0% found this document useful (0 votes)
46 views23 pages

Set Theory Concepts: A (A, B, C) A A D A

This document defines key concepts in set theory, including: - Sets are collections of elements denoted by capital letters and elements are lower case letters. - Sets can be finite or infinite and described through enumeration or generation. - Subsets contain all elements of another set. The power set contains all subsets. - Common operations on sets include union, intersection, and complement. - Relations are defined over sets using propositional functions and equivalence relations satisfy reflexivity, symmetry, and transitivity. - Equivalence classes partition sets based on an equivalence relation with elements related if they are in the same class.
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
0% found this document useful (0 votes)
46 views23 pages

Set Theory Concepts: A (A, B, C) A A D A

This document defines key concepts in set theory, including: - Sets are collections of elements denoted by capital letters and elements are lower case letters. - Sets can be finite or infinite and described through enumeration or generation. - Subsets contain all elements of another set. The power set contains all subsets. - Common operations on sets include union, intersection, and complement. - Relations are defined over sets using propositional functions and equivalence relations satisfy reflexivity, symmetry, and transitivity. - Equivalence classes partition sets based on an equivalence relation with elements related if they are in the same class.
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
You are on page 1/ 23

Set Theory Concepts

Set – A collection of “elements” (objects, members)


• denoted by upper case letters A, B, etc.
• elements are lower case
• brackets are used to encompass members of a set

A = {a, b, c} aA dA

• sets may be finite or infinite


•  is the empty set,  = {}
•  is a finite set
• U is the universal set, it contains all possible elements
• U may be finite or infinite
Describing Sets
• Two Ways:
1) Enumeration – list all elements
2) Generation – general expression and condition

Example: The set of all integers between 5 and 13

{5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13}

{x | 5  x  13 and is integral}

{y | 4 < y < 14 and is integral}


Subsets
• When all elements in A are also elements of B:
A is a “subset” of B
AB
B “contains” or “covers” A
 Otherwise, A  B
 Any set is a subset of U
  is a subset of any set
• If A  B and B  A, then
A=B
• If A  B and A  B then
A is a “proper subset” of B
AB
• The set of subsets of A is the “power set” of A, P(A)
  P(A) and A  P(A)
NOTE: A  A and A  A and   A and A  U
Some Common Operations
• The “Union” of A and B is A  B
A  B contains elements that are in
set A or in set B or in both sets A and B
A  B ={x | x  A or x  B}

• The “Intersection” of A and B is A  B


A  B contains the common elements that are in
both sets A and B
A  B ={x | x  A and x  B}

• The “Complement” of set A is AC or A


AC contains all elements in U that are not in A
A = AC = U - A
AC={x | x  A and x U}
Properties of Sets
Idempotence Laws: A  A =A, A  A = A
Commutative Laws: A  B = B  A, A  B = B  A
Associative Laws: A  (B  C) = (A  B)  C,
A  (B  C) = (A  B)  C
Absorption Laws: A  (A  B) = A, A  (A  B)= A
Distributive Laws: A  (B  C) = (A  B)  (A  C) ,
A  (B  C) = (A  B)  (A  C)
Involution Law: A=A
Complement Laws: U = , =U
A  A = U, AA=
Identity Laws: A   = A, AU=A
A  U = U, A=

DeMorgan’s Laws: (A  B) = A  B,
(A  B) = A  B
Venn’s Diagram

A B

C
U
Difference Operation

A B

A = {1,3,5,6,7,8} B = {1,2,3,4,5}

A – B = {6,7,8}
B – A = {2,4}
A  B = {1,3,5}
Cartesian Product
• 2 elements in a fixed order is a “pair” or “ordered pair”
(a,b)
• n elements in a fixed order is an “n-tuple”
(a1, a2, …. , an)
(a1, a2, …. , an) = (b1, b2, …. , bn) iff ai=bi  i where 1  i  n
• The “cartesian product” or “direct product” of 2 sets A and B
the set of all ordered pairs of A and B
AB
EXAMPLE:
A={0, 1} B ={0, 1, 2}
A  B = {(0,0),(0,1),(1,0),(0,2),(1,1),(1,2)}

• “Cardinality” or “size” of set A is | A |=nA


| A  B | = nA  nB = 2  3 = 6
Propositional Functions
• A Propositional Function, F(x,y), is Defined on A  B
• Ordered Pair (a,b) Substituted for (x,y) (a,b)  A  B
• F(x,y) Can be a Proposition
(F(x,y) is either true or false, but not both)
EXAMPLE:
x is less than y
x weighs y pounds
x divides y
x is the spouse of y
• A Relation, R, is Defined Over:
1) a set A
2) a set B
3) a proposition F(x,y)
R = (A, B, F(x,y))
if F(a,b) is true then aRb
if F(a,b) is false then aRb
Set Relations
• If R  A  B , then R is a “binary relation”

EXAMPLE: RAB ai  A bi  B
if (ai,bi) R then ai R bi and “relation R holds”
if (ai,bi) R then ai R bi “relation R does not hold”

• Inverse Relation, R -1, is all pairs in R with reverse order


R -1 = {(bj,ai)|(ai,bj) R }

• R =(A, A, F(x,y)) is an “equivalence relation” on set A if:


1) aRa (reflectivity)
2) If aRb then bRa (symmetry)
3) If aRb and bRc then aRc (transitivity)
a, b, c  A
Equivalence Relation
• Consider R = (Z, Z, F(x,y)) where Z is the set of all positive
integers and F(x,y) is the Proposition that x = y

R  Z  Z = {(1,1), (2,2), (3,3) ….}

• For any zi Z it is true that zi R zi


Reflectivity is Satisfied

• For any zi, zj  Z, if F(zi,zj) is true then F(zj,zi) is true


Symmetry is Satisfied

• For any zi, zj,zk  Z, if F(zi,zj) and F(zj,zk) then F(zj,zk)


Transitivity is Satisfied

R is an Equivalence Relation over Z


Set Partitions
• A Partition of A denoted by [a] satisfies:
[a]  A
• Consider a Set of Subsets of A
{A1, A2, …, An}
• The Ai are Partitions of A if:
1) A = A1  A2  …  An
2) Either Ai = Aj or Ai  Aj = (disjoint subsets)

EXAMPLE
• Consider A={1,2,3,…,9,10}, B1={1,3}, B2={7,8,10},
B3={2,5,6} and B4={4,9}
1) A = B1  B2  B3  B4
2) Bi  Bj =   i  j

{B1, B2, B3, B4} are Partitions of A


Equivalence Class
• R is a “binary relation” over set A
• Partition A into “blocks” such that
[a]={x | a R x, x  A}
• Set [a] is an “equivalence class” of A over R
• An arbitrary element of A is a member of exactly one
equivalence class
• Set of all equivalence classes over R on A is the “quotient
set” of A wrt R
A/R

• The number of equivalence classes “rank” of R


Equivalence Class Example

• R = (A, A, F(x,y))

• F(x, y) is Proposition that K=x (mod 3), K is a Constant

NOTE: F(x, y)= F(x) in this case, a unary proposition

• A ={0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10}

• [a1]={0,3,6,9}, [a2]={1,4,7,10}, [a3]={2,5,8}

• Each Partition is an Equivalence Class

• A / R ={{0,3,6,9},{1,4,7,10},{2,5,8}}

• Rank of R is 3
Logic Notation
• “proposition” is a sentence with a clear meaning allowing
its’ evaluation of true or false
• Fire is cold - FALSE
• Let P and Q be propositions
P  Q means that if P holds then Q holds
P  Q means that P is true iff Q is true, or,
P is a “necessary” and “sufficient” condition for Q
• If P  Q :
P is a “sufficient condition” of Q
Q is a “necessary condition” of P
• P  Q does not necessarily mean that Q  P
• Q  P is the “converse” of P  Q
• If P  Q then Q  P
Q  P is the “contraposition” of P  Q
Refinement
• R1 and R2 are Equivalence Relations over A
• if xR1y  xR2y for x, y A then
R1 is a “refinement” of R2
R1  R2

EXAMPLE:
A={011, 100, 110, 111}
R0=(A,A, F0) R1=(A, A,F1)
R0 and R1 are Equivalence Relations
F0 proposition that all corresponding bits are same
F1 is proposition that right two bits are same
R0={(011,011),(100,100),(110,110),(111,111)}
R1={(011,011),(011,111),(100,100),(110,110),(111,011),(111,111)}

R0 is a refinement of R1 R0  R1
Definition of a Function
• A and B are sets, f is a function that maps ai A to bj  B
f: A  B
f(ai)=bj
ai f bj
• A is the “domain” of f
• bj is the “value” of function f
• bj = f(ai)B is an “image” of ai  A
• A Relation Rf may be Defined from f
f : A  B, f(ai)= bj iff (ai, bj)  Rf
• f -1 is the “inverse relation” of function f: A  B
• f -1 is NOT, in general, a function
• f -1(bj) IS an “inverse image” of bj

f -1(bj)  A
Operation
• “unary” operation is a function, f : A A

• “binary” operation is a function, f : A  A  A


(e.g. ai * aj = ak, (ai,aj)  ak)

EXAMPLE
B = {0,1} a,b  B

a=1-a (unary-complement)
ab=a•b (binary-conjunction)
a  b = a + b - (a • b) (binary-disjunction)
a  b = a + b - (2 • a • b) (binary-exclusive OR)
Ordered Relations
• R is a Binary Relation on A
• For a,b,c  A if the following hold:
1) aRa (Reflexive Law)
2) If aRb and bRa then a=b (Anti-Symmetric Law)
3) If aRb and bRc then aRc (Transitive Law)
• R is said to be a “Partially Ordered Relation”
• Also, if  a,b  A , aRb or bRa then
R is said to be a “Total Order Relation”
• Such ordered relations are denoted as
a R b rather than aRb
Ordered Sets
• R is a binary Relation on A
• For a,b,c A if the following hold:
1) aRa (Reflexive Law)
2) If aRb and bRa then a=b (Anti-Symmetric Law)
3) If aRb and bRc then aRc (Transitive Law)
• R is said to be a “Partially Ordered Relation”
• Also, if  a,b  A , aRb or bRa then
• R is said to be a “Total Order Relation”
• Such ordered relations are denoted as
a R b rather than aRb
• An ordered set consists of an order relation and the set over
which it is defined
 A, R 
Hasse Diagrams
• R is a binary Relation on A
• For a,b,c  A such that a R b and a  b
if there is no element c such that a R c, c R b
where a  b  c then b “covers” a

• Hasse Diagrams are useful for visualizing cover


characteristics
• Covering elements appear ABOVE Covered elements
and are connected by a line
• “Maximal Elements” are those which are NOT
Covered
• “Minimal Elements” are those which do NOT cover
any other Elements
Hasse Diagram Examples

1 (1,1)
a b

(0,1) (1,0)
c
0
(0,0)
d
(1,1) is the maximal element
1 is the maximal element
(0,0) is the minimal element
0 is the minimal element
e f
a and b are the maximal elements
c is the greatest lower bound of {a, b}
e and f are the minimal elements
d is the least upper bound of {e, f}
Least Upper Bound,
Greatest Lower Bound
Let  A, R  be an ordered set and let B  A

• a  A is Upper Bound of B if b R a,  b  B
• a  A is Lower Bound of B if a R b,  b  B

• If there is a minimum element in the set of the upper


bounds of B, then it is the Least Upper Bound of B
(denoted by a  b )

• If there is a maximum element in the set of the lower


bounds of B, then it is the Greatest Upper Bound of B
(denoted by a • b )

You might also like