanied by constitution

for the improvement of the building’s energy performance, taking into consideration
the economic and financial means.
• The EPC is carried out by a building’s specialist, whose qualifications are determined
by regulations.
• The certification for apartments or units that are designed for separate use in build-
ing complexes, could be based on a common certificate for the entire building of
the complex with a communal heating system, or the evaluation of a representative
apartment of the same complex.
• The Law on Labelling CE that concerns requirements of minimal energy performance

of certain appliances of wide use as well as the Law on the Energy Labelling of do-
mestic appliances that has applied from April 2004 and concerns: refrigerators and
freezers, washing-machines, tumble dryers of clothes, dish-washers and air condi-
tioners.
Looking at methodologies prepared by the Commission so far, some calculations have

been carried out for the energy savings caused from specific energy efficiency measures
such as CFL lamps, thermal insulation, double glazing of existing buildings, solar thermal
heaters, and thermal building code for new buildings.
In parallel, using criteria in the MURE database, the impact of measures can be charac-
terised. The following measures have the most impact:
• The energy performance of building regulations, minimum efficiency requirements

for new/renovated buildings. The specified thermal transmittance (U-values) for new
buildings are 0.85 W/m2k for walls, 0.75 W/m2k for roofs, 3.8 W/m2k for glazing, U
mean=1.3 W/m2k for houses, U=1.8 W/m2k for commercial buildings. Considering
that no building codes or thermal standards were applied prior to 2007 the new re-
quirements will deliver, according to calculations, a minimum of 30% energy savings
comparing to the existing building stock (specific energy consumption in kWh/m2/
year).
-33-
• The financial incentives provided for energy efficiency investments in buildings and
industry. Most technologies are covered by these incentives. Particularly for existing
houses, the scheme provides grants of up to 2000 Euros for the thermal insulation
of walls, roofs, double glazing. Thermal insulation has a high energy conservation
impact. Considering that a roof without insulation has a thermal value of U=3 and
after the insulation this drops to U=0.5 W/m2k, overall energy savings of 30% are
estimated.
• National action plan for the development of public transport. Radical changes and
significant investments in developing high quality, effective and environmentally
friendly mobility covering all regions of the island. This is a package of high impact
measures such as the purchase of 1000 new efficient buses. The target set by the
government is to increase the usage of public transport from 2% in 2008 to 10% in
2015.
Environmental Education
Earth’s landscape has real value; a value that is not countable in money but measured
in importance. It significantly affects various areas of general interests, whether cultural,
social, environmental, ecological or economic. It also provides for our food, water and a
place to live. Numerous European and international movements have long fought for its
protection, yet it is crucial to acknowledge that without citizens’ understanding, willing-
ness and involvement to bring forward change, little can be done. Instead of embracing
nature’s offerings, we have mostly been throwing these away.
Notably, using earth’s resources for the construction of buildings is not a new concept
but a revived one. Surprisingly, the concept of sustainable architecture has existed since
antiquity. Traditionally, builders made use of elements found in the natural environment,
such as the geomorphology, soils, climate change and direct solar energy, and man-
aged to make use of these in order to create buildings without significant consumption.
Living in the 21st century is not an easy task. Mankind today is facing its greatest chal-
lenges of all; a social, economic and ecological crisis. People nowadays focus their
attention to the economic and social aspects of this catastrophic wave and in some
unconscionable way they ignore environmental alerts. It might not be all of them but
still those who, not only don’t care but are truly unaware of the seriousness of the eco-
logical crisis hold the majority of Earth’s population. What they don’t understand is that
scientists are no longer simply talking about climate changes or merely urging people
to recycle the products they use. Recycling is one the best things one can start doing
today but unfortunately, it’s not enough (Filippidi, 2012).
The Environmental Education Movement which had a long history before its outburst in
the 1960s was extremely crucial in this respect. Various efforts have been made through
the years to get people closer to nature outside and/or throughout our education sys-
tems and many organisations were established to promote environmental awareness to
the general public around the globe. The results of their efforts are amazing but unfor-
tunately still not enough. Mankind has been trashing out the Earth’s natural resources so
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Overview of Cyprus
much that the only way to save the planet from now on, is by changing our whole system
and the way we live into a more sustainable environment.
However, the long history of the EE movement has a lesson to teach: training and ed-
ucating people about the environment is not enough. Humans learn by practice and
the best practice of an action is to incorporate it into people’s daily way of living. While
we owe to EE the amazing fact that more people are environmentally active, alert and
aware today than they were years ago, we also owe to it the mere existence of Sus-
tainable Architecture (‘SA’). The construction science has engaged architecture in this
movement in an effort to reinforce the idea of the ecological way of living sustainably
in ecological cites. It is in this sense that SA –and of course together with other relevant
sciences-might hold the key to save the planet and humanity.
EE is all about educating individuals about the natural and built environment by engag-
ing them from a very early age in an active learning process. Nowadays this has extend-
ed at all levels, from primary to higher education, and most countries around the globe
have committed themselves through legally binding treaty obligations in the provision
of EE (Pandley, 2006).
Twenty years ago, principles and practices of sustainable architecture were rarely includ-
ed or pursued within conventional academic curricula. The most likely explanation for
this phenomenon was that the practice of sustainable architecture was considered, by
most academics and non-academics alike, as a fad. The transition from fad to fashion
and from fashion to necessity was instigated by the energy crisis which acquired the pub-
lic’s attention in the 1970’s, the repercussions of which have been escalating dramatically
ever since (Papadopoulou et al. 2011).
Necessity or not, a large number of academic institutions teaching architecture do not

embed environmental agendas into the design culture they promote. It must, of course,
be noted that effective, environmentally responsible architectural design does not re-
quire striking labels such as “ecological design”, “green buildings”, or “sustainable ar-
chitecture”. In fact, the frequency of use of these terms in a casual conscience increases
the risk of losing the impact of their intended meaning.
Schools nowadays focus on the creation of successful graduates in terms of academic

achievement. They focus on the ‘shaping’ of personalities, following a uniform mission
and the successful entrance to a university. This affects the definition of educational
spaces and education directly. In this competitive race many aspects concerning the way
of living in terms of moral principles or purpose and the complexity of contemporary
human systems are set aside. Many movements and voices have taken a position on
the direction of contemporary societies, especially after huge environmental problems
threatened our existence (Hadjivasiliou, 2012).
It is necessary to set a framework for educators, a framework for students and future
citizens. The most critical element of this framework is the understanding that the world
is interconnected through its communities, both natural and human. The separation of
natural and human communities is a subject of philosophical discussion; especially today
where human activity has created an imbalance in natural systems, a part of which is also
-35-
humans. At the level of ecosystems there is a strict definition of the terms natural and
artificial.
Sustainable design for buildings means the maximisation of positive effects of the build-
ing on a series of aspects concerning the human systems and nature and minimising its
negative impacts, over the whole of its life. The design process should bring together
the following elements in an integrated package: ventilation, daylight and sunlight,
flexibility, educational needs, heating, domestic hot water, solar gains, existing premis-
es (Hadjivasiliou, 2012).
A crucial argument that transpires from this book is whether environmentally responsi-
ble architecture should be regarded as a specialisation within architectural education
or whether the entire spectrum of architecture should be taught as a science and as an
art that is equally accountable to man and to the environment. This begs the question:
Shouldn’t architecture always be ecologically responsible?
Bioclimatic design practices offer simplicity, greater reliability, occasionally lower con-
struction costs, and inevitably, lower heating and cooling maintenance fees. It is not
a building add-on, but an integrated element of a building’s architecture. All that is
required is intelligent design.
Key principles of Sustainable Design

The key philosophy of Sustainable Design lies before one even starts designing. The ar-
chitect must first be in a position to know what it is that is about to be achieved through
his design. In this respect, one must first understand what type of relationship he
urges to bring forward between humans and their environment, how deep the influence
must be and to what aspects it must extend.
Among the main principles of Sustainable Design, the following is a list of the most
important ones:
• Select and use land site efficiently
• Assess the level of environmental impacts
• Minimise the building’s energy needs by using natural resources efficiently
• Create healthy buildings not only in terms of choosing non-chemical materials in the
construction process but also in terms of contributing to the overall mental health
and well-being of individuals. This may be achieved by providing safe and healthy
environments, enough spaces for rest and recreation, take into consideration indoor
air quality and temperature comfort and ensure green spaces
• Make a sustainable material selection and design to enable future building material
reuse and recycling
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Overview of Cyprus
• Build only when necessary and build small
• Make sufficient use of available resources like water, sunlight, wind and land. (Sassi,
2006)
Considering the above the aim under these circumstances is to create a building that will
promote Environmental Education and a sustainable way of thinking in order for Environ-
mental Education and Sustainable Architecture to have a real impact in people’s lives. To
achieve this, the building should address the following:
• Minimise negative environmental impacts associated with a building’s usage but also
construction
• Address people’s practical needs of the current way of living and re-introduce them
with a new way of living in a smart way
• The surrounding environment should enhance psychological and mental well-be-

ing in order to gain people’s attraction as the materialistic human being of the 21st
century tends to get attached to material objects
• Must enable human interaction within the built environment in order to promote EE
through practical learning. In some countries this has been achieved by including
citizens in the design and construction process in communal projects. This not only
can ease the transition into a new way as well as enhance people’s environmental
knowledge.
-37-
OVERVIEW OF CYPRUS
THERMAL COMFORT
BUILT PROJECTS
References
-38-
Thermal Comfort
THERMAL COMFORT
Introduction
The thermal environment in which humans live and carry out their day-to-day activities
is predominantly influenced by the impact of climate. The instability of the thermal en-
vironment affects the quality of human life, the normal functioning of their minds, their
health and in extreme conditions, causes serious psychological and physical damage or
death. Acclimatising to various extreme climatic conditions is physiologically and psy-
chologically impossible. The idea of creating a thermally satisfying artificial environment
has been put into practice since early man learned how to protect himself from environ-
mental extremes.
Socrates (Greece), and Vitruvius (Italy), analysed a few thoughts on the climatic suitability
of buildings. They were the first to analyse thermal comfort for Mediterranean climate.
Environmental temperatures were already being considered by the late eighteenth cen-
tury (Boer et al. 1985). The development of highly effective heating systems and the ap-
pearance of new air-conditioning equipment made it quite possible to heat in the winter
and cool in the summer (Boer et al. 1985).
Shelter, as a protective envelope, confronts the undesired impacts of climatic elements

and also secures the privacy and safety of its occupants. Further improvement in the
thermal quality of the indoor environment is achieved through mechanical means, i.e.
by the instalment of a heating and/or cooling system. However, the recent growth in
the mechanisation and industrialisation of Cyprus along with a wide access to energy
resources has resulted in far greater expenditure on mechanical means of stabilising the
thermal quality of the artificial environment to acceptable conditions. The introduction
of a new way of building without taking climatic conditions into consideration, has seri-
ously affected the energy consumption of Cyprus as well as the achievement of thermal
comfort.
Heat Exchange Between the Body and the Environment

The relative amount of metabolic heat exchange between the body and the environ-
ment depends upon the degree of physical activity, the level of clothing, properties of
the environment and the ambient air velocity. A body is said to be in a state of thermal
equilibrium when the rate of heat storage within it is assigned a value of zero. A positive
or negative value means that the body is gaining or losing heat. To maintain a thermal
neutral condition some regulation of surface heat transfer is required. The steady ther-
mal state of the human body may be expressed by the heat balance equation:
Heat Storage = Metabolic Rate ± Work rate ± Total Latent heat Loss ± Radiant
Heat Transfer ± Convective Heat Transfer (W/m2)
Monitoring body weight, which depends on several environmental factors described

above, can control the total latent heat loss. Radiant and convective heat transfer de-
pends upon the environmental mean radiant and air temperature. The surface heat
transfer coefficients for radiation and convection.
-39-
Thermal Stress
Thermal stress is experienced when the thermal balance between the body and the
environment is upset through inadequate conditions of heat balance where the rate
of heat generation in the body is not equal to the rate of heat loss. The physiological
mechanisms such as the nervous, muscular, circulating and breathing systems, operate
optimally within a narrow temperature range. This temperature range is maintained by
a thermo-regulatory system, which establishes a heat balance within a wide range of
environmental conditions.
The deep body temperature must be maintained at about 37oC for the effective oper-
ation of its component organs. Under extreme activity or heavy work, the temperature
may rise above 37oC, and the thermoregulating system might operate for short dura-
tion, but when it reaches 42 to 43oC, the system will break down and may cause death.
Conversely, temperatures below 36oC may result in muscular weakness and death (hy-
pothermia) (Bansal et al. 1974).
Due to Cyprus’s climatological conditions, the loss of heat from the body becomes
more difficult due to an increase in temperature caused by increase in physical activity.
This may cause the body temperature to rise above 37oC. The body’s vasomotor regula-
tion against hot conditions then operates by allowing blood to flow to the skin, thereby
increasing the dissipation of heat into the environment in order to bring down the body
temperature to 37oC. But, in spite of the increase of blood flow to the layers of the body
just under the skin and increasing the rate of circulation of the blood, cooling of the
body may still be inadequate. In such circumstances water will then be released from
sweat glands for evaporative cooling. When the body temperature rises more than 2oC
above 37oC, people suffer major losses in efficiency, become sluggish, tired and sleepy.
Continuous body temperature rises above 43oC can be lethal.
Body Heat Loss
Since body heat temperature must remain at 37oC, all surplus heat, including simultane-
ous heat gain from hot air and solar radiation, must be dissipated into the environment.
Heat loss from the skin takes place by a complex mixture of radiation, evaporation,
convection and conduction. The rate of heat loss depends on the temperature of the
air, the mean temperature of the surroundings, air movement, relative humidity, activity
and clothing. Body heat loss to the surrounding environment is briefly described below.
• Heat loss by convection: The heat transmission from the body to the air in contact
with the skin or clothing is replaced with cooler air.
• Heat loss by radiation: This is the heat loss from the body surface to the surround-
ing surfaces when there is a temperature difference between the two surfaces.
• Heat loss by evaporation: Body heat loss by evaporation takes place when excess
heat cannot be lost by convection and radiation alone.
-40-
Thermal Comfort
• Heat loss by conduction: This is the heat loss that takes place when there is direct
contact of the skin with an object of lower temperature.
Heat Balance and Heat Balance Equation
One of the most important functions of the body’s thermo-regulatory system is to main-
tain an essential internal body temperature for healthy survival. During long exposure
to a constant thermal environment with a constant metabolic rate, a heat balance will
exist such that the rate of heat generation in the body must be equal to the rate of heat
loss from it, and there should be no significant heat storage within the body. Based on
Fanger’s (Fanger, 1970) equation the above conditions can be expressed as follows:
H-Ed-Esw-Ere-L=K=R+C
H =Internal heat production in the body
Ed =The heat loss by water diffusion through the skin
Esw =The heat loss by evaporation of sweat from the surface of the skin
Ere =The latent respiration heat loss
L =The dry respiration heat loss
K =The heat transfer from the skin to the outer surface of the clothed body
R =The heat loss by radiation from the outer surface of the clothed body
C =The heat loss by convection from the outer surface of the clothed body
The skin senses the way in which the human body responds to environmental changes.
The feeling of comfort or discomfort depends on the skin temperature. The average skin
temperature should be maintained at 34oC for thermal comfort. This is accomplished by
balancing the heat input to the skin and the heat loss. Either the body will gain or lose
heat when there is a temperature difference between the body and the environment or
evaporation will take place.
If heat balance is disturbed by internal or environmental changes, the thermo-regulatory

mechanism is activated to bring it back to a balance condition through the process ex-
plained previously. However, this is only temporary and if overheating persists, sweating
will take place. Conversely, in a cold environment, violent shivering may occur which
increases metabolic heat production for a short period of time in order to maintain bal-
ance conditions.
Critical Body Temperatures
The limits of existence of human life can be defined in the terms of deep body tempera-
ture as 35oC and 40oC, the normal being about 37oC. The skin temperature should always
-41-
be less than these values and the temperature of the environment should be slightly
less than the skin temperature in order to allow adequate, but not excessive, heat dis-
sipation (Boer et al. 1985). The range of environmental conditions, which allows such
adequate, but not excessive, heat dissipation, will allow a ‘sense of physical well-being,’
commonly assigned as comfortable and thus referred to as the ‘comfort zone.’
Skin Temperature Deep Body Temperature Physiological zone

Pain: 45oC 42oC Death
40oC Hyperthermia
Evaporative Regulation
Vasodilation
31-34 Co
37 C
o
Comfort
35oC Vasoconstriction
Metabolic regulation
Hypothermia
Pain: 10 C o
25 C
o
Death
Table 2.1 Critical body temperature (Szokolay, 1985)
Thermal Comfort Zone

Thermal comfort is a subjective quality, personal to the individual. It cannot be precisely
defined. However, there have been many attempts by several researchers in the field
to describe the condition of thermal comfort. Nevertheless, some discrepancies in the
definitions do exist. In general, the majority of definitions agree that it is the condition
of the mind, which expresses satisfaction with the environment (ASHRAE, 1977). It is
also the state in which a person will judge the environment to be neither too cold nor
too warm, a kind of neutral point defined by the absence of any feeling of discomfort
(Markus et al., 1980). It can also be described as the condition of neutral state in which
the body needs no adjustment to maintain its proper heat balance (O’Callaghan, 1978).
A human’s intellectual, manual and perceptual performance is found to operate on high

efficiency for long periods of time, when the environment is considered comfortable.
Within the limits of this zone or under a range of conditions, the thermo-regulatory
mechanism of the body is in a state of minimal activity. It is also a condition of a neutral
state in which the body needs to take no particular action to maintain its proper heat
balance. Involuntary actions such as sweating, vasoregulation and shivering of the body
occur outside this neutral state.
The following works summarise some of the investigations and experiments carried out
to determine the comfort zone of human beings. Markham (Markham, 1947) suggested
that sunstroke or heat stroke was the upper temperature limit for man’s existence with
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Thermal Comfort
the freezing point as the lower limit. The ideal temperature may be assumed to be mid-
way between these two extremes. He suggested that a temperature from 15.6 to 24.5oC
as constituting an ideal zone, with relative humidity varying from 40 to 70%.
Vernon and Bedford (Vernon et al..,1936) stated that the ideal temperature, with slight
air movement was 19oC in summer and 16.7oC in winter. Bedford gives the ideal indoor
temperature as 17.8oC in winter and defined a comfort zone that ranged from 13.2 to
23.2oC in the summer.
For different climatic regions, Brooks (Brooks, 1950) recommended that the comfort
zone for Britain lies between 14.5 to 21.1oC, 20.6 to 26.7oC for the United States and
between 23.4 to 29.5oC in the Tropics with relative humidity between 30 to 70%.
Houghton and Yagloglou (Houghton et al.. 1924) suggested that the comfort zone was
between 17.2 to 21.7oC for both men and women and the optimum effective tempera-
ture was at 18.9oC.
Saini (Saini, 1980), who has been working extensively on projects in hot-arid climate, has
made some interesting observations on the comfort range for such climate. He suggest-
ed that thermal comfort for hot-arid climate lies between 31.1 to 33.9oC.
The above range of observations outlines the probable range of comfort zones for peo-
ple. However, Olgyay (Olgyay, 1967) argued that there are no precise criteria by which
comfort can be evaluated. He suggested that it could be defined negatively as a situa-
tion where no feeling of discomfort occurs. This “no feeling of discomfort zone” is very
similar to the zone of thermal neutrality. The comfort zone does not have real boundaries
as comfort parameters are based on arbitrary assumptions. The only criterion adopted
for the definition of a comfort zone are at conditions where the average person will not
experience the feeling of discomfort. This has led to the emergence of the ‘lack of dis-
comfort’ theory.
Since comfort zone is a subjective assessment of environmental conditions there is no

precise criterion by which comfort can be evaluated. It can be defined negatively as a
situation where no feeling of discomfort occurs, which constitutes the perimeter of the
comfort zone that is the ‘lack of discomfort’ zone.
Work on discomfort by Billington (Billington, 1967) indicated that the following elements
result with a fall in productivity, health and an increase in industrial accidents:
• Conditions of stress
• Increase in air temperature
• Varying humidity and rate of air flow
• Increase in effective temperature
-43-
It was suggested that provided a person can be suitably clothed, thermal balance is
possible for a wide variety of temperatures. The mean temperature of a room may be
chosen upon criteria other than the sensation of warmth, but optimum performance of
a particular task or the ability to be lightly dressed yet sufficiently warm. While working
on the same subject O’Sullivan (O’Sullivan, 1973) stated that there is in fact no such
thing as a comfort zone but rather that there are zones of discomfort, lack of discomfort
and pleasure. Webb, Humphreys and Nicol tend to support these views.
The concept of a lack of discomfort zone suggests that thermal balance is possible for
a wide variety of temperatures provided a person can be suitably clothed. Design for a
lack of discomfort zone must recognise that differences are to be foreseen from individ-
ual to individual, under similar conditions. An individual human being prefers to have a
degree of control in his environment and people do not stay uncomfortable if they can
help it. They either change their environment or adapt to it by changing activity, pos-
ture, clothing or physiology. The behavioural response of an individual to any particular
stimulus depends upon social conditions and constraints. Imposing of controlled com-
fortable constant thermal conditions may not be acceptable physiologically or socially.
Allowance for flexibility can lead to a greater satisfaction.
It is important to consider that the design of an internal environment largely depends

on the primary elements of the building itself, particularly the climatic modification
characteristic of the building fabric. Lack of consideration of the above may lead to the
unsatisfactory thermal performance of a building and may affect the internal comfort of
a building itself.
The most widely used comfort index is that developed by Fanger (Fanger, 1970). Ther-
mal comfort is defined as the condition of mind, which expresses satisfaction with its
surrounding thermal environment. Dissatisfaction may be caused by warm or cool dis-
comfort of the body in general, as expressed by the PMV (Predicted Mean Vote) and
PPD (Predicted Percentage of Dissatisfied) indices (Fanger, 1982). Due to individual
differences, it is impossible to specify a thermal environment that will satisfy everybody.
A percentage of occupants can always be expected to be dissatisfied. Nevertheless, it
may be possible to specify environments predicted to be experienced as acceptable
by a certain percentage of occupants. In the ISO standard, comfort requirements are
specified to be satisfactory for at least 80 percent of occupants.
In steady-state conditions, ones’ thermal sensation is mainly related to the thermal bal-
ance of his/her body as a whole. This balance is influenced by his/her physical activity
and clothing, as well as by environmental parameters such as air temperature, mean
radiant temperature, air velocity and air humidity. When these factors are known, the
thermal sensation of the body as a whole can be predicted by the PMV index (Predict-
ed Mean Vote), utilising a seven-point scale from cold to hot (Fanger, 1982). The PMV
may be calculated by computer formula and tables or may be measured directly by
an instrument (Madsen, 1976). The ISO (International Organization of Standardization)
standard recommends the following criteria for the Predicted Mean Vote:
0.5 < PMV < + 0.5
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Thermal Comfort
This means a PPD (Predicted Percentage of Dissatisfied) of lower than 10 per cent. Cor-
responding comfort limits for the temperature may be found from figure 2.2 as a function
of activity and clothing. The temperature given in figure 2.3 is the operative temperature
that is uniform of an enclosure in which an occupant would exchange the same amount
of heat by radiation plus convection as in the actual non-uniform environment. For most
applications, the operative temperature is approximately equal to the mean value of
mean radiant and air temperatures. The curves show the optimal operative temperature,
in other words, the operative temperature which will satisfy most people at any given
clothing and activity. The shaded areas provide information about the acceptable range
around the optimal temperature. The acceptable temperature range becomes wider the
higher the activity and the heavier the clothing.
In Figure 2.3 the optimal temperature corresponding to Predicted Mean Vote (PMV = 0)
as a function of activity and clothing. The shaded areas inform about the comfort range
± Δt around the optimal inside temperature, which corresponds to –0.5<PMV<+0.5.
The activity in a given space should be estimated. Corresponding metabolic rates are
shown in figure 2.1. The insulation of clothing worn in a space should then be estimated,
and figure 2.2 shows clo values for typical clothing ensembles. The standard also pro-
vides a method for estimating the clo value of clothing ensembles from the clo values of
individual garments. The clo values have been measured on a standing thermal manikin.
On a person at a higher level of activity, the clo values will be lower, due to a ‘pumping’
effect. When a person is sitting, the chair may add 0.1-0.2 clo to the total insulation.
Using the ‘met’ and ‘clo’ values the optimal operative temperature and its tolerance limit
may be read from figure 2.2. Two important examples of the application of figure 2.2 are
comprised of light, mainly sedentary activity during winter and summer. This activity of
1.2 met is typical for many spaces in practice, for example in offices and homes. Typical
indoor clothing during winter would have an insulation of 1 clo, while summer clothing
would be around 0.5 clo. According to figure 2.2, this would correspond to a comfort
range of 20-24oC during winter and 23-26oC during summer.
Figure 2.1 Corresponding meta-

bolic rates of different activities
(1met=58W/m2) (Fanger, 1987)
Figure 2.2 clo values for typ-

ical clothing ensembles.
(1clo=0.155m 2 K/W)(Fanger,
1987)
-45-
Figure 2.3 Information about the acceptable range around the optimal temperature (Fanger,
1987)
Effect of Environmental Factors on Thermal Comfort

The human response to the thermal environment depends on many environmental fac-
tors such as air and means radiant temperature, relative humidity, radiation and air
velocity. The thermal sensation however does not depend on air temperature alone but
rather on the simultaneous affect of four elements which must be considered together
in order to assess thermal responses. To appreciate the effects of these environmental
factors, it is necessary to examine each of the factors separately.
Air and Mean Radiant Temperature
The ambient air and mean radiant temperature affect heat exchange of the body by
convection and radiation. The rate of exchange depends on the air velocity and the
level of clothing. The body, mainly with an elevation of the skin temperature and sweat
rate, responds to the rise in environmental temperature. This rate of elevation depends
on the humidity level and air velocity. When the humidity level is high and the air veloc-
ity is low, (as in the case of hot summers in Cyprus) skin wetness will be experienced. But
under conditions of low humidity and high air velocity, the skin may remain dry, even at
high temperatures.
During the summer in Cyprus the average range of air temperatures in the shade is be-
tween 27 and 32oC, which is still below skin temperature (normally about 34oC), and so
heat dissipation may still take place. But when the temperature rises above 34oC, heat
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Thermal Comfort
loss to the surrounding air may be difficult. Radiant heat from the sun can substantially
increase the heat gain to the body. But as long as this heat gain is below skin tempera-
ture, heat loss and comfort sensation can still be achieved.
Relative Humidity
The relative humidity of the air does not directly affect the dissipation of the heat from
the body but it determines the evaporative capacity of the air and hence the cooling
efficiency of sweating. The evaporative capacity is determined by the difference be-
tween the vapour pressure of the skin and the ambient air. The vapour pressure of the
skin depends on its temperature and ranges from about 37mmHg, under comfortable
conditions (skin temperature at 33oC) to 42 mmHg in moderate heat conditions (skin
at 35oC), and 47mm in severe heat (skin at 37oC). In most circumstances 42mmHg is a
suitable working value.
Metabolic heat production determines the rate of sweat secretion and evaporation.
When the ratio of sweat rate production to the evaporative capacity of the air reaches
a value where the sweat cannot all be evaporated as it emerges from the pores of the
skin, a liquid layer is formed around the pores producing an area of wet skin. At air tem-
peratures in the range of 20-25oC the humidity level does not affect the physiological
and sensory responses. At temperatures above 25oC the influence of humidity on the re-
sponses becomes apparent, especially through the effect on skin wetness, skin temper-
ature and sweat rate. An increase in air velocity counterbalances the effect of humidity.
The physiological and sensory response to humidity elevation is raised as the air velocity
increases. During the hot summers in Cyprus a high humidity may cause unpleasantness
because of excessive wetness of the skin and skin temperature.
Humidity has little effect on the sensation of thermal comfort when it is only moderate,
i.e. between the ranges of 40 to 60%. A person engaged in sedentary work will dissi-
pate the surplus heat easily, however in a hot-humid climate where the relative humidity
remains high mostly, from 60 to 85%, it may become critical because it determines the
possible evaporation rate. Moisture from the skin evaporates slowly. There are occasions
when the air reaches saturation point, when the moisture on ones’ skin cannot evapo-
rate and sweat will remain sticky on the skin and may cause sleeping difficulties. This is
a common climatic problem in most hot-humid climates, which can only be rectified by
increasing air movement to allow evaporation to take place. Mechanical fans are the only
means of providing the necessary air movement during such conditions, which are often
experienced at night when the humidity is higher than during the day and the air speeds
is relatively lower.
Solar Radiation
Solar radiation can affect thermal sensation significantly. Direct solar radiation falling on
the body surface will activate the same sensory organs as activated by the warmth of
the air. The combined effect of the solar radiation and warm air will increase the air tem-
-47-
perature surrounding the body surfaces. If the increase is higher than skin temperature,
heat dissipation will be reduced. In Cyprus direct radiation occurs for a long period of
time due to the absence of large amounts of clouds. A clothed human, physically active
in direct sunlight, could suffer heat stroke in an environment of 27oC, at 80% relative
humidity. During mid-day when solar radiation is at its peak, the cooling of the body by
taking refuge under a shade of a tree may reduce the temperature of the body to below
skin temperature. The air temperature under the shade is typically around 27oC.
Air Velocity
Air velocity affects the human body by increasing or decreasing the convective heat
exchange of the body, which determines the evaporative capacity of the air next to
the body and consequently the cooling efficiency of sweating. The effect of air velocity
and air temperature on the convective heat exchange is interrelated, as convection is
a function of velocity and temperature difference between the skin and the air. The
affect of air velocity on evaporative capacity is interrelated to the affect of humidity, as
an increase in air velocity raises the evaporative capacity and reduces the affect of high
humidity.
Air speeds above 1 m/s can cause annoyance and the maximum air temperature that
can satisfactorily be compensated by general air movement is about 28oC. At high air
temperatures there is an optimum value of the air velocity at which the air motion pro-
duces the highest cooling. Reduction of the air velocity to below this level causes dis-
comfort and heating by reduced efficiency of sweating. Increasing the air speed beyond
the level of optimum velocity causes heating by convection. This optimum velocity is
not constant, although it is dependant on the temperature, humidity, metabolic level
and clothing. Air movement is an essential factor in order to achieve comfort in the
summers of Cyprus. By increasing the rate of evaporation, heat dissipation of the skin
is also increased. Convective heat loss takes place as long as the air temperature is less
than the skin temperature.
Effect of Subjective Factors on Thermal Comfort

Apart from the main environmental factors, which affect the thermal sensation of ther-
mal comfort discussed previously, thermal preferences are also influenced by subjective
and non-quantifiable factors of individuals. An individual’s discomfort is reduced by
adjustment of one or a combination of the following variables.
• Clothing ensembles: Choosing clothes can be varied according to the discretion

of the individual. He or she can exert a considerable degree of control over most
forms of heat exchange between the body surface and the environment. The insu-
lation value expressed in terms of ‘clo’ may range from 0.1 to 1. However the value
recommended by Fanger (Fanger, 1970), suitable for the hot-humid climates, can
be in the range of 0.3 to 0.5 clo.
-48-
Thermal Comfort
• Acclimatisation: Acclimatisation to a condition in a new location influences both the

metabolic rate and the blood circulation of the individual. The human body normally
needs 30 days to reach full adjustment to new condition. A person in Cyprus would
prefer an average room temperature of 27oC and will feel rather cool when arriving
in the UK where the average room temperature is preferred at 20oC.
• Body shape: The rate of dissipation of body heat to the environment depends on
the surface to the volume of a body. A tall thin body has a greater surface area than a
short rounded figure. Larger body surface will dissipate heat more quickly. A heavier
person will need cooler air to dissipate heat satisfactorily.
• State of health: The state of health affects the metabolic heat production. When a
person is ill, heat production is increased and the tolerable range of temperatures is
narrower. The body needs external means to maintain the balance such as changing
external environments.
• Food and drink: Certain foods and drinks affect the metabolic rate. Spicy foods
tend to increase the rate of sweating of the body, which may help to reduce the skin
temperature.
• Skin colour: Light colour skin reflects more light than darker colour skins but also ab-
sorb ultra violet to a larger extent. Dark skin has more melanin pigment which helps
prevent the penetration of ultra violet, which causes skin diseases and sunburn.
Psychometric Chart for Nicosia

The Psychometric Chart provides a graphic representation of the full state of the air
under any condition. It relates temperature on the horizontal scale to moisture on the
vertical scale. If the temperature of a given volume of air is decreased to a point at which
it can hold no more moisture, it becomes saturated. The corresponding temperature is
called the dew point and is shown by a curved line, which gives the chart its distinguish-
ing shape (Lapithis, 2002).
Given any point on such a graph, a wide range of information about the state of the
air can be found. These include all the major climatic indicators, dry-bulb and wet-bulb
temperatures, relative and absolute humidity, vapour pressure, air volume and even en-
thalpy.
If hourly weather data for a location is known, it is possible to plot this on the chart as
frequency data. With a range of overlays, a simple visual analysis of such information can
actually tell you a lot about the characteristics of a climate.
Figure 2.5 shows a red area at its centre. This represents the comfort zone, which is
based on the annual thermal neutrality temperature, Standard Effective Temperature
(SET) lines at +/- 2°C either side and absolute humidity values between 4 and 12 g/kg.
When hourly data is plotted as points on the psychometric chart, and the relative ef-
-49-
fects of various passive design techniques on the comfort zone are overlaid, it quickly
becomes obvious which systems are the most appropriate for any climate. This infor-
mation forms the basis of the passive design analysis system. The effects of a range of
passive design systems can be overlaid on the chart.
Pink: Passive Solar Heating

Red: Comfort Zone
Purple: Natural Ventilation
Blue: Thermal Mass Effect
Light Blue: Thermal Mass Effect + Night-purge Ventilation
Green: Direct Evaporative Cooling
Dark Green: Indirect Evaporative Cooling
Figure 2.4 psychometric chart with the comfort zone and the yearly climatic conditions
Bioclimatic Chart for Nicosia

Olgyay Bioclimatic chart (Olgyay, 1953) is based on the best available published scien-
tific information, some scientists would consider it as intelligent guesswork, which has
never been fully validated. However, it seems to work, and both his approach and his
chart had a seminal influence (Boer et al. 1985). The chart takes into account all four at-
mospheric factors of thermal sensation without attempting to construct a single-figure
index. Such indices conceal the contribution of individual factors. In architecture and
building design, the various factors may be controlled by different means, therefore it is
important to be able to recognise each individually (Boer et al. 1985).
Olgyay first defines a “comfort zone” in terms of dry bulb temperature (vertical axis)
and relative humidity (horizontal axis). Humidity between 30% and 65% is preferred, but
under some temperature conditions it is acceptable as low as 18% and as high as 77%.
Olgyay bioclimatic chart, which was originally prepared for latitude 4O°N is reproduced
for latitude 35°N to suit Cyprus. According to Olgyay (Olgyay, 1963), for latitudes below
40°N, the comfort zone must be elevated by about 0.11°C per degree latitude but not
beyond 29.50C. Therefore, the comfort zone is shifted up by approximately 0.5°C. Olg-
-50-
Thermal Comfort
yay then examines the cooling effect of air movements and by a family of curves above
the comfort zone, he shows the limits to which the comfort zone would be moved up if
wind of velocity were present (Boer et al. 1985).
Olgyay method, based on a bioclimatic chart, was the first attempt to systematise the
incorporation of climatic conditions into the design of buildings. It is a useful method
for the assessment of comfortable and/or uncomfortable conditions likely to be found in
a given environment. It also recommends the relevant comfort requirements whenever
conditions are out of the comfort range. Despite its principle purpose, to evaluate the
comfort criteria for both the outdoor and indoor environments, Olgyay`s method has
proved its major application for the outdoor environments.
Figure 2.5 Bioclimatic chart with the comfort zone and the yearly external climatic conditions in
Nicosia (Olgyay, 1963) (Lapithis, 2002)
-51-
The input of climatic data requires the mean maximum and mean minimum values of
dry-bulb temperature, and relative humidity of the air (the daily and/or the monthly
values). The ordinate and the abscissa of the chart indicate the scales of temperature
and relative humidity of the air respectively. The comfort zone, which is given separately
for summer and winter, lies from 21.5 to 28ºC for summer and between 20.5 and 25oC
for winter (on the corrected temperature scale). Above the comfort zone, comfort re-
quires different levels of air movement and evaporative cooling; these are indicated by
a set of curves. For the lower limits of comfort zone, the requirement for radiation and
clothing are also shown. The expansion of the comfort zone upward and /or downward
for various expected MRT-values is also indicated on the left side of the chart. The re-
quirement for avoiding solar radiation is specified by the shading line below which solar
radiation is necessary.
Humphreys’ Comfort Chart

The human body responds to ambient temperature changes with types of activities and
with the weight of clothing. The higher the level of activity and the weight of clothing,
the lower the temperature desired, and vice-versa. Therefore, it is important that an
optimum weight of clothing is determined, before an indoor temperature is adopted.
Accordingly, it may be a reasonable assumption to choose an optimum indoor temper-

ature from a range that is suitable for a heavier weight of clothing and a lighter level
of indoor activity like sitting and resting. Usually heavier activities such as cooking and
cleaning are periodic and not all occupants are engaged in these types of activities at
the same time.
Adopting an indoor temperature by the prior procedure, also ensures saving on energy
consumption. Since the higher the weight of clothing, the lower the optimum indoor
temperature, subsequently the energy demand for heating will lessen.
To appraise the optimum indoor conditions for Cyprus buildings, Humphreys’ (Hum-
phreys, 1971) comfort chart, based on Fanger’s method (Fanger, 1970), is used. Hum-
phreys’ comfort chart uses globe temperature as the indoor comfort criteria and unlike
Olgyay`s (Olgyay, 1963) and Givoni`s (Givoni, 1976) comfort charts allows for the varia-
tion of clo values (level of clothing) from 0 to 3 clo. This is the main reason why Givoni`s
bioclimatic chart (especially for indoor studies) is not used in this appraisal, as this chart
is based on a clo value of 1.
Figure 2.6 shows Humphreys’ chart, where globe and/or dry bulb temperature (°C) is in-
dicated on the vertical axis. Comfort zones for different clo values are shown between a
pair of diagonal lines each indicating the upper and lower endurance limits for different
weights of clothing under different temperature conditions and level of activity.
According to Humphreys’ comfort chart, assuming clothing with a thermal resistance of

1 clo is worn, the optimum indoor conditions for a light level of activity, i.e., resting and
sitting (50 and 60 met. respectively) varies between 19.5oC and 25oC globe tempera-
ture. Therefore the optimum indoor design temperature can be accepted as 22.5oC.
-52-
Thermal Comfort
In this respect, an assessment of a thermally comfortable indoor condition that could

be acceptable for the occupants of buildings in the climatic conditions of Cyprus forms
the basic criterion in thermal analysis. The indoor thermal condition is based upon the
combined result of mainly four environmental factors: air temperature, air movement,
the humidity of the air and solar radiation indoors in winter. During the cold season,
the indoor air movement is generally controlled to the minimum to decrease ventilation
heat-loss. Therefore, the effect of the air movement may become insignificant. Thus, the
indoor thermal conditions can be characterised largely by the air temperature and radi-
ation, and to a lesser extent, by the humidity of the air.
Figure 2.6 Humphreys comfort

chart for the indoor conditions
of Cyprus. 35ºN (Humphreys,
1971)
Predicting Thermal Comfort

Thermal comfort standards are based on a mathematical model of the heat-exchange
between the human being and the thermal environment (Humphreys, 1992). This mod-
el has been continually refined in laboratory and climate-chamber research so that for
years it has been possible to calculate the temperature people find comfortable, if the
metabolic heat generated by their activity and the thermal insulation of their clothing is
known. This temperature has been shown to be, for practical purposes, independent of
body-built, age, sex, race, and the climates people are used to. Moreover, if the over-
all heat-balance yields a comfortable skin-temperature and moisture-loss, it has been
shown that it matters little what may be the combinations of air temperature, air move-
ment, humidity and thermal radiation which provide this balance.
Tables may nowadays be consulted to find the metabolic rates for numerous common
activities, and the thermal insulation of various types of dress. Computer programs or
tables are available from which to estimate the “Predicted Mean Vote” (PMV) of the
population from the temperature of the air, its movement and humidity, and the mean
-53-
radiant temperature of the room. The ‘PMV’ may range from ‘cold’ (-3) to ‘hot’ (+3).
From the ‘PMV’, the “Predicted Percentage of Dissatisfied” (PPD) may be found. The
most well known scales for the measurement of thermal sensation (response) are those
of ASHRAE and Bedford, given (Szokolay, 1985)
n ASHRAE Bedford
+3 hot much to warm
+2 warm too warm
+1 slightly warm comfortably warm
0 neutral comfortable
-1 slightly cold comfortably cool
-2 cool too cool
-3 cold much too cool
Table 2.2 Thermal comfort scales
The semantics imply that the ASHRAE scale measures a thermal sensation, but the
Bedford scale brings in the broader concept of comfort. However, even the use of the
ASHRAE scale requires a judgement.
Despite the comprehensiveness of the data, which is now available, and the sophistica-
tion of the mathematical model, which combines them, there are practical difficulties in
using the heat-exchange model (Humphreys, 1992). The following example will show
how these difficulties may arise:
• An architect designing a residential building wishes to check the suitability of the

indoor temperature of the proposed building in summer-time. An intelligent guess
is made at the typical summer-time clothing of the occupants, tables are consulted,
and a value of 0.5 clo is arrived at. An informed guess is next made at the activities
of the residents, tables are consulted, and a metabolic rate of 70W/m2 is selected.
Tables of ‘PMV’ show that a room temperature of 24oC would be most comfortable.
• The architect then runs thermal design computer software, which calculates the in-
door temperature of the proposed building from meteorological data representing
a hot spell. After modifying the design to optimise the thermal performance within
various other constraints, the program shows a mean indoor temperature of 26oC
during occupied hours with a maximum temperature of 29oC. Consulting a table of
Predicted Percentage of Dissatisfied (PPD) shows that about 70% of the occupants
would be dissatisfied with this maximum room temperature.
At this point a timid designer would opt for air-conditioning. But there are other ques-
tions, which should first be asked:
• Can it be assumed that 0.5 clo is correct during a hot spell as represented by the
design conditions? Would people perhaps wear lighter clothing, more permeable
to moisture transfer, and so feel comfortable at a higher temperature than the 24oC
suggested by the Predicted Mean Vote (PMV)? In practice, it is difficult for the de-
-54-
Thermal Comfort
signer, because, although the thermal insulation of every clothing ensemble may be
tabulated, it is impossible to know just what people will be wearing.
• Can it be assumed that during a hot spell the metabolic rate will remain unchanged?
Perhaps people would adopt a slower pace of living and a more relaxed posture, and
so become comfortable at a higher room temperature?
• Can it be assumed that the air-movement will be unchanged in a hot-spell? Perhaps

people will open windows to increase the air-movement. Will they use desk-fans? If
so, will they provide enough relief during the heat of a summer day? So, although the
effect of any given air-velocity is accurately included in the calculation, in practice it is
difficult for the designer to know what the air-velocity will be. These questions show
that it is uncertain what values should be entered into the tables used to obtain the
‘PMV’ and the ‘PPD.’
The conventional method of establishing thermal comfort temperatures depends upon

the application of heat-exchange theory. It is difficult to apply to buildings at the design
stage, because it requires an accurate knowledge of the clothing and metabolic rates
of the occupants, and can make no allowance for the expectations of the occupant of
the buildings. The method appears to give biased results both above and below room
temperatures of 27oC, the direction of the bias is such as to encourage over-heating in
winter and over-cooling in summer.
To evaluate the performance of different passive solar dwellings it is necessary to consid-

er not only the thermal performance but also the ‘comfort performance’ of the system. In
order to achieve this goal the level of comfort has been described according to Fanger’s
theory. The Predicted Mean Vote (PMV), Predicted Percentage of Dissatisfied (PPD) and
the Temperature index are computed hourly for an inhabitant located at different places
in the room. A complete set of parametric studies has been performed on two direct gain
houses, one Trombe wall design and a sunspace house (Alder et al., 1984). In each case
the thermal performance has been evaluated together with the comfort performance.
By considering the thermal and the comfort performance of solar houses at the same
time it is possible to compare them in a more realistic way than by looking at the thermal
performance only. A complete set of simulations performed on direct gain, Trombe wall
and sunspace designs allow the following statements (Alder et al., 1984):
• The ultimate thermal performance of a building is rarely achieved because of com-

fort limitations.
• When the choice is possible, the inhabitant prefers comfort to higher thermal per-
formance.
• It is possible to reduce energy needs and at the same time raise the comfort level by
appropriate architectural design.
• Standard Cypriot massive buildings provide sufficient thermal mass and are therefore
well suited for the direct gain system.
-55-
• If properly designed and constructed, Trombe wall could offer interesting thermal
comfort performance under Cypriot mountainous climatic conditions.
• Changing a given house from the direct gain design to the sunspace design results
in a moderate reduction of the auxiliary heat demand but raises the comfort condi-
tioning inside the house.
Conclusion
Throughout this chapter, it is concluded that thermal comfort deeply relies on regional
climate and therefore no two regions are expected to share the same comfort zone. An
average of 19.5- 29°C is the proposed temperature within the comfort zone of Cyprus,
with an average relative humidity ranging from 20-75%. It is however impossible to
state a clarified comfort zone for any region, as psychological, physiological and prac-
tical factors are at hand.
The design of an indoor space that does not require power-driven control systems re-
quires knowledge beyond the mechanics of passive solar systems, such as solar expo-
sure and proper ventilation. It requires an in-depth understanding of human response
to climatic temperatures within the limits of psychological and physical comfort. It is for
this purpose that this chapter examined the habits of bodily and environmental thermal
exchanges as well as the objective and subjective criteria for comfort in Cyprus.
In passive solar buildings in Cyprus, the floor is often used for thermal storage (due to
the heavy weight construction methods used in Cyprus) and the floor temperature may
therefore fluctuate considerably. Although in general this does not cause problems,
temperatures above 26°C and below 20°C can cause complaints. However, if people
are willing to modify their clothing during the day, then a much wider temperature
range is acceptable. Good use can be made of this in passive solar buildings.
The differences between the thermal requirements of individuals should be kept in

mind. The PMV predicts conditions which will satisfy the majority. However, in spaces
which are occupied by only a few people, it is essential that each occupant easily modify
the thermal conditions.
Draughts can often cause problems in spaces with large windows. During the night,
thermal convection downwards along the cold surfaces can discomfort from air move-
ment. Double glazing and moderate window heights will reduce these problems. Heat
sources under the windows can also counteract draughts. The same cold glass, which
causes draughts, can also bring (to a lesser extent) some discomfort from asymmetric
radiation. The worst cases of asymmetric radiation occur, however, when people are
exposed to direct solar radiation inside a building. Such situations are usually only ac-
ceptable for short periods of time.
Therefore in order to experience comfort conditions in Cyprus, it is imperative but not

sufficient for buildings to be designed in accordance to the principles of passive solar
architecture for the Cypriot climatological conditions. The indoor inhabitants must also
-56-
Thermal Comfort
have an interactive relationship with their immediate environment. They must be con-
scious and aware of climatic predictions and dress and respond appropriately. They must
also be prepared to perform the necessary actions on passive systems in order to attain
the maximum benefits of its design.
-57-
OVERVIEW OF CYPRUS
THERMAL COMFORT
BUILT PROJECTS
References
-58-
Introduction
Passive-solar systems offer simplicity, greater reliability, lower cost and a longer lifetime.
Furthermore, the design of passive-solar systems is a part of the architectural design of
the house, and thus, becomes an integrated element of the building’s architecture. The
architect, who is responsible for the building’s proper function and its comfort measures,
can make a competent assessment of the system’s adaptation in the building’s design,
without interrupting the function and normal use of the building. However, the economy
and the performance of passive-solar systems hinges upon the type of system proposed.
Therefore, it is necessary for the architect to be familiar with the types of passive-solar
systems developed so far.
The feasibility analysis of the various passive solar system uses presents a special inter-
est both for the engineer-researcher-constructor and the consumer-inhabitant-user. The
system, as far as energy is concerned, is not obligatorily or financially more advisable,
while changes in macro-economic conditions can benefit or exclude the choice of some
systems. When choosing a system there are also criteria of aesthetic or functionalism. It
must be, pointed out that all systems are feasible, as long as the user-inhabitant takes
advantage of them for at least 7 years (Chrysomallidou et al. 1992). Some of the tech-
niques described as passive solar systems for Cyprus can be incorporated in convention-
al building design and planning without adding considerable cost to the construction.
All that is required is intelligent design. The aim of this chapter is not to expand on the
financial feasibility, but on certain points concerning Cyprus. Specified research could be
done specifically on this subject.
Definitions and Elements of Passive Solar Design

Any definition of passive solar concepts should be based upon the entire set of “path-
ways” of natural energy exchange through a building envelope (Figure 3.1). These “path-
ways” can be understood in terms of the classic definitions of heating energy transfer
mechanics (Howard et al. 1990):
• Conduction: from hotter object to cooler object by direct contact.
• Convection: from the air film next to a hotter object by exposure to cooler air cur-
rents.
• Radiation: from hotter object to cooler object within the direct path of its radiant
heat waves, regardless of the temperature of the air between.
• Evaporation: from hotter surface to surrounding air by exposure to moisture that is

thus heated to its gaseous state; also by the latent heat absorbed into air when mois-
ture is evaporated thus lowering the sensible heat (dry bulb temperature) in the air.
The first widespread use of the term “passive” design was used to describe design con-
cepts for the direct use of winter solar heating in buildings (Table 3.1). If such applica-
tions are properly designed, utilising the most common examples of passive techniques
-59-
which are south-facing windows and thermal storage walls, there is little or no need for
pumps and fans to move solar heat, as is the case with conventional heating or “active”
(mechanical) solar systems from collector to storage to building interior. But eliminating
fans or pumps in a heating system is not in itself energy saving or cost-efficient and this
distinction provides little justification for separating solar technology into “passive” and
“active” classifications. The widespread use of fans along with separate storage in “pas-
sive” solar techniques is related to the building design and construction, its orientation,
proportions, glazing and materials, whereas “active” solar techniques are related to
mechanical system design (Howard et al. 1990).
Conduction Convection Radiation Evaporation

Winter Promote Promote solar
gain gain
Resist loss Minimize Minimize
conductive external heat
heat flow flow.
Minimize
infiltration
Summer Resist gain Minimize Minimize
conductive solar gain
heat flow
Promote Delay pe- Promote ven- Promote radi- Promote
loss riodic heat tilation ant cooling evaporative
flow cooling
Table 3.1 Design concepts for the direct use of winter solar heating in buildings (Howard et al..
1990)
Figure 3.1 Natural energy ex-

change through a building en-
velope
-60-
Passive Solar Systems
Commonly available building materials and products can be used for passive solar ener-
gy applications. It is the way that these are integrated into the building design that dis-
tinguishes them as a passive energy system. This distinction between a building product
or component and an integrated passive energy system is important for several reasons.
It points to the critical role that must be served by the building designer who integrated
the parts into a system. A qualifying passive solar energy system is defined as comprising
five distinct functions (Fowler, 1981).
1. Solar collection area means an expanse of transparent or translucent material that is

located on that side of the structure which faces south, the position of which may be
changed from vertical to horizontal in such a manner that the rays of the sun directly
strike an absorber.
2. Absorber means a hard surface that is exposed to the rays of the sun admitted
through a solar collection area. It converts solar radiation into heat. It transfers heat
to a storage mass.
3. Storage mass means a dense, heavy material that receives and holds heat from an
absorber and later releases the heat into the interior of the structure. It has sufficient
volume, depth, and thermal energy capacity to store and deliver adequate amounts
of solar heat for the structure in which it is incorporated. It is located so that it is ca-
pable of distributing the stored heat directly to the habitable areas of the structure
through a heat distribution method.
4. Heat distribution method means the release of radiant heat from a storage mass
within the habitable areas of the structure. It provides convective heating from a stor-
age mass to habitable areas of the structure through airflow paths.
5. Heat regulation device means shading or venting mechanisms that control the
amount of solar heat admitted through solar collection areas.
Applicability of Passive Solar Heating Systems in Cyprus

It must be noted that the heat delivery of passive solar heating systems cannot be
stopped at will, and thus a building can continue to be heated by a passive solar system
even during the summer, when the system may cause overheating and discomfort. This
section reviews the most common passive solar heating systems as they relate to the
climatic conditions of Cyprus and considers the specifics of their applicability (Givoni,
1991) (State Energy Office, 2004). Their applicability is discussed in regions with hot
summers like Cyprus, including the likelihood of undesirable overheating during sum-
mer by the passive solar systems. The three main categories of passive solar design are:
1. Direct Gain
2. Indirect Gain (e.g. Thermal Storage Walls, Solar Air Collectors)
3. Isolated Gain (e.g. Passive Solar Sunspaces)
-61-
Direct Gain
The Direct Gain system, the most common and simple design, are houses in which the
living areas themselves act as collectors of solar energy by using south-facing windows
which allow sunlight to directly enter the building. Thermal mass in the form of concrete
or masonry walls or floors capture and store the sun’s energy (State Energy Office, 2004).
Increasing the area of solar glazing in Direct Gain buildings also increases the solar gain
during the daytime proportionately. It also increases the heat loss through the glazed
area during the winter nights, as well as the undesirable heat gain during the summer.
The ratio between these different thermal effects depends on the relative severity of
the winter and summer seasons in a given region, as well as the properties and details
of solar glazing. These properties are the solar transmission and thermal conductance
of the glazing itself, the availability of night insulation during the winter and the solar
exposure and the availability of daytime insulation (in addition to shading) during the
summer. (Givoni, 1991)
Figure 3.2 Direct Gain

Advantages
• Direct Gain concerns the significant amounts of solar energy which may be col-
lected in heated rooms through elements which would be found in the building, in
the form of windows, clerestories, and roof monitors (skylights with vertical glazing)
facing the sun. Roof monitors make it possible to provide direct solar gain to rooms
that do not have direct solar exposure. Therefore Direct Gain can be applied to sin-
-62-
gle storey buildings, which do not have a sun-facing wall at all.
• The two advantages of the clerestory in a direct gain system are, firstly, solar radia-
tion is admitted directly to thermal storage on the north wall and second, the high
space permits temperature stratification so that the lower occupied area is somewhat
relieved of the overheating effect. The clerestory can also be used to control glare
by indirect (ceiling reflected) natural lighting. In summer, the high space can be de-
signed to serve as a thermal chimney for induced ventilation by the stack effect
• Direct Gain is the simplest solar heating system and can be the easiest to build. In
many cases it is achieved simply by the disposition of windows.
• The large areas of glazing not only admit solar radiation for heating but also high
levels of daylighting and good visual conditions for the outside.
• Glazing is well researched and cheap and a material that is readily available.
• The overall system can be one of the least expensive methods of solar space heating.
• With adequate insulation of the building, it is possible to rely totally on Direct Gain
as a passive solar system used in the case of Cyprus.
Disadvantages
• Excessively large areas of solar glazing, in hot summers, may lead to the need of
installing mechanical air-conditioning in places which otherwise do not need me-
chanical cooling.
• In any building heated by solar Direct Gain, the area of the southern windows would
be much larger than in a non-solar building. Even if the glazing is completely protect-
ed in mid-summer from direct solar radiation, e.g. by an overhang, the diffused radi-
ation from the sky and the reflected radiation from the ground may cause significant
solar gain, in addition to the conductive heat gain. The risk of overheating is even
greater in late summer (e.g. in September) when temperatures may still be high but
the sun is lower making overhangs less effective.
• The simplest protection from overheating caused by Direct Gain in Cyprus (due to its
hot summers) is by applying shading devices which block most of the diffused and
reflected solar radiation, such as roll-able or hinged shutters outside the glazing. An-
other option is to block the radiation by interior insulated panels, with their exterior
surface painted white.
• Large areas of glass can result in glare by day and loss of privacy at night.
• Ultraviolet radiation in the sunlight will degrade fabrics, photographs and other con-
tents of the building.
• If large areas of glazing are used, large amounts of thermal mass will usually be
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needed to modulate temperature swings that can be expensive if the mass serves
no structural purpose. If the standard of thermal insulation is increased, the area of
glazing required may be reduced and, hence, the quantity of thermal mass will also
be reduced.
• Even with thermal mass, daily temperature swings will occur.
Indirect Gain: Thermal Storage Wall (Trombe wall) and Solar Air Collector
Thermal storage walls, also know as Trombe wall, require the construction of two ex-
terior walls – one made of concrete or concrete-filled block and another made of glass,
are more expensive than other passive solar designs. Thermal storage walls store solar
heat and let it radiate into the living area. They also do not provide as much savings on
heating bills during the cloudy winters (State Energy Office, 2004).
Solar air collectors absorb incoming solar energy, vent through the back of the air col-
lector, and transfer heated air into the house. They are similar to thermal storage walls
but use a conventionally framed wall and function primarily during the day. Eliminating
the mass reduces the cost (State Energy Office, 2004).
The exterior surface of the wall is painted a dark colour to enhance absorption of radia-
tion, or is given a ‘selective surface’ to minimise long-wave radiant heat loss. Solar radi-
ation penetrating the glazing is absorbed within the massive walls, raising the external
surface temperature and that of the air in contact with it. The fraction of the absorbed
heat, which is transmitted through the wall to the interior, is determined by the thermal
conductivity of the material and the wall’s thickness, as well as by the combined ther-
mal conductance (to the outdoor) of the air space and the glazing. The space behind
the wall is heated by long wave radiation and natural convection from the wall’s warm
internal surface (Givoni, 1991).
If vents are provided, both at the bottom and at the top of the wall (vented wall), then
the warm air in the air space between the dark surface and the glazing rises and flows
into the building through the upper vents. Room air flows through the bottom vents
into the airspace. Thus a thermosyphon air flow forms, transferring heat to the room by
convection, in addition to the conductive heat transfer (Givoni, 1991).
Under optimal flow conditions, about 30% of the total energy flow in vented walls made
of concrete about 30cm thick is by convection and 70% is by conduction. A vented wall
exhibits a lower temperature in the air space and consequently less heat is lost through
the glazing. Therefore the overall efficiency is higher by about 10% in systems with vent-
ed walls as compared with unventilated walls (Moses, 1983).
Moses (1983) demonstrated that the external surface temperature of a collection stor-
age wall, even when the wall and a sidewalk in front of it were completely shaded from
direct radiation by a deep overhang, is elevated above the ambient air by up to 8oC.
This elevation is caused by the diffused, and mainly by the reflected, solar radiation. In
summer, and also in spring and fall, glazed solar walls may thus cause indoor heat stress.
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Figure 3.3 Indirect Gain
Therefore it was suggested by Givoni (1989) that in regions with sunny hot summers (like
Cyprus) it is desirable to insure complete shading of the wall, not only from direct sun but
also from radiation reflected from the ground. This can be accomplished only by vertical
shading, e.g. by roll-able shades or by shading panels which are installed in summer and
removed in winter.
During Cyprus’s mild winters (Cyprus’s mid-winter average temperature is about 5oC-
10oC), night insulation may not be justified from the solar heating aspect. However, in
Cyprus sunny summers and average mid-summer daytime temperature is above 30oC.
The elevation of the external surface temperature of the glazed dark wall can cause se-
rious overheating of the interior, and operable insulation may then be desirable. Such
operable insulation will also improve the heating performance in winter.
Practically, it is not easy to equip a conventional Trombe Wall with operable insulation or
even to ventilate the air space in summer. Ventilation of that space introduces dust on
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the inner side of the glazing and on the dark surface of the wall, reducing the effective
solar transmission and absorption. This dust cannot be removed. One way to overcome
these problems is to design an accessible space, about 60cm wide, between the wall
and the glazing. The extra cost of this additional space should be taken into account
when considering this design detail.
Water wall variations: The “Drumwall” is an alternative thermal mass system, and has
both advantages and disadvantages when compared to masonry. If the occupied space
is vented during summer nights for cooling, the water wall could possibly cool more
rapidly, due to the large exposed surface area
Advantages:
• The indoor temperatures are more stable than in most other passive solar systems.
• Excessive sunshine, and its associated functional problems, does not penetrate into
the inhabited space.
• Installation is relatively inexpensive where construction would normally be masonry,

or for retrofitting existing buildings with uninsulated massive external walls.
• If windows are provided alongside or within the solar wall then direct sun penetra-
tion provides light and quick heating of the space in the morning, while the mass is
still cold.
• Glare, privacy and ultraviolet degradation of fabrics are not a problem.
• Temperature swings in the living space are lower than with the Direct Gain systems.
• The time delay between absorption of the solar energy and delivery of the thermal
energy to the living space can be more of an advantage for night-time heating rath-
er than for daytime heating.
Disadvantages:
• Summer overheating problems may outweigh winter benefits in Cyprus (with mild
winters and hot summers) unless effective shading, also from radiation reflected
from the ground, is provided.
• The effective heating is felt only to a depth of about 1.5 times the wall’s height, due
to the limited depth of natural convection air currents and the decreasing radiant
heat flux from the warm sun-facing wall (Moses, 1983).
• In multi-story buildings, problems with maintenance of the glazing may necessitate

the provision of access balconies. Note, however, that such balconies can function
as shading overhangs for the glazing below.
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• The external surface of the mass wall is relatively hot as conduction of energy through
the wall is slow and can lead to considerable loss of energy to the external environ-
ment thus reducing efficiency.
• The associate controls (e.g. external insulated shutters) can be expensive.
• The south wall needs to be part glazed and part massive (Trombe wall) in order to
function effectively. This configuration can have certain space and cost disadvantag-
es.
• Discomfort can be caused at either end of the heating season by overheated air from
the Trombe wall during the day or uncontrolled thermal radiation from the inside
surface of either type on warm evenings. Venting can reduce these effects.
• The need for sufficient thermal mass must be balanced with the requirements for
views from the living space and daylighting.
• The Trombe wall must be designed for access to clean the glazed walls.
• Condensation on the glass can be a problem.
Isolated Gain: Passive Solar Sunspaces
Sunspaces (also called Conservatories or Winter Gardens), rooms independent of the

home’s heating and cooling system, capture the sun’s energy and transfer the heat gen-
erated to the house. Sunspaces are also used often but are usually not connected to the
central heating and cooling system of the rest of the home. They are comfortable during
much of the year, but are not intended as a living space year round (State Energy Office,
2004).
Sunspaces are intermediate usable spaces between the exterior and the interior of the
building. Being separated from the main spaces of the building, a much greater tem-
perature swing, (resulting from a large glazing area) may be acceptable within sunspac-
es, more than can be tolerated in non-isolated Direct Gain spaces. Sunspaces are not
suitable in Cyprus due to overheating problems in the summer, although other factors
or preferences may justify their use (Orezczyn, 1993). The sunspace is an unheated area
and temperatures within this sunspace will vary greatly and so it may not be suitable for
living or growing plants unless some control is used, which in the case of Cyprus, is not
recommended.
Considering thermal characteristics and building design, two types of sunspaces may be
distinguished (Givoni, 1991):
1. Modified Greenhouses with a glazed inclined roof and sometimes also with inclined
glazed walls: This form maximises the transmitted radiation as the roof receives the
winter sun-rays in late winter at a more optimal angle. However, a glazed roof gets a
higher solar heat gain in the summer than sun porches, and overheating in summer
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Figure 3.4 Isolated Gain - Sunspace
is more likely. This is the main reason that green-spaces are not desirable for Cyprus.
2. Sun Porches with horizontal opaque and insulated roof, where the glazing is only
vertical: In this type of sunspace, the opaque and insulated roof reduces the like-
lihood of overheating and the large daily temperature swings caused by the over-
head glazing. The potential heat gain in the winter is lower than in the case of a
greenhouse type but the possibilities for control, and for year round use of the
sunspace area increases greatly. This type is therefore advisable in regions with hot
summers. If a sufficient portion of the glazing (e.g. 20%) is made open-able, such a
space becomes (in summer) the equivalent of a shaded outdoor porch, providing
shade for the building’s wall behind the sunspace.
Advantages:
• They buffer the main spaces from extremes of exposure, thus reducing the potential
temperature fluctuation, glare and the fading of fabrics and furniture, which may
result from excessive indoor sunlight.
• They increase the heat collection potential of a given façade, by allowing a larger
glazing area than is practicable and desirable with Direct Gain.
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• The sunspace area itself can constitute an additional living space in the winter as
well as the transitional seasons. With appropriate provision of shading and ventila-
tion in the summer, such spaces may be pleasant environments, year round, in most
climates.
• The interior “climate” of the house can be greatly improved by the addition of a
thermal “buffer” between the living space and the outside air. A sunspace can run
the full width of the house and the full height - reducing fabric and ventilation losses.
• Sunspaces also serve non-energetic purposes: for example an additional living space
or as a greenhouse when the indoor temperatures in the winter are not low.
• Sunspaces are readily adaptable to existing houses.
• Sunspaces can be easily combined with other passive solar systems.
Disadvantages:
• The overall cost is higher and the energy collection efficiency per unit area of glazing
as well as the payback period of investment in its construction is longer, as compared
with Direct Gain.
• In Cyprus there are overheating problems, even in the mountains where the temper-
atures are lower.
• Sunspaces can experience large temperature swings.
• The glazed roof of the sunspace can be sufficiently cool at night to cause condensa-
tion on its internal surface.
• Thermal energy is delivered to the house as warm air - it is less easy to store heat
from air than from direct solar radiation.
• The increased humidity caused by growing plants may cause condensation and dis-
comfort in the building.
Isolated Gain: Rock Bed and Thermosyphon Systems
An alternate to placing the thermal mass directly in the sun is to use a rock-bed. Rock-
beds are usually fan-charged. However, there are installations designed for a thermosy-
phon driven charging from solar collectors which are located below the building. Like a
rock-bed in an active system, it can be cooled during summer nights to be available for
cooling as a heat sink during the next day (Bansal et al. 1994).
Referred to as “the envelope house”. A double roof and north wall and a crawl space
under the house serve as a continuous air plenum. Cold air drops down the north wall, is
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drawn through the crawl space in which some form of thermal storage is placed, and re-
turned to the sunspace, where by displacement, the solar heated air is drawn along the
ceiling to “drive” a thermosyphon loop. In none of the monitored examples was there
evidence that the thermosyphon effect is sufficient to draw the solar heated air around
the entire envelope and to charge the thermal mass in the crawl space. Both rocks and
earth-pipes have been used in system variations. While these houses have performed
Figure 3.5 Isolated Gain - Thermosyphon System
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well in terms of comfort and low energy use, the results may also be explained by the
resistance insulation value of the double-wall construction (Passive Solar Update, 1981).
A thermosyphon alternative has no inherent summer cooling mode, but is of interest

because it is a passive heating system with the advantages of liquid collector and stor-
age, without relying upon pump and controller components. For the same reason, ther-
mosyphon or passive domestic hot water collector and storage systems are preferable
to active arrangements. In all of the variations, shading during the overheated period
in Cyprus is necessary to prevent undesired heat gain. Any fixed shading presents the
problem of blocking the sun during the spring (say, March-April when some passive solar
heating is desired) in order to also block the sun during the late summer (say, July - Au-
gust when the overheated period peaks). Countering overheating effects with thermal
mass provides a partial solution, but not as effectively as shading devices that can be
adjusted to changing seasonal needs.
Thermal Storage
Thermal storage is an essential component for the effective use of solar energy in build-
ings (Howard et al. 1990). It acts like a reservoir that absorbs and releases intermittent
sources of energy like solar radiation (or large diurnal temperature swings) to assist in
providing human comfort. Although many types of solar heating systems use remote
storage (such as liquid storage tank, rock-beds, air core systems or phase change ma-
terials), this section addresses those storage techniques that are directly coupled to the
interior space of buildings. The heat capacity of interior furnishings and other contents
must also be considered.
Once the solar thermal storage mechanism becomes an integral part of a building’s in-
terior, it has to satisfy many criteria other than just the efficient thermodynamic storage
and distribution of energy. Thermal storage and release has to occur within an accept-
able temperature range for human comfort. Thermal storage materials properly used
may enhance human comfort. The thermal storage may also become part of the interior
aesthetic of a building in which it is employed.
In addition to the interior design considerations of the owner or operator and the amount
of storage required for good performance and comfort by the climate energy source,
there are other important internal sources of energy that can influence the design of any
storage system. The frequency and quantity of internal heat gains supplied or generated
by occupants, lights, equipment, and appliances can be as important as the amount of
solar energy available. The daily and weekly pattern of occupancy along with the local
utility rate structure may determine (for the designer) whether interior thermal storage
is an appropriate energy conservation strategy or not, and will greatly influence design
constraints.
Thermal mass can be incorporated into a passive solar room in many ways, from tile-cov-
ered floors to masonry walls. When selecting thermal mass materials, consider the aes-
thetics, costs, and energy performance.
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• Slab-on-grade floor are used in most passive solar homes. Slab floors can be stained or
stamped into a variety of patterns or finished with tile, stone or brick.
• Interior mass walls are solid mass walls between interior rooms. Since they have living area
on both sides, they can be up to 30cm thick, although thinner 10-20cm walls deliver heat
more quickly (State Energy Office, 2004).
• Thermal storage walls are solid masonry wall fronted by exterior double-glazed windows.
Sometimes known as Trombe walls, these designs are one of the least cost-effective pas-
sive solar options. They are expensive to build, and many researchers question whether
the mass wall has sufficient time to warm between the periodic spells of cloudy weather
(State Energy Office, 2004).
• Water-filled containers are water stores heat twice as effectively as masonry by volume and
five times as effectively by weight. Commonly used water containers include fibreglass
cylinders and 100-200 litre metal drums (State Energy Office, 2004).
• Hot tubs, saunas, and indoor pools are some homeowners have tried to use hot tubs,
saunas, and indoor pools as thermal storage mass. In most cases, these forms of water
storage do not work well. The desired water temperature for comfortable use of these
amenities is hotter than the passive solar contribution can possibly achieve (State Energy
Office, 2004).
Thermal Storage Process
The process of sensible heat thermal storage obeys the laws of thermodynamics, which state
that energy flows from a warmer source to a colder (sink) object (Howard et al. 1990). Conduc-
tion, convection, or radiation, or combinations of the three transfer the energy. It is useful to
think of the process of thermal storage in three parts.
1. First part involves the collection or the absorption of energy by the storage material. In
the case of solar energy (radiation) this occurs when the sun directly irradiates the storage
materials and its surface is heated according to the amount of energy that is absorbed,
reflected, re-radiated, or convected. The absorption of radiant energy is a function of the
absorptivity of a material’s surface. Collection of energy can also occur when the air in a
room is heated by convection from sunlit surfaces elsewhere, and heat is transferred to
the storage material, walls, floors, or ceilings. Usually, the rate of transfer by natural con-
vection is comparatively slow. It is obvious that the rate of flow and therefore the transfer
coefficient can be greatly increased by creating ‘forced’ convection, such as the use of
fans. However, measurements do show that remarkable quantities of air convect in passive
solar buildings, from source to sink zones, without mechanical means.
2. The second part concerns the distribution of energy once it has been absorbed. It may
be either convected or re-radiated back to the room air and hence to the environment, or
it may be conducted into the storage material. The rate of transfer into or out of storage
mass is determined by the thermal diffusivity of the storage material’s conductance, spe-
cific heat, and its density. These properties control the dynamic flow of energy into and
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out of the storage medium, (i.e., the “pulse” per wave of energy) and should not be
confused with the total heat capacity of the material, which is a static measure based
on the material’s total thickness, conductance, specific heat, and density.
3. The third part involves the release of energy. Once the storage material has absorbed
enough energy it will be warmer than its surrounding environment, or radiation and
natural convection. This process is controlled by the material’s physical properties of
emittance, thermal diffusivity, the temperature difference between the surface and
the surrounding environment, and the convection coefficient created by the air flow
over the surface
It should be pointed out that interior thermal storage does not increase or decrease the
total energy available, nor does it change the long-term heat loss/gain of the building.
Thermal heat capacity in exterior envelopes however, can reduce the energy demand
on space conditioning requirements under mild heating and cooling climate conditions
such as Cyprus. It changes the pattern of energy flow, i.e. the timing and amplitude of
energy flow (volume). These energy balance modifications have been described as time
lag (as a result of the heat capacity of the material) and amplitude reduction (primarily
as a result of the conductance and diffusion of energy within the material). The time lags
may be designed into buildings to displace periods of low envelope energy that can
be used more effectively. Amplitude reduction is used to lower the peak differentials
(usually temperature) that the mechanical space conditioning must handle (Figure 3.6) to
produce the desired level of comfort (Marad, 1980).
A construction with a low thermal value (air-to-air transmittance) will reduce all forms of
conduction heat transfer through the building envelope. Such a conduction heat flow
would be large, if the temperature differences were large. With small temperature dif-
ferences between the outside and the inside, the heat flow would be small, and an im-
provement in thermal insulation would not bring any significant reduction.
However, it is worth remembering that in a heat gain situation, with strong solar radiation,
it is the surface temperature value that must be used to find the temperature difference,
thus even if the air temperature difference is small, the actual temperature difference
acting as a motive force for heat flow may be large, and insulation may be important.
Knowledge of the decrement factor and time lag for different materials, thickness and
combinations of materials in various constructional elements, is important for the de-
signer. The aim is to permit heat gain through the enclosing elements when there are
heat losses through other channels (e.g. ventilation). Avoid such heat gain when there
is already a surplus of heat flow into the building. The selection of construction with an
appropriate time lag is an essential factor in the design. Figure 3.6 shows the time lag
for different roof constructions (Marad, 1980).
The question is how much thermal capacity and what length of time lag is desirable? A
point often overlooked is that the thermal capacity can be too much; the time lag can be
too long. For example, a wall facing east receives its maximum heating at 10.00 hours. A
time-lag of 10 hours would put the inside surface temperature maximum at 20.00 hours,
when it is likely to be too hot and the occupants may want to sleep.
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Figure 3.6 Time lag and amplitude reduction (Marad, 1980)
Heat Capacity
Mazria (1979) provided classic rule-of-thumb heat storage guidelines from which numer-
ous ‘first-generation’ passive solar buildings were designed. A summary of these guide-
lines is shown in table 3.2 for several different passive solar system types. Monitored
data shows that homes designed with these rules perform fairly well, but that problems
can occur in the application of these rules to multi-zone or internal-loads-dominated
commercial, industrial, or institutional structures.
Average out- m² of window m² of wall needed for each m² of greenhouse glass need-
door tem- needed for one one m² of floor area ed for each one m² of floor
perature ºC m² of floor area area
Masonry wall Water wall Masonry wall Water wall
11.1ºC 0.24-0.38 (with 0.60-1.0 0.45-0.85 0.9-1.5 0.68-1.27
(Winter) night insulation)
22.2ºC 0.13-0.21 0.28-0.46 0.20-0.34 0.42-0.69 0.30-0.51
(Summer)
Table 3.2 sizing solar windows, thermal storage wall and the attached greenhouse (Mazria, 1979)
The Los Alamos Diurnal Heat Capacity (DHC) method refined by Balcomb (1983) (Fig-
ure 3.7) is a very simple and useful method for the analysis of storage components as
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well as the total interior effective heat capacity of a passive design. DHC can be used to
estimate the role of all interior surfaces, whether lightweight or massive, and their prop-
erties, in temperature swings and comfort levels to be expected. Each type of surface is
also characterised in terms of its exposure to transmitted solar radiation via the collec-
tion system to make the necessary calculation.
A basic finding is that the density of the specific heat storage material has a major effect
on optimal thickness and effective storage capacity. An optimal storage material would
have relatively high density, a specific heat above 263.76kJ and reasonable, but not ex-
cessive (overly rapid) thermal diffusivity. The thermal diffusivity is expressed as the con-
ductivity divided by density times specific heat. For common heat storing structural ma-
terials, thickness greater than 150-200mm has little added effect on diurnal heat storage.
Lighter weight materials for heat storage are optimally thinner, and much less effective.
Figure 3.7 Diurnal Heat Capacity (DHC) responsive thickness of materials versus heat capacity
(Balcomb, 1983)
Mass Applications
Construction of passive solar heat storage ranges from the very simple to the complicat-
ed. The simplest heat storage approach is to construct the building of massive structural
materials insulated on the exterior to couple the mass to the indoor space. Multiple
functions of the components can increase cost effectiveness. Heavy weight construction
is suitable for all climatic regions.
Research has discovered important physical and thermal relationships among the level
of envelope insulation, the size of solar aperture, and heat storage requirements (How-
ard, 1990). If the mass of exterior envelope is elevated, then a change in the amount of
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interior, and transmitted solar gains must be carefully reconciled. As more energy using
(heat generating) equipment and persons are added to the interior, the requirements
for solar heat are decreased, and the need for cooling increases and becomes less
‘seasonal’. Addition of thermal mass can help control transient thermal discomfort if
coupled with controlled ventilation.
If a very highly insulated envelope is designed, with little thermal mass inside, care must
be applied to avoid using too much glass as a passive solar collective area. Research
at Los Alamos, confirmed by monitored results, indicated that about 8% of floor area
in south-facing windows was the limit for low-mass well-insulated houses. For Direct
Gain systems, south-facing window areas greater than about 10-12% of floor area re-
quire thermal mass, well distributed over floors, walls, and ceilings, to reduce tempera-
ture swings. The designer should first provide adequate view and natural lighting with
moderate Direct Gain glass areas; then if more heat is needed from passive solar, the
designer should consider indirect heating such as thermal storage walls, sunspaces, or
isolated gains systems.
The aspects relating to mass are of particular significance for Cyprus due to the large
diurnal fluctuations (15 to 25ºC), and the potential possessed by mass for large solar
contribution in winter and cooling in summer (Sergides, 1991). This implies that heat
admitted during the day, during the winter, could be stored for use during the evening
hours and in the summer it could be decapitated in the cool night.
The addition of mass has already been examined in relation to the shape of a house
(Rectangular, L Shape, Π Shape, Square) (Sergides, 1991). The study has shown that
addition of internal mass incurs energy conservation of varied extent according to the
thermal behaviour of each shape. On the contrary, addition of external mass leads to
higher energy consumption in all shapes. Whereas masonry provides a good heat stor-
age medium within a space, it readily passes this heat to the outside when added on
exterior walls.
Another possible reason could be the quantity of the mass. From studies (Sergides,
1991) it appears that the extent of mass increase seems to be critical concerning its
effect on the energy loading. Extensive increase of internal mass could act adversely in
as far as time needed to cool it summer nights or indeed heat it in the winter.
Interior mass in Direct Gain systems with layers greater than 150mm of solid concrete (or
equivalent material) may even be counterproductive. Direct gain floor systems should
receive direct sun and be well insulated on its perimeter at least. About 100mm thick-
ness is correct for concrete masonry paves, brick paves, and cast concrete floors.
The internal partitions should be placed in such a way that they do not obstruct the air
movement between the north and south windows. This is necessary for natural cooling
during summer nights (Kolokotroni, 1985).
Monitored results (Howard et al. 1982) (Frey et al. 1982) (Hasking et al. 1979) point to
Direct Gains being most effective in standard construction (no added mass, insulated
light frame walls) when solar glazing areas are less than 8% of the interior floor area.
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Above this ratio, added mass is needed either in the form of heavier envelope construc-
tion or added interior thermal storage systems. Measured data point to the wisdom of
using Direct Gains in smaller amounts, combined with indirect or isolated gains systems
for heat, after the daylighting requirements are satisfied. Trombe walls, sunspaces with
high-mass separation walls, or air-core type systems can satisfy this requirement.
In a Trombe wall, different criteria exist to determine optimal thickness. In Trombe wall
design, it is necessary to relate the heat output desired from the wall’s interior face to
the wall’s thickness, under typical operation conditions. Clearly, the use of typical ma-
sonry units of 150-300mm (depending on density) is warranted. Thicker walls than this
may again be counterproductive according to the data. Certainly for a typical masonry
Trombe wall, annual solar heating fractions do not increase much beyond a 200mm
thickness (Figure 3.8). A more important concern regarding wall thickness here may be
structural or seismic code requirements for life safety. However, most Trombe walls are
reinforced, and many are filled with concrete or grout to increase their heat capacity. This
improves structural integrity as well.
Figure 3.8 Trombe wall thickness vs annual solar heating percentage (Balcomb, 1983)
Occupants of passive buildings must be well informed of the necessity for exposure of
thermal storage components to direct sunlight, or to secondary gains via reflection and
convection. There have been examples of follow-up owners covering heat storage walls
with insulation and wall-board to “hide” block or brick exposed on the interior, thereby
eliminating its storage function. Placement of thick carpet over heat storage floors and
hanging too many plants in sunspace windows are other examples. There is a limit to the
positive effect interior mass can have on comfort if it is shielded from effective solar heat
absorption. One way to prevent this kind of intervention is to provide a storage mass
that is aesthetically acceptable. Also, an operator’s manual for the building explaining
the functions and requirements for the mass to work well can be helpful.
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Occupants may be unable to accept the appearance of certain passive solar compo-
nents. For example, PCM rods exposed in a sunspace may look “high tech” but occu-
pants may not feel they fit with traditional furniture. An interior designed for thermal
performance and comfort may not help “sell” the building if it does not look good to
the owner/buyer. Interior masonry has been successfully associated with commercial or
institutional buildings, and exposed mass in this setting, as opposed to residences, may
be deemed more acceptable.
A solution to improve appearance is to cover heat storage materials with no insulating

finishes such as grass cloth, plaster or wall paper. New architectural patterns for mason-
ry surfaces provide new opportunities for exciting interior design that do not compro-
mise the comfort and performance of the passive solar system.
In the 70’s the spatial arrangement, and even the exterior shape of the building were
thought related directly to performance. This was true in the earlier passive designs
where less attention was paid to envelop thermal protection and the emphasis was
more on ‘glass and mass’. The new passive solar design ethic can be applied to virtually
any design, and proper analysis indicates that insulation, windows, mass and arrange-
ments of these components produces good results.
Thermal Insulation
There are frequent debates between advocates of super insulation of residential build-
ing envelopes and those who favour solar applications of one type or another. Obvi-
ously, the implications of these different strategies on envelope design are significant.
The primarily opaque walls suggested by the super insulation approach are in marked
contrast to the glazed façades of many of the solar strategies (Prowler et al. 1990).
A study done by LANL Solar Group (Balcolmb et al. 1984) concluded that, for a given
climate, there is an optimal mixture of energy supply by passive solar techniques and
reduction of energy demand by insulation. This optimal mixture depends on the rela-
tive costs of the solar system and the insulation, but not on fuel costs. In cold, cloudy
climates almost all of the energy-savings investment should be spent on insulation. The
reverse is true in milder, sunny climates like Cyprus.
A study conducted by Serghides (1991) regarding the extent of insulation applications

for Cyprus concluded that the introduction of insulation improves their efficiency and
their energy consumption, for both heating and cooling decreases. The interception
of the sun at the very external side of the buildings’ skin in the summer results to the
efficiency of external insulation for cooling energy conservation. In the winter, with the
positioning of the insulation on the external side, heat stored in the thermal mass of the
structure is utilised by storing the trapped solar energy and prevents the stored heat to
be conducted rapidly to the outside. The introduction of insulation on the roof presents
a high percentage of energy savings; 15% for heating and 45% for cooling.
Another study conducted by Kolokotroni (1985) informs that thermal insulation should
be provided to reduce heat losses in winter and heat gains in summer. It should be
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placed as externally as possible because the part of the wall or roof inside of the insu-
lation determines to a large extent the effectiveness of the heat capacity. The optimum
U-values are 0.2 W/m²K for the mountainous climatic regions, 0.6 W/m²K for the inland
climatic regions and 0.9 W/m²K for the coastal climatic regions.
Building Shape and Orientation

Among the earliest questions asked was how should the solar aperture be oriented to
collect maximum solar radiation? In reply windows of acceptable solar orientation and
tilt were soon articulated (Prowel et al. 1990). A window of 15° on either side of due
south was generally accepted as the rule of thumb for acceptable collector orientation
in most locations.
The rule of thumb for optimal tilt (the angle between the collector and the horizontal)
for active solar domestic hot water (DHW) collection was determined to be equal to the
latitude angle at which the installation was located. Thus, the collector in an active DHW
system for Cyprus, whose latitude is approximately 35°, would be best tilted at 35° to
be the horizontal.
For space heating, the optimal tilt was determined to be the latitude plus 15°. The
penalty for deviations up to 20° from these optima was found to be modest. In fact,
calculations showed that vertical surfaces with additional reflections from snow or re-
flectors in the foreground would intercept almost as much radiation during the heating
season as optimally sloped surfaces. This supported the case for the many vertical-wall
passive solar homes that were constructed throughout the period. Pitched roofs should
be constructed where the precipitation levels require them, i.e. the mountainous climatic
region.
Clearly, the greatest and most immediate source of heat gain to a building’s interior is
the solar radiation entering through a window. This could increase the indoor tempera-
ture far above the outdoor air temperature, in Cyprus, as a result of the greenhouse ef-
fect. Window glasses are practically transparent to short-wave infrared radiation emitted
by the sun, but almost opaque for long-wave radiation, emitted by objects in the room.
The consequence of this is that the radiant heat, once it has entered through a window,
is trapped inside the building. If solar overheating is a problem, as it is in Cyprus, there
are four methods available for the reduction of solar heat gain through windows. These
four variables are within the designer’s control:
1. Orientation
2. Glazing
3. Internal shading devices
4. External shading devices
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By plotting the directions of maximum radiant gain for both hot and cool months, it is
possible to determine the optimum orientation for any given location. It is unlikely that
the two directions will be at right angles to each other and some compromise must be
made to achieve the most satisfactory distribution of total heat receipts in all seasons. It
is difficult to generalise, but as east and west facing walls receive the highest intensities
of radiation they should normally be kept as short as possible and openings, if they must
exist on these sides, should be as small as possible. The west side, which receives the
maximum radiation during the hottest part of the day, can be particularly troublesome.
The shape of the house (Kolokotroni, 1985) (i.e. aspect ratio) affects only slightly its
thermal performance when average weather prevails and it is designed and used in an
‘optimum’ way. Under extreme temperatures and solar radiation in winter, a relatively
compact design is less sensitive to changes than the same floor area but with an elon-
gated across the East-West axis, because less heat is lost through the smaller external
surfaces and windows. Thus, less energy is required to establish internal comfort in win-
ter. In the summer however, the compact design performs slightly worse under average
and extreme temperatures.
Sergides (Sergides, 1991) compared four shape variations (Rectangular, L Shape, Π

Shape, Square) when summing up energy consumption in both heating and cooling. It
is observed that the square shape retains its lead in being the most economical house.
The addition of internal mass (Sergides, 1991) combined with the maximisation of south
glazing, increases energy conservation in heating for all four shapes. The rectangu-
lar shape presents the highest amounts of savings. This difference is attributed to the
greater extent of south glazing increase in this shape.
Glazing
Material research has focused on glazing, since windows usually create an adverse im-
pact on building operating costs. Energy penalties caused by low insulation values and
uncontrollable solar gains often outweigh energy benefits, such as daylighting. Never-
theless, windows provide essential benefits, such as view, ventilation, and a psycholog-
ical (and sometimes physical) connection to the outdoors. Perhaps more importantly,
windows are architectural elements that can set the style of a building. Any new glazing
alternatives must provide all these benefits to be accepted in the marketplace.
There are two approaches for improving energy performance in residences that re-
quire wintertime heating during some part of the year. Improve the solar transmission
while maintaining the thermal insulation level, or improve the thermal resistance while
maintaining the solar transmission. Either approach greatly enhances the window as a
south-wall collector, and if the improvements are large enough both approaches can be
used, as an effective cloudy-day or north-facing solar collector, since the diffuse solar
radiation can be effectively trapped (Neeper, 1982).
The use of double-glazing is an effective means of controlling heat losses and there-
fore reducing energy consumption. By replacing all single glazing with double there is
about 48% energy savings (Sergides, 1991). Today’s commercially available argon-filled
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low-emissivity (low-e) windows can attain performance about midway between the ex-
tremes of the other glazing materials.
More of the openings should be placed on the south wall in order to promote direct heat
gains in winter (Kolokotroni, 1985). The optimum percentages of south wall openings are
40% for the mountainous, 24% for the coastal and 18% for the inland climatic regions.
Small north windows should be opened to enable cross ventilation in summer but not
waste energy in winter. A value of 5% north wall windows is sufficient for adequate cross
ventilation during summer nights.
Internal Shading Devices

Internal blinds and curtains are not very effective means of solar control, especially in
Cyprus. It is true that they stop the passage of radiation, but they themselves absorb the
solar heat and can reach a very high temperature. The absorbed heat will be partly con-
vected to the indoor air and partly re-radiated. A percentage of this radiation is outwards
(depending on the type of glazing), but as it is of long wavelength, the window glass
stops it. The usual narrow space between the window and the blind will thus be quite
substantially overheated, unless ventilated to the outside air. The hot surface of the blind
causes the indoor Mean Radiant Temperature (MRT) to rise above the air temperature.
Such blinds are most effective when fitted between sheets of double-glazing. Internal
shades are very often of the venetian blind type and for these to give most benefit, they
should be adjusted so that they reflect the rays of the sun back to the outside so that no
direct rays pass between the blades into the room.
External Shading Devices

The impact of solar radiation on buildings in hot climates must be reduced not only by
orientation and effective design of the structure, but also by adequate shading. Although
it is not always convenient or economical to shade roofs, walls lend themselves to the
treatment in a number of ways that can be invaluable for eliminating or reducing one
of the greatest sources of heat gain; the solar radiation entering through the windows.
Various methods are available for screening walls and windows, and when deciding the
shading requirements, each facade must be separately considered to achieve the most
effective solar control.
Building external shading devices can be:
1. Movable
2. Vertical
3. Horizontal
4. Egg-crate
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Movable Shading Devices
Movable shading devices can be provided so as to shade the house during summer
days but not in winter. Closing the shutters at the appropriate time improves the U-val-
ue of the house and protects it against solar radiation. Full shading is preferable in
summer, and in any case shading of the south wall is essential (Kolokotroni, 1985). The
introduction of shutters to intercept the summer sun, incurs considerable reduction of
cooling (Sergides, 1991). The introduction of shutters and addition of overhangs and
side-fins also concludes to considerable reduction of cooling (Sergides, 1991). The total
savings are 20% for both heating and cooling.
Vertical Shading Devices
Vertical shading devices consist of louvre blades or projecting fins in a vertical position.
The horizontal shadow angle (HSA) measures their performance. Narrow blades with
close spacing may give the same shadow angle as broader blades with wider spacing. It
can be seen that this type of device is most effective when the sun is to one side of the
elevation, such as an eastern or western elevation. For a vertical device to be effective
when the sun is opposite to the wall considered, it would have to give almost complete
cover of the whole window.
Figure 3.9 Vertical shading devices
Horizontal Shading Devices
Horizontal devices can consist of roof overhangs, canopies, balconies, horizontal louvre
blades or externally applied venetian blinds. Projecting slabs are also common forms
of horizontal screening. Their performance is measured by the vertical shadow angle
(VSA). These are more effective when the sun is opposite to the building face and at
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high angle, such as for south facing walls. To exclude a low angle sun, this device would
have to cover the window completely, permitting a view downwards only.
Figure 3.10 Horizontal shading devices
Egg-crate Shading Devices
Egg-crate devices are combinations of horizontal and vertical elements. The many types
of grille-blocks and decorative screens fall into this category. These can be effective for
any orientation depending on the detailed dimensions.
Figure 3.11 Egg crate shading devices
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Figure 3.12 Shading methods
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Figure 3.13 Shading methods
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Natural Ventilation
Throughout history, people in Cyprus have relied upon natural ventilation for comfort
in buildings during the summer. Buildings with massive elements are traditionally com-
mon, night-only ventilation has generally been used. Night-sky radiation and evap-
orative cooling have also been used in conjunction with night ventilation. Traditional
architecture has provided both lightweight and massive construction.
Good ventilation is the key to a comfortable and healthy home. The house can be
cooled while opening and closing doors and windows remove hot, stale air. This nat-
ural effect is sufficient to keep a home comfortable. At other times, the forces of air
pressure and gravity are not enough to circulate air though a building, so some type
of mechanical device is needed to provide adequate ventilation. Fans and ventilators
are an effective way to enhance air circulation. This forced ventilation can supplement
or even replace air conditioning. Through careful selection and proper sizing, fans and
ventilators can increase comfort levels and reduce energy costs. A small amount of
ventilation is necessary to control odours, moisture, and pollutants (radon, formalde-
hyde, etc.). For older homes, natural infiltration through cracks in the house envelope is
sufficient for such ventilation needs [0.6-1.0 air changes per hour (ach)]. But infiltration
may not be sufficient to ventilate contemporary, tightly constructed homes adequately,
and mechanical ventilators with air-to-air heat (or enthalpy) exchangers may be required
(BPA, 1984).
The size and location of the inlet and outlet areas determine the rate of airflow. The
greatest volume of airflow occurs when the inlet and outlet areas are equal. The velocity
of local airflow is greater when there is an imbalance between inlet and outlet areas.
Larger outlets create a faster airflow near the smaller inlets, and larger inlets create a
faster airflow near the smaller outlets. Therefore, the airflow in certain areas of a build-
ing can be changed by simply opening and closing windows. For example, opening all
windows on the leeward side of a building, and closing all the windows on the wind-
ward side except in one room maximizes airflow in that room.
One other type of natural ventilation arises in rooms with only one window. Here, min-
imal ventilation is created as some air enters the room at one time and a few seconds
later some air exits because of the fluctuating static pressure of the wind. This pattern
creates minimal ventilation (Warren, 1984).
When designing a building for natural ventilation, there are several guidelines to follow:
• The building is designed to respond to winds from any direction.
• Inlets and outlets for airflow in each room are provided.
• Inlets and outlets are located so air will flow through parts of the room most likely
to be occupied, such as the sitting area in a den, and stagnant areas are avoided.
• Windows and doors are used that open fully.
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• Vents and windows are accessible and easy to use.
• Blocking windows with exterior objects such as shrubs and fences are avoided, but
do not eliminate shading. Tall trees allow air to enter while providing shade.
• Vent openings are concentrated in spaces most likely to require cooling.
• Overhangs, porches, and eaves are used to protect windows and vents from rain.
This extends the amount of time that natural ventilation can be used.
• Vent openings are tightly sealed in winter or when using an air conditioner.
Minimal ventilation and infiltration rates are required in buildings as well as in attic spac-
es to prevent condensation and wood rot (ASHRAE, 1984).
Figure 3.14 Cross ventilation
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Cross Ventilation: Steady wind-driven ventilation, i.e., cross ventilation, is usually the
strongest mechanism and is produced when a prevailing wind direction creates dis-
tinct positive and negative (suction) pressures at the inlet and outlet. Unsteady pressure
differences also may be created by wind, such as changing pressure patterns over a
windward wall with two widely spaced windows on the same wall. The fluctuating wind
directions, typical in suburban or other rough terrain, create unsteady pressure fluctua-
tions that can generate significant ventilation (Goulding et al., 1993).
Stack Effect: The stack effect arises because the density of air decreases with tempera-
ture. Thus airflow can be induced in a thermal chimney external to the building, which,
in turn, can ventilate a house. Designers in climates like Cyprus should commonly prac-
tise stack effect ventilation (Baer, 1983) (Crowther, 1980). During the summer in Cyprus,
daytime ventilation is impossible and the building gradually heats up during the day. At
night the cool air flushes through the building. The night-time wind speeds are usually
low, thus the wind effect is enhanced through the stack effect by placing high outlets
(e.g. operable skylights) and low inlets.
The stack must terminate above the roof peak so that the stack top is always under
suction compared to the lower inlet level. Otherwise, a wind coming from the oppo-
site direction can introduce the hot stack air into the room (Schubert et al. 1983). One
must also be careful designing Trombe walls for stack ventilators in the summer. Unless
the Trombe wall is insulated at the interior side in the summer and is vented at a high
point at the top, unwanted heating may result. In general, the stack effect is weak. The
cross-ventilation airflow from a 2.7-m/s wind can overcome that from an 2.4-m stack at
43°C. But during windless nights that typify the summer conditions in many parts of Cy-
prus, fan-forced ventilation may be the only alternative for providing airflow (Chandra
et al. 1983).
Solar Chimneys: Solar chimneys use the sun to warm up the internal surface of the
chimney. Buoyancy forces due to temperature difference help induce an upward flow
along the plate. The chimney width should be close to the boundary layer width in or-
der to avoid potential backward flow (Bouchair, 1988).
Wind Towers: Wind towers draw upon the force of the wind and generate air move-
ment within the building. There are various systems based on this principle. The wind-
scoop inlets of the tower that are oriented toward the windward side capture the wind
and drive the air down the chimney. The air exists though a leeward opening of the
building (Bahadori, 1988) (Karakjatsanis et al. 1986). The airflow is enhanced by cold
night air. Alternatively, the chimney cap is designed to create a low-pressure region
at the top of the tower, and the resultant drop in air pressure causes air to flow up the
chimney. A windward opening should be associated with the system for air inlet. The
anabatic process benefits from the buoyancy of the warm inside air. Both these princi-
pals may be combined in a single tower providing both admittance and exhaust of air.
A self-contained system is thus created.
Atria: Atria are usually used for inducing stack ventilation especially in larger buildings.
Open atria and courtyards usually get hot during the daytime but can cool down at
night (Eureka Laboratories, 1982)
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Figure 3.15 Natural ventilation methods
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Figure 3.16 Natural ventilation methods
Vegetation: Vegetation in the form of trees, shrubs, creepers and ground-covers can
be effectively used to improve the micro-climate of a building in the following ways:
providing shade-deciduous trees is excellent for shade in summer while they allow sun
through during the cold months. Evergreens can be effectively used for shading the
building or outdoor areas from the low-lying sun if the right type is selected. Deciduous
creepers growing over a pergola or on a wall surface can provide shade for the summer
and permit sun to penetrate when needed in winter.
Vegetation affects airflow that can be accelerated or directed through buildings by

correct and careful planning as long as the behaviour of the flow is predictable. Great
care must be taken, however, to ensure that the free flow of cooling breezes is not ob-
structed.
Shelter-dense planting of evergreen vegetation (preferably in two or three rows) can be

used to form windbreaks, provide protection against wind-blown windbreaks, provide
protection against wind-blown dust and sand, as screens (both visual and for privacy),
as well as for reducing glare.
As vegetation is grown easily and often densely in the mountains-the main problem
can be to restrict its growth or find trees and shrubs which will not obstruct the flow
of breezes. In the plains, on the other hand, vegetation is extremely sparse and as it’s
beneficial influence on the micro-environment can be enormous.
Although a relatively wide range of vegetation thrives in Cyprus and almost anything
can grow where there is sufficient water, it must be noted that there is not one uniform
climate (mountainous area, coastal area and plains area). Each area has its own peculiar-
ities and differs from one-another. As plants can cost a great deal to grow in arid areas,
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it may be advantageous if they can have a dual function; in other words a tree or shrub
grown for shade could be selected from those which bear edible fruit.
Depending on the kind of trees, vegetation filters sunlight and protects against direct
radiation. A complete obstruction to solar irradiation provides cool areas of shade in
summer, while deciduous trees allow solar penetration in winter for solar gain.
Different types of barriers may provide various effects of wind control depending on their
height, density and spacing in relation to the building. Directing air movement towards
the building and reduction of wind speed should carefully be considered according to
seasonal wind conditions at a given location. Wind protection and natural ventilation
require the proper placement and screening of vegetation barriers in order to give the
desired degree of control in specific situations.
Figure 3.17 Natural ventilation methods -Vegetation
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Night Ventilation
Night and evening ventilation of massive buildings is a common strategy in Cyprus

where daytime temperatures are too high for ventilation. Whether permanent use of
night only ventilation is desirable depends on the building type and climate as well as
whether a backup mechanical system is used. Givoni (1976) conducted side-by-side
tests of several building models of different constructions and colour and insulation lev-
els. He found that permanent ventilation was better for white models. In other words,
well-designed buildings (light coloured, insulated, shaded windows) will maintain day-
time indoor temperatures lower than the outdoors, and thus it is pointless to ventilate
them during the day. This situation is likely to be true for both arid and humid climates.
Effect of Air Movement on Thermal Sensation
It is known that as velocity rises, the air temperature in which one feels comfortable also
rises. However, there is an upper limit to air velocity above which air movement itself
causes annoyance. According to Olgyay (1963) and Szokolay (1980), the effect of air
movement alone for temperatures around comfort are as follows:
Up to 0.25 m/s : unnoticed
0.25-0.50 m/s : pleasant
0.50-1.00 m/s : awareness of air movement
1.00-1.50 m/s : draughty
Above 1.50 m/s : annoyingly draughty
Therefore, an upper limit of 1.50 m/s can be set above which discomfort begins be-
cause of a draughty environment. The 1.5m/s value is acceptable for high temperatures
(but less than skin temperature) because an experience of draught can be pleasant if
one is too hot. Actually air velocities of 2 m/s have been found acceptable by some
authors (Archard et al. 1987)
Ceiling Fans
Ceiling fans are another means to circulate air. They replace or supplement air condi-
tioning in a home. Some ceiling fans are reversible. Blades turn clockwise in summer
to create a down-draft, and counter clockwise in the winter to circulate the heated air
collected at the ceiling down towards the floor. Others come with light fixtures. Ceiling
fans can also add a decorative touch to a home. With ceiling fans, the thermostat set-
ting can be raised up to 5ºC from the thermal comfort level (Clearinghouse) (depending
on the occupants’ preference). Separate fans should be placed in all frequently used
rooms. They should be located over areas that are likely to be occupied, such as over
the seating area or over the bed in a bedroom. Ceiling fans work best when the blades
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are 210cm to 280cm above the floor and 25 to 30cm below the ceiling. Placing fans so
that the blades are closer than 20cm to the ceiling can decrease the efficiency by 40
percent. Fans also require at least 45cm of clearance between the blade tips and walls.
They should never be hung where excessive moisture could damage the wiring or warp
wooden blades. These fans are best for rooms that tend to build up heat, such as sun-
rooms or rooms with a wood-stove.
Figure 3.18 Ceiling fans
Occupant Behaviour in Passive Solar Houses

The interaction of occupants with passive solar systems can be very positive. Solar hous-
es, built in the 1970’s in USA, were custom-designed by people who were sensitive to
energy and environmental concerns. In many cases, the owner, designer, and builder
were the same person. For instance, the majority of passive solar homes surveyed in
studies by the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) were custom-built, with many owners
actively involved in design, construction and financing.
These designer-occupants typically had the motivation to pay careful attention to the
operation of the energy-related features of their home, such as movable insulation. They
were also willing to sacrifice a certain amount of comfort for energy-savings, by turning
thermostats to very low set-points, for example, or by opening a window and wearing
light clothing when the direct gain space overheated.
When scientists (Socolow, 1978) surveyed energy use patterns of low and moderate
income households they found that occupant behaviour had a greater impact on home
energy consumption than greatly improved thermal integrity and sun-tempering, and
that occupants with “energy-saving” behaviour would use less energy even in a conven-
tional house than occupants with “energy-wasting” behaviour living in a house designed
for maximum energy-efficiency (International Energy Agency, 2009).
Studies conducted on monitored gas consumption in nine identical three-bedroom

town-houses (Gaskill, 1981) found that one home consumed twice as much as another
over a two-year period, due entirely to different occupant behaviours. The connection
was confirmed when a change of owner caused one town-house to shift from the most
energy-intensive to the least.
The studies (Solar Energy Research Institute, 1983) (Solar Energy Research Institute,
1984) (NAHB Research Foundation, 1984) and experience with occupant behaviour sug-
gest three major reasons for wasteful or counterproductive energy behaviour:
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Bioclimatic Architecture and Cyprus Passive Solar Systems
1. Lack of understanding on the part of the occupants as to how the passive solar sys-
tem is supposed to operate.
2. Improper passive solar or building design.
3. Disinclination of the occupant to be actively involved the building’s passive solar

system or energy performance.
Even if a passive solar system is simple and requires relatively little occupant involve-
ment, descriptive materials such as fact-sheets or booklets, explaining how the house
has been designed to save energy, will be useful to the occupants and encourage their
participation. Where the system is more complicated, occupant education becomes
even more critical. Occupants consider same manual operations, such as opening or
closing a door between a sunspace and a living room to control great distribution,
inconvenient. Therefore, the importance of reasonably faithful operation should be em-
phasised. The information need not be lengthy. The essential information can probably
be contained in just a few pages or a few appropriate sketches. Studies show that the
reasons people buy passive solar homes, and the reasons they like them, have a great
deal to do with factors other than energy savings. (International Energy Agency, 2009).
Conclusion
What one can conclude from the passive solar design discussed in this chapter is that,
for the climate of Cyprus or any given climate, there are a number of choices of solar
techniques from which to select, each with advantages and disadvantages that must be
weighed in terms of the local climate, construction practice and competing fuel costs.
Taking into account the advantages and disadvantages of the passive solar system it is
concluded that the best systems which can be used for Cyprus are the following:
• Direct Gain
• Thermal Insulation
• Thermal Storage (Interior Mass): The simplest heat storage approach is to construct
the building of massive structural materials insulated on the exterior, to couple the
mass of the indoor space.
• Solar Control: By use of: orientation, shading devices.
• Natural Ventilation: By use of: cross ventilation, stack effect, night ventilation and
ceiling fans
However, preliminary recommendations regarding the above-mentioned passive solar

means may not be adequate to state that a particular building will not be overheated in
the summer or under-heated in winter. A proper assessment regarding such decisions
cannot be made without calculations that involve a suitable prediction method of in-
door air temperatures and numerical external and internal design data.
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Figure 3.19 Bioclimatic Strategies
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OVERVIEW OF CYPRUS
THERMAL COMFORT
BUILT PROJECTS
References
-96-
TRADITIONAL vs
CONTEMPORARY BUILDINGS
Introduction
Man has always strived to build his dwellings in order to attain optimum conditions of
comfort. In all cases, man has found some fairly good and some excellent solutions. Ar-
chitects, critics, and consumers have recently been questioning the way in which profes-
sionals in Cyprus have been planning and building, particularly in connection with how
buildings perform as energy-consuming entities.
Approximately since 7000BC, until the mid 20th century AD, construction methods have
varied only slightly (Papacharalmbous, 1968) (Sinos, 1976) (Hatzichali, 1967) (Dema-
kopoulos, 1981). The same building material such as wooden beams, straw, clay mix-
tures and stones were used in approximate methods. The buildings are designed and
constructed to fully exploit advantages offered by local climatic conditions. The con-
struction of buildings was made economical by using materials found in the area like
stone, wood, reeds, earth and terracotta. Structural solutions were simple and effective.
For example, the available length of trees used as roof rafters established the dimen-
sions of room widths.
Neolithic Age
The most ancient Cypriot community known to archaeologists is Khirokitia (Brun, 1977).
It was found that many of these Neolithic structures exhibited insulated walls that be
considered as passive solar techniques.
The basic architectural unit was a structure with a circular ground plan, the exterior diam-
eter of which varies between 2.3 and 9.2m and the interior diameter between 1.4 and
4.8m. (Dikaios, 1953) (Gjerstad, 1934). Walls were found to be made out of stones set
on one or two courses and bonded with mud mortar. Mud brick or rammed earth walls
were made of stones embedded in rammed earth. Walls were even built in two concen-
tric rings, the outer one of stones, and the inner one of rammed earth or mud bricks,
the latter sometimes resting on a stone substructure. A whitish earth plaster covers the
internal and external faces of the wall. Flat stones, set on edge around the base of the
wall would sometimes protect it from erosion by rainwater.
Figure 4.1 Khirokitia village (Le

Brun, 1997)
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Figure 4.2 roof reconstruction

(Todd, 1998)
Each of these units, with their diverse internal arrangements, was part of a larger do-
mestic space: the house. Its ideal form, as can be reconstructed from the excavations at
Khirokitia, may be defined as a compound of several of these circular units around an
un-roofed space, a kind of small inner “courtyard”. The total domestic space was large
enough to shelter a family, place of various spatially defined daily activities.
Traditional Buildings
In Mediterranean and hot climatic regions where sunshine in winter is desirable and
cooling and ventilation in the summer necessary, the solarium (illiakos) and the court-
yard are indispensable solar features of houses and unique elements of Cypriot tradi-
tional architecture. Their arrangement evolved naturally from the climatic conditions,
the needs of the family and the social structure of the community (Serghides, 1990).
When the courtyard faces south it acts as a sunspace that receives desired solar radi-
ation in winter. The extent of the solarium cover allows the rays of the winter sun to
penetrate allowing solar radiation to be utilised in winter.
Town Type Housing
In towns, because of the limited space available, houses were built within fortress walls
in order to be protected against invaders and in order to meet the different needs of
people, mainly merchants and craftsmen as opposed to people living in villages who
were mainly farmers and developed a different type of house. Usually these houses
where small, two-storey houses, with small back yards. Between the neighbouring hous-
es, no space was left so their walls were attached together.
Their shape was rectangular, usually divided into two rooms but their orientation was
according to the direction of the public road. The yard was placed at the back of the
house, enclosed by adobe walls with the only access to it through the house. Later,
when additional rooms such as kitchen, storeroom etc. were necessary, these were built
in the back yard (Economou et al. 1985).
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Traditional vs Contemporary Buildings
On the upper floor, there was usually either a balcony or a kiosk that faced the public
road. The access to the upper floor was through an indoor stoned stair placed in the
biggest ground floor room.
The materials used for the construction of these houses were mainly adobe blocks. Some
of them were constructed from limestone with mud and lime mortar as connecting ma-
terial. Wealthy people preferred stone built houses. For the south wall, shading was
achieved through the solarium (iliakos). Its roof shaded the mid-day sun-rays whereas its
side-walls shaded the morning and afternoon sun-rays.
Roofs were usually pitched and constructed from timber trusses on which the planking
was covered with clay tiles or schist stones. Instead of planks, reeds were sometimes
used covered with mud. The slope of the roof ranges from 25-40 degrees with the lower
angles in the plains and the higher in the mountain regions.
Floors separating storeys where constructed from timber. The lower floor consists of
hard-packed soil and was sometimes covered with slates. Doors and windows were al-
ways made from timber and external shutters were used for the windows.
1. Entrance door
2. Main ground floor
3. Backyard
4. Auxiliary rooms
5. Bedrooms
6. Balcony or Kiosk
7. Stairwell
8. Terrace formed by the roof

of auxiliary rooms
Figure 4.3 Typical type of house

built in towns. Ground floor and
top floor (Economou et al.. 1985)
Rural Type Housing
Most rural type houses had only one floor, but two storey houses were sometimes con-
structed. Houses were usually smaller in size than the town type, with limited openings,
while the development of villages was compact for defence purposes and lack of availa-
ble space. In most cases there was a courtyard in front of the house, and where there was
not, the flat roofs were used for open-space activities. Stairs leading to the upper floor
were either external, made from stone, or internal, made from timber.
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Tracing the evolution of indigenous Cypriot architecture, an archetypal form of a single,

long, rectangular room building (Makrinari) is revealed as the simplest basic shelter in
Cyprus (Economou et al. 1985). It is generally south oriented with its long axis along the
East-West direction. Eventually, the division of this double space room (Dhichoron), the
addition of other inner rooms (Sospiton) and a covered veranda (Iliakos) were placed.
Later this type of house was developed into a multi-room house, by adding extra rooms
to the east or west of the ‘Makrinari’ plus the courtyard. These additions sometimes
maintained the rectangular shape of the house but at times it led to the L-shape (Sinou,
1976). Despite these changes to the general layout of the house, the south facing ‘ili-
akos’ facing the courtyard did not change.
The courtyard is an arrangement that evolved naturally from climatic conditions, the
needs of the family and the social structure of the community. It generally creates a
micro-climate that moderates the climate surrounding the building. Planted mostly with
deciduous vegetation like grapevines, fig trees etc., it offers shade in the summer and
admits sun in the winter. It also creates windy sides that are most valuable when one
seeks the breeze in the summer and calm corners in the winter. Arched arcades on the
perimeter are indispensable to shield the overhead mid-day sun (Fernandes et al. 1988).
1. Makrinari
2. Dhichoron
3. Inner room
4. Inner room
5. Iliakos
6. Traditional earth oven.
7. Courtyard.
Figure 4.4 “Iliakos” (solarium)

(Sinou, 1976)
External and internal walls were made from stone, usually schist, without any connect-
ing material. They were plastered inside with sand and lime mortar while the external
side was left un-plastered and whitewashed in most cases. Roofs were usually flat. The
construction method was as follows: first a framework of timber beams was constructed
and then covered with schist, clay tiles or reeds. Over these, seaweed or other plants
were set and finally the construction was completed with a thick layer of soil that pro-
vided insulation. In some rural areas where timber did not exist at all, roofs were stone
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vaulted constructions. In some cases the vault was visible externally and in others is cov-
ered with soil. Floors between storeys were made from timber and ground floors were
usually paved.
All the openings were placed towards the south facing wall in order to provide natural
light and heat. The construction of these openings was made entirely with wood. Small
openings (arseres) were also used in every house. These were placed on the upper part
of the walls. In summer, they allowed lighter hot air to go out of the house and be re-
placed by cooler air from outside, while in winter, thyme (small dense bushes) was used
to close these openings and provided thermal insulation.
Figure 4.5 “arseres”
Thermal Performance
Taking into account the general characteristics of the dry climate and the requirements it
imposes on building characteristics and thermal performance of traditional buildings, it
may be concluded that traditional buildings in Cyprus meet the requirements imposed
by the climate and that these buildings are good enough thermally to perform well
under the prevailing weather conditions. It should also be mentioned that one of the
main factors, which make the thermal performance to these buildings successful, is the
integral interaction between their design and the occupancy patterns.
Architectural Design
The inward looking design of traditional buildings is a successful feature from the point
of view of thermal performance. The open courtyard works as a thermal regulator in
many ways. Its high walls exclude the sun and shade a large area of the inner building
surfaces. The fruit trees and grass found in the courtyard, contribute to keeping the air
cool and providing shade accompanied by visual and psychological relief. Rooms and
terraces surrounding the courtyard are normally incorporated in units, each consisting of
two or three rooms and a central terrace.
External windows may be found on one or two sides of the building, depending on its
position in the planning area. Such windows are limited in number, small in size and
positioned high up on the wall in order to reduce the amount of heat admitted into the
building as well as to reduce ground glare during summer. As the width of each window
is almost equal to the thickness of the wall, such windows also function as vertical louvres
and prevent most of the direct solar radiation from penetrating into buildings.
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Construction Materials and Methods
Materials used for the construction of traditional buildings in Cyprus are stone, sun-
dried mud-brick and timber. The only rendering material is mud plaster. This material
deteriorates quickly despite sometimes being mixed with long pieces of hay to improve
its structural and thermal properties. They are also used to erect massive ground floor
constructions, effective in smoothing large diurnal temperature variations which occur
during the summer. Such construction has a high thermal capacity and it therefore ab-
sorbs much of the solar heat during the day, thereby extending the time before the
temperature of the internal surface shows any appreciable increase.
In winter, the massive construction of traditional buildings may also be heated by solar
radiation, which dominates for a long time during the day. Heat emitted inwards during
the night may then be considered as one of the desirable properties of the structure.
Occupancy Patterns
The occupancy patterns of these buildings vary with changes in both daily and season-
al weather conditions. Daily changes in occupancy patterns are mostly limited to the
summer time, when during the hot hours of the day, people seek protection from the
heat and retreat to the ground floor, away from hot regions near the roof. In the evening
they expand their activities outdoors and make the courtyard their living space. During
the night they move upstairs and use the rooms of the first floor and/or the flat roof for
sitting and sleeping.
In winter, the ground floor is rarely used unless it includes the kitchen and other services.
The first floor is usually the only space used during day and night because it is of a rela-
tively lighter construction, easy to heat by solar radiation caught through the windows,
which are greater in number and larger in size than those available on the ground floor.
Contemporary Buildings
Before the Cypriot independence in 1960, specialised building tradesmen constructed
dwellings. In particular, the existence of travelling building teams was very important
because as they moved from place to place, they learned a lot from local architecture
and influenced the method of construction and building types in other regions. Fur-
thermore, local people began to travel abroad and influence construction by bringing
prototypes back from many countries.
The Turkish Invasion of Cyprus in 1974 brought a deep economic crisis and 200 thou-
sand refugees, which were uprooted from their land in north Cyprus by Turkish troops.
Architects were forced to consider architecture as a social science rather than a fine art.
This was a period when it was necessary to search for an appropriate architecture that
could deal with social problems.
Government housing was designed to be constructed quickly and to relieve the burden
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of refugees living in tents. Refugees immediately decorated the front of their homes with
plants and vegetation, turning them into sorrowful new homes. Although quickly and
cheaply constructed, these homes satisfied basic needs with a shaded porch area and a
solar heater for hot water.
The housing problem in Southern Cyprus was immediately dealt with by the govern-
ment’s initiative and action, beginning with the reconstruction of destroyed areas to alle-
viate the housing shortage in the cities. As a result, the housing problem passed into the
hands of private businessmen, first in Nicosia and then in other cities. In fact, because
of the absence of other investments, the building industry began to play a determining
role in shaping the Cypriot economy. The new government took measures towards reg-
ulating the urban space, in the aim of stabilising the regime. Many image-driven public
building projects began and several laws were passed making construction policies less
strict, allowing higher buildings and increasing the floor area ratio. As a result, private
building construction boomed.
The main planning problems are basically derived from the fact that the vast majority
of developments in Cyprus are based on small individual plots, the so called regular
plots, of an average size of 550m2. Traditionally, the development system in Cyprus was
encouraging the parcellation of very small building plots . As a consequence, the build-
ing quarters in Cyprus are very small, the percentage of road surfaces to other urban
surfaces is quite high (25-30%), urban settlements are very extended and the population
densities relatively low. In 2003 some incentives where employed in the respective Local
Plans. According to these, a bigger building plot ratio by 10-20% is allowed in cases of
integrated and organized development in plots 4 to 6 times bigger than the regular plot
sizes of the respective area, or by 5% in cases the development plot has a surface bigger
than 5000m2.
Another serious planning problem seems to be the neglect of climatic and environmental
conditions. Given the constraint of the small building plots mentioned above, designers
have limited chances to exploit the opportunities of any site’s orientation, topography,
local winds, vegetation etc. Therefore it is rather difficult to spot a few environmentally
functional building envelopes. Even the limited number of organised developments that
allow more design freedom are usually fixed to the surrounding grid system and the
norms of smaller projects.
Consequently although the first substantial reductions of some plot ratios (above 200%)
were enforced in the main towns, many new development zones were created in order
to set the ground for new structures. As a result, private building construction especially
focused on tourism and housing industry boomed during this period. A series of reforms
were introduced to the new constitution that specified that the protection of the phys-
ical and cultural environment is an obligation of the state. All the reforms reflected the
necessity for an adequate planning mechanism in the field of housing and environmental
and land use planning. However, the Cyprus government has not yet established imple-
mentation procedures and reserves (4 out of 33 Municipalities) the right to act on any
problem by highly centralising the decision-making process of all these fields.
Cyprus employs a lot of housing systems. Within the context of the housing policy for
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the refugees, the government of Cyprus has introduced various schemes and programs
like the “Low Cost Government Housing Scheme” that provides houses, free of charge,
to low-income families. Until 2001, more than 12.500 families (or 5,6% of the total num-
ber of households) were benefited from this scheme in 71 housing estates. In addition
to that the government provides the “Self-help Housing Programmes on Government
Land” (where 9.000 families, or 4,1% of the total number of households, have already
been housed in 321 estates of this type), the “Self-help Housing Programmes on Private
Land” and the “Purchase of a House /Apartment Scheme”.
In the private sector, development and construction companies offer, in the free mar-
ket, various types of housing units and mainly apartment or terrace houses. This type
of development satisfies nearly 30% of the total demand. A substantial number of
families however, choose to build their own detached or semi-detached house, on an
individual plot of land, which has an average surface of 520 m2. It is worth mentioning
that in 2001, 68,2% of the total number of households in Cyprus had their own private
housing units.
Social and aesthetic aspects are usually forgotten because they are not directly related
to primary human needs but rather to the comfort and quality needs of the people.
Designers and contractors prefer the straight-forward solutions, that satisfy the basic
human needs. On the other hand, most of the buyers and tenants prefer simpler and
cheaper housing units, than buildings or complexes that accommodate “social spaces”.
This is because social places will have an increase on the cost of the building or rent.
Unfortunately traditional construction methods, techniques, materials etc. have been

ignored for the sake of fast development and fast profits (by the building industry) due
to the absence of a necessary statutory framework that would guarantee the building
quality, but also due to poor awareness of consumers’ rights. Due to the age of build-
ings many problems are observed. The main problem is their maintenance. The main-
tenance and administrative matters of apartment buildings is entrusted by residents. In
cases where maintenance costs are higher, the agreement of all residents is required in
practice, which often encounters difficulties even in simple administrative matters and
often proves to be ineffective in the case of serious repairs or maintenance work on the
building.
Today, the socio-political environment is again changing at a quick pace, with Cyprus
becoming an official member of the European Union in 2004; this has brought the pro-
tection of the environment to the forefront of its concerns, making it a political priority.
In Europe, processes and procedures have been set and laws have been adopted that
make the protection of the environment a fundamental objective of society. With the
resulting institutional framework that has now also been adopted by Cyprus as a com-
plete member of European Union (EU), Cyprus has included in its legislation more than
300 Directives and Regulations and a range of related action plans that concern the
subject of protection of the environment. The harmonisation of national and EU legis-
lation has resulted in a large number of laws and regulations (Republic of Cyprus 2006)
for the following subjects:
• Law for the assessment of environmental impacts from certain projects.
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• Eco-label, environmental management and audit (EMAS), protection and manage-

ment of nature.
• Noise management.
• Management of waste.
Various governmental and non-governmental organisations (NGOs) have established

policies for environmental and sustainable issues according either to EU directives or by
laws of professional organisations. Of course, we have other cases as well, where NGOs
have established their priorities in relevant issues, and are working towards planning the
strategy that will facilitate the promotion and realisation of those priorities.
Current Housing Habits
In an attempt to evaluate some of the current housing habits in Cyprus, two question-
naires were compiled (Lapithis, 2002). From the outcome of both questionnaires, it tran-
spired that most dwellings in Cyprus are constructed with little or no insulation and this is
the most likely cause for the high percentage of summer and winter discomfort as well as
noise complaints. Most other complaints stated (e.g. poor natural lighting) are the result
of unsuccessful bioclimatic orientated design. All this suggests the need for better, more
bioclimatic appropriate constructions, with adequate insulation and proper orientation
with respect to the sun.
• A high percentage (69%) of the survey participants experienced bothersome noises

from the outside, probably as a result of poorly insulated wall surfaces and single
glazing which not only allow heat to enter and exit freely, but also allow noise to
penetrate with little difficulty.
• A high percentage of the participants frequently felt cold in the winter (80%) and an
even greater number felt warm in the summer (87%).
• There were complains about bothersome cold surfaces (70%).
• Another problem area, which can be minimised by proper passive design, is the
need for artificial lighting (64%).
• Participants experienced drafts from windows and doors (86%). An element of venti-
lation that can be exploited in a passive system, if it is designed properly.
• There is a need for a more widespread use of double-glazing windows in order to

minimise moisture condensation on windows (65%), and for a better thermal and
noise control.
• An interesting fact deduced from the survey was that the overwhelming majority of
Cypriots feel safe in and around their house (91%), which makes it easier for a passive
solar designer to arrange for ventilation systems requiring frequent openings; espe-
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cially for night time ventilation.
• Another advantage the passive solar designer will have in Cyprus is the fact that the
Cypriots seem to appreciate the use of shutters (87%), which have been used in tra-
ditional architecture.
• Of the 13% of participants who did not find shutters an acceptable means of con-
trolling indoor temperatures, most attributed this to the fact that the shutters do not
work properly. This implies the need for shutters to be placed in front of windows
and to be more appropriately planned.
• The majority of dwellings have no insulation (66%).
• Of the houses that do have some insulation (34%), it mostly is in the form of dou-
ble-glazed windows and reflective silver coatings (a waterproofing material, which is
misunderstood to act as a thermal insulator) rather than in structural constructions,
which implies that most insulation in the surveyed houses was more or less treated
as an afterthought.
Method of Construction and Effect on the Built Environment
Contemporary life and the building industry in Cyprus are greatly affected by the pro-
liferation of apartment blocks in the large urban centres. The apartment house became
the symbol of the final stage of urbanisation. And since urbanisation is the ideal way of
living for the contemporary Cypriot, the apartment model is adopted everywhere, even
in small single houses at the most underdeveloped areas of the country.
Sites (individual plots) in Cyprus are usually small and private, with an average size of
500-600m². The time and the method of construction as well as the use of the building
are mainly the decision of the site’s owner. The two main systems of urban development
are the continuous and the free system. The continuous system refers to an orderly, grid-
ded pattern of plot sizes and boundaries whereas the free system refers to a more erratic
separation of fields into individual plots.
Three categories of construction financing have been developed.
1. A contractor undertakes the construction of the building.
2. The owner of the property decides to play the role of the contractor-entrepreneur
and undertakes the responsibility of constructing and financing the project. He/she
usually sells or rents most of the apartments, keeping one or two for him/her.
3. The owner of the property builds one housing unit for the present needs of his/her
family, allowing for the possibility of constructing additional apartments in the future
to cover the needs of the growing family or merely for investment reasons.
The results of this practice in the city are the following:
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• Lack of planned connection between housing areas and other areas of the city (edu-
cational, commercial, etc.).
• Mixed housing areas with industrial or other areas, dangerous for public health.
• Very limited green and open spaces within the housing areas.
• Bad relation between street width and building height.
• Different housing types even in the same street, such as large apartment blocks ad-
jacent to low houses (Aravantinos, 1984).
• Unplanned and often unhealthy interaction between the built and natural environ-
ment.
In an analysis of the built environment of the city area, (Sariyiannis et al. 1977) it was
concluded that the negative points of the housing environment are not due to the lack
of adequate housing units, but due to the use of a continuous construction system. This
results in the lack of open spaces and a lack of quality of the immediate environment
around the houses with the result of little natural light and ventilation, no solar access
etc.
Thermal Performance
The architectural design of contemporary buildings (post 1970) in Cyprus are profoundly
influenced by western architecture and there exists a tendency to recreate an interna-
tional architectural style without considering the advantages of traditional architecture
and the distinctive climatic conditions and social life. Furthermore, despite the fact that
there are some fine examples of contemporary buildings based on correct design prin-
ciples and a better understanding of the local climatic conditions, the great majority of
contemporary buildings are erected without consideration of the climatic conditions and
their influence on comfort and the well being of occupants. This is mainly due to lack
of knowledge about the thermal performance of contemporary constructional materials
and methods, and consequently the shortage of building regulations which govern this
aspect of the art of building.
However, most contemporary buildings in Cyprus have appropriately designed func-

tional plans. These buildings are also frame-built, flat-roofed and enclosed with thin
non-load bearing largely glazed block work walls. Their plans may sometimes be flexible
but not so much as to permit occupancy patterns similar to those available in traditional
buildings.
Architectural Design
The extensive use of reinforced concrete frame in the erection of contemporary build-
ings has made it possible for structural and non-structural building elements to be well
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defined. Accordingly, external walls have almost become non-structural elements dom-
inated by vast glazed windows. The curtain wall, which is a non-supporting skin made
up from window mullions and in-fill panels and cantilevered from the frame structure,
has also become easier to construct.
The above-mentioned innovations and advancement in building design and technol-

ogy have made any form of building possible to create with materials such as glass,
metal and building panels of every kind, that characterise the new architecture. These
features of contemporary buildings have also created many problems in Mediterranean
countries for they are not suited for the climatic conditions.
Despite the design flexibility possible in the frame-built, non-load bearing wall build-
ings, the plan development has been neither parallel to advances in new technologies
nor based on the traditional plan form.
Construction Materials and Constructional Methods
In general, the typical housing construction system in Cyprus is based on the conven-
tional construction system, quite common in this part of the Mediterranean Sea. The
system comprises the use of reinforced concrete for the load bearing part of the build-
ing, which is completed by masonry walls. Prefabrication systems have rarely been used
in the past, mainly by the Government for the construction of some low cost refugee
estates in the late 70’s.
Reinforced concrete, from foundations to the roof, is used for the vast majority of the
housing constructions. It has to be mentioned however that preliminary regulations re-
garding the calculation of seismic loads were issued in the late 80’s and these detailed
construction regulations were adopted in the beginning of the 90’s. Thus all the build-
ings built before that, may sometime in the future, face possible seismic failure.
The typical filling of multi-story family houses comprises of brick walls (20 or 25 cm for
the outer walls and 10 cm for the inner walls) that are plastered with 2-2,5 cm on either
side. The finishing surface is usually covered by sprits (cement based top coat plaster
for exterior use) or paint.
In most cases, the whole of the load bearing structure, including the foundations, con-
sists of a reinforced concrete frame. This method of design is a must for the buildings in
Cyprus due to the seismic excitations that the structures undergo during their life. The
surface of the concrete is either “fair face” or “typical” depending on functional or
aesthetic criteria.
There is a variety of foundation types according to the type and size of the structure.
The most popular are the separate foundations with connecting beams and the general
(whole) foundation. The outer skin of a structure, is usually created by reinforced con-
crete parts (for the load bearing structure) and a single layer of bricks, (200mm), both
coated with three layers of plaster (20-25mm) and a finishing layer of paint or sprits. The
roofs are usually flat concrete slabs, which are covered with light concrete or screed of
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50-100mm for thermal insulation and on top with an asphalt layer of 2-5 mm, for humid-
ity insulation. The final touch is given with reflective paints.
During the past 10-20 years, some multi-story family houses appeared to form a dif-
ferent top finish with a complete or partial pitched roof. It is believed that this is used
not so much for insulation reasons, but rather for promotional reasons since it gives a
touch of a more domestic or more humane housing. As far as windows are concerned,
the vast majority of them are single glazed (4-5 mm) with aluminium frames whereas a
considerable proportion of multi-story family houses, especially after 1980, used double
glazed windows.
Occupancy Patterns
Residential buildings are usually occupied continuously or intermittently. It is however

normal to find more than 90% of occupants at home by 3pm during the summer. As the
structure of contemporary buildings is with a short time-lag of the order of 2 to 3 hours
and as the maximum amount of solar radiation falling on buildings in summer takes
place at midday and the maximum outdoor shade air temperature appears at about
2pm, the maximum temperature of the external surface appears at about 1pm. Accord-
ingly, the maximum temperature of the internal surface appears about 3 or 4pm. Heat
emission into buildings therefore takes place during the resting time of the occupants,
when the outdoor shade air temperature is still high and such heat cannot be removed
by ventilation.
Moveable fans are widely used but with little effect on improving the indoor conditions
because the draught of external air is already of a high temperature and the distribution
of air movement is non-homogenous. The overall result is physiological and psycholog-
ical dissatisfaction (Kolokotroni, 1985).
As many contemporary residential buildings are comprised of apartments normally de-

signed with a specific function for each space, occupants are obliged to carry out their
activities in the specified zones regardless of the daily and seasonal change in weather
conditions. Alternative spaces, which can be used to avoid the overheating effects at
certain times of the day, seldom exist.
Comparison Analysis: Traditional vs Contemporary

Kolokotroni (Kolokotroni, 1985) had summarised different aspects of both traditional and
contemporary buildings (table 4.7). The similar aspects of these buildings may therefore
be compared with each other and an understanding of the thermal performance of both
traditional and contemporary buildings in relation to the climate shall be clarified.
From the thermal performance point of view, traditional buildings are much better than
inappropriately designed contemporary buildings. This means that thermal performance
is not the only criterion by which the use or abandonment of traditional and contempo-
rary buildings may be evaluated.
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The progress in design and technology which may have been misused because of lack
of knowledge and experience, inappropriately designed contemporary buildings, has
also stimulated awareness of many short-comings in the design of traditional buildings
which do not match the requirements of contemporary urban life. Progress in design
and technology has also provided many means by which the shortcomings of contem-
porary buildings may be overcome, with new buildings incorporating design advantag-
es of both traditional and contemporary buildings may be created.
Aspect Traditional Buildings Contemporary Buildings

Architectural Design -Inward looking with courtyard -Outward looking
-Square or rectangular plan -Free plan form
-One or two floors -Multi-storey blocks
-Covered terraces -Small balconies
-A body of water and fountain -Vast glazed windows
-Clerestory windows -Flat or pitched roofs
-Flat, domed and vaulted roofs
Constructional materials and -Local materials found on the site -Materials are mostly
methods of the building or brought from a imported or locally made
nearby area with poor qualities
-Simple constructions -Frame structures
-Load-bearing walls -Simple constructions
-No insulation
-Non-load bearing walls
Occupancy patterns -Changed in residential buildings. -Unchanged in residential
The ground floor is used in buildings because of the
summer days and the first floor in design restrictions of con-
summer nights and in winter temporary buildings
Planning -Compact planning with -In-compact planning. No
courtyard courtyard
-Shortages in services -Zoning problems
Thermal performance -Satisfactory during both summer -Unsatisfactory during the
and winter and at all times. times of overheating and
under heating.
Non-thermal comfort prob- -Necessity of annual maintenance -Weathering problems
lems -Shortages in services -No adequate building
-Shortages in natural regulations
-Lighting and ventilation -High influence of the
-Inaccessibility in case of building contractors
emergency -Acoustic problems
Demand -Decreasing because of being not -Increasing because of so-
suitable for contemporary urban cial and economic chang-
life es and contemporary life
Table 4.7 Comparison analysis: Traditional versus Contemporary (Kolokotroni, 1985)
Weathering problems of contemporary buildings are closely related to the two main
aspects of the climate of Cyprus i.e. the high values of solar radiation during summer
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and the subsequent wide diurnal and annual range of outdoor shade air temperature.
The influence of the two above-mentioned aspects on contemporary buildings is much
greater than that on traditional buildings mainly because traditional building materials
belonged to the local environment, while those of contemporary buildings are mostly
imported or of poor qualities. Weathering problems of traditional buildings are almost
limited to the mud rendering of the external surfaces and the exposed internal surfaces.
Such problems are also caused by rainfall, which make such rendering weak, soluble,
and in need of almost annual replacement.
The necessity of annual maintenance does, however, make traditional materials unsuit-
able for use in the new urban towns and cities. It is therefore inevitable for contempo-
rary materials be used, which means that weathering problems affecting these materials
should be pointed out and avoided. The high surface temperature of the building struc-
ture during summer days increases the rate of deterioration of the low night air tempera-
ture, making many materials brittle and subject to cracking under stress. Deterioration of
building cladding materials caused by solar radiation means that such deterioration is in
turn transferred to the fabric. To prevent such deterioration from taking place, adequate
thermal insulation and movement joints are required.
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OVERVIEW OF CYPRUS
THERMAL COMFORT
BUILT PROJECTS
References
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Experimental Solar House
EXPERIMENTAL SOLAR
HOUSE
Introduction
The Experimental Solar House was constructed in order to put theories developed in
research into practice. The principles of passive solar construction are complex in theory
but remarkably simple in application. A passive solar house may be constructed any-
where in the world provided there is enough knowledge about climatic and site condi-
tions. None of the decisions made for the Experimental Solar House could be justified
without the rigorous study that has been presented in earlier chapters.
In commencing a project such as the Experimental Solar House, the first and foremost
priority was to design a home that would match the average specification of a new
residential construction in Cyprus. To build a database of these specifications, informa-
tion was collected on various construction statistics (Karouzis, 1980). Based upon these
findings the size and space usage requirements of the experimental house was deter-
mined. Following that, the findings of questionnaires on current comfort issues of Cypri-
ot homes were analysed and attempted to be improved by applying appropriate passive
solar systems.
The research on thermal comfort concluded that, for Cyprus, an average 19.5-29°C is
an acceptable temperature and an average of 20-75% is acceptable range of relative
humidity. It is concluded that it is impossible to accurately specify final temperatures
and RH for the average person, because of psychological, physiological and practical
factors. It is concluded that the passive systems that are most suited for Cyprus are: Di-
rect Gain, external insulation on walls (0.29W/m²K) and roof (0.28W/m²K), low emissivity
double-glazed argon-filled, interior thermal storage constructed from bricks and con-
crete, 5% north wall openings are sufficient for cross ventilation during summer nights,
optimum of south wall openings 18%, permanent external shading devices, vegetation,
use of natural ventilation and ceiling fans.
With regard to the size and spatial layout of the ESH, it was decided early on to investi-
gate the present situation in Cyprus in order to find ways of improving the thermal per-
formance of the new housing currently being constructed. Therefore the model is based
on the typical four person Cypriot family house. Should the size, or the spatial layout, be
substantially altered, further research is needed to investigate the effect of changes on
the internal environment.
In this research, a detached house was used because from the point of view of a thermal
environment it represents the worst arrangement. A detached house has greater heat
losses in the winter and heat gains in summer as opposed to terrace houses or blocks of
flats, because all the external envelope of a detached house is exposed to external con-
ditions. Therefore, if care is taken not to obstruct the sun in winter and the ventilation in
summer, terrace houses of blocks of flats should perform thermally better than detached
houses. However, further investigation is needed to quantify this improvement.
A plot of 620m² was acquired for the purposes of this case study. This plot is in the inland
region of the island, in the suburbs of Nicosia, Kato Lakatamia. In Cyprus, it is customary
for most people to buy the plot of land in which they will build their home. Usually the
plot is between 550 and 650m². Sometimes, two individuals will buy one plot of land
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and share it between them by building two semi-attached houses. Only a percentage
of the plot can be built according to local legislation. Over the last 20 years, the aver-
age size of a house ranges between 150 and 250m² varying on the owners’ income. An
average family with one or two children will usually build a house of approximately 200
m². Sometimes two individuals will buy one plot of land and share it between them by
building two semi-detached houses.
The users’ behavioural patterns were based on the way Cypriot people usually occupy
their homes during the winter and summer. However, it is important that the occupants
operate the house efficiently; otherwise there is no point in designing it according to
bioclimatic rules. For example, a large glazed area on the south wall will be wasted if
the window shutters are closed during sunny days in winter, while a movable shading
device will serve no purpose if it is not in place during daytime summer, as previously
discussed. The heat capacity of the external walls will not perform efficiently if the win-
dows are open during hot summer days and closed during summer nights. It is certain
that bad management of a bioclimatic designed house affects its thermal performance
for the worst.
The experience of living in the Experimental Solar House after it has been completed
is one that could have been predicted. The house has succeeded in providing well-lit
spaces during all the hours of natural sunlight as well as even and comfortable temper-
atures during the day and night.
Design Considerations
From the onset of the design process, the author established that the ESH should occu-
py the northern part of the plot so that the southern side faces the garden. By arranging
the south side to be looking at the garden, it is ensured that no potential construction
shall obscure the house’s exposure to the sun. It was decided from the early stages of
the design, that the house will have an area of close to 200-250m2 so as to approxi-
mate the average size of a contemporary house in Cyprus. The final area of the house
is 223m2. The construction costs should not exceed 140,000 Euro, taken into account
that this is the construction cost of a typical house in 1998 (Staurou 1998). Similarly, the
house shall have all the most common components of a two level Cypriot house:
• Top level: bedrooms, an open plan master bedroom with a shower and toilet plus a
Jacuzzi (optional), one toilet with a bath
• Lower level – open plan: kitchen space, dining space, living space, sitting space or
TV space, one toilet situated under the circular staircase.
At the initial stages of designing the ESH, several passive solar systems were consid-
ered. The systems finally chosen were the ones most appropriate for the overheating
and under heating periods of the location (See chapter passive solar systems). In gen-
eral however, the interior design is more flexible to accommodate the needs and pref-
erences of the current owners.
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Figure 5.2 site plan of the Exper-

imental Solar House in a single
plot of land (Typical plot of land
for Cyprus)
Figure 5.3 ground floor plan of

the Experimental Solar House
Figure 5.4 upper floor plan of

the Experimental Solar House
-115-
Each different variation was calculated by the computer software Energy 10 looking at
the optimum interior comfort temperatures without the use of auxiliary heating in the
winter. However, it became apparent that in order to better regulate the interior tem-
peratures, a fireplace had to be installed as auxiliary heating to compensate the few
cold rainy winter days
The footprints of the house begin with the least arbitrary volumetric shape, the cubic.
As discussed in chapter vernacular vs contemporary buildings, and passive solar sys-
tems, the cube was the main form of building in Cyprus, as well as flat roofs in the inland
region. The decision was made so as to combine the traditional way of building with
modern life. Major volumes jutting in and out of the frame are kept to a minimum. Ad-
ditionally, it has empirically been seen that keeping wall surfaces to a minimum results
to fewer walls requiring insulation, thereby keeping thermal losses and costs down.
The ground floor creates an open plan arrangement, which is given some order by the
concrete circular staircase located roughly in the centre of the floor. The staircase acts
not only as an aesthetic pivot but also as a solid body to hold thermal mass. The kitchen
is located on the south-eastern side of the plan allowing the kitchen to be the recipient
of a healthy amount of natural sunlight on a daily basis. The kitchen will receive morning
sunlight both in the winter and in the summer, and it will be well lit for the rest of the
day, up until a few hours before sundown. The kitchen windows are ideally located for
parents to keep an eye on playing children while cooking or snacking on the kitchen
island.
The dining area is located on the north-eastern side of the ground floor space, imme-
diately behind the kitchen space. The dining table will receive morning sun thereby
enriching the breakfast experience whereas the ambiance of evening dinning will be
accompanied by electrical lighting. The dining area is adjacent to the north wall, which
has minimum openings so as to reduce heat losses and to prevent temperature fluctu-
ations. This feature of a north wall in a passive solar house may seem limiting at first,
but with careful consideration, a large number of functions can be located adjacent to
the almost window-less north wall. In addition to dining, the north wall can host the
fireplace and the television area. It can also be ideal for hanging large artwork.
The south-western corner of the house that receives plenty of sunlight, particularly in
the afternoon is ideal for living room space. It provides full view of the garden and direct
accesses to the kitchen. Adjacent to the living room is the toilet, located compactly in-
side the staircase. The door of the toilet is not visible neither from the living room space
nor the kitchen.
On the upper floor there are two bedrooms accommodating a two children family. One
of the rooms can also be converted into an office space or a guest room. One of the two
rooms has windows facing east and south and the other has just the east windows. In
addition to the two bedrooms, there is the master bedroom which includes a separate
space within the master bedroom for a shower, a toilet and a Jacuzzi. The master bed-
room has windows facing south and west. All upper floor windows are recessed so as to
protect them from summer overheating. The cavities created underneath the windows
are used for closet space.
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There is an additional toilet and bath on the upper floor to accommodate the other two
bedrooms. In the case of a two-member family, the additional toilet can be converted
into a laundry room. The advantage of the laundry space located on the upper floor in
the corridor is that no great distance need be travelled with dirty laundry originating
from the bedrooms and the showers.
Typical concrete foundations are used for the anti earthquake calculations (required by
the Cyprus governmental laws). The construction was decided to be done as the typi-
cal Cypriot contemporary home which consists of a concrete frame, concrete for floors
and roof and for the walls brick work plastered on the interior and exterior of the walls
(discussed previously). The roof is constructed by concrete and the beams of the house
are reversed so that they will not affect the interior of the design of the top floor. Wood
beams and metallic sheets cover the 600mm reversed beam construction, which shows
on the roof. In this way, an extra 600mm air cavity is being formed assuring a better in-
sulation. On top it is covered by a 100mm expanded polystyrene and concrete was used
for forming the water canals of the roof.
The water sewage treatment installation is placed on the northern side. This does not
affect the typical plumbing installation of the house, since it is an external device instead
of the typical sewage tanks that are used in Cyprus. The concept is to construct the
house as all the typical contemporary houses are constructed, with the only difference
being the passive solar features.
The electrical installation is also done by the typical contemporary methods. The only
difference is the photovoltaic tracking system, which follows the movement of the sun.
The system is just added on the main electrical meter and is grid connected to the
electricity authority. In this way, the sun produces electricity without affecting the typical
electrical installation. The system consists of 12 panels of 85W each, thus producing
1020 KW/h. The photovoltaic array could have been on the roof but the architect has
decided to place it on the ground, to produce a sculptural effect on the landscaping of
the garden.
The ground level has an open plan in order to facilitate a constant indoor temperature
and natural ventilation. It was also a personal decision on the architect’s behalf. It was
also considered that if the ground floor was divided by walls, it was ensured that all the
rooms would have south openings for the sun penetration and small north openings for
the north summer breezes. Since it is an open plan, when the east and west, or north and
south openings are open cross ventilation occurs.
A circular staircase was located centrally in order to provide a mass surface area of the
staircase wall facing south. The staircase wall is used as a thermal mass storage which
radiates heat in the winter evenings. Entering winter sun entering is dispersed to the rest
of the house.
On top of the staircase are the clerestory windows, which create a stack effect for venti-
lating the interior space in the summer, and allowing the winter sun in. This is one of the
traditional ways of cooling and ventilating the building in the summer
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Another design decision geared towards trapping winter sunlight is the large south win-
dow surface on the first and second floor lobby. Since the staircase is used as internal
thermal mass the south window openings ensures that enough winter sun is entering
the house and the staircase without the problems of the direct gain systems discussed
previously.
An additional measure towards blocking the summer sun from entering the house and
the large south openings is the pergola attached to the southern wall. There is a sepa-
rate pergola on each floor. The pergola is a simple, wooden construction, covered with
straw mat. The pergola also serves as a much-needed shading device for the veranda.
In the summer the straw mat is placed on the pergola and in the winter it is removed.
The traditional way is to have vine trees on the pergola, which was used as a natural
summer shading device and in the winter when the leaves fall, the winter sun pene-
trates. This is being considered and vines have been planted. But they require 2-3 years
to fully grow, so in the meantime the straw mat is being used.
In order to address the problem of summer overheating, several applications of passive

solar systems were considered and it was decided to employ the following. The archi-
tect chose to recess the second floor bedroom windows on the southeast and south
walls so as to prevent summer sun from entering, but at the same time allowing winter
warmth to enter. They are used as permanent shading devices so as to avoid movable
shading devices. The recessed windows create a hollow space from the inside of the
room, above and below the window frame, which can be converted into storage space.
Roof fans are used to assure that no overheating occurred in the extreme overheated
periods. It is actually one of the best active ventilation systems, since the indoor comfort
temperatures are not high.
The feature that enhances all the overheating preventions is the second floor overhang.
The overhang, apart from the aesthetic addition it offers the building, provides more
space for the recess of the windows and also protects the first floor windows from ex-
cessive summer sun and winter rainfall.
The front door is located on the west side of the house, the side on the street. Other
than the entrance, there are no major openings on this wall and even fewer on the
north side. The front door, which is also recessed, is protected from draughts by placing
a glass surface and door to cover the recess, which also acts as a buffer space and a
front entrance vestibule. This front entrance system has yet another advantage: during
a warm winter sunset, the front wooden door can be kept open while the glass door
is kept closed so that warmth from the sun is allowed to enter and heat up the interior
acting as a conservatory by using the principles of isolated or direct gain. The front dou-
ble wooden door has 5cm expanded polystyrene acting as thermal insulation in order
to ensure that the temperatures in the buffer space do not influence the internal house
temperatures. In the summer, to ensure no overheating in the buffer space, the glass
door is kept always open.
According to principles of passive solar construction, the north wall needs to have the
fewest interruptions possible. The more openings the north wall has, the more oppor-
-118-
tunity is provided for valuable heat to escape during the winter and enter during the
summer (direct solar gain due to the summer sun orientation). The west wall, which also
happens to be the front façade of the house, has fewer openings than the east, so as to
protect the house from unwanted sun at summer sunset. The east facade requires more
windows since it is important to allow the morning winter sun to enter and heat the
house that has cooled overnight, while in the summer deciduous trees are used to avoid
excess summer sun.
Figure 5.5 summer design con-

siderations (north-south section
through the staircase)
Figure 5.6 summer design con-

through the staircase)
-119-
The bedrooms on the top floor were also heated by the fireplace through the stack
effect. When the fireplace was used the doors of the bedrooms were kept open. Warm
air rises through the open staircase and enters the bedrooms, since there was no other
escape route. Naturally, the inside temperatures of the bedrooms were slightly lower
(1-2ºC) than the living room.
Figure 5.7 winter design con-

through the master bedroom)
Figure 5.8 winter design con-

through the master bedroom)
-120-
Plumbing and Sewage
When providing for the plumbing facilities for the solar house, it is imperative that cer-
tain basic requirements for habitation are met. The water in the solar boiler must always
be hot when the hot water tap is switched on. One must not consume cold water while
waiting for the hot water to arrive at the tap. The boiler will also provide the hot water
for the washing machines. It must have enough hot water capacity to accommodate the
washing machines and the showers, and it must be ensured that the water will not run
out even if the entire tub is filled with water. In order for this to be achieved a 300-litre
capacity boiler with four solar panels has been installed, ensuring hot water in the winter.
There are two tanks of 2,000 litres capacity on the side of the house, one filled with clean
water from the municipality and the other filled water collected from an on-site water
well of non-potable water. The clean water will be used for the sinks and bathrooms and
the non-potable water will be used to flush the lavatories. There is an additional tank of
18,000 litres capacity, which is placed underground and filled with rainwater. This tank
will be used as backup for when the smaller grey water tank runs dry.
The water from the sewage will drain to the water-treatment tank and then it will be
stored in a separate tank. This water will then be used to water the plants in the yard that
are not fruit bearing or edible. The fruit-bearing trees will be watered using the water
well. After 15 years a pond of approximate area 100m2 was installed and was filled with
rainwater.
Additional measures for water conservation were the installations of the servo-set flush-
ing mechanism in the lavatories. This compact device used in place of the regular flusher,
allows the inhabitant to choose to flush much water or less water, according to need.
Figure 5.9 Plumbing and sewage
-121-
Wall and Roof Construction Consideration Methods
Wall construction: For the construction of the ESH, 13 methods of wall construction
were taken under consideration (Table 5.1, 5.2, 5.3). Upon further examination of all vi-
able options for an efficient passive wall, the following solutions for a masonry-insulated
wall were considered.
For plastering the external wall where polystyrene was placed a special plastering was
being used. This called Adesilex FIS 13 specially used for insulation panels. The reason
for this is that typical plastering used on brickwork (mixture of water, cement and sand)
will form cracks when placed on polystyrene. Adesilex FIS 13 is a whitish paste with a
synthetic resin base in water dispersion, selected aggregates, and special additives.
When mixed with cement, it forms a highly adhesive, highly thixotropic, easily workable
mortar that can be applied vertically without sagging and with no slippage, even when
used for large-size insulating panels. Portland 325 cement is added in proportion of 1 to
1 by weight. An even first layer of the Adesilex FIS 13 mix thick enough to incorporate
fibreglass mesh reinforcement (approx. 1-2 mm) is spread. After the first layer is dry, a
second layer is applied until the mesh is completely covered and the surface is ready to
receive its final covering.
For a passive building, the walls need thermal mass in order to retain heat. With that
in mind, type 11 and 13 listed are immediately rejected in the case of the solar house.
Types 11 and 13 can be used for passive buildings as long as the walls will not be used
as thermal mass.
Since the U-value of the wall is an important factor, types 1, 3, 5, 7 and 9 are rejected
since they have an unacceptable U-value.
Type 10 and 12 have an acceptable U-value, but the high manufacturing cost does not
make them cost efficient.
The types 2, 4, 6, 7 and 8 are viable options. Type 6, 7 and 8 seem to be the best for
the 25cm thickness of the concrete frame of the building (beams and columns). A better
architectural design is achieved by avoiding the 5cm gap between the external walls
and the columns and beams. With these comparisons in mind, the chosen type of wall
construction for the Experimental Solar House is type 6, since it effectively insulates the
whole structure and avoids thermal bridges where the columns and beams occur.
Roof construction: For the construction of the ESH two methods of roof construction
were taken under consideration (Table 5.4). Upon further examination of all viable op-
tions for an efficient passive roof, the following solutions were considered.
For a passive building the structure need thermal mass in order to retain heat. With
that in mind all three roof types are a viable option. Type 1 and 3 are the best. A better
interior architectural design is achieved by using type 3, because of the reverse beam
structure of the roof. Also a better insulation is achieved while avoiding the 5cm gap
between the external walls and the columns and beams. The ESH uses type 3.
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Table 5.1 Wall construction consideration methods
-123-
Table 5.2 Wall construction consideration method
-124-
Table 5.3 Wall construction consideration methods
-125-
Table 5.4 Roof construction consideration methods
-126-
Polystyrene as Thermal Insulation
Research on extruded and expanded polystyrene for the exterior surfaces of the build-
ing has being done by the author. From the research, it was concluded that expand-
ed polystyrene is more cost effective and cheaper than extruded polystyrene. It is also
manufactured in Cyprus while extruded has to be imported. Since one of the goals is
to use materials that are derived from the local market, it was one more reason to use
expanded polystyrene.
A comparison of different densities of expanded and extruded polystyrene was per-

formed. The U-values of the polystyrene were compared with the thickness and costs
on the different structures of the building: brick wall, roof, overhangs (on exterior floors),
columns and beams. With respect to the type of polystyrene used, the following consid-
erations were evaluated: based on the comparative research of the required structural
thickness, against the unit price for several different polystyrene densities, it was deter-
mined that in order to meet the required proposed Cyprus Standards, polystyrene of
weight 25kg/m3 was to be used (Lapithis, 2002).
Comparison of different polystyrynes
7
U-value - Leopol (p=40kg/m3)
Cost - Leopol (p=40kg/m3)

6
U-value (W/m2K) and Cost (CyP)
5

4
3 U-value - Fibran (p=28-30kg/m3)
Cost - Fibran (p=28-30kg/m3)

2
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Thickness (cm)
Figure 5.10 comparison of different densities of expanded and extruded polystyrene
-127-
ENERGY-10 Simulation Software
ENERGY-10 is a software used for a specific project and is designed to develop guide-
lines for low-energy buildings. It has been used by the author for the initial design con-
cept of the Experimental Solar House. The evaluations were based on hour-by-hour cal-
culations through all 8760 hours of the year, using simulation analysis. The weather data
used were representative of typical conditions for the chosen location, which is Nicosia.
Its main features include daylighting, passive solar heating, and low-energy cooling
strategies with energy-efficient shell design and mechanical equipment. The software
requires and permits early decision-making during the design process. Energy-10’s sus-
tained performance estimate, although fairly accurate as a programme, is warned to be
just an estimate. These estimates, by no means should be taken as certified predictions
on the performance of the building. These uncertainties are due to the following fac-
tors:
• Depending on the work, movement and use of the building, it is impossible to tell
during early stages of construction, how much energy the building as a whole, will
consume. It has been estimated that occupant effects can result in an annual energy
use that is anywhere from 70% to 140% of the average use in commercial and resi-
dential buildings. A major factor is also the amount of energy a consumer chooses
to waste. Some tenants are careful about how long they will keep the heating or
air-condition on, and have a keen sense of saving, both economically and ecolog-
ically. On the other hand there are also tenants, who prefer to pay a higher utility
bill and use the buildings’ heating and cooling systems freely. In other words each
individual has different comfort zones.
• The energy estimates are based on long-term average weather and solar data but
it is very possible that weather conditions during any one-year can be very different
from the long-term average.
• It is impossible to predict the usage of internal gains - especially plug loads. This
suggests a significant uncertainty to forecasting energy use.
• Errors may be observed in the input data due to variations between the descriptions
and how the building is actually constructed, or inaccuracies in the analysis proce-
dures used in the programme.
Contemporary House vs Traditional House
In order to place a contemporary house into perspective, one must exhibit the com-
parison between the energy performances of a contemporary house, one that was built
post 1970, as it relates to its counterpart, a house built with older building techniques,
in the traditional way. The most important difference in the construction specifications
of these houses, as they are portrayed here in the construction of the traditional house’s
wall (adobe versus concrete and bricks) and in the roof (earth versus concrete). The
traditional house and the contemporary house follows the characteristics discussed in
-128-
earlier chapters. It transpires from the results produced, that the energy performance of
the organically insulated traditional house is clearly superior than that of the contempo-
rary house with no energy-efficient considerations.
Figure 5.11 Contemporary

house vs traditional house
energy use comparative bar
graphs
Experimental Solar House vs Contemporary House
As was expected, upon comparing quantitatively the Experimental Solar House with
the contemporary house, the solar house proves to be far superior in its energy savings
performance. The overall energy requirements for the contemporary house, according
the Energy 10 calculations, reaches a high of 368 kWh/m2 as compared to 121kWh/m2 of
the Experimental Solar House.
Figure 5.12 ESH vs contempo-

rary house energy use compar-
ative bar graphs
Experimental Solar House vs A Low-Energy Case
APPLY is a special feature of Energy-10 that provides a quick way for the designer to
ascertain the combined effect of a group of candidate strategies. APPLY automatical-
ly makes global modifications in a building description. These modifications are made
based on the user selection of any or all of the Energy Efficient Strategies (EES), and the
-129-
user-defined characteristics of each of those strategies. Both selections are made under
the EE Strategies menu. The APPLY feature has produced a most valuable compari-
son between the low energy scenario and the Experimental Solar House. Interestingly
enough, the performance of the Experimental Solar House and of the APPLY house is
very similar overall. Certain values of the Experimental Solar House show better perfor-
mance (e.g. the annual cost breakdown) and in other cases, the APPLY house comes out
ahead (e.g. total energy use). It can be concluded that the Experimental Solar House
has competed successfully with the APPLY house.
Figure 5.13 ESH vs low energy

house energy use comparative
bar graphs
Weather Tool Analysis Programme
The Weather Tool (Marsch, 1990) is an analysis programme for hourly climate data.
It’s database stores a wide range of international weather file formats and provides
display options, wind roses and sun-path diagrams, for the best possible climactic un-
derstanding in the chosen location. In addition the programme includes a mechanism
for defining the relative potential of different passive designs. Solar radiation analysis,
optimum orientations for specific building design criteria are accurately determined.
The programme therefore functions as a pre-design analysis tool. The following figures
illustrate the comfort percentages before and after the following passive systems were
insulated. Comfort percentages change dramatically once these passive systems are
inserted:
• Thermal mass effects

• Exposed mass and night purge ventilation
• Passive solar heating
• Natural ventilation
• Direct evaporative cooling
• Indirect evaporative cooling, demonstrating
-130-
Figure 5.14 Analytical Comfort percentages of selected design techniques
Figure 5.15 Analytical Comfort percentages of selected design techniques
-131-
Construction of the Experimental Solar House

The following photos are the construction phases of the house from the beginning until
the end.
Figure 5.16 Site and neighbour-

hood
Photo 5.1 Site and neighbour-

hood
Photo 5.2 Foundations (typically

executed)
-132-
Photo 5.3 Brick work
Photo 5.4 Electrical Installation
Photo 5.5 Staircase with toilet

beneath, showing heavy mass
construction
Photo 5.6 Exterior thermal insu-

lation walls
-133-
Photo 5.7 Thermal insulation

wall, spanning the entire house
Photo 5.8 Insulation and plaster-

ing of walls
Photo 5.9 Insulation and plaster-

ing of roof light construction
Photo 5.10 Roof construction,

an air cavity of 60cm is between
the concrete roof, assuring bet-
ter roof insulation
-134-
Photo 5.11 Roof construction,

placing the 10cm thick insula-
tion
Photo 5.12 Roof constructed,

showing roof light facing south
Photo 5.13 Water sewage treat-

ment, tanks placed on the north
side
Photo 5.14 interior original-

ly painted with warm colours.
Later the author decided to re-
paint all white to ensure better
dispersion of light
-135-
Photo 5.15 Master bedroom and

Jacuzzi (north and west)
Photo 5.16 Master bedroom

(south wall)
Photo 5.17 The bedroom is

facing the south-east, and the
windows shown are facing true
south in order to maximise
southern isolation. (east and
south wall)
Photo 5.18 Kitchen (north and

east)
-136-
Photo 5.19 The fireplace is made

of cement plastering so as to
retain the heat when the fire
is lit. This way, heat is retained
even after the fire is out. Exter-
nal openings in the lower body
of the fireplace suck in cold air,
heat it and release it from top
openings, using the thermosy-
phon system. Fireplace (north
wall)
Photo 5.20 East window and

west door natural ventilation
Photo 5.21 Staircase and clere-

story window
Photo 5.22 Staircase bottom
-137-
Photo 5.23 Clerestory window

and southern window
Photo 5.24 South facade and

photovoltaic tracking system
which follows the movement of
the sun
Photo 5.25 The small openings

on the north wall are for ventila-
tion purposes. West and north
façade.
Photo 5.27 South and east fa-

cade
-138-
Photo 5.26 The twin pergola is

used for both levels to protect
from the southern summer sun
(west and south facade)
Photo 5.27 Thickly carpeted liv-

ing room
Photo 5.28 Pergola shading 50%

of the window during the winter,
eliminating solar radiation
-139-
Monitoring of the Experimental Solar House

Detailed monitoring has been typically conducted over long periods of time, ranging
from an entire heating season or cooling season to several years. Recently developed
methods of performing short-term monitoring during the heating and cooling season
and extrapolating the performance over the entire season have reduced the time and
cost required for monitoring. At the very least, electrical and fuel bills can be monitored.
They can be used for a cursory examination of the house’s thermal performance.
Proponents of passive solar buildings knew from the outset that before this energy sav-
ing concept could be widely accepted, its effectiveness had to be thoroughly demon-
strated and documented. Therefore, since the late 1970s many governments, utili-
ties, and private associations have mounted research and development programmes,
which included major field studies to monitor the thermal performance of passive solar
homes. These programmes have involved the collection and analysis of measurements
of selected energy performance indicators, using complicated and expensive instru-
mentation.
“Energy saved” is also a complex quantity, the immediate question being “Compared
to what?” A reference building with energy performance characteristics typical of con-
ventional houses in that area must be specified for this purpose. Another difficulty with
this measure is that the comparison between two buildings is only meaningful if the
same energy quantities are compared under the same operating conditions. Obviously,
operating conditions can vary greatly, due to weather and particularly, as seen later on,
due to occupant behaviour, which affects temperatures to which the building is heated,
internal heat gains, occupancy schedules, and many other factors.
These variations make it impossible to simply compare total metered energy consump-
tion, or even sub metered space-heating energy. At a minimum, a consistent energy
savings calculation must account for the effects of variations of weather, by accounting
for outdoor temperature variations, and for occupancy factors by accounting for varia-
tions in indoor temperatures and internal heat gains.
This section provides a commentary to the monitoring charts compiled over a period of
24 months - from 27/11/1999 until 18/10/2000 and from 21/1/2001 until 18/12/2001 in
the ESH. It also presents the monitored results on the thermal comfort charts showing
the effectiveness of the ESH.
In December 1999, a series of data collecting loggers were installed in five locations in
the solar house (one in each bedroom, one in the open plan living room and one in a
shaded location outdoors), which monitored temperature and relative humidity every
hour. The wind velocity was measured using the anemometer outdoors.
The data was retrieved by means of the management software GLM, which is run on
a Microsoft Windows based host computer. Data is exported from the loggers into
the software in the text formats ready for importing into a spreadsheet or other pro-
grammes. The software has the capacity to store 7900 data readings along with such
information as the logging interval and description together with the details of the in-
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dividual logger including the unique serial number. The output graphs are shown in this
chapter.
Concerning internal data collecting loggers, provisions should have been made for
them to be positioned out of direct sunlight and not on outside walls or heavy weight
walls, which may provide local disturbance. According to the Environmental Committee
(1983), an acceptable position is at a point 1.6m above the floor and below the head of
any door so as to avoid the layer of hot air that often occurs above the door head height
and out of direct draughts. There is evidence to suggest that the boundary layer thick-
ness of air at a wall is about 15cm from the wall so that the sensor should be positioned
at least this distance from the wall. For the external probe, provision was made for it to
be shielded from solar radiation. Unfortunately in the Experimental Solar House the in-
ternal data loggers were placed at a point 2.5m above the floors and placed directly on
the wall. They were placed on the interior walls and direct sunlight was avoided.
It should be noted that the author did not inhabit the ESH until the last week of April
2000. During the time prior to habitation from December 1999 until April 2000, the
doors and windows of the house remained closed. The Venetian blinds and pergola
were not installed. There were infrequent visits from construction workers during this
period for some final construction details. The temperature and RH data loggers in the
ground floor (living room) in the year 2001 were damaged. Unfortunately this was seen
when the readings were been downloaded into the software. For this reason no readings
have been taken for this year for the living room. Taking the readings of the year 2000
into account, it can be considered that no difference is seen between other rooms.
Temperature
Hourly temperature readings were taken all year round. Specified 24 hours period each
month are plotted on graphs. During the months prior to habitation, December 1999
until April 2000, the temperatures succeeded in remaining constant in a twenty-four hour
period, ranging from 1 to 1.50C from room to room. It is noted that overall the indoor
temperatures are kept in the thermal comfort requirements
The temperatures achieved during the winter months and March 2000(160C) were ap-
proximately 60C higher than the average 24-hour temperature outdoors. It is important
to note that the maximum difference in temperature between indoors and outdoors was
up to 100C.
The house was first inhabited in May 2000. The daytime external temperature reached
approximately 280C and the night-time temperature was 140C. The indoor temperature,
however, remained steady at around 220C. In June the daytime indoor temperatures
were unsatisfactorily high. The reason for this sudden raise indoor temperature was the
daytime opening of windows and doors thus allowing heat to enter. As the temperature
rose, the absence of Venetian blinds and the pergola resulted in the recording of higher
temperatures.
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Figure 5.17Temperature. November 1999 - October 2000. Non Habitation Period
Figure 5.18 Temperature. January 2001 - December 2001. Habitation Period
-142-
Comparison of House Functions Between Years 2000 and 2001:
• The Experimental Solar House was occupied in April 2000 therefore heating wasn’t
needed in the early winter months (January – March). However figure 5.17 monitors
the indoor and external temperatures throughout the year 2000. Therefore, accord-
ing to figure 5.17 heating was theoretically needed from the 15th Dec – 30th March.
This relatively large need, is however partially due to the fact that the house was still
in its construction stages, and doors and windows were occasionally left open. Figure
5.17 unfortunately shows that data was not collected from the 19th October till the
20th January. This is because the batteries of the data collectors had ran out and
were not noticed till the end of January 2001.
• In the year 2001 heating was needed from the 15th January till the 10th February,
from the 15th February till the 3rd of March and from the 28th November till the 5th
of December (figure 5.18)
• According to Olgyay’s comfort zone (21°C) heating would be needed from the 5th
January till the 10th March and from the 17th November till the 12th December.
• In December 1999, the house was uninhabited, closed and without furniture (car-
pets, paintings, pergola). The indoor temperatures range was within the comfort
zone (fig 5.17), showing that once the above errors are corrected; the Experimental
Solar House will function within the comfort zone.
• Figures 5.17 and 5.18 show the heating and cooling needs in the year 2000 and
2001. The pink line shows the internal temperatures throughout the year. Once this
line drops below 19.5°C heating is needed (shown in red), and once the line rises
above 29°C cooling is needed (shown in blue). There are moments during the heat-
ing and cooling seasons (red and blue) where the fireplace and fans are not needed,
as temperatures rise and drop accordingly. The external temperatures are shown in
green (year 2000) and brown (year 2001).
• Overall, the 24hour indoor measurements indicate a variation of 0-2ºC tempera-

ture swing. Taking into account that the external temperature swing is 10-15ºC, this
shows that a constant temperature is preserved throughout the day.
• The graphs clarify the steady difference, throughout a 22-month time-line. It is clear
that room temperatures within the house, remain relatively steady throughout all
months, and are constantly within the comfort zone limits.
• The need for cooling (use of ceiling fans) rises when temperatures rise above the
comfort zone levels i.e. above 29°C. Figure 5.17 shows that fans needed to be used
from the 15th June till the 5th September in the year 2000.
• Figure 5.18 shows that fans needed to be used from the 5th July till the 20th August
in the year 2001. The external temperatures remained the same for both years. How-
ever the internal temperature in the year 2000 reaches its peak at 36°C, while in the
year 2001 the internal temperature reaches its peak at 31°C. Thus consideration is
-143-
needed as to why the internal temperature rose to such an extent in the year 2000.
• The difference lies in the insertion of shading devices. In the year 2000 the Venetian
blinds and the pergola were not placed in the house, while in the year 2001, the
shading devises were used, thus proving the importance of shading devices within
the house, during the summer.
• Hypothetically, in the future, the indoor temperature may drop to an approximate

of 28°C, as the vegetation around the house will grow satisfactorily. Should vegeta-
tion not be an option, other external shading devices, which can be used, include
wooden louvres or shutters
• The need for heating (fireplace) rises once temperatures drop below the comfort
zone levels i.e. below 19.5°C.
Monthly Temperatures
Further on are the monthly temperate zones from November 1999- December 2001
Temperature (1-2/12/1999)
125607 solar south br (4) Temperature°C
127409 solar master br (2) Temperature°C
127401 solar house living roomTemperature°C
127907 solar external (5) Temperature°C
127406 solar east br (3) Temperature°C
24,0
22,0
20,0
Temperature °C
18,0
16,0
14,0
12,0
Figure 5.19 Temperature. De- 10,0
cember 1999. Non Habitation 8,0
Period Dec 06h 12h

18h 2Th
Time (starting 1/12/1999 00:00:00)

24,0
22,0
20,0
Temperature °C
18,0
16,0
14,0
12,0
10,0
Figure 5.20 Temperature. Janu-
ary 2000.Non Habitation Period 8,0
2000 06h 12h 18h 2Su
Time (starting 1/1/2000 00:00:00)
-144-
127401 solar house living room Temperature°C
20,0
18,0
16,0
Temperature °C
14,0
12,0
10,0
Figure 5.21 Temperature. Febru- 8,0
ary 2000.Non Habitation Period 6,0
Feb 06h 12h 18h 2We

Time (starting 1/2/2000 00:00:00)
20,0
18,0
16,0
14,0
Temperature °C
12,0
10,0
8,0
6,0
Figure 5.22 Temperature. March 4,0
2000. Non Habitation Period 2,0
0
Mar 06h
12h 18h 2Th

Time (starting 1/3/2000 00:00:00)
28,0
26,0
24,0
Temperature °C
22,0
20,0
18,0
16,0
Figure 5.23 Temperature. April
2000. Non Habitation Period 14,0
12,0
Apr 06h Temperature (1-2/5/2000)
12h 18h 2Su
125607 solar south br (4) Temperature°C Time (starting 1/4/2000 00:00:00)

30,0
28,0
26,0
Temperature °C
24,0
22,0
20,0
18,0
Figure 5.24 Temperature. May 16,0
2000. Habitation Period May 06h 12h 18h 2Tu
Time (starting 1/5/2000 00:00:00)
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36,0
34,0
32,0
Temperature °C
30,0
28,0
26,0
24,0
Figure 5.25 Temperature. June 22,0
2000. Habitation Period 20,0

Jun 06h 12h 18h 2Fr
Temperature
Time (starting(1-2/7/2000)
1/6/2000 00:00:00)
125607 solar south br (4)
127409 solar master br (2)
127401 solar house living room
127907 solar external (5)
127406 solar east br (3)
40,0
38,0
36,0
34,0
Temperature °C
32,0
30,0
28,0
26,0
24,0
Figure 5.26 Temperature. July 22,0

Jul 06h
12h 18h 2Su

Time (starting 1/7/2000 00:00:00)
40,0
38,0
36,0
34,0
Temperature °C
32,0
30,0
28,0
26,0
24,0
Figure 5.27 Temperature. Au-
22,0
gust 2000. Habitation Period
20,0
Aug 06h
12h 18h 2We

Time (starting 1/8/2000 00:00:00)
40,0
38,0
36,0
34,0
Temperature °C
32,0
30,0
28,0
26,0
24,0
22,0
Figure 5.28 Temperature. Sep- 20,0
tember 2000. Habitation Period Sep 06h 12h 18h 2Sa
Time (starting 1/9/2000 00:00:00)
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34,0
32,0
30,0
28,0
Temperature °C
26,0
24,0
22,0
Figure 5.29 Temperature. Octo- 20,0
ber 2000. Habitation Period 18,0
16,0
Oct 06h 12h 18h 2Mo

Time (starting 1/10/2000 00:00:00)
24,0
22,0
20,0
18,0
Temperature °C
16,0
14,0
12,0
10,0
Figure 5.30 Temperature. Febru- 8,0
ary 2001. Habitation Period 6,0
Feb 06h
12h 18h 2Fr

Time (starting 1/2/2001 00:00:00)
24,0
22,0
20,0
Temperature °C
18,0
16,0
14,0
Figure 5.31 Temperature. March
10,0
Mar 06h Temperature (1-2/4/2001)
12h 18h 2Fr

28,0
26,0
24,0
Temperature °C
22,0
20,0
18,0
Figure 5.32 Temperature. April 16,0
2001. Habitation Period Apr 06h 12h 18h 2Mo
Time (starting 1/4/2001 00:00:00)
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32,0
30,0
28,0
Temperature °C
26,0
24,0
22,0
20,0
Figure 5.33 Temperature. May

May 06h 12h 18h 2We
Time (starting 1/5/2001 00:00:00)
38,0
36,0
34,0
32,0
Temperature °C
30,0
28,0
26,0
24,0
22,0
Figure 5.34 Temperature. June
Jun 06h 12h 18h 2Sa
Time (starting 1/6/2001 00:00:00)
36,0
34,0
32,0
Temperature °C
30,0
28,0
26,0
24,0
22,0
Figure 5.35 Temperature. July
Jul 06h 12h 18h 2Mo
Time (starting 1/7/2001 00:00:00)
38,0
36,0
34,0
Temperature °C
32,0
30,0
28,0
26,0
24,0
Figure 5.36 Temperature. Au-

22,0
gust 2001. Habitation Period Aug 06h 12h 18h 2Th
Time (starting 1/8/2001 00:00:00)
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40,0
38,0
36,0
34,0
Temperature °C
32,0
30,0
28,0
26,0
Figure 5.37 Temperature. Sep-
tember 2001. Habitation Period 24,0
22,0
Sep 06h
12h 18h 2Su

Time (starting 1/9/2001 00:00:00)
38,0
36,0
34,0
32,0
Temperature °C
30,0
28,0
26,0
24,0
22,0
Figure 5.38 Temperature. Octo-
20,0
ber 2001. Habitation Period
18,0
Oct 06h
12h 18h 2Tu

Time (starting 1/10/2001 00:00:00)
28,0
26,0
24,0
22,0
Temperature °C
20,0
18,0
16,0
Figure 5.39 Temperature. No- 14,0
vember 2001. Habitation Period 12,0
10,0
Nov 06h
12h 18h 2Fr

22,0
21,0
20,0
19,0
18,0
Temperature °C
17,0
16,0
15,0
14,0
13,0
12,0
Figure 5.40 Temperature. De- 11,0
10,0
cember 2001. Habitation Period Dec 06h 12h 18h 2Su
Time (starting 1/12/2001 00:00:00)
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Summer Daytime and Night Time Ventilation

The months of July and August 2000 showed much more variation, since this period of
time was used to experiment with various ventilating combinations of open and closed
windows. This experimentation was aimed towards the theory that during the summer
months, the best cooling method is night ventilation.
• Temperature and relative humidity monitoring from July 27th until August 5th 2000
showed that when day ventilation occurs then the inside temperatures are high.
• The chart shows that during the first days when day ventilation occurs, inside tem-
peratures are up to 35ºC (27-31 July), while when there is no day ventilation then
the inside temperature does not exceed 29ºC (1-5 August).
• It is also noted that on August 1st the inside temperature is 32ºC, which is the mid
temperature between the time day ventilation stopped. The reason for this is the
thermal mass of the house, which needed 24 hours to cool down. The same can be
seen for relative humidity.
• Should the windows be kept open not only during the night, but during the day as
well, the space will overheat. Once this was proven empirically, the windows were
kept closed during the day.
• As the daytime outdoor temperatures rose to the high thirties, the indoor temper-
ature rose approximately 2oC during the day reaching a high of 29oC, and then
dropped again to an average of 27oC at night.
• August 2000 temperatures (28oC) were kept more constant than the months before,
since night ventilation schemes were executed and the shading devices were oper-
ated more rigorously.
• There is a clear difference between the external temperature and the internal. As
well as being steadier, the indoor temperatures show a much lower contrast than
the outdoor temperatures.
• The same results apply for the relative humidity, measured during the same dates.
• The following graphs indicates the temperature levels for the dates 27.7.2000 till
5.8.2000 within the ESH.
-150-
Temperature 27/7-5/8/2000
42,0
40,0
38,0
36,0
Temperature °C
34,0
32,0
30,0
28,0
26,0
24,0
22,0
27Th 28Fr 29Sa 30Su 31Mo Aug 2We 3Th 4Fr 5Sa
Time (starting 27/7/2000)

Figure 5.41 Temperature. Night time and Day time Natural Ventilation. 27 Aug-5 Sept
Relative Humidity 27/7-5/8/2000

109012 solar south br (4)RH Humidity %
109017 solar groung floor RHHumidity %
109762 solar master br RH Humidity %
109766 solar external (5) Humidity %
109763 solar east br (3) Humidity %
70,0
60,0
50,0
Humidity %
40,0
30,0
20,0
10,0
27Th 28Fr 29Sa 30Su 31Mo Aug 2We 3Th 4Fr 5Sa

Figure 5.42 Relative Humidity. Night time and Day time Natural Ventilation. 27 Aug-5 Sept
-151-
Relative Humidity
It should be noted that inland area humidity levels in Nicosia are distinctly lower than
those in coastal areas. Humidity was kept at constant levels during the months prior
to habitation with a maximum of 65% in January and February 2000 and a minimum
of 45% in December 2000. Outdoor humidity levels during those months fluctuated
greatly during the day, sometimes as much as 50% during the course of twenty-four
hours.
In April 2000 and more so in the months that followed, humidity levels showed as much
fluctuation during a twenty-four hour period as the outdoor humidity levels, with the
peak and the lowest values kept at less extreme values indoors.
Most of the measured room relative humidity lies within a zone of 5% around the meas-
ured RH curve for the day. The average differences of the measured relative humidity
between the rooms for each hour range between 0 and 5%. In most cases positive
differences are found during the day and negative during the night indicating relative
humidity during the day and underestimates them at night. It is noted that overall the
indoor relative humidity is kept within the thermal comfort requirements, which shall be
discussed further on showing each month’s mean relative humidity.
Overall, the 24 hour measured indoor relative humidity has a variation of 2-20% relative
humidity swing. Taking into account that the external relative humidity swing is 20-60%,
this shows that a constant relative humidity remains preserved all day long.
The following graphs indicate the annual relative humidity for the years 2000 and 2001.
Further on, monthly indications are illustrated, but it is important to note the overall im-
age the graph bares. Through this indication, the ESH has proven to preserve a round-
about ideal temperature and humidity throughout the year.
The following graphs indicate the monthly relative humidity percentages of the solar
house, from the beginning of the year 2000 until the end of the year 2001. Familiar
steadiness can be noted, as well as boundary limits within the comfort zone. The graphs
are colour charted in the following scheme:
Red: Ground Floor
Green: Southern Bedroom
Purple: Master Bedroom
Pink: East Bedroom
Blue: External (1999-2000)
Yellow: External (2001)
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Relative Humidity (27/11/1999-18/10/2000)

100,0
90,0
80,0
70,0
60,0
Humidity %
50,0
40,0
30,0
20,0
10,0
0
Dec 2000 Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct

Figure 5.43 Relative Humidity. November 1999 - October 2000. Non Habitation Period
Relative Humidity (20/1/2001-15/12/2001)

109012 solar south br (4)RHHumidity %
100,0
90,0
80,0
70,0
Humidity %
60,0
50,0
40,0
30,0
20,0
10,0
Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Figure 5.44 Relative Humidity. January 2001 - December 2001. Habitation Period
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Relative Humidity (1-2/12/1999)

55,0
50,0
45,0
Humidity %
40,0
35,0
30,0
Figure 5.45 Relative Humidity. 25,0

December 1999. Non Habita-
tion Period 20,0
Dec
Relative
06h
Humidity12h(1-2/1/2000) 18h 2Th

Time (starting 1/12/1999 00:00:00)
85,0
80,0
75,0
70,0
65,0
Humidity %
60,0
55,0
50,0
45,0
January 2000.Non Habitation 35,0
Period 30,0
2000 06h 12h 18h 2Su
Time (starting 1/1/2000 00:00:00)
90,0
85,0
80,0
75,0
70,0
Humidity %
65,0
60,0
55,0
50,0
Figure 5.47 Relative Humidity.
45,0
February 2000.Non Habitation 40,0
Period 35,0
Feb 06h 12h 18h 2We
Relative Humidity
Time (1-2/3/2000)
(starting 1/2/2000 00:00:00)
90,0
85,0
80,0
75,0
70,0
Humidity %
65,0
60,0
55,0
50,0
March 2000. Non Habitation Pe- 40,0
riod Mar 06h 12h 18h 2Th
Time (starting 1/3/2000 00:00:00)
-154-

90,0
80,0
70,0
Humidity %
60,0
50,0
40,0

April 2000. Non Habitation Pe- 30,0
riod 20,0
Apr
Relative
06h
Humidity12h(1-2/5/2000) 18h 2Su
109017 solar groung floor RHHumidity % Time (starting 1/4/2000 00:00:00)

90,0
85,0
80,0
75,0
70,0
Humidity %
65,0
60,0
55,0
50,0
May 2000. Habitation Period 40,0
35,0
May Relative
06h Humidity12h(1-2/6/2000) 18h 2Tu
109017 solar groung floor RHHumidity % Time (starting 1/5/2000 00:00:00)

70,0
65,0
60,0
55,0
50,0
Humidity %
45,0
40,0
35,0
June 2000. Habitation Period 25,0
20,0
15,0
Jun 06h
Relative Humidity12h(1-2/7/2000) 18h 2Fr
Time (starting 1/6/2000 00:00:00)

80,0
70,0
60,0
Humidity %
50,0
40,0
30,0
July 2000. Habitation Period Jul 06h 12h 18h 2Su
Time (starting 1/7/2000 00:00:00)
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80,0
75,0
70,0
65,0
60,0
Humidity %
55,0
50,0
45,0
40,0
August 2000. Habitation Period 30,0
25,0
Aug 06h
Relative Humidity12h(1-2/9/2000) 18h 2We
Time (starting 1/8/2000 00:00:00)

60,0
55,0
50,0
45,0
40,0
Humidity %
35,0
30,0
25,0
20,0
15,0
September 2000. Habitation Pe-
10,0
riod Sep 06h 12h
18h 2Sa
Time (starting 1/9/2000 00:00:00)

80,0
75,0
70,0
65,0
60,0
55,0
Humidity %
50,0
45,0
40,0
35,0
October 2000. Habitation Peri- 25,0
od 20,0
Oct 06h 12h 18h 2Mo
Time (starting 1/10/2000 00:00:00)
90,0
85,0
80,0
75,0
70,0
Humidity %
65,0
60,0
55,0
50,0
45,0
February 2001. Habitation Peri- 35,0
od Feb 06h 12h 18h 2Fr
Time (starting 1/2/2001 00:00:00)
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90,0
85,0
80,0
75,0
Humidity %
70,0
65,0
March 2001. Habitation Period 55,0
50,0
45,0
Mar
Relative Humidity12h(1-2/4/2001)
06h 18h 2Fr
109012 solar south br (4)RHHumidity % Time (starting 1/3/2001 00:00:00)

100,0
90,0
80,0
Humidity %
70,0
60,0
50,0
April 2001. Habitation Period

30,0
Apr
06h 18h 2Mo

Time (starting 1/4/2001 00:00:00)
75,0
70,0
65,0
60,0
55,0
Humidity %
50,0
45,0
40,0
May 2001. Habitation Period 30,0
25,0
May
06h 18h 2We

60,0
55,0
50,0
45,0
40,0
Humidity %
35,0
30,0
25,0
20,0
15,0
10,0
June 2001. Habitation Period Jun 06h 12h 18h 2Sa
Time (starting 1/6/2001 00:00:00)
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90,0
80,0
70,0
60,0
Humidity %
50,0
40,0
30,0
July 2001. Habitation Period 20,0
10,0
Jul 06h 12h 18h 2Mo
Time (starting 1/7/2001 00:00:00)
90,0
80,0
70,0
Humidity %
60,0
50,0
40,0
August 2001. Habitation Period

20,0
Aug 06h 12h 18h 2Th
Time (starting 1/8/2001 00:00:00)
90,0
80,0
70,0
Humidity %
60,0
50,0
40,0

30,0
September 2001. Habitation Pe-
riod 20,0
Sep 06h
Relative Humidity12h
(1-2/10/2001) 18h 2Su
Time (starting 1/9/2001 00:00:00)

70,0
65,0
60,0
55,0
50,0
Humidity %
45,0
40,0
35,0
30,0
October 2001. Habitation Peri- 20,0
od Oct 06h 12h 18h 2Tu
Time (starting 1/10/2001 00:00:00)
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70,0
65,0
60,0
55,0
Humidity %
50,0
45,0
40,0

35,0
November 2001. Habitation Pe-
riod 30,0
Nov Relative
06h Humidity12h
(1-2/12/2001) 18h 2Fr

95,0
90,0
85,0
80,0
Humidity %
75,0
70,0
65,0
December 2001. Habitation Pe- 55,0
riod 50,0
Dec 06h 12h 18h 2Su
Time (starting 1/12/2001 00:00:00)
Wind Data
In addition to the temperature and humidity data collected, a small weather station
(Weatherlink, 1991) is located on the roof of the house. The weather station has been re-
cording the wind direction and velocity by a wind vane and an anemometer respectively.
The data is recorded on an hourly basis and exported to the computer software Weath-
erlink version 4.04 (Weatherlink, 1991).
The data collected from the small weather station of the Experimental Solar House prove
that the location of the windows was correct, since they match the data considered ini-
tially.
Two examples of the wind data collected are shown in Figures 5.67 and 5.68. Figure
5.67 shows results taken from the 2nd till the 4th of August 2000 and the Figure 5.68
shows the compiled results for the entire month of August 2000.
-159-
Bioclimatic Architecture and Cyprus Experimental Solar House
Figure 5.67 Wind Data 2-30 August 2000
Figure 5.68 Wind Data. 2-4 August 2000
-160-
Comparison of the Monitored Data and Ecotect Predictions
Ecotect (Marsch, 1995) performs a 3D model and allows the designer to generate the
geometry of a building and then begin simulating and testing its environmental perfor-
mance. The programme takes all factors into account such as sun penetration, overshad-
owing, natural and artificial lighting levels, thermal behaviour and acoustic response.
Using analytical feedback throughout the design process the programme provides inte-
grated database, which can be used from the most conceptual stages through to final
design validation when accurate internal temperatures are needed.
Even though Ecotect can be used as a very quick visualisation tool, it is easy to deter-
mine that its primary focus is to substantiate detailed performance and environmental
analysis. As a result, it provides functions and descriptive displays such as interactive
shadows and reflections, generating overshadowing diagrams, calculating natural and
artificial lighting levels, simulating thermal performance, modelling acoustic responses
and estimating cost schedules
Ecotect is designed in order to be used at the primary stages of design. This is because
it is the best and most efficient way to complete a cost-worthy and energy-saving struc-
ture without having to repeat design, or change completed plans. Usually, throughout
the use of other software, negligence is noted on the beginning steps of design. This is
due to the fact that it was not seen as an important factor to the ecological benefit of
construction, as it is impossible to calculate precise figures. However estimates help the
designer throughout the entire project bringing him closer to his goal at very early stag-
es, using the know-how through the software to keep in mind all factors and all figures
needed. The purpose of monitoring the solar house was comparing the collected data
from the data loggers with the Ecotect predictions. Information concerning the buildings
was fed into the computer. Then the external conditions were input for all year round,
which represents the monitored period for the house. Finally, a simulation was carried
out and the Ecotect predictions for certain days were compared with the same days with
the measured temperatures. This comparison is presented in the figure 5.69, where the
measured external and internal temperatures and the predicted internal temperatures
and conditions were plotted.
External Temperatures
Most of the predicted minimum temperatures lie within a zone of 0-9ºC around the meas-
ured temperature curve for the day. Most predicted maximum temperatures lie within a
zone of 1-9ºC around the measured temperature curve for the day. This shows that the
predicted temperatures are not actually the same as the measured temperatures. In such
a case it is seen that the actual monitoring of the house is important. To get the best
results, monitoring should be done in a two-year span. In most cases, higher tempera-
ture differences are found during the summer indicating that Meteonorm overestimates
temperatures during the summer. Proper climatic data should be imported into Ecotect
for a better result. This could be taken from the Cyprus meteorological services and
transferred into the simulation software. Even the climactic data with the meteorological
-161-
station does not agree completely with the temperature of the data loggers. Since the
data is a compilation of the mean temperature during 15 years, it is safe to state that
every year has it’s own individual mean temperature.
Internal Temperatures
Since the external temperatures are not satisfactorily defined then the internal temper-
atures are also dissatisfying. Although the measured temperatures are satisfactorily in
the thermal comfort zone, Ecotect shows the winter months temperatures low, indicat-
ing that they are not in the thermal comfort zone. A difference of 0-8 ºC between the
predicted and measured temperatures is achieved, showing that computer simulation
models cannot actually show the actual temperatures in the ESH.
The Ecotect software might be considered as a precise model for the prediction of the
temperatures in the different zones. It can be seen, through the graphs, that a daily
steady temperature is achieved in the ESH throughout the different zones. All the dif-
ferent zones, which are measured and then compared with Ecotect, show that there is
only a slight temperature difference between the zones - up to 2ºC
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25
Mean Temp. Data Loggers Mean Temp. Ecotect

Min. Temp. Data Loggers Max. Temp. Data Loggers
Min. Temp. Ecotect Max. Temp. Ecotect
Figure 5.69 Overview Internal and External Temperature differences including monitoring and
simulation results
-162-
Comparison of the Monitored Results with the Comfort Charts

Measured internal and external temperatures used in the ESH are shown in the previ-
ous figures on the data logger’s sub-chapter. These measured mean monthly values of
temperatures and relative humidity data are shown on Olgyay’s comfort chart and the
Psychometric chart. The results show the extent to which passive solar energy can cover
the heating requirements of the solar house, while natural ventilation or ceiling fans can
cover the cooling needs. Internal gains are not taken into consideration.
Olgyay Comfort Chart
The results show that the temperatures and relative humidity data of the solar house
are in the thermal comfort areas designed by Olgyay. During the summer months it is
shown that ventilation is required, while in the winter months solar energy is required or
auxiliary heating.
Figure 5.70 Olgyay Comfort Chart with the monitored mean monthly internal temperatures and
relative humidity
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Psychometric Chart
Figure 5.71 shows a red area at its centre representing the comfort zone. Mean monthly
temperature and relative humidity data is plotted as points on the graph, and the rel-
ative effects of various passive design techniques on the comfort zone are overlaid. It
quickly becomes obvious which systems are the most appropriate for any climate. This
information forms the basis of the passive design analysis system. The effects of a range
of passive design systems can be overlaid on the chart.
• Red: Comfort Zone

• Pink: Passive Solar Heating
• Light Blue: Thermal Mass
Effect
• Dark Blue: Natural
Ventilation
• Orange: Indirect
Evaporative Cooling
• Light Green: +Night purge
Ventilation
• Dark Green: Direct
Evaporative Cooling
Figure 5.71 Psychometric Chart with the monitored mean monthly internal temperatures and
relative humidity
Results of the Comfort Charts
• The best thermal comfort is achieved during the months April, May, October and
November. These months need no extra cooling or heating.
• The results show that in order to achieve thermally comfortable conditions, natural
ventilation is required in the summer months (June, July, August and September).
In this case, natural ventilation actually occurs, or if there are no breezes then the
ceiling fans are applied.
• In the months, December (only for the year 2000), January, February and March
sunshine is needed (solar heating). It is only 1ºC under the thermal comfort zone.
This shows that passive solar heating needs to be reconsidered for better efficien-
cy purposes. It must be taken into account that by considering the need for extra
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solar heating no over heating shall be achieved in the summer. The same is to be
said for the passive cooling needs in the summer. The results certify that all heating
requirements are covered through solar energy, while natural ventilation or ceiling
fans cover all cooling needs.
• Internal gains are not taken into consideration in our case. Unrealistic assumptions
of internal gains can lead to false conclusions about room temperature and comfort.
User Response for the Experimental Solar House

The strong but often subtle relationship between occupant behaviour and how energy
is used in a building has been well documented. Virtually every major study conducted
on occupant behaviour, as well as the experience of passive solar designers, indicates
that the occupants have a positive effect on the energy performance of the solar houses,
which cannot and should not be underestimated (International Energy Agency, 1989).
Even in the case of non-solar houses, two similar houses can have very different energy
usage percentages, depending on the occupant.
The performance of the Experimental Solar House can be evaluated as follows:
• The levels of daylight in the living spaces were very satisfactory.
• Overheating did not occur throughout the whole year.
• Condensation did not occur throughout the whole year.
• Ventilation problems arose sometimes in the summer. This was because there was
not a satisfactory amount of breezes during the summer periods. The solution was to
operate the ceiling fans at specific times.
• Overheating occurred on a few summer days. The main reason is the lack of shading
on the ground floor, since one of the shading devices is vegetation. The trees have
not grown enough to provide adequate shade.
• Internal Venetian blinds were placed in the east and west windows. External blinds
would have been more efficient. External louvres could have been used but they are
extremely expensive.
• To achieve sufficient heating in the bedrooms from the fireplace in the winter the
doors of the bedrooms had to be kept open, which results in the lack of privacy of
the occupants. For sufficient natural cross ventilation through the clerestory windows
of the staircase, again the windows and doors had to be kept open.
• Generally, the occupants responded positively to the heating and temperature levels
within the house. The natural lighting levels were regarded as satisfactory and the air
quality thought to be very good. The door between the sunspace and the entrance
was well used to allow warm air to enter the house.
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Experimental Solar House - 15 years after
Photo 5.29 South facade, moveable photovoltaic and pond (water storage)
1. Location: Lakatamia, Nicosia District
2. Site: The land is located on a flat area, where neighbouring buildings are located
at a distance. On the northern and southern side of the plot are the borders with a
green space, while in the west and east the main road is located.
3. Occupants: 2 member family
4. Levels: 2
• Ground floor: Common spaces. The ground floor is divided into 3 individual spac-
-166-
es. One of them being accommodated with the entrance, the living room, dinning
area, kitchen and office. The other spaces is the guest room and an office/library.
A new bedroom has been created on the northern and eastern side of the house
as a guest room.
• First floor: Private spaces (3 bedrooms). The bedroom spaces surround the stair-
case area.
• Staircase: Situated in a central point with southern clerestory (taking also advan-
tage of direct gain) windows which, when opened contribute to the natural venti-
lation and stack effect of all the spaces on all the floors.
5. Building structure:
• Building Frame: Reinforced concrete
• Walls: External 25cm masonry brick, 5cm thermal insulation, plaster, stone clad-
ding. The architect has been particularly concerned with the thermal insulation of
the shell, both on the outside walls, as well as on the roof and glazing. Two outer
walls have been applied with different methods of thermal insulation, of which
the most effective bioclimatic one was the layout with external thermal insulation.
However, it had aesthetic defects since its heat-insulating material is exposed to
the environment and worn (either by environmental conditions or from accidents)
very easily.
• Internal walls: 10cm masonry brick wall, plaster, paint.
• Roof: Reinforced concrete, 10cm thermal insulation, water barrier. In addition, on

the roof leaving a gap of 60cm from its plate concrete, the thermal insulation of
the roof is enhanced.
• Windows: Double glazed, low emissivity, argon filled. Some of the Window frames
are wooden, other aluminium and other PVC. The reason was that the owner want-
ed to experiment these type of windows for the climate of Cyprus.
• Floors: ceramic tiles
6. Bioclimatic approach
• Orientation: most spaces are south orientated
• Thermal mass: floors, walls, staircase
• Passive solar heating: Direct Gain (Glass openings and clerestory windows)
• Solar Control:
• External Shading Devices: With regards to east and south, the windows were
placed more inward thus the external walls were used as external shading.
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On the west windows, external shutters were placed since the vegetation
had not grown enough to block the summer western sun, as had very effec-
tively worked on the east windows.
• Overhangs: Extension of the pergola at the south side was decided, since
the vegetation had been proved not so satisfactory. Especially when the
vine had been minimised due to an infection.
• Vegetation: Trees were placed around the building based on the desired
conditions the architect wanted to secure. On the eastern side are decidu-
ous trees, which have dense foliage to cut the eastern sun in the summer,
while in the winter allow solar radiation to enter. Corresponding treatment
also prevails south, with an additional pergola. The trees around the build-
ing shell have been developed to a satisfactory level, thus the shading in
the summer is fine, while in the winter although the leaves are falling, some
branches need to be trimmed so that more direct sun enters the house. The
owner prefers the vegetation than extra sun in specific areas.
• Natural Ventilation:
• Night ventilation (in the summer nights all openings can be opened manu-
ally except the clerestory windows which are electrical).
• Cross ventilation (provisions had been made so that most spaces have
openings on two sides).
• Stack effect (At the top point of the staircase and also at the mezzanine area,
clerestory windows have been placed and are opened during the summer
months).
7. Non Bioclimatic approach:
• Internal shading devices: Inside moveable blinds where installed to control the
solar radiation within the house until the vegetation would fully grow.
• 2 Photovoltaic systems have been installed: 3KW grid connected and 4KW me-
tered.
• The swimming pool filter pump has been changed to a solar pump, so as to min-
imise the energy demands. The swimming pool pump proved to be high energy
consuming.
• 5 water pumps, 3 for the house and 2 for the garden, have been first installed,
but later on they were minimised to 2 water pumps- 1 for the house and 1 for the
garden
8. Auxiliary heating and cooling
• Central heating-radiators were installed at a later stage (LPG)
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• Fireplace (wood)
• Ceiling fans (electricity)
9. Open areas:
• Semi-open areas are created on the southern and northern side via overhangs. The
northern semi-open space functions as a parking space, while the southern one is
used as a yard.
• Later on a pond was created (100m2). Later on a swimming pool was created (40m2).
• Later on a new building structure was created for the new architectural office of the
author, since he decided to move his offices from central Nicosia next to the house,
as an independent building.
10. Occupant comments:
• The conditions inside the house during the summer and winter months are ideal.
This is mainly due to the insulations in all the building shell avoiding thermal bridg-
es, but also due to the natural ventilation for the summer and direct gain for the
winter. The house functioned properly with only a few minutes attention every day,
in order to build fires, and operate windows.
• Daytime ventilation (opening of windows and doors) during the summer causes
temperatures to rise unsatisfactorily. Therefore signifying the importance of occu-
pant behaviour within the house. Once the pergola and the Venetian blinds were
placed, temperatures remained at a considerably steady and comfortable level,
thus proving the importance of adequate shading devices, both for the summer
and winter.
• To cover heating potential 100%, various thermal storage techniques must be in-
corporated in order to excuse the lack of thermal mass through carpeting and wall
coverings (artwork). Spacings near the ceiling (around clerestory window) should
be covered by building transparent coverings in the winter, in order to avoid heat
sink.
• Therefore, through all passive techniques, the Experimental Solar House, not only
functions successfully, but functions better than the average contemporary house.
-169-
Figure 5.82 Ground floor plan
Figure 5.78 Site layout
Figure 5.83 First floor plan
Figure 5.79 East-west cross section through of-

fice, living area, and bedrooms
Figure 5.80 South-north cross section through

living room and corridors Figure 5.84 Roof plan
-170-
Photo 5.30 South and East facade

Photo 5.31 South and west facade
-171-
Photo 5.32 South and East facade Photo 5.34 South facing windows
Photo 5.33 South Veranda shaded by the vines
-172-
Utility bills
The only energy used in the Experimental Solar House is electricity, potable water and
wood for auxiliary heating. Electricity is required for lighting and cooking. The impressive
thermal performance of the house was achieved with only a few minutes of the authors’
attention each day: building fires in the cold winters and operating windows in the sum-
mer. No adjustments in the author’s schedule were required. For this effort, the house
rewarded the inhabitants with a low winter and summer utility bill, considering that no
air conditioning system is required.
Figure 5.72 Energy performance

certificate
Electricity
All the appliances in the house function with an electrical supply of 240V/50Hz. The ap-
pliances are: electric oven, electric cooker, dish washer, clothes washing machine clothes
dryer, ceiling fans, TV, Hi-Fi system, 5 water pumps (3 for the house and 2 for the gar-
den) and all the lighting features. Electric roof fans were placed in all the spaces. They
were used when inside temperatures were above 28ºC. Thus, the electric fans consumed
some electricity in the summer. The cost was 170€ each. Having an air condition system
would cost an overall of €5000 with a high increase in the electricity demand.
At the time of habitation, April 27, 2000, electricity consumption was 320kW/h. 4 months
after it was 1542kW/h. The following months it was reduced. The reduction was due to
the installation of the grid connected photovoltaic system 0n 5/5/2001 almost at the end
of the consumption period. In the summer periods (21/05/-20/09/2001) the consump-
-173-
tion was 771kW/h. In the winter period (20/09/2001-19/01/2002) the consumption was
1072kW/h. It can be noticed that the summer period has a lower consumption mainly
due to the higher solar radiation and the better efficiency of the photovoltaic system.
Other reason for the higher winter consumption is that the author used high wattage
electrical heaters for the heating of newborn chicks, which were placed in special cages
outside the house. Also in 2006 the house had two new extensions, a guest room and
also an office space and in 2013 a new building office in the plot.
It can be concluded that the average monthly electricity consumption of the Experi-
mental Solar House is low, since heating and cooling are not needed. When the photo-
voltaic system was installed the electricity consumption was reduced by 50%. But when
the swimming pool was introduced the consumption rose up to 100% more.
10000
9000
8000
7000
6000
5000
4000 consumption kwh
3000
PV kWh
2000
1000
0
Figure 5.73 Electricity consump-

tion and PV output
Water
The solar hot water collectors provide 100% of the domestic hot-water needs. Provision
has been made for hot water to be heated with an electric conductor on the hot water
tank. In the case of insufficiency, hot water is available from the solar collectors. During
the last two winters, 2000 and 2001, only once was there a need to turn on the electric
water heater and that operated for 15 minutes (Energy use of 0.15KW) only.
Water from the water well was used for the watering of the garden and at some point
was also used for the toilets and also the swimming pool. A high increase in water can
be noticed since the swimming pool was installed and more people were now living in
the house. m3
300
250
200
150
100 m3
50
0
2006 pool
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
Figure 5.74 Potable water con-

sumption
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Wood
The only source of heat is the wood burning fireplace used to warm the ground floor in
the evenings when the inside temperatures were under 19.5ºC.
A manufacturer-made cast iron wood-burning fireplace was chosen for having an ef-
ficiency of 80% (EREC, 2001). A mixture of concrete and plaster was used in order to
retain the heat while the fireplace is used. The mixture also acts as a storage heater a
few hours after the fireplace has been put out. Small openings are also formed on the
concrete plaster so that the cool air of the house passes through the fireplace plaster
to be reheated and then circulated back into the house. The correct way of supplying
convection air (that is, air that participates in the exchange and distribution of heat) into
the heating space (between the fireplace insert and the fireplace casing) provides the
inlet grille installed in the base of the fireplace and the two sides of the casing. If it is not
always possible to install inlet grilles (filtered air), then the air is sucked into the holes in
the base of the fireplace. (Kominki, 2017)
Figure 5.75 Fireplace Installation

(Kominki, 2017)
m3
5
4.5
4
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5 m3
0
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
year
2006 cen. Heat.
Figure 5.76 Wood consumption
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The construction of the fireplace costs €1000. For the central heating system, an extra
cost of €4000 is needed, plus €1000 for the piping installation, plus €500 per year for
the oil. The boiler and burner of the central heating system has a lifetime of 15 years,
while the fire place has a life time guarantee. The piping installation was done provi-
sionally since the author plans to experiment on active solar heating. Another reason
that the pipes were installed is that the pipes are placed in the floors and walls.
A full central heating system was thought to be unnecessary because of the type of
occupancy, the high insulation standards and the expected solar gains. The fireplace in
the open space ground floor therefore provides space heating. These installations were
considerably cheaper than full central heating, and the savings made were used partly
to offset the extra cost of the other energy saving measures. The energy required for
space heating has been reduced to 90% of that required for a standard house.
During the first winter, the author spent 3m3 of wood and the second winter 4.5m3. The
reason the increase of wood was needed, had nothing to do with thermal comfort but
with the psychological factor that the author and visitors enjoyed lighting the fireplace.
This proves another positive aspect of the fireplace. It offers a different character to the
interior space.
Wood consumption later on was about 0.5-1m3 per winter. Unfortunately this is not
shown in the graphs since the graphs show only the wood that was bought by the au-
thor and not the real consumption. The real consumption was not actually measured
because at a later stage wood was brought by the author, either from other places or
from his own garden since the trees were starting to grow.
LPG
In 2006, the author decided to install the central heating system with an LPG burner. The
reason was to experiment and compare further on the energy consumption required to
keep steady winter temperatures and later on compare the energy consumption with
the energy required for heating a standard house.
It is obvious that the ESH had less energy consumption than a standard house, mainly
due to its Bioclimatic design approach such as orientation, passive solar heating, ther-
mal mass and thermal insulation.
kg
450
400
350
300
250
200 kg
150
100
50
0
Figure 5.77 LPG consumption
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
for central heating
-176-
Conclusion
• The research has demonstrated that it is possible to design low-energy buildings and
achieve high thermal comfort at the same time, as well as good indoor air quality,
and low environmental impact.
• The research has shown that it is possible to reduce the total energy consumption to
a small fraction of the typical consumption. The average total projected energy con-
sumption of the ESH developed in the research is 44 kWh/m2 per year. This is only
about 25% of the typical consumption in residential buildings in Cyprus.
• The total energy consumption does not differ very much from country to country.
This is partly because the consumption for water heating, lights, and appliances is
relatively independent of climate. The insulation levels are generally low in countries
with mild climates and high in countries with cold climates. The energy consumption
per square metre, therefore, does not differ as much as one would expect when look-
ing at climatic differences (International Energy Agency, 1997).
• It is necessary to consider the total energy use, and not focus on space and/or water
heating alone. It is important to consider both heating and cooling, as focusing on
one season could only lead to problems during the other season.
• It is necessary to consider the building as a system, where the different technologies

used are integral parts of the whole. The order in which technologies are introduced
into the design appears to be quite important. Generally, energy-conservation tech-
nologies are considered first, passive solar second, and active solar third.
• High levels of insulation are beneficial in the climatic conditions of Cyprus, as well as
in countries where cooling is a major issue.
• Mechanical ventilation systems appear to be essential in low-energy buildings, but

their use should be challenged. The solar house uses a form of mechanical ventila-
tion in the ceiling fans.
• Passive solar gains can offer a major contribution to space heating in the climatic
conditions of Cyprus and do not lead to overheating if proper solar protection is
used. Passive solar cooling also proved to work. In both the heating and the cooling
situation, it was necessary to include thermal mass in the direct gain passive solar
designs.
• Solar domestic hot water is an effective way to reduce the water heating require-
ments. Solar heating of domestic hot water was found to be one of the most effective
technologies. It is thus used in many buildings in Cyprus. In the ESH, it proved to be
the most cost-effective way of further reducing consumption.
• Photovoltaic installations are not presently cost-effective for general use, but PV sys-
tems that operate other solar equipment may be efficient. The ESH has grid-con-
nected photovoltaic systems that supply general power. Cost-effectiveness may be
-177-
achieved, however, in cases where the system is used to operate solar equipment,
such as the swimming pool pump.
• Designing new, innovative building concepts requires a multi-disciplinary design

team. It requires the energy aspects to be considered from the early design stage,
and also requires the architect, engineer and the clients’ collaboration from the
beginning.
• Simulation can be reasonably accurate and give a good indication of how the build-
ing will perform before it is built. The author used hourly simulation programmes to
guide design decisions. Such hourly simulation provided an insight into the building
performance, (not otherwise available using more conventional calculation tools).
The simulation of building and system performance was also useful for designing
the monitoring programs used in evaluating the performance in practice.
• Most energy-consumption figures presented in this chapter are results of these the-
oretical analyses, as there is only sufficient monitored data from the building. The
monitored results available show that the actual energy consumption in almost all
cases slightly exceeds predictions. This is partly due to the fact that the user does
not behave as expected. The monitored results are therefore somewhat poorer than
what is predicted in idealised situations represented on the computer analysis.
• The ESH provided motivation to experiment with new technologies. The author cre-
ated a group for a very fruitful exchange of ideas. The experiences and the contexts
of the participants differ. Therefore, the participants all had something to learn and
something to contribute to the development of the ESH presented.
• The ESH has proven that a passive solar construction can indeed maintain steady in-
door temperatures, regardless of outdoor conditions. It was also proved empirically
that for the solar systems to be successful, the residents must be actively involved in
operating the passive solar features.
• Monitoring should be a rigorous and strategic process especially in the part of the
individual or individuals in charge of monitoring. It is also apparent that technology
plays an integral part in the monitoring of a building. It is also apparent that tech-
nology plays an integral part in the monitoring of a building such as the ESH. All
the equipment used required an internal battery to function, thus no electricity was
used. The single occasion when electricity was required was to run the computer on
the day the data was retrieved.
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-179-
OVERVIEW OF CYPRUS
THERMAL COMFORT
BUILT PROJECTS
References
-180-
BUILT PROJECTS
The following built projects have been collected from work done at P.A. Lapithis Architectural Firm.
At the beginning of each case study, the local micro-climate was analysed. Each house is briefly
described, its key features listed and elaborated on where appropriate. The key lessons learnt are
included to enable the reader to benefit from them regarding what to do and not to do, should they
wish to emulate the design ideas described in the case studies. The following points are mentioned
in all the case studies:
1. Location
2. Site
3. Occupants
4. Levels: Ground floor, First floor, second floor, third floor, mezzanine, attic, Staircase.
5. Building structure: Building Frame, Walls, Internal walls, Roof, Windows:, Floors.
6. Bioclimatic approach: Orientation, Thermal mass, Passive solar heating, Solar Control, Natural
Ventilation.
8. Open areas
9. Occupant comments
Building Envelope
Passive Heating
Passive Cooling
Solar Control
-181-
House in Oroklini
South facade
1. Location: Oroklini village, Larnaca District
2. Site: The land is located on a small hill, where

neighbouring buildings are located at a dis-
tance. On the eastern side there is a road,
while in the south, the plot borders a green
space - more private.
3. Occupants: Four member family
4. Levels: Three
• Ground floor: Common spaces. The

ground floor is divided into two individ- South-north cross sections showing the natural venti-
ual departments. One of them being ac- lation. (Neophytou et al., 2004)
-182-
Built Projects: House in Oroklini
commodated with the entrance, the living

room and dinning area. The other de-
partment is accommodated with an other
living room with dinning area and kitchen
(with access to the laundry room).
• First floor: Private spaces (4 bedrooms,

office). The bedroom spaces are place
surrounding the staircase area. The mez-
zanine directly communicates with these
areas through an internal staircase.
• Mezzanine: office, library, store
• Staircase: The area of the staircase stands

out externally due to the super-elevation
of its floor, something which the architect
intended in order to place clerestory win-
dows. Situated in a central point on the
north with southern clerestory (taking also Ground floor plan
advantage of direct gain) windows which,
when opened contribute to the natural
ventilation and stack effect of all the spac-
es on all the floors. On the first floor the
bedroom spaces are place surrounding
the staircase area and the attic directly
communicates with these areas through an
internal staircase.
• Walls: External 25cm masonry brick , 5cm

thermal insulation, plaster, stone cladding
• Internal walls: 10cm masonry brick wall,

plaster, paint First floor plan
• Roof: Inclined, reinforced concrete, 10cm
thermal insulation, water barrier, ceramic
roofing tiles
• Windows: Aluminium profile Double

glazed, Low emissivity, argon filled
• Orientation: most spaces are south orien-

tated
• Passive solar heating: Direct Gain (Glass

openings and clerestory windows)
Maisonette floor plan.
-183-
South facade
• Solar Control: Internal view of the southern clerestory windows and
internal balcony (Neophytou et al., 2004).
• External Shading Devices: With re-
gards to east and west external shut-
ters have been placed.
• Overhangs: The shading of open-

ings is succeeded with the use of
overhangs with the extension of the
floors on the southern and northern
sections and extension of the roof
and the balcony on the southern
section
• Vegetation: There is anticipation to

plant trees around the building shell,
which hasn’t developed to a satisfac-
tory level as for yet.
• Night ventilation (in the summer

nights all openings can be opened
manually except the clerestory win-
dows are electrical ).
• Cross ventilation (provisions had

been made so that most spaces have
openings on two sides),
• Stack effect (At the top point of the

staircase and also at the mezzanine
area, clerestory windows have been
placed and are opened during the
summer months).
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Built Projects: House in Oroklini
• Central heating-radiators (petroleum)
• Split units for heating or cooling (electrici-

ty) have been rarely needed
• Solar water heating
8. Open areas: Semi-open areas are created

South-north cross section through veranda, living
on the southern and northern side via over- room, kitchen, laundry room, bedrooms, toilet, mai-
hangs. The northern semi-open space func- sonette
tions as a parking space, while the southern
one is used as a yard. The open area a mainly
covered with grass and trees and the remain-
ing areas are covered with tiling.
9. Occupant comments: The conditions inside

the house during the summer and winter
months are ideal.
South-north cross section through veranda, living

room, staircase, bedroom, maisonette
North and east facade South-north cross section through veranda, living
room, master bedroom, office
South and east facade
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House in Psematismenos
South and east facade
South facade
1. Location: Psematismenos village, Larnaca
District
2. Site: The land is located on a plain, where

neighbouring buildings are located at a dis-
tance. On the eastern side there is a road,
while in the south, east and west the plot
borders a green space - more private.
4. Levels: Two
• Ground floor: The ground floor is di-

vided into two departments, one of
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Built Projects: House in Psematismenos
them being accommodated with the

entrance and the living room and
kitchen in a united space. The other
department are the bedroom spaces
are place surrounding the staircase
area and the attic directly commu-
nicates with these areas through an
internal staircase.
• Mezzanine: office, library, store
• Attic: store
• Staircase: The area of the staircase is

hidden something which the archi-
tect intended in order to assure the
privacy of the top floor Ground floor plan
• Walls: External 25cm masonry brick

, 5cm thermal insulation, plaster,
stone cladding
• Internal walls: 10cm masonry brick

wall, plaster, paint
• Roof: Inclined, reinforced concrete,

10cm thermal insulation, water bar-
rier, ceramic roofing tiles
• Windows: Aluminium, double

• Floors: ceramic tiles Maisonette and attic floor plan
• Orientation: most spaces are south

orientated
• Thermal mass: floors, walls
• Passive solar heating: Direct Gain

(Glass openings and clerestory win-
dows)
• Solar Control:
• Overhangs: The shading of

openings is succeeded with
the use of overhangs with the
extension of the roof on the
southern and northern sec-
tions. With regards to east and
west, the openings are mini- Roof plan
-187-
North and west facade

mum.
• Vegetation: There is anticipa-

tion to plant trees around the
building shell, which hasn’t de-
veloped to a satisfactory level
as for yet.
• Night ventilation (in the sum-

mer nights all openings can be
opened manually.
• Cross ventilation (provisions

had been made so that most
spaces have openings on two
sides),
• Stack effect (At the top point

at the mezzanine area, and at
the attic, windows have been
placed and are opened during
the summer months).
-188-
Built Projects: House in Psematismenos
• Ceiling fans
• Solar water heating
8. Open areas: The northern semi-open space

functions as the entrance of the house, while
the southern one is used as a yard. The open
area a mainly covered with vegetation and
trees around the building shell, which hasn’t
developed to a satisfactory level as for yet.

the house during the summer months are
South-north cross section through bedrooms, stair-
ideal.
case, attic
South-north cross section through entrance and mai- South-north cross section through living area, dinning
sonette corridor area and maisonette
South facade
-189-
House in Lakatamia
South facade
1. Location: Lakatamia, Nicosia District South and east facade
2. Site: The land is located on flat site where

neighbouring buildings are located at a
distance. On the northern and eastern side
there is a road, while in the south the plot
borders a open space - more private.
3. Occupants: Eight member family
4. Levels: One
• Ground floor: The residence is laid out on

four parts, in which the daily spaces (sitting
-190-
Built Projects: House in Lakatamia
room, living room and kitchen) are situated

on the east side, bedrooms are situated on
the west side, semi private spaces (office
and gym) are found in between. All are ori-
ented on the south. The four part and the
northern open space functions as a closed
garage and a parking space.

thermal insulation, plaster, paint

plaster, paint
• Roof: Flat, reinforced concrete, 10cm ther-

mal insulation, water barrier Floor plan and site
• Windows: Aluminium, double glazed, Low

emissivity, argon filled

tated
South-north cross section through living area and ga-
• Thermal mass: floors, walls rage

• Solar Control:

ters have been placed. With regards
to east and west, extra moveable
South-north cross section through living area and en-
overhangs have been provided. trance
North and west facade
-191-

roof on the southern and northern
sections. With regards to south, ex-
tra moveable overhangs have been
provided.
• Vegetation: There is no anticipation

to plant trees around the building
shell, which has been proven that
there is more sun reflection within
the spaces
• Natural Ventilation: Opening of the living room and the main entrance


• Stack effect: Clerestory windows

have been placed at the living room
and also at the garage and are
opened during the summer months
for the warm air to be taken away. South openings at the gym
Living area, south oriented
-192-
Built Projects: House in Lakatamia
• Underfloor central heating (solar energy,

electricity, geothermal energy).
• Fan coiled units for cooling (geothermal

energy and electricity from PV)
• Fireplace (LPG)
• Ceiling fans (electricity)
• Solar water heating (for domestic use and

underfloor heating)
South elevation
• Photovoltaic (both grid connected and net
metering)
8. Open areas: Semi-open areas are created on

the southern side. The northern semi-open
space functions as a parking space, while the
southern one is used as a yard. The open
area has no vegetation and there is no inten-
tion for providing vegetation

months are ideal. The auxiliary heating and
cooling system have been rarely used.
South elevation
South elevation
-193-
House in Kyperounta
North and west facade (Vasiliades, 2017)

1. Location: Kyperounta village, Limassol Dis- Roof plan
trict
2. Site: The land is located on a mountain, with

no neighbouring buildings. On the northern
side there is a road, while in the south, west
and east the plot borders a forest - more pri-
vate.
4. Levels: Five
• Fifth floor: Main entrance, parking, master
-194-
Built Projects: House in Kyperounta
bedroom maisonette
• Fourth floor: Main entrance, parking, mas-

ter bedroom maisonettes, 2 bedrooms
maisonettes
• Third floor: cellar, kitchen, dinning area, 2

bedrooms
• Second floor: living area, store rooms, of-

fice, 2 bedrooms
• First floor: store rooms
• Attic: above the garage Fifth floor plan

• Staircases: Situated in a central point on
the north with southern clerestory (taking
also advantage of direct gain) windows
which, when opened contribute to the nat-
ural ventilation and stack effect.

thermal insulation, plaster, stone cladding

plaster, paint
• Roof: Inclined, reinforced concrete, 10cm

thermal insulation, water barrier, ceramic
roofing tiles
Fourth floor plan
• Windows: Double glazed, Low emissivity,
argon filled

tated

• Solar Control:
• External Shading Devices: none

Third floor plan
-195-

section
• Vegetation: There are existing tall

trees around the building shell,
which provide a lot of shading in
the summer, but unfortunately in the
winter also.
Second floor plan
dows are electrical).

staircase and also at the mezzanine
area, clerestory windows have been
placed and are opened during the
summer months).

First floor plan
South facade (Vasiliades, 2017)
-196-
Built Projects: House in Kyperounta
8. Open areas: The open area is mainly cov-

ered with trees.
9. Occupant comments: still under construc-

tion.
South-north cross section through bedrooms South-north cross section through main entrance and
main staircase
South-north cross section through secondary stair- South-north cross section through living area, kitchen,
case garage and attic
South-north cross section through master bedroom South-north cross section through kitchen veranda
and office and store room
-197-
House in Archangelos
Open space (stack effect)

South view through the office
1. Location: Archangelos area, Nicosia District
2. Site: The land is located on a hill, where

neighbouring buildings are located next to
the plot. On the north-west side there is a
road, while in the southwest the plot borders
with an other building
3. Occupants: Three member family
4. Levels: Two. The central idea is based on

three parallel zones, which contain inde-
pendent functions and have a separate ap-
proach from the architect. The first and third
-198-
Built Projects: House in Archangelos
zones have similar treatment, as they contain

the private character functions and do not
communicate inside them directly from floor
to floor. The second zone develops on both
levels, communicating with each other due
to the opening on the floor and containing
them shared functions.
• Ground floor: Private (3 bedrooms) and

common spaces (living space, dinning,
kitchen -with access to the laundry room).
• First floor: Main entrance of the house,

library, office, guest bedroom, garage,
small lounge area and the opening in be-
tween floors
• Staircase: The central stairway is located

in the second zone, along with a lift. The
move is channelled each other in the two Second floor plan
other zones through it. With regard to the
third zone, there is an external staircase
which joins through the northern courtyard
the two levels together. Situated in a cen-
tral point on the north with southern clere-
story (taking also advantage of direct gain)
windows which, when opened contribute
to the natural ventilation and stack effect
of all the spaces on all the floors. On the
first floor the bedroom spaces are place
surrounding the staircase area.

• Internal walls: 10cm masonry brick wall, First floor plan

plaster, paint
Roof plan
• Roof: Two types, Flat and Inclined, rein-
forced concrete, 10cm thermal insulation,
water barrier, ceramic roofing tiles
• Windows: Aluminium frame, double

• Floors: ceramic tiles and wooden floor
• Orientation: most spaces are southeast

orientated
• Thermal mass: floors, walls.
-199-

• Solar Control:

ters have been placed.
• Overhangs: The shading of the

openings is achieved by using a can-
tilever, extending from the upper
Northwest-Southeast cross section through garage,
floor to the northern part and the top bedroom, storeroom, bottom bedroom
roof in the southern part of the plot
• Vegetation: There is anticipation to

plant trees around the building shell,
which hasn’t developed to a satisfac-
tory level as for yet.

• The architect exploiting the altitude Northwest-Southeast cross section through library,
differences of the plot, but also the staircase, kitchen and dinning space
favourable winds, installed an under-
ground pipeline system that intro-
duces the outside air, cooling it, in-
side. It also enhances the cooling of
the building due to its direct contact
with the cave terrain.

• Stack effect In the second zone of

the building volume, through-venti- Northwest-Southeast cross section through main en-
lation is generated throughout the trance, living room, swimming pool
height due to it communication be-
tween the two levels. At the same
time because of the skylights on the
roof, the warm air that trapped in-
side, escapes outward.
• Underfloor central heating (solar energy,

electricity, geothermal energy).
• Fan coiled units for cooling (geothermal

energy and electricity from PV) Northwest-Southeast cross section through office,
balcony, main bedroom, swimming pool, mechanical
• Ceiling fans (electricity) room
-200-
Built Projects: House in Archangelos
• Solar water heating (for domestic use and

underfloor heating)
• Photovoltaic (both grid connected and net

metering)
8. Open areas: The open-air area extends

around the house, divided into two sections
through walls, in private and shared. The sec-
tion of the northern courtyard in front of the
office space functions as semi-open space if
housed through cantilever. The existence of
a water element in the south and planting
in the southern, eastern and western parts Kitchen, dinning and living area
of the improve the micro-climatic conditions
around the shell. Semi-open areas are cre-
ated on the southern and northern side via
overhangs. The northern semi-open space
functions as a parking space, while the south-
ern one is used as a yard. The open area a
mainly covered with grass and trees and the
remaining areas are covered with tiling.

months are ideal.
Living area and southeast openings.

Main staircase Open space (stack effect)
-201-
House in Agios Andreas
South and west facade
1. Location: Agios Andreas area, Nicosia Dis- Original South and west facade
trict
2. Site: The building is located in a downtown

neighbourhood, where the architect acted
on an existing shell. In the south there is the
road and opposite existing residential build-
ings. The eastern boundary of the plot is ad-
jacent to a neighbouring building while the
north and west are free.
3. Occupants: Eight member family
4. Levels: Three
-202-
Built Projects: House in Agios Andreas
• Ground floor: Common spaces (lounge -

kitchen - dining room) are located on the
ground floor. Before the renovation the
rooms were separated by internal walls.
The place that used to be the old kitch-
en has now become unified along with the
rest of the living room and the kitchen has
been moved to a bay which once func-
tioned as an atelier. On the ground floor
there is a closed corridor, which leads to
the bedrooms for the privacy of the ten-
ants.
• First floor: Private spaces (5 bedrooms). Ground floor and first floor plans
are placed surrounding the staircase area.
• Second floor: bedroom, roof veranda
• Staircase: Situated in a central point on

the west side with clerestory (taking also
advantage of direct gain) windows which,
when opened contribute to the natural
ventilation and stack effect of all the spac-
es on all the floors.

Second floor and third floor plans

plaster, paint
• Roof: Reinforced concrete, 10cm thermal

insulation, water barrier, ceramic tiles
• Windows: Wooden framed, double glazed,

Low emissivity, argon filled
• Floors: ceramic tiles and timber flooring

Wooden vertical louvres

tated
• Thermal mass: floors, walls

openings)
• Solar Control:
• External Shading Devices: On the

south openings aluminium horizon-
tal louvres that are designed in such Aluminium pergola
-203-
a way that the winter sun is allowed

to pass and the summer sun is ex-
cluded. For the east and west open-
ings vertical wooden louvres were
designed, so as to avoid the eastern
and western low summer sun, while
letting the summer night breeze to
pass through.
Original Living area
• In the private courtyard where the
pool is located, there is a pergola
over the large opening allowing the
living area to communicate directly
with the outside.

section.
Living and dinning area
• Vegetation: There are trees around
the building shell, which have devel-
oped to a satisfactory level.

manually )

Living area
openings on two sides).
Open area with an indoor view
-204-
Built Projects: House in Agios Andreas

staircase area, clerestory windows
have been placed and are opened
during the summer months).
• Split units for heating or cooling (electrici-

ty) have been rarely needed
Original House: south and west facade
• Two fireplaces (wood)
• Ceiling fans

on the southern and northern side via over-
hangs. The northern semi-open space func-
tions as a parking space, while the southern
one is used as a yard. The open area is main-
ly covered with trees.

ideal. West facade
Video Existing Building: https://www.youtube.

com/watch?v=3NQKykhYfIk
Original north facade

Open area, east and north facade
-205-
House in Vavla
Semi-open space and courtyard

1. Location: Vavla village, Larnaca District Original semi-open space and courtyard
2. Site: The house is located in the centre of

the village, where neighbouring buildings
are attached on all sides of the building,
except a small part where the external en-
trance door is located
3. Occupants: Three member family
4. Levels: One and Two
• Ground floor: The ground floor is divided

into two individual departments. One of
-206-
Built Projects: House in Vavla
them being accommodated with the en-

trance, the living room, dinning area and
kitchen. The other department is accom-
modated with 2 bedrooms.
• First floor: 1 bedroom with an independent

entrance and Staircase situated externally
and communicates with the courtyard.
• Walls: 60cm stone wall
• Internal walls: 60cm stone wall and 10cm

gypsum board, plaster, paint
• Roof: timber, wood, earth, 10cm thermal

insulation, water barrier, ceramic roofing
tiles
• Windows: wooden frame, double glazed,

low emissivity, argon filled
• Floors: stone tiles
Main entrance, semi-open space, top floor
Floor plan(proposed)
South-north cross section through main entrance, top

floor, living area (proposed)
-207-
• Thermal mass: Floors, walls, staircase

openings and roof windows)
• Solar Control:
• External Shading Devices: External

shutters
• Floor overhangs Original top floor
• Night ventilation: In the summer

manually except the roof windows
that are electrical.
• Cross ventilation: Only the top bed-

room had the potential to have
openings on two sides.
• Stack effect: In the 2 bedrooms

and the kitchen, roof windows have
been placed and are opened during
the summer months. They also pro-
vide natural light since there are no
openings in these spaces.
7. Auxiliary heating and cooling Top floor

Semi-open space, courtyard and top floor

on the southern and northern side via over-
hangs, while the southern one is used as a
yard. The open area is covered with tiling.

ideal.
-208-
Built Projects: House in Vavla
Original bedroom
Original living room, kitchen, dinning area
Bedroom with roof opening Living room, kitchen, dinning area
-209-
OVERVIEW OF CYPRUS
THERMAL COMFORT
BUILT PROJECTS
References
-210-
Student design projects have been collected from various courses taught by the author
at the Department of Architecture, University of Nicosia, Cyprus.
• Space and Light course
• Sustainable Design course
• Building Blocks for Social Sustainability workshops
• Bioclimatic Architecture course
• Energy Efficient Buildings course
• Sustainable Design Unit Studio
Through these courses, the climatic conditions Cyprus, thermal comfort, passive solar
systems, vernacular and contemporary buildings, energy uses, building and energy leg-
islations, building examples (academic and professional) were studied. A principal aim of
the student work was to develop understanding of the criteria needed for an appropri-
ate bioclimatic architecture that is sensitive to both energy use and climatic conditions.
The students were not only able to produce mature projects touching on all basic issues
proclaimed by the course agenda, but most of them were able to greatly improve on
their overall ability to solve complex architectural spaces and successfully present them
in professional drawings and impressive computer renderings. This was partly the result
of the instructors’ perseverance and insistence that students should be handled as adults
who are but a heartbeat away from professional employment.
Selected conference papers, student projects, research papers and teaching documents:
https://independent.academia.edu/SustainableDesignUnit
Selected design work, student life, photos, workshops and more info:
https://www.facebook.com/sustainable.design.unit
-211-
Space & Light Course
This is a fundamental course in natural lighting and its interaction with visual percep-
tion and aesthetics. The basic functions of natural lighting are studied, analysed and
critiqued as design elements. Lecture topics include colour, light sources, measurement
and control as they affect the interior environment. Students are asked to transfer this
information to plans and specifications and are encouraged to explore how the lumi-
nous aspects of space can control subjective mood and convey symbolic values.
Instructor (2008-2018): Petros Lapithis
Assistant Instructors (2008-2017): Nikolas Tsaousis, Sophia Neokleous, Anna Margari-

tova, Kerry Kyriakou, Anthimos Papapericleous, Katerina Neofytidou
-212-
Student Design Projects: Space & Light course
Crypto-Christians worship space. Nikolas Tsaoushis. 2009
-213-
Music Exhibition Space. Marios Antoniou. 2011
Tree and the Egg Exhibition Space. Anna Tsareva. 2011
-214-
Agnostic Contemplation Space. Rania Tollefson. 2010
Bahai Worship space. Stavros Voskaris. 2010
-215-
Orthodox Church. Andreas Prokopiou, Panayiotis Kontonis. 2014
-216-
Shamanism. Afra Omidi, George Kartsakas. 2014
Catholic Christianism. Anthimos Papapericleous, Pantelis Sofos. 2014
-217-
Wicca. Christos Xenofontos, Rafaela Neokleous. 2014
Scientology. Rodoula Konnari, Zoe Polykarpou. 2014
-218-
Temple of the Force. Egor Mosolov. 2012
-219-
Christianity and Islam. Irene Sergiou, Nurshan Arpalikli. 2016
-220-
Taoist temple. Nicolas Ioannou, Alexandros Pissarides. 2016
-221-
Sustainable Design Course
The course studies the human and social impact of the built environment upon the
inhabitants of that environment: physically, emotionally and psychologically. Contem-
porary perspectives on the relationship between human behaviour, designed environ-
ments and energy efficiency are examined. The course explores the implications on
those relationships for the purpose, nature and future direction of design education,
design research and design practice. Students become aware of design factors affect-
ing indoor comfort and explore concepts, structures and techniques that lie behind the
realisation of energy conscious design.
-222-
Student Design Projects: Sustainable Design course
Ecohouse. Glykeria Solomou. 2008
-223-
Awakened House: Anna Tsareva, Darcy Osting, Olga Valavanoglou, Polina Demetriadou, Vangelis Kechagias.
2011
-224-
Awakened House: Anna Tsareva, Darcy Osting, Olga Valavanoglou, Polina Demetriadou, Vangelis Kechagias.
2011
-225-
The Floating House: Sophia Neocleous, Alexandros Postekkis, Vrahimis Moutiris. 2009
-226-
The Floating House: Sophia Neocleous, Alexandros Postekkis, Vrahimis Moutiris. 2009
-227-
Xyliatos Dam House. Nasim Amini, Katerina Michaelidou, Chara Andreadi, Mikaela Kotzia. 2009
-228-
Xyliatos Dam House. Nasim Amini, Katerina Michaelidou, Chara Andreadi, Mikaela Kotzia. 2009
-229-
Common Ground. Elena Siakou, Elli Mara, Christos Evagorou, Panayiotis Rotsides. 2014
-230-
Common Ground. Elena Siakou, Elli Mara, Christos Evagorou, Panayiotis Rotsides. 2014
-231-
Building Blocks for Social Sustainability Workshops
The workshop addresses the issue of social sustainability within a humanistic and cultur-
al context, set on the platform of the built environment. Participants are called to con-
sider matters of formal and informal urban structure, sense of community, social identity
and ethics as those pertain to societal development in a diverse, multicultural setting.
Operating under the premise that social sustainability can be attained through means
of collaboration and common awareness, the workshop’s findings aim to activate urban
spaces in a three-dimensional and temporal manner in order to induce values of social
and egalitarian participation (Hekkers, 2013)(Lapithis. et al. 2013).
Instructors (2013-2017): Petros Lapithis, Anna Papadopoulou, Alexandros Postekkis,

Nikolas Tsaousis, Andreas Chrysochos
E-book “Building Blocks for Social Sustainability: Nicosia, Cyprus”: Social sustaina-
bility extends the essence of sustainable design and combines design of the physical
realm with the design of the social world in order to create successful places that pro-
mote well-being by understanding what people need from the places where they live
and work. This book is a compilation of student design projects that aim to address
sustainability beyond its conventional environmental component and push the bounda-
ries of what it means for communities to thrive as part of the great infinity of civilisation.
View low resolution book:
https://issuu.com/petroslapithis/docs/bbss-_v1_280dpi
Download high Resolution print:
https://drive.google.com/open?id=0BxPGSTtY7O2SUVgwaVNOMno0SE0
-232-
Student Design Projects: Building Blocks for Social Sustainability workshops
Industrial Upcycle. Kaimakli Industrial Area. Louis Agamemnonos, Anastasia Iliaki, Ivi Nikiforou. 2017
-233-
Educating Nature. Kaimakli Industrial Area. Andreas Chrysochos. 2017
-234-
Educating Nature. Kaimakli Industrial Area. Andreas Chrysochos. 2017
-235-
Multifunctional Temporality. Agios Mamas Refugee Estates. Georgia Adamou, Ourania Apserou. 2014
-236-
Multifunctional Temporality. Agios Mamas Refugee Estates. Georgia Adamou, Ourania Apserou. 2014
-237-
Bioclimatic Architecture Course
This course introduces the principles underlying bioclimatic architecture and environ-
mental modification. The relationship between climate and architecture are traced back
to historic examples of vernacular bioclimatic architecture in order to provide an appre-
ciation of established passive environmental strategies and systems. Discussions on con-
temporary theory dealing with issues of sustainability and the performance of buildings
will mature into critical personalised positions. In parallel to readings, students explore
seminal case studies in order to develop an analytical capability and a vocabulary of
contemporary bioclimatic architecture. This overview hence deals with a wide range of
topics; from understanding climatic data and human comfort, to basic passive heating/
cooling strategies, to more complex autonomous/living systems, to introducing build-
ing energy performance software as a tool. The objective is to develop an awareness on
how materials, techniques in structure, construction and environmental modification are
integrated in the generation and realisation of bioclimatic architectural designs.
-238-
Student Design Projects: Bioclimatic Architecture course
Centre for Environmental Rehabilitation. Alexandros Postekkis, Yiannis Theodotou. 2014
-239-
BBQ Restaurant. Egor Mosolov. 2014
-240-
Restaurant. Egor Mosolov. 2014
-241-
Carnayio Restaurant. Birthe Geerkens. 2016
-242-
Carnayio Restaurant. Birthe Geerkens. 2016
-243-
Energy Efficient Buildings Course
This course aims to create resource-efficient structures that are comfortable and healthy.
Energy Efficient design ensures that the impacts associated with resources are kept to a
minimum while also considering issues of energy management, light, temperature, air
quality and psychological aspects of structures that affect health. This course focuses
minimising non-renewable resource use, while considering the need to create healthy
environments. Topics addressed include envelope design, energy use and production,
alternative energy sources and indoor/outdoor environmental quality.
-244-
Student Design Projects: Energy Efficient Buildings course
Analysis of an abandoned industrial warehouse. Aya El Messelmani, Fatina Eless. 2017
-245-
Activities Center. Maria Georgiou. 2015
-246-
Student Design Projects: Energy Efficient Buildings course
Sustainable Single Family House. Egor Mosolov. 2016
-247-
Sustainable Design Unit Studios
In 2009, the SDU Studio was titled Exploring Dimensions of Slow Life Filtered through
Sustainable Design and its purpose was to investigate and juxtapose qualities associ-
ated with the Slow Life Movement and the principles of sustainable design and biocli-
matic architecture.
By 2011, it was deemed necessary to revisit the thematic parameters of the studio
course and it was decided that the issue of quality of life was to replace the Slow Life
Movement. This change was mostly in response to students’ interests, as those were
observed by the instructing team. The studio title became Exploring Dimensions of
Quality of Life through Sustainable Design. The same thematic was maintained in the
following year.
In 2013, however, as a direct response to the financial crisis that impacted Cyprus in
March 2013 and led to an array of on-going socioeconomic concerns, the studio the-
matic veered towards addressing issues of environmental and social sustainability. Its
title became Exploring Dimensions of Environmental and Social Sustainability.
In 2015 the unit again changed its thematic to Design for Diversity: Voice vs Vision. The
unit considers notions of diversity within an academic environment and explores their
significance in challenging boundaries that enable architectural design to act as an ad-
vocate for racial, gender and class equality. In setting a framework of social systems that
facilitate ecological cities, focus is set on juxtaposing two concepts: vision and voice.
The term ‘vision’ is the province of a single person, acting on his and (less frequently)
her own accord, whereas ‘voice’ refers to collective, collaborative efforts.
Coordinator (2009-2018): Petros Lapithis
Instructors (2009-2018): Petros Lapithis, Anna Papadopoulou, Alkis Dikaios, Eleonore

Zippelius, Tonia Sophokleous Lemonari, Zenon Sierepeklis, Adonis Kleanthous, Dimitry
Sklyaruk
E-book “Designing a Difference -Social Sustainability in Cyprus”: An academic

e-book compiled of student projects from the Architecture Department of University of
Nicosia on social sustainability in Cyprus is now available on-line. Edited by academics
Petros Lapithis and Anna Papadopoulou and journalist Melissa Hekkers, the book brings
to local case studies to the forefront in an attempt to give a concrete understanding
on social sustainability and architectural practices. The goal of this book is to transfer
knowledge without any monetary benefit. The book is available for free.
https://issuu.com/petroslapithis/docs/designing_a_difference_-social_sust/1
https://drive.google.com/open?id=0B9m9oHBfzmmlQ1FnRDZFa2NBNVE
-248-
Student Design Projects: Sustainable Design Unit studios
Marine Engineering University. SODAP building Carnayio. Christina Demetriou. 2016
-249-
Natural Light in Learning Environments. Lakatamia High School. Katerina Michaelidou. 2011
-250-
Urban Market Ecology. Nicosia. Anna Margaritova. 2012
-251-
Awakening the Senses Exhibition space. Athalassa Park. Alexandros Postekkis. 2010
-252-
Awakening the Senses Pavilion. Athalassa Park. Alexandros Postekkis. 2010
-253-
Nature Exploration Park, Athalassa Park. Markos Hadjimarkou. 2010
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Towards Symbiotic Architecture. Aliki Salt lake. Monika Kakou. 2016
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Bioclim
Back to Nature. Pedieos River. Panayiotis Hadjiphillipou. 2013
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matic Architecture & Education: Sustainable Design Unit studios
Towards Design to Environmental Education. Pedieos river. Vasiliki Fillippidi. 2013
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Technology in Architecture. Christos Tremetousiotis. 2011
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Technology in Architecture. Christos Tremetousiotis. 2011
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OVERVIEW OF CYPRUS
THERMAL COMFORT
BUILT PROJECTS
References
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Building Envelope
Passive Heating
Passive Cooling
Solar Control
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OVERVIEW OF CYPRUS
THERMAL COMFORT
BUILT PROJECTS
References
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Review of Research and Development, vol. 2.1985
• Szokolay, S.V. Environmental Handbook for Architects and Builders. The Construction Press,
London. 1980
• The Clearinghouse, U.S. Department of Energy. Information-Fans and Ventilation. DOE/CE-
0255. Merrifield, Virginia.
• Todd, I., Kalavassos-Tenta, Bank of Cyprus Cultural Foundation in collaboration with the de-
partment of Antiquities, Nicosia, Cyprus, 1998.
• U.S. Green Building Council, Second Nature. Advancing Sustainable building: Teaching the
Concepts of Sustainable building to All Students. 2009.
• U.S. Green Building Council. 2009. USGBC Update on The Building Performance Initiative.
Washington, D.C.: U.S. Green Building Council.
• U.S. Green Building Council. Second Nature: Education for Sustainability in Partnership with
US Green Building Council (USGBC) www.secondnature.org | www.usgbc.org July 2010
• U.S. Housing and Home Finance Agency. Application of Climate Data to House Design. Pp4-
7. Washington D.C. 1954.
• United Nations, Energy Conservation and Development Project for Cyprus, UNDP Develop-
ment Projects, CY/77/009, Nicosia, March 1981.
• Vassiliades A, 3D render house at Kyperounta. Personal collection. 2012
• Vernon, H. M., Warner, C. G., ‘The influence of the humidity of the air on capacity of work at
high temperatures’, Journal of Hygiene Cambridge, 1932.
• Walton, G., ‘Thermal Analysis Research Program (TARP)’, Reference Manual. NBSIR 83-2655,
Gaithersburg, MD, National Bureau of Standards, 1983.
• Warren, P. R., Parkins, L. M., Single-Sided Ventilation Through Open Windows, Proceedings.
Windows in Building Design and Maintenance, Göteborg, Sweden, 1984.
• Watson, D. (Ed.) Energy Conservation Through Building Design. McGraw Hill Book Company.
1979.
• Watson, D., The Energy Design Handbook, The American Institute of Architects Press, Wash-
ington, 1993.
• Weatherlink version 4.04. Davis Instruments Corporation. USA. 1991.
• Wensley, R. Market Research on Reactions to Passive Solar Features in Domestic Housing.
London Business School, Prepared under contract No. S-1128, July. 1984.
• Wikipedia. 2017. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_building)
• Wikipedia. 2017 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable_architecture
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References
• Wikipedia, 2017. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_architecture
Books:
• E-book “Building Blocks for Social Sustainability: Nicosia, Cyprus”
https://issuu.com/petroslapithis/docs/bbss-_v1_280dpi
https://drive.google.com/open?id=0BxPGSTtY7O2SUVgwaVNOMno0SE0
• E-book “Designing a Difference -Social Sustainability in Cyprus”

https://issuu.com/petroslapithis/docs/designing_a_difference_-social_sust/1
https://drive.google.com/open?id=0B9m9oHBfzmmlQ1FnRDZFa2NBNVE
Videos on bioclimatic architecture:

• Documentary- CyBC & Ministry of Commerce and Industry of Cyprus, 2000 https://www.you-
tube.com/watch?v=-zWQAdEean8&t=36s
• Interview of architect Petros Lapithis on The use of solar energy in everyday life to protect the
environment and human health. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RfhEbHL78Oc&t=2s
• Architect Petros Lapithis interview on Architecture and Bioclimatic Design in Cyprus. Fred TV
-2000 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=O8O_Kjo6zqY&t=5s
• Interview of architect Petros Lapithis on The need of Bioclimatic Architecture. TV Paphos
-19/8/1998. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BHJ0UrNlKME&t=6s
Videos on Experimental Solar House:

• Interview of architect Petros Lapithis on Solar Architecture in Cyprus. XLab: Stin Priza. 19.2.2008.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SxwVdKZx3hU&t=6s
• Interview of architect Petros Lapithis on Experimental Solar House in Cyprus. Ora Kiprou -CyBC
23/9/1998. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Zq-XD8BD0IA&t=7s
Videos on Agios Andreas house:

• Video Existing Building: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3NQKykhYfIk
-285-
Bioclimatic architecture is a viable energy-saving concept which can be applied in the context of
Cyprus. This book investigates the influence of passive solar systems in traditional and contempo-
rary architectural forms. It focuses on the typical Cypriot family house and aspires to support the
development of a specific regional, local architecture, which is sensitive to both energy use and
climatic conditions.
A crucial argument is whether environmentally responsible architecture should be regarded as a

specialisation within architectural education or whether its entire spectrum should be taught as a
science and art that is equally accountable to man and the environment. This begs the question:
Shouldn’t architecture always be environmentally responsible?
Through a compilation of both the author’s and his student’s bioclimatic architectural designs, the
book addresses bioclimatic design from a practical and academic approach.
-286-

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What is the main focus of the book?

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BIOCLIMATIC

Dr Lapithis Petros holds the position of Professor, coordinator of the MA Architecture

Copyright © 2018 by Pantheon Cultural Association

Graphic design by pal

Published by Pantheon Cultural Association, P.O.B. 25353, Nicosia 1309, Cyprus.

Printed in Nicosia, Cyprus

I would like to extend my appreciation by acknowledging the contribution of all students

Deep appreciation is extended to Dr Anna Papadopoulou for her stimulating interest

“Green building (also known as green construction or sustainable building) refers to

“Sustainable architecture seeks to minimize the negative environmental impact of

Climatic Conditions in Cyprus11

Comfort Zones in Cyprus18

Learning through History19

Demographic and Housing Data22

Renewable Energy Sources24

Energy Performance Building Directive31

Key principles of Sustainable Design36

Heat Exchange Between the Body and the Environment 39

Thermal Comfort Zone42

Effect of Environmental Factors on Thermal Comfort46

Effect of Subjective Factors on Thermal Comfort48

Psychometric Chart for Nicosia49

Bioclimatic Chart for Nicosia50

Humphreys’ Comfort Chart52

Predicting Thermal Comfort53

PASSIVE SOLAR SYSTEMS59

Definitions and Elements of Passive Solar Design59

Applicability of Passive Solar Heating Systems in Cyprus  61

Building Shape and Orientation79

Internal Shading Devices81

External Shading Devices 81

Natural Ventilation 86

Occupant Behaviour in Passive Solar Houses93

TRADITIONAL vs CONTEMPORARY BUILDINGS97

Contemporary Buildings  102

Comparison Analysis: Traditional vs Contemporary109

EXPERIMENTAL SOLAR HOUSE113

Design Considerations  114

Construction of the Experimental Solar House132

Monitoring of the Experimental Solar House140

Summer Daytime and Night Time Ventilation 150

Comparison of the Monitored Data and Ecotect Predictions161

Comparison of the Monitored Results with the Comfort Charts163

User Response for the Experimental Solar House165

Experimental Solar House - 15 years after166

House in Lakatamia 190

House in Agios Andreas  202

STUDENT DESIGN PROJECTS211

Space & Light Course212

Sustainable Design Course222

Building Blocks for Social Sustainability Workshops232

Bioclimatic Architecture Course238

Energy Efficient Buildings Course244

Sustainable Design Unit Studios248

Bioclimatic Strategies: Images261

Preface and Acknowledgements

Climatic Conditions in Cyprus11

Comfort Zones in Cyprus18

Learning through History19

Demographic and Housing Data22

Renewable Energy Sources24

Energy Performance Building Directive31

Key principles of Sustainable Design36

Heat Exchange Between the Body and the Environment 39

Thermal Comfort Zone42

Effect of Environmental Factors on Thermal Comfort46

Effect of Subjective Factors on Thermal Comfort48

Psychometric Chart for Nicosia49

Bioclimatic Chart for Nicosia50

Humphreys’ Comfort Chart52

Predicting Thermal Comfort53

PASSIVE SOLAR SYSTEMS59

Definitions and Elements of Passive Solar Design59

Applicability of Passive Solar Heating Systems in Cyprus 61

Building Shape and Orientation79

Internal Shading Devices81

External Shading Devices 81

Natural Ventilation 86

Occupant Behaviour in Passive Solar Houses93

TRADITIONAL vs CONTEMPORARY BUILDINGS97

Contemporary Buildings 102

Comparison Analysis: Traditional vs Contemporary109

EXPERIMENTAL SOLAR HOUSE113

Design Considerations 114

Construction of the Experimental Solar House132

Monitoring of the Experimental Solar House140

Summer Daytime and Night Time Ventilation 150

Comparison of the Monitored Data and Ecotect Predictions161

Comparison of the Monitored Results with the Comfort Charts163

User Response for the Experimental Solar House165

Experimental Solar House - 15 years after166

House in Lakatamia 190

House in Agios Andreas 202

STUDENT DESIGN PROJECTS211

Space & Light Course212

Sustainable Design Course222

Building Blocks for Social Sustainability Workshops232

Bioclimatic Architecture Course238

Energy Efficient Buildings Course244

Sustainable Design Unit Studios248

Bioclimatic Strategies: Images261