Trigonometric  

Functions 4.2 

Introduction
Our discussion so far has been limited to right-angled triangles where, apart from the right-angle
itself, all angles are necessarily less than 90◦ . We now extend the definitions of the trigonometric
functions to any size angle, an extension which greatly broadens the range of applications of
trigonometry.

 

Prerequisites ① have a basic knowledge of the geometry of

triangles
Before starting this Section you should . . .
 

✓ define trigonometric functions generally

Learning Outcomes
✓ express angles in degrees or radians
After completing this Section you should be
able to . . . ✓ be familiar with the graphs of the three
main trigonometric functions
1. Trigonometric functions for any size angle

The radian
First we consider an alternative to measuring angles in degrees. Look at the circle shown in
Figure 7(a). It has radius r and we have shown an arc AB of length
(measured in the same
units as r). As you can see the arc subtends an angle θ at the centre O of the circle.

A

r
B 180◦
θ
A B
O O

(a) (b)

Figure 7
The angle θ in radians is defined as
length of arc AB

θ= =
radius r
20
So, for example, if r = 10 cm,
= 20 cm, the angle θ would be = 2 radians.
10
The relation between the value of an angle in radians and its value in degrees is readily obtained
as follows.
Referring to Figure 7(b) imagine that the arc AB extends to cover half the complete perimeter
of the circle. The arc length is now πr (half the circumference of the circle) so the angle θ
subtended by AB is now
πr
θ= = π radians
r
But clearly this angle is 180◦ . Thus π radians is the same as 180◦ .

Key Point

180◦ = π radians
By proportion 360◦ = 2π radians
π
1◦ = radians
180
πx
x◦ = radians
180

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4.2: Trigonometric Functions
 Write down the values in radians of 30◦ , 45◦ , 60◦ , 120◦ , 135◦ , 150◦ (Leave
your answers as multiples of π).

Your solution

180 6
= radians 150◦ = π ×
150 5π
4
radians 135◦ =
3π
3
radians 120◦ =
2π
2
radians 90◦ =
π
180 3
= radians 60◦ = π ×
60 π
180 4
= radians 45◦ = π ×
45 π
180 6
= radians 30◦ = π ×
30 π

180
Note conversely that since π radians = 180◦ then 1 radian = degrees (about 57.3◦ ) and y
π
180y
radians = degrees.
π

Write in degrees the following angles given in radians

π π 7π 6π 23π
, , , ,
10 5 10 5 12

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4.2: Trigonometric Functions
 Your solution

π 12 12
× = 345◦ radian equals
180 23π 23π
5
radian equals 216◦
6π
10
radian equals 126◦
7π
π 5 5
× = 36◦ radian equals
180 π π
π 10 10
× = 18◦ radian equals
180 π π

Put your calculator into radian mode (using the DRG button) to do this
exercise: Verify the results
1 1 √
sin 30◦ = cos 45◦ = √ tan 60◦ = 3
2 2
by using your calculator in radian mode. (Use the π button to obtain the value
for π.)

Your solution

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4.2: Trigonometric Functions
 3
= 1.7320 = 3 tan 60◦ = tan
π

 √
4 2
= cos = 0.7071 = √ cos 45◦

π  1
6 2
= 0.5 = sin 30◦ = sin

π  1

2. General definitions of trigonometric functions

We now define the trigonometric functions in a more general way than in terms of ratios of sides
of a right-angled triangle. To do this we consider a circle of unit radius whose centre is at the
origin of a Cartesian coordinate system and an arrow (or radius vector) OP from the centre
to a point P on the circumference of this circle. We are interested in the angle θ that the arrow
makes with the positive x-axis. See Figure 8.

P
r

Figure 8
Imagine that the vector OP rotates in anti-clockwise direction. With this sense of rotation
the angle θ is taken as positive whereas a clockwise rotation is taken as negative. See examples
in Figure 9.

θ
O O O θ

P
P

π 7π π
θ = 90◦ = rads θ = 315◦ = rads θ = −45◦ = − rads
2 4 4

Figure 9

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4.2: Trigonometric Functions
The sine and cosine of an angle
π
For 0 ≤ θ ≤ (called the first quadrant) we have the following situation with our unit radius
2
circle. See Figure 10.

R P

O Q x

Figure 10
The projection of OP along the positive x−axis is OQ. But, in the right-angled triangle OP Q
OQ
cos θ =
OP
or OQ = OP cos θ = cos θ (3)
(since OP has unit length).
Similarly in this right-angled triangle
PQ
sin θ =
OP
or P Q = OP sin θ = sin θ
But P Q = OR
so sin θ = OR (4)
Equation (3) tells us that we can interpret cos θ as the projection of OP along the positive
x -axis and sin θ as the projection of OP along the positive y -axis.
We shall use these interpretations as the definition of sin θ and cos θ for any values of the angle
θ.

Key Point
For a radius vector OP of a circle of unit radius making an angle θ with the positive x−axis
as illustrated, for the first quadrant, in Figure 10 earlier:
cos θ = projection OQ of OP along the positive x−axis
sin θ = projection OR of OP along the positive y−axis

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4.2: Trigonometric Functions
Sine and cosine in the four quadrants

First quadrant (0 ≤ θ ≤ 90◦ ).

See Figure 11.

y y y
P
R P

P θ
O x O Q x O x

θ = 0◦ 0 < θ < 90◦ θ = 90◦

OQ = OP = 1 cos θ = OQ OQ = 0
∴ cos 0◦ = 1 ∴ 0 < cos θ < 1 ∴ cos 90◦ = 0
OR = 0 sin θ = OR OR = OP = 1
∴ sin 0◦ = 0 ∴ 0 < sin θ < 1 ∴ sin 90◦ = 1

Figure 11

It follows from Figure 11 that cos θ decreases from 1 to 0 as OP rotates from the horizontal
position to the vertical, i.e. as θ increases from 0◦ to 90◦ .

sin θ = OR increases from 0 (when θ = 0) to 1 (when θ = 90◦ ).

Second quadrant (90◦ ≤ θ ≤ 180◦ ).

Referring to Figure 12, remember that it is the projections along the positive x and y axes
that are used to define cos θ and sin θ respectively.
It follows that as θ increases from 90◦ to 180◦ , cos θ decreases from 0 to −1 and sin θ decreases
from 1 to 0.

y y y
P
P
R
θ
P
O x Q O x O x

θ = 90◦ 90◦ < θ < 180◦ θ = 180◦

cos 90◦ = 0 cos θ = OQ (negative) cos θ = OQ = OP = −1
sin 90◦ = 1 sin θ = OR (positive) sin θ = OR = 0

Figure 12

Considering for example an angle of 135◦ , referring to Figure 13 (where we have not drawn the
unit circle), by symmetry we have:

sin 135◦ = OR = sin 45◦ = √1

2
cos 135◦ = OQ2 = −OQ1 = − cos 45◦ = − √12

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4.2: Trigonometric Functions
 y

P2 R P1

45◦
Q2 O Q1 x

Figure 13

Key Point
In general
sin(180 − x) = sin x and cos(180 − x) = − cos x

Without using a calculator write down the values of

sin 120◦ , sin 150◦ , cos 120◦ , cos 150◦ , tan 120◦ , tan 150◦ .
sin θ
(Assume that tan θ = for any value of θ)
cos θ

Your solution

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4.2: Trigonometric Functions
 4.2: Trigonometric Functions
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cos 270◦ = 0 (OP has zero projection along postive x−axis)
sin 270◦ = −1 (OP is directed along the negative axis)
Thus in the third quadrant, as θ increases from 180◦ to 270◦ so cos θ increases from −1 to 0
whereas sin θ decreases from 0 to −1.
Your solution
Using the projection definition write down the values of cos 270◦ and sin 270◦ .
Figure 14
sin θ =? sin θ = OR (negative)
cos θ =? cos θ = OQ (negative) sin 180◦ = 0
θ = 270◦ 180 < θ < 270
◦ ◦
cos 180 = −1
◦
P
P
R
O O O
Q P
270◦ θ
Third quadrant (180◦ ≤ θ ≤ 270◦ ).
sin 120◦ = sin(180 − 60) sin 150◦ = sin(180 − 30)
√
3 1
= sin 60◦ = = sin 30◦ =
2 2
√
1 3
cos 120◦ = − cos 60 = − cos 150◦ = − cos 30◦ = −
2 2
√
3 √ 1
2 2 1
tan 120◦ = =− 3 tan 150◦ = √ = −√
− 21 3 3
− 2
It follows, see Figure 15, with θ = 180◦ + x

R
Q x
x O Q
R
P

Figure 15

sin θ = sin(180 + x) = OR = −OR = − sin x

cos θ = cos(180 + x) = OQ = −OQ = − cos x.

Key Point
sin(180 + x) = − sin x
cos(180 + x) = − cos x
sin(180◦ + x) sin x
Hence tan(180 + x) = ◦
= = + tan x
cos(180 + x) cos x

Fourth quadrant (270◦ ≤ θ ≤ 360◦ )..

Q
O
R
P
P
θ = 270◦ 270◦ < θ < 360◦ 360◦
cos θ = 0 (alternatively −90◦ < θ < 0) (results as for 0◦ )
sin θ = −1 cosθ = OQ < 0
sin θ = OR < 0

Figure 16
From Figure 16 the following results should be clear:

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4.2: Trigonometric Functions
 cos(−θ) = cos θ (both equal to OQ)

sin(−θ) = − sin θ

sin θ
Hence tan(−θ) = − = − tan θ.
cos θ

Write down (no calculator) the values of

sin 300◦ sin(−60◦ ) cos 330◦ cos(−30◦ )

Describe the behaviour of cos θ and sin θ as θ increases from 270◦ to 360◦ .

Your solution

cos θ increases from 0 to 1, sin θ increases from −1 to 0 as θ increases from 270◦ to 360◦ .
2 2
sin(−60◦ ) = − sin 60◦ = − cos(−30◦ ) = cos 30◦ =
3 3
√ √
2 2
sin 300◦ = − sin 60◦ = − cos 330◦ = cos 30◦ =
3 3
√ √

If the vector OP continues to rotate around the circle of unit radius then in the next complete
rotation θ increases from 360◦ to 720◦ . However, a θ value of, say, 405◦ is indistinguishable from
one of 45◦ (just one extra complete revolution is involved).
So

1
sin(405◦ ) = sin 45◦ = √
2
1
cos(405◦ ) = cos 45◦ = √
2

In general

sin(360◦ + x◦ ) = sin x◦
cos(360◦ + x◦ ) = cos x◦

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4.2: Trigonometric Functions
 Key Point
If n is any positive integer

sin(360n◦ + x◦ ) = sin x◦ cos(360n◦ + x◦ ) = cos x◦

or, since 360◦ = 2π radians,

sin(x + 2nπ) = sin x cos(x + 2nπ) = cos x

We say that the functions sin x and cos x are periodic with period (in radian measure) of 2π.

Graphs of sinθθ , cos

sin cosθθ , tan
tanθθ
Since we have defined both sin θ and cos θ in terms of the projections of the radius vector OP
of a circle of unit radius it follows immediately that

−1 ≤ sin θ ≤ +1 and − 1 ≤ cos θ ≤ +1

for any value of θ

We have discussed above the behaviour of sin θ and cos θ in each of the four quadrants.
The behaviour is summarised in the following diagram

0 ≤ sin θ ≤ 1 0 ≤ sin θ ≤ 1

−1 ≤ cos θ ≤ 0 0 ≤ cos ≤ 1

−1 ≤ sin θ ≤ 0 ?

−1 ≤ cos θ ≤ 0 ?

Complete the above diagram by writing suitable inequalities for the fourth
quadrant.

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4.2: Trigonometric Functions
 Your solution

0 ≤ cos θ ≤ 1. −1 ≤ sin θ ≤ 0 For 270◦ ≤ θ ≤ 360◦

Using all the above results we can draw the graphs of these two trigonometric functions. See
Figure 17. We have labelled the horizontal axis using radians and have shown 2 periods in
each case

sin µ
1

−2π −π 0 π 2π µ

−1
cos µ
1

π
2
−2π −π 0 π 2π µ

−1

Figure 17
You should be able to see on these graphs the behaviour that we have already discussed for both
sin θ and cos θ in each of the four quadrants in 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π.
Note that we have extended the graphs to negative values of θ using the relations sin(−θ) =
sin θ, cos(−θ) = cos θ.
Both graphs could be extended indefinitely to the left (θ → −∞) and to the right (θ → +∞).

The Graph of tan θ

Recall that
sin θ
tan θ =
cos θ

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4.2: Trigonometric Functions
 4.2: Trigonometric Functions
14 HELM (VERSION 1: March 18, 2004): Workbook Level 1
The graph of tan θ against θ, for −2π ≤ θ ≤ 2π is then as follows:
sin 0 0 sin π 0
tan 0 = = =0 tan π = = =0
cos 0 1 cos π −1
sin 2π 0
tan 2π = = =0
cos 2π 1
π 3π
tan θ will not be defined when cos θ = 0 i.e. when θ = ± , ±
2 2
1st quadrant:
sin θ positive
tan θ = = = positive
cos θ positive
2nd quadrant
sin θ positive
tan θ = = = negative
cos θ negative
3rd quadrant
sin θ negative
tan θ = = = positive
cos θ negative
4th quadrant
sin θ negative
tan θ = = = negative
cos θ positive
Your solution
or negative in each of the 4 quadrants.
tan 2π. For what values of θ is tan θ undefined? State whether tan θ is positive
Using the above graphs of cos θ and sin θ write down the values of tan 0, tan π,
 tan µ

− 3π − π π 3π
2 2 2 2
−2π −π 0 2π µ

Figure 18
Note that whereas sin θ and cos θ have period 2π, tan θ has period π.

On the following diagram showing the four quadrants mark which trigonomet-
ric quantities cos(θ), sin(θ), tan(θ), or all are positive in the four quadrants.
One quadrant has been done already.

cos

Your solution

cos tan

all sin

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4.2: Trigonometric Functions
 Exercises
1. Express the following angles in radians (as multiples of π)
(a) 120◦ (b) 20◦ (c) 135◦ (d) 300◦ (e) −90◦ (f) 720◦

2. Express in degrees the following quantities which are in radians

π 3π 5π 11π π 1
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) − (f)
2 2 6 9 8 π
3. Obtain the precise values of all 6 trigonometric functions of the angle θ for the situation
shown in the figure:

P (−3, 1)
θ

4. Obtain all the values of x between 0 and 2π such that

√
1 1 3 1
(a) sin x = √ (b) cos x = (c) sin x = − (d) cos x = − √ (e) tan x = 2
2 2 2 2
1 1
(f) tan x = − (g) cos(2x + 60◦ ) = 2 (h) cos(2x + 60◦ ) =
2 2
5. Obtain all the values of θ in the given domain satisfying the following quadratic equations

(a) 2 sin2 θ − sin θ = 0 0 ≤ θ ≤ 360◦

(b) 2 cos2 θ + 7 cos θ + 3 = 0 0 ≤ θ ≤ 360◦
(c) 4 sin2 θ − 1 = 0

6. (a) Show that the area A of a sector formed by a central angle θ radians in a circle of
radius r is given by
1
A = r2 θ.
2
(Hint: By proportionality the ratio of the area of the sector to the total area of the
circle equals the ratio of θ to the total angle at the centre of the circle.)
(b) What is the value of the shaded area shown in the figure if θ is measured (i) in
radians, (ii) in degrees?

r
θ
R
1 1
7. Sketch, over 0 < θ < 2π, the graph of (a) sin 2θ (b) sin θ (c) cos 2θ (d) cos θ.
2 2
Mark the horizontal axis in radians in each case. Write down the period of sin 2θ and the
1
period of cos θ.
2

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4.2: Trigonometric Functions
 4.2: Trigonometric Functions
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2π π 3π 5π π
1. (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) − (f) 4π
3 9 4 3 2
180◦
2. (a) 15◦ (b) 270◦ (c) 150◦ (d) 220◦ (e) −22.5◦ (f) 2
π
 √
3. The distance of the point 2 2
√ P from the origin is r = (−3) + 1 = 10. Then, since P
lies on a circle radius 10 rather than a circle of unit radius:
1 √
sin θ = √ cosec θ = 10
10
√
3 10
cos θ = − √ sec θ = −
10 3
1 1
tan θ = =− cot θ = −3
−3 3

  
π 3π
4. (a) x = 45◦ radians x = 135◦ (recall sin(180 − x) = sin x)
4 4

π   
5π
(b) x = 60◦ x = 300◦
3 3
   
4π 5π
(c) x = 240◦ x = 300◦
3 3
   
3π 5π
(d) x = 135◦ x = 225◦
4 4
(e) x = 63.43◦ x = 243.43◦ (remember tan x has period 180◦ or π radians)
(f) x = 153.43◦ x = 333.43◦
(g) No solution !
(h) x = 0◦ , 120◦ , 180◦ , 300◦ , 360◦
5. (a) 2 sin2 θ − sin θ = 0 so sin θ(2 sin θ − 1) = 0 so sin θ = 0
1
giving θ = 0◦ , 180◦ , 360◦ or sin θ = giving θ = 30◦ , 150◦
2
(b) 2 cos2 θ+7 cos θ+3 = 0. With x = cos θ we have 2x2 +7x+3 = 0 (2x+1)(x+3) = 0
1
(factorising) so 2x = −1 or x = − . The solution x = −3 is impossible since
2
x = cos θ.
1
The equation x = cos θ = − has solutions θ = 120◦ , 240◦
2
1 1
(c) 4 sin2 θ = 1 so sin2 θ = i.e. sin θ = ± giving θ = 30◦ , 150◦ , 210◦ , 330◦
4 2
 4.2: Trigonometric Functions
18 HELM (VERSION 1: March 18, 2004): Workbook Level 1
6.
(a) Using the hint,
θ A
= 2
2π πr
πr2 θ r2 θ
from where we obtain A = =
2π 2
(b) With θ in radians the shaded area is
R2 θ r 2 θ θ
S= − = (R2 − r2 )
2 2 2
180x◦ πx
If θ is in degrees, then since x radians = or x◦ = radians, we have
π 180
πθ◦ 2
S= (R − r2 )
360◦
7. (a) (c) The graphs of sin 2θ and cos 2θ are identical in form with those of sin θ and cos θ
1 1
respectively but oscillates twice as rapidly. The graphs of sin θ and cos θ oscillate half as
2 2
rapidly as those of sin θ and cos θ.
sin 2θ cos 2θ
1 1
π π 2π π 2π
2
−1 −1
1 1
sin θ cos θ
2 1 2
1
π 2π π 2π
−1
From the graph sin 2θ has period 2π and cos 21 θ has period 4π. In general sin nθ has period
2π/n.