THE NATURE OF THE AKHBARI/USULIDISPUTE IN

LATE SAFAWID IRAN. PART 1: 'ABDALLAH

AL-SAMAHIJI'S'MUNYAT AL-MUMARISIN'1
By ANDREWJ. NEWMAN
Wellcome Unitfor the History of Medicine, Oxford

The Akhbari/Usuli controversy within Twelver Shi'ism has been portrayed

in Western-language scholarship primarily as a scholastic dispute over jurispru-
dential methodology which came to fruition only in eleventh/seventeenth-
century Safawid Iran. Usilism is generally characterized as having stressed
recourse to rationalist, subjective forms of analysis-particularly the principle
of ijtihad (independent judicial reasoning)-on legal questions where the
revealed sources were deemed wanting. Akhbarism has been portrayed mainly
in negative terms, as having forbad recourse to speculative reasoning in favour
of reliance solely on the Twelver-accepted revelation- the Qur'an and the
sunna, the latter especially including the akhbdr (sg. khabar), the Arabic-
language body of statements of and narratives about the twelve Shi'i Imams, the
last of whom disappeared in 260 A.H./A.D.873-874.
The tendency to view the debate as entirely scholastic and as arising only in
the second Safawid century most likely results from the identification of
Akhbarism with the personality of Muhammad Amin al-Astarabadi (d. 1030/
1640) and the characterization of his al-Fawa'id al-Madaniyya as the earliest
coherent statement of the Akhbari critique, if not also its embodiment and
epitome, and from reference to the 'Munyat al-Mumdrisn ', written by the late-
Safawid Akhbari scholar 'Abdallah b. al-Salih al-SamahijT(d. 1135/1723), on
the points of disagreement between Usulis and Akhbaris, as an effective
summary of the conflict between the two.
The present two-part essay is intended to initiate a re-examination of the
conventional understanding of the Akhbari/Usuli dispute based on a re-
examination of al-Samahiji's essay and contemporaneous clerical biographies.
Because scholars have in fact relied on a later abridgement of al-Samahiji's
treatise, the first part of the present essay comprises an introduction to and tfe
presentation of an edited, annotated version of the Arabic text and English
translation of the relevant section of al-Samahiji's essay. Part 2 of this paper-
to appear in the next issue of BSOAS-will first suggest that the notion of the
primacy of al-Astarabadi's role in Safawid Akhbarism was not shared by
contemporaneous Twelver clerical biographers. Comparative examination of
al-Samahiji's original treatise and the later abridgement then shows that the
latter omitted much detail and a number of the points made in the original.
Some of the excised material further undermines the presumed centrality of al-
Astarabadi's position in delineating and defining the Akhbari challenge, reveals
clear evidence of splits within each of the two fractions, and demonstrates the
intrinsically practical implications of the Akhbari/Usuli confrontation.

Al-Samdhiji's ' Munyat al-Mumdrisn '

Examination of the Akhbari/Usuli dispute as originally represented by
'Abdallah al-Samahiji seems a useful early step in the process of re-evaluating
the nature of the conflict between the two fractions in the late-Safawid period.
The author would like to thank Drs. Norman Calder and Etan Kohlberg for their comments
and criticisms on drafts of the entire text of this paper. See also the acknowledgements in n. 5 of the
present section. The errors herein are the responsibility of the author alone.
 THE AKHBARI/USULI DISPUTE IN LATE SAFAWID IRAN 23

Al-Samahiji was born in al-Bahrayn-the area of the eastern Arabian

mainland including al-Qa.tf and al-Ahsa. His father al-Salih was a strict Usuli
cleric, known for his anti-Akhbari proclivities. Yusuf al-Bahrani (d. 1186/1772)
characterized al-Salih's son 'Abdallah, however, as a' pure (sarf) Akhbari' and
a 'great reviler of the mujtahids'2 According to al-Ba.hran, al-Samahiji served
briefly as Shaykh al-Islam in Isfahan during the Afghan attacks on Iran, in the
last years of the reign of Shah Sultan Husayn (1105-1135/1694-1722). He fled
the Safawid capital at its fall, and settled in Bihbihan where he died in 1135/
1722, when that city fell to the invaders.
Al-Samahiji wrote a number of treatises, at least one important akhbar
work, and, in 1125/1712-1713-several years after fall of Isfahan and nearly a
century after the death of Amin al-Astarabadi-the Arabic-language 'Munyat
al-MumdrisTn',in reply to some ninety questions addressed to him by Shaykh
Yasin b. Salah al-Din. In the seventh section of this essay, al-Samahiji listed
forty outstanding points of dispute between the Akhbaris and the Usuls.3
Al-Samahiji's list of these issues was abridged as twenty-nine points by the
fourteenth/nineteenth-century biographer Muhammad Baqir al-Khwansari al-
Isbahani (d. 1313/1895) in his Arabic-language Rau.dat al-Janndt. It is this
abridgement by al-Khwansari which has so frequently been cited by Western-
language scholars in their discussions of the nature of the Akhbari/UsulT
dispute.4
An edited, annotated version of al-Samahiji's full and complete reply to
Shaykh Yasin on the differences between the two groups is presented below,
first in the original Arabic and then in English translation. The edition and
translation of the essay is based on two copies of the text, Tehran, Majles
Library, MS 1916/27-a shortened version of the full forty points-and Qum,
Mar'ashi Library, MS 1018-a full and complete version of the entire Munya.
The Qum copy was made in 1126/1713, one year after the original's composi-
tion, was later in the possession of al-Samahiji himself, and bears his correc-
tions.5
2
Al-SamahijVsAkhbarism no doubt derived, at least in part, from his study with Sulayman b.
'Abdallah al-Bah.rani al-Miahuzl(d. 1121/1709), the head of the Twelver community in al-Bahrayn,
whom al-Bahrani described as having Akhbari tendencies. See Yiisuf al-Bahrani, Lu'lu at al-
Bahrayn (Najaf, 1969), 98, 7-12 esp. 10; Agha Buzurg Muhammad Muhsin al-Tehrani, al-Dharf'a
ild Tasdnff al-Shi'a (Tehran and Najaf, 1353-98), 15: 265-6; Muhammad Bdqir al-Khwdnsari
al-Isbahadn, Rau.dit al-Janndt, M. T. al-Kashfi and A. Isma'lliydn (ed.) (Tehran-Qum, 1390-92),
4: 16-21; Muhsin al-Amin, A 'ydnal-Shf'a (Beirut, 1960 f.), 35: 105-112; 'All b. al-Hasan al-Bahradni,
Anwdral-Badrayn(Najaf, 1377/1957-58), 150-58. See also al-Samdhij's references to his teacher in
the essay reproduced below, especially numbers 5, 11 and 39. On the depth of the commitment of
both al-Samahiji and his teacher al-Mdhu.izlto Akhbarism, see further the discussion in part two of
the present essay, especially nn. 4, 34, and 35. On al-Bahrdnl, see also section two of the present
essay, especially nn. 4-7.
3 Al-Bahrdnl, Lu'lu'at, 98-100; al-Khwdnsari,
op. cit., 4: 247-9; 'All al-Bahrainl,op. cit., 175;
Muhammad 'All b. Muhammad Tdhir Mudarris, Rayhdnat al-Adab (Tehran, 1328-33), 2: 223-4;
al-Tehrani, ibid, 23: 210-11, 20: 372. For al-Samdhijfs essays see also H. M. Tabdtaba'i,
An introductionto ShN'ilaw: a bibliographicalstudy (London: Ithaca Press, 1984), 97, 108-9, 149.
Shaykh Yasln was a student of al-Samahiji and a religious official in al-Bahrayn. He fled to Shiraz
after the destruction of al-Bahrayn. See Yuisuf al-Bahradn,ibid., p. 100, n. 38; 'All al-Bahrdn1,
op. cit., 221.
4 For the text of the
abridgment, see al-Khwdnsdar,1: 127-30. References to the abridgement in
the secondary sources include Gianroberto Scarcia, ' Intorno alle controversie tra 'Ahbari e 'Usuli
presso gli Imamiti di Persia', Revista degli Studi Orientali, 33, 1958, 225; Abdoljavad Falaturi, ' Die
Zwolfer-Schia aus der Sicht eines Schiiten: Probleme inhrer Untersuchung', Festschrift Werner
Caskel, E. Graf (ed.) (Leiden: Brill, 1969), p. 81, n. 3; Etan Kohlberg, ' Akbdarya', Encyclopedia
Iranica, I (Leiden: Brill, 1985), 718, Wilferd Madelung, ' Akhbdriyya', EI (2nd ed.), sup. (Leiden:
Brill 1980), 57; Tabatabdi, op. cit., p. 54, n. 2; Moojan Momen, An introductionto Shi'i Islam (New
Haven: Yale University Press, 1985), p. 222, n. 1. See also nn. 1-3 in part 2 of the present essay.
5 Descriptions of these two manuscript copies can be found in A. Ha'erl, et. al., Fehrest-e
Ketdbkhdna-ye Majles-e Shurd-ye MellI, 9(2) (Tehran, 1347), 587-8; A. Husaynl, Fehrest-e
Nuskhahd-ye Khatti-ye Ketdbkhdna-ye 'UmumF-yeHa,rat Aydtalldh al-Uzmd Najafi Mar'ashT,3
24 ANDREW J. NEWMAN

Because of al-Samahiji's direct association with the latter manuscript the

present editor/translator assumes that the Qum manuscript is the closer of the
two copies to the original text of 'Munyat al-Mumdrisn '. Footnotes to the
Arabic text note the differences between the Qum (referredto as qaf) and Majles
(designed as mfm) copies of the text. Perhaps the most important difference
between these two manuscripts occurs in those points numbered 20 to 22. The
Majles manuscript's number 20 corresponds to Qum's number 21, while
Majles's number 22 corresponds to Qum's 22. The Majles manuscript actually
omits a point numbered 21, corresponding to number 20 in the Qum manu-
script. Because the Qum copy is presumed closer to the original, in both the
Arabic text and English translation the present editor has followed the
numbering and text of the Qum manuscript.
Arabic manuscripts feature overlining rather than underlining.In the Arabic
text below thin overlining indicates additions made within the body of the Qum
text itself, most likely by the copyist. Text with a broken line over indicates text
in the body of the Qum copy crossed out, again probably by the copyist. Thick
overlining indicates additions made in the margins of the Qum manuscript,
presumably by al-Samahiji himself. A double broken line, used only in number
12, indicates text added above the line in mim, presumably by the copyist.
Paragraphs and punctuation markings have been added by the present editor/
translator to the Arabic original-and English translation-where changes in
style or substance suggest. In the English translation, in square brackets after
the number of the point in the original is the number of the point(s) in
al-Khwansari's abridgement to which it most closely corresponds.

Arabic text

vj~YL~e-gJL 9 LY ..; 0.p0 jlY " IU Jl

t i
r LiI la Ii lL, ;j i v;

is
attypeset
the OxfordUniversityComputingService.

(Qum, 1975), 214-15. The present writer would like to thankDr.

thank Dr. H. M. 'i, Professor W.
Tabataba'l.
Tabjtab
Madelung, and Drs. Norman Calder and Etan Kohlberg for their comments on the Arabic text and
English translation of this text, and John Cooper for his encouragement and assistance with the
typesetting of the Arabic text. 'Abd al-Hoseyn H.Ha'eri
'er and Drs. Tab.tab~'i
Tabataba'l and Yann Richard are to
be thanked for their assistance in facilitating access to these two manuscripts. The Arabic text itself
is typeset at the Oxford University Computing Service.
 THE AKHBARI/USULI DISPUTE IN LATE SAFAWID IRAN 25

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Translation
Section Seven
He [i.e. Shaykh Ydslin], may his eminence persevere, said 'What is the
difference between our mujtahidand the Akhbdr-?? '
I say: 'The difference between the two is clear upon [application of] fair
treatment and avoidance of partisanship and arbitrariness. It is based on
different viewpoints and principles which no one will dispute who abandons the
noose of prejudice and " who has a heart or who gives an ear and is attentive"
(Qur'dn 50:37).
1. [1] The mujtahidsI require [the practice of] ijtihadas an individual obligation
or optionally.
6Although 'Abd al-Jal-ilal-Qazw-in-ihad used the term ' Usiil-i' in his sixth/twelfth-century Kitdzb
al-Naq4, as noted by Kohlberg ('Ak~bdr!ya', 716-17), al-Samiihij-T's consistent use of mujtahid
suggests 'Usiili' may not have been uniformly used in the late-Safawid period. Indeed in his
question, as recorded by al-SamThiji,Shaykh Ydslinhimself used the terms mujtahidand Akhbdfri.
See also n. 2 in part 2 of the present essay.
 THE AKHBARI/USULI DISPUTE IN LATE SAFAWID IRAN 39

The Akhbaris declare this unlawful. They require recourse to the trans-
mission [as related] either [directly] from the Infallible or from someone who
transmits from Him, however many intermediaries [there may be]. They have
definitive evidence for this from the Qur'an and the sunna. There is not space for
[citing] that [evidence] in this brief exposition [and] we have collected it in a
treatise for whose completion, revision, and conclusion we beseech God.
2. [2] The mujtahidssay: In our opinion, there are four sources of evidence: the
Qur'an, the sunna,7consensus,8 and the evidence of reason.9
The Akhbaris accept [as evidence] only the Qur'an and the sunna. Indeed,
some limit themselves solely to the sunna. [The latter maintain] this is because
the Qur'an is not known to them since its exegesis is permitted only to Them, on
Them be peace. One cannot say consensus and the evidence of reason are
included in the Qur'an and the sunna.'0[This is] because we say if it were as you
maintain the division [i.e. of the proofs] into four would be meaningless. One
cannot say these two are supportive [but] not independent evidence. [This is]
because we maintain if it were as you said the [fourfold] division would not be
sound, since a part [of the division] would [no longer] remain as a part."'
3. [3] The mujtahidspermit recourse to legal judgements based on conjecture.
The Akhbaris forbid this. They accept only sure knowledge. For them this
knowledge is [of two categories:] definitive-that is what corresponds to the
reality-, [and] normal and transmitted-, that is what is confirmed to have
been transmitted on the authority of the Infallible. They [i.e. the Akhbaris]
believe this [transmitted knowledge] cannot be erroneous; this is on the basis of
normal, customary usage. The Lawgiver and the experts in language and
convention call this sure knowledge.'2 [The Akhbaris define] conjecture as what
results from ijtihadand deduction without [recourseto] transmissions. Recourse
to transmission is not called conjecture. On the prohibition against conjecture
[the Akhbaris] cite proofs from the Qur'an and the sunna. Among these [proofs]
are God's words: "Conjecture is sin" (Qur'an 49:12); "Conjecture cannot
replace the truth" (53:28); "Those who guess will perish" (51:10); "Do not
follow that of which you have no knowledge " (17:36); Do not " say things of
God of which you have no knowledge" (2:169, 7:33). [They also cite] the
statement of the Imams, on Them be peace, " Speak what you know, not what
you do not know." And [there are] other clear proofs and outstanding evidence.
Because of their generality and absolute nature, qualification of [these
statements] based on u.sul [al-fiqh] (the principles of legal methodology) is
arbitrariness.The [counter]criticism [advanced by the mujtahids],that acting on
7 For the Twelvers the sunna
includes, in addition to the Prophetic tradition, the akhbdrof the
twelve Imams.
8 On
consensus, see also numbers 5, 10, 35, 36 below.
9Al-adilla al-'aqlfyya (the rational proofs) include, for example: (1) asaldt al-bard'a (the
principle of presumed exoneration), that a natural condition of permission exists for actions in the
absence of a specific, revealed text to the contrary. This principle was also referred to as bard'at al-
asl and ibdhat al-asl. See numbers 32, 33, 37. (2) Asalat al-istishdb (the principle of continuance),
that a previously approved state of certainty is extended to a new situation, and its judgement is
extended to this situation. See 39. (3) Asdlat al-takhyfr (the principle of freedom to select one's own
choice) which applies in the presence of doubt. On these see also the notes by 'AIl Quli QarT'i,
translator and annotator of al-Muhaqqiq al-Karaki's TarTqIstinbatal-Ahkam, al-Tawhid 2, number
3 (1405), 42-55. On al-Karaki, see numbers 25 and'31, and also our 'The myth of the clerical
migration to Safawid Iran:Arab Shi'ite opposition to 'All al-Karaki and Safawid Shi'ism ', Die Welt
des Islams (forthcoming, 1993).
'0That is, the Usulls accept the authority of consensus and reason based on some Qur'anic
verses and some statements of the Prophet and the Imams. On this and nn. 13, 16, 18, and 29 below,
the assistance of Dr. H. M. Tabataba'l is particularly acknowledged.
" That is, because the actual "proofs' would only be the Qur'an and the sunna, and the other
two would no longer be ' proofs' by themselves.
12
On the mujtahidand error see also numbers 18, 23, 30.
40 ANDREW J. NEWMAN

the basis of the akhbdris nothing but conjecture, is rejected. This is not called
conjecture linguistically, nor in convention, nor legally. To admit the possibility
of contradiction [of the truth] in it [i.e. in the akhbdr]does not exclude it from
[being a kind of sure knowledge] because, on the basis of normal experience or
practice, legal knowledge cannot contain any contradiction. [This is] not [that
knowledge in which the possibility of its contradicting the truth is denied]
absolutely. This is because accepting [what has been transmitted] by the
transmitters is permitted [by the Imams] but conjecture is prohibited. [The
juxtaposition of these two, permission and prohibition, demonstrates that
acting on the basis of the traditions (which is permitted) is not an instance of
acting on the basis of conjecture (which is prohibited), because13]inconsistency
in Their statements is not permitted. In sum, they [i.e. the Akhbaris] have many
clear proofs on this for which there is not enough space herein.
4. [4] The mujtahids classify the traditions into four categories: sound, good,
reliable, and weak.'4
The Akhbaris, however, classify them into [two categories:] correct and
weak. Properly speaking, if acting on the basis of a tradition which is not sound
but rather is good or reliable is permissible, then it is sound; otherwise it is weak.
The terminology is [, therefore,] fourfold in letter but twofold in meaning.
5. [5] The mujtahidsdefine the sound [tradition] as what the reliable, righteous
Imami narrates on the authority of a similar individual back to the Infallible.
The good [tradition] is that whose transmitters, or one of them, is a praise-
worthy Imami not designated as reliable. The reliable is that whose transmitters,
or one of them, is [classified]reliable [but] not an Imami. The weak is anything
else.
The Akhbaris define the sound [tradition] as what has definitely come and is
proved on the authority of the Infallible. The degrees of soundness and certainty
vary: sometimes [these are] based on successive transmission and sometimes on
isolated traditions 15 accompanied by complementary evidence which attests to
the soundness of the tradition. [These complements include:] conformity with
the Qur'an or consensus, or its being supported by other traditions, or other
complements which attest to sure knowledge-as detailed by al-Shaykh
[Muhammad b. al-Hasan al-Tiusi(d. 460/1067)] 16 and others-or if the tradition
is [transmitted in] one of those reliable usul 17 acknowledged as sound by the
Imamis. The weak is anything else. Our shaykh,'8 the most erudite of the age,
13Thanks to Dr. H. M. Tabataba'i for this exegetical addition.
14 Some
Twelver, and many Western-language, sources maintain al-Hasan b. Yfisuf, al-'Allama
al-Hilli (d. 726/1325), was the first to establish this four-part system of classification. See, for
example, al-Khwansari, 4: 251; Madelung 'Akhbariyya', 56; Kohlberg, 'Akbariya', 56, citing
al-Astarabadi himself; idem, 'Aspects of Akhbari thought in the seventeenth and eighteenth
century', in, Nehemia Levtzion and John 0. Voll (ed.), Eighteenth-centuryrenewal and reform in
Islam (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1987), 134. According to a remark by al-'Allama
himself, however, Ahmad b. Miisa b. Tawiis al-Husayni al-Hilli (d. 673/1274) appears to have first
suggested the system; al-'Allama was the first to apply the division in legal discussions. See al-Amin,
A'ydn al-ShT'a,10: 181; S. A. Arjomand, The Shadow of God and the Hidden Imam: religion,political
order, and societal change in Shi'ite Iranfrom the beginningto 1890 (London: University of Chicago
Press, 1984), 55; Tabataba'I, p. 48 and n. 2 there. See also numbers 5, 29.
15On ' isolated traditions' see also numbers 12, 22, 35 and n. 32, part 2 of this essay.
16This is most
likely a referenceto al-Tiisfis discussion of al-qara'inin his 'Uddatal-Usul. See the
edition of vol. 1 of this work, together with the commentary by the Safawid-period scholar Khalil
al-Qazw1ni,(ed.) M. M. Najaff (n.p., 1403/1983), 367-88. On al-Qazwini, see also nn. 4 and 31, part
2, and number 31.
17 This probably refers to the 'four hundred usaul',collections of narratives from the Imams
compiled in their lifetimes. On these see al-Tehraii, 2: 125-35, 135-67; A. A. Sachedina, Islamic
Messianism: the idea of the Mahdi in TwelverShN'ism(Albany: State University of New York Press,
1981), 147; Kohlberg, ' Akbariya ', 716; idem, 'Al-Usul al-Arba'umi'a', Jerusalem Studies in Arabic
and Islam, 10, 1987, 128-66.
18 This is most likely a reference to Sulayman al-Bahrnamal-Mahiiuzi,on whom see n. 2 and
numbers 11 and 39.
 THE AKHBARI/USULI DISPUTE IN LATE SAFAWID IRAN 41

said, " It is sometimes said that deviating from the earlier terminology occurred
with al-'Allama [al-Hilli], may God have mercy on him, [and that] then
subsequent scholars followed him. This [terminology] was not known before
him."
6. [6] The mujtahids divide the community into two groups: mujtahid and
muqallid (follower).
The Akhbaris maintain all [members of] the community are followers of the
Infallible and there is no mujtahidat all.
7. [7] The mujtahidssay: During the period of the occultation sure knowledge is
to be sought by means of ijtihdd. During the period of the Imams' presence
within the community [they maintain sure knowledge is to be sought] by
recourse to the Infallible, even if through intermediaries.Ijtihddis not permitted
in such circumstances. That was the practice of those who transmitted akhbar
from the Imams.
The Akhbaris do not distinguish between the period of the occultation and
the [Imams'] presence. Rather, "What is lawful [according to the Prophet]
Muhammad is lawful until the day of resurrection, and what is unlawful
according to Him is unlawful until the day of resurrection.There will be nothing
else other than it [i.e. the Law], and nothing else will come," as in the hadTth.
8. [8] The mujtahidspermit only a mujtahid[to issue] a formal legal opinion and
to occupy a judgeship and the position of muhtasib. They do not permit
following someone who is not a mujtahid.
The Akhbaris forbid this. They maintain that rather the transmitter of the
traditions of the Ahl al-Bayt, on Them be peace, [that is] the one informed as to
Their judgements [, is authorized to undertake these tasks]. They do not permit
following the mujtahid with respect to a statement or action for which no
statement has been transmitted from the People of Infallibility. This is based on
the statement of [the sixth Imam Ja'far] al-Sadiq (d. 147-48/765), on Him be
peace, " Look to one of those among you who narrates our traditions "; 19and
the statement of our Master, the Mahdi, on Him be peace, " As for future
contingencies, seek recourse concerning them from the narrators of our
traditions. They [i.e. the narrators] are my proof to you and I am the Proof of
God to them "; and Their statement, " Distinguish the ranks of the rijdl on the
basis of their transmission from Us." To interpret all these [instructions as
referring to] the mujtahid who sometimes makes statements based on trans-
mission and sometimes by deduction is unjustifiable.
9. [9] The mujtahidsclassify the 'dlimnow [i.e. during the occultation]-the one
to whom [legal] recourse is required-as [either] an absolute mujtahid or a
partial mujtahid.20
The Akhbaris say the 'dlimis of one type, the partial one. He knows some
judgements through transmissions, but not all. [The latter] are those for which
he knows no transmission which necessitates sure knowledge. [They maintain]
there is no absolutely knowledgeable authority who knows all the judgements
except the Infallible. However, [knowledge] may be of different levels [for
different people]; [an individual] may be more or less thorough. This is because
we deny the possibility of a mujtahidwho can derive applied law from the usul-
although he has perfected his intellectual tools and the strength of his

19This is a line from the famous' delegation' khabar of 'Umar b. Hanzala, cited in al-KulaynFis
al-Kdfi, and later also in al-Sadfiq's al-Faqfh and al-Tisi's Tahdhfb al-Ahkdm, and generally
understood in the secondary sources as having been used to justify the auihority of the fuqahd
during the occultation. See also the reference to this khabar in number 11, nn. 30 and 36 below, and
note 15 of part 2.
20
That is, a mujtahidrecognized as an expert only in certain specific disciplines.
42 ANDREW J. NEWMAN

preparedness-in all judgements such that he does not hesitate on an issue nor
waiver in a judgement. None of our [i.e. Twelver] 'ulama' surpass what al-
'Allama [al-Hilli], on him be the mercy of God, achieved so far as the faculty of
deduction. [Yet,] his books are full of [instances where he could not make a
decision and so] refrained [from issuing a ruling] and faced legal difficulties. One
cannot say that had he spent [more] time and expended [more] effort he would
have succeeded. [This is] because we maintain if he had the ability he would have
accomplished this. None of the other Sunni 'ulamd' achieved what the Four
fuqahd achieved.21Rather, perhaps only they [i.e. these four Sunni scholars]
attained [the level of] absolute ijtihdd.[Yet] it is soundly reported of [one these
four, Abu 'Abdallah] Malik [b. Anas (d. 179/795)] that he was queried on forty
issues and on thirty-six he replied " I do not know ".
10. [10] The mujtahidssay: No one attains the level of issuing a legal ruling and
knowledge of the traditions except the individual who knows the six principal
disciplines.22These are theology, legal methodology, Arabic grammar, verb
conjugation and lexicography, logic, and the four sources of the law-that is,
the Qur'an, the sunna, consensus, and the evidence of reason. Some maintain
[this level] can be attained only by the individual who knows approximately
fifteen disciplines.23
The Akhbaris stipulate only [the ability] to understand Arabic. This involves
[a knowledge of] some points of [Arabic]grammar and verb conjugation-some
even deny that knowledge of Arabic grammar and verb conjugation is always a
condition [for attaining that level], but there is no room [here] to discuss this
question-and knowledge of the terminological conventions and the discourse
of the Imams, on Them be peace. Nothing else is stipulated except that on which
understanding Arabic is based.
11. [11] When the akhbdr disagree the mujtahids decide preference based on
[their own] opinions and reflections.
The Akhbaris permit this only based on what they have of the transmitted
preferences [of the Imams], such as the accepted tradition of 'Umar b. Hanzala
and others like it, except where necessity dictates. The latter situation is as if a
tradition came which contradicted the sound, established traditions and could
not be reconciled based on the preferences stated in the traditions but [only] by
some kind of interpretation. So it is not possible at this time to reject it or act on
it if the contradictory report is sound and safe and conforms with the practice
[of the Twelver community]. This is because adherence to [such a tradition] is
forbidden in the akhbdr.
Our shaykh [i.e. Sulayman al-Bah.ranial-Mahuizi],the most erudite of the
age, may God sanctify his secret, in one of his replies concerning the differences
between the mujtahidand the Akhbari, said " Among these is that when there is
a contradiction in the akhbdrthe Akhbaris do not determine preferences except
based on the rules established by the Ahl al-Dhikr [i.e. the Prophet and the
Imams24], may the peace of God be upon Them, which Thiqat al-Islam
[Muhammad b. Ya'qub al-Kulayni, d. 329/941] mentioned in the preface to
al-Kdfi. If they [i.e. these rules] are absent, then according to some akhbdr[it is
proper to] abstain, as He [the Imam], on Him be peace, said, 'Defer this until
you meet your Imam.' However, according to some other [traditions this is a
matter of] an option and action based on what one chooses [from among the
two] as an act of submission, as He [i.e. the Imam] says' You are free to choose
21 That is, the founders of the four Sunni schools of law. See also number 40.
22
See also number28.
23
See also number28.
24
On this term see also number 17 below.
 THE AKHBARI/USULI DISPUTE IN LATE SAFAWID IRAN 43

whichever of the two you choose as an act of submission.' Some [try to]
reconcile the two [above instructions by maintaining that] the first pertains to
worldly matters, such as inheritance, etc., in which there is no room for option
[because each tradition conflicts with the interests of the other party], and the
second [pertains to] all other instances. Thiqat al-Islam [al-Kulayni in al-Kifi
apparently supported [the concept of the individual's] choice in all cases [i.e. in
both worldly and religious matters], although the matter was to be referred to
the 'alim, on Him be peace. He, on him be the mercy of God, said 'We find
nothing more cautious and accommodating than referringknowledge of all this
to the 'alim,and accepting the ease and accommodation which He offered in His
statement " You are free to choose whichever of the two you choose as an act of
submission".' Here ends [al-Kulayni's statement]. As for the mujtahids, their
interpretations are based on ijtihdd without limits or enumeration. Most of
[these interpretations]are extremely far-fetched. Perhaps following the Akhbari
path in giving preference is more sound."
Here ends the statement of our shaykh [i.e. al-Bahrani al-Mahuzi], may God
elevate his grade [in Heaven] and add to the weight of his scale [of good works].
In it, as you see, is fairness to the Akhbaris, acknowledgement of the inferiority
of the principle of the mujtahids,confirmation of the differencesbetween the two
groups, and examination of the dispute between the two factions.
12. The mujtahids do not permit anyone to infer any of the legal norms nor
[anyone] to act who comes to know the law of a specific case with certainty by
means of transmissions, unless he attains the level of ijtihdd.[Such a person] is
not classified as an 'dlimor afaqThbut rather an apprentice and follower, even if
he has a thousand traditions relevant to that specific case. He is obliged to refer
to the opinion of the mujtahidand his conjecture and to abandon what he knows
of the traditions.
The Akhbaris maintain the ordinary believer25 is permitted to, indeed is
obliged to, act on the basis of the tradition-even if it is isolated-if it is sound,
confirmed [as having been transmitted] from the Infallible, and unambiguous in
guidance, when [the individual] comes to know [such a tradition] and knows it is
not contradicted by a similar [tradition]. [They maintain] he [i.e. the ordinary
believer] is not permitted to refer to the mujtahidin [decisions he makes in] the
absence of a tradition which is sound and whose guidance is clear.
13. The mujtahids permit acting on the basis of those traditions which allow
[differing]interpretations, and some which have a more obvious interpretation
[than the one they choose]. [They hold] likewise with respect to Qur'anic verses.
The Akhbaris do not permit this. Rather they act only on the basis of
unambiguous traditions and firmly-established [Qur'anic]verses in which there
is no vagueness in accordance with customary usage and [the Arabic] language.
[This is] because according to them, in conformity with the explicit instruction
in the Qur'an, it is not permitted to act on the basis of the Qur'anic verses which
are obscure.26
14. [13] The mujtahidspermit judgement with regard to [the two categories of]
desirable or reprehensible based on weak traditions. Indeed some maintain the
fatwd of the mujtahid can itself be the basis for judgement [that something is
desirable or reprehensible]without any [textual] evidence.
25 On al- see also number 24, and n. 13, part 2.
'immi,
26 This is a
reference to Qur'an 3: 7,
'It is he who has sent down to you the
Book in which some verses are clear to be
understood and others are obscure. Those
whose hearts are perverse will follow
what is obscure therein...'
VOL. LV. PART i 4
44 ANDREW J. NEWMAN

The Akhbaris do not distinguish between the five categories of rules.27For

them sure knowledge must be based on evidence.
15. [14] The mujtahidsmaintain that when the mujtahiddies it is no longer valid
to follow him and hisfatwa. [They maintain] the statement of the dead is like the
dead.
The Akhbaris maintain truth does not change by virtue of life or death
because the truth does not change. God willing the explanation of this will come
in the following question.
16. [15] The mujtahidspermit recourse to the ostensible meaning of the Qur'an
absent agreement with the traditions. Indeed [for them] this is preferable to
recourse to the traditions because, unlike the khabar, the text [of the Qur'an] is
definitive and its evidence may be definitive. [They maintain] the text [of the
khabar] is not definitive and its evidence may not be definitive.
The Akhbaris do not permit recourse to the ostensible meaning of the
Qur'an except that whose exegesis has come on Their authority, on Them be
peace, or what conforms with Their traditions. [This is] because the only
individual who knows the Qur'an is he to whom it was spoken and because the
Qur'an contains both what is
" is clearfirmly
established and what is ambiguous. What is
"firmly established and without doubt. Anything else is ambiguous.
No one knows " what is ambiguous " except " those who are firmly rooted in
the religious knowledge ". These are the Imams, on Them be peace, as is in the
text of the [Qur'anic]verse 28 supported by the text from transmissions. It is not
permitted, therefore, to utilize vague ideas without an explicit designation. They
deny the correctness of the preference of following the text of the Qur'an in
accord with what we have said, and reject the argument for their preference.
Rather they [i.e. the Akhbaris] claim for the akhbdrwhat they [i.e. the mujtahids]
claim for the Qur'an. They say that among the akhbdralso there are those which
are definitive in text and definitive in evidence like the firmly established
successively transmitted [akhbdr].All of the Qur'an's being definitive in text
does not help because it is not all definitive in evidence. Therefore, not every
Qur'anic verse is suitable as evidence. And the akhbdr [are also like that]. So
consider this [carefully].
17. The mujtahidspermit ijtihddin [the formulation of] legal judgements in the
event it is impossible to know the statement of the Infallible.
The Akhbaris do not make such a distinction but require recourse to Him
absolutely. If His statement can be established [the Akhbaris] will propound it;
if not they keep silent and make no decision. Thus they are in agreement with
Their statement, on Them be peace, "Whenever you know, speak; but if you do
not know, then this ", and He stretched out His hand to his chest; 29 and Their
statement, on Them be peace, " Matters are of three [sorts]:a question wherein
integrity of conduct is clear, so it should be followed; a question wherein
delusion is clear and should be avoided; and, a difficult question, knowledge
concerning which should be referred to God and His prophet." 30 In the good

27 The five categories are: (1)

wdjib or fard, actions whose performance is to be rewarded and
neglect of which will be punished: (2) sunna or mustahabb, or mandib, actions recommended or
voluntarily meritorious, neglect of which will not be punished, but performance of which will be
rewarded;(3) mubdh or murakhkhas,actions whose performance or neglect is neutral;(4) makruih,
actions or things whose performance or consumption is reprehensible and disapproved, but not
punishable; (5) hardm, actions or things whose performance or consumption is a punishable sin.
28 The phrase is found in
Qur'an 3:7 and 4:162. See also n. 26 and number 2 above.
29 That is, one must refrain from any judgement.
30 The wording echoes that in the
khabar of 'Umar b. Hanzala, on which see notes 19, 36 of the
present section and n. 15 of section two. See also numbers 19 and 37.
 THE AKHBARI/USULI DISPUTE IN LATE SAFAWID IRAN 45

[khabar]of Hisham b. al-Hakam, he said to Abu 'Abdallah [i.e. Imam Ja'far al-
Sadiq], on Him be peace, "What is God's right in relation to His creatures?"
He [i.e. the Imam] replied, "That they speak what they know and refrain from
what they do not know. If they do that they render to God His right." There is
also Their statement, on Them be peace, "When you do not know [the legal
status] of whatever comes to you, you must avoid it and be careful, and refer it
to the Imams of the Truth so that they can instruct you as to the correct way in
that instance, remove the ambiguities, and teach you what is the truth about it."
Almighty God said, "Ask the Ahl al-Dhikr if you do not know" (Qur'an
16:43). There are also many other akhbdr.
18. The mujtahidsbelieve that when the mujtahidattains the truth he is due two
[heavenly] compensations: one for attaining the truth and one for his effort.
[Even] if he errs, he is due [one] compensation for his effort and his toil. In
support of this they cite a tradition of the Prophet, may the blessings of God be
upon Him and His Family.
The Akhbaris maintain [that] in any instance [the mujtahidis committing] a
sin. [This is] because if he attains the truth he will have rendered a judgement
without sure knowledge from God when he derives it without a transmission. If
he attains [the truth] based on [a narrative] this is not [what is called] ijtihad. If
he errs then he will have lied about God.
Abu Basir relates: " I said to Abu 'Abdallah [i.e. Imam Ja'far], on Him be
peace, 'Where things are referred to us about which we have no knowledge
from the Qur'an or sunna should we not examine them?' He said,' No indeed. If
you attain the truth you will not be compensated. If you err you will have lied
about God, may He be exalted and glorified."' Al-Kulayni related this in
al-Kdfi as did Ahmad b. Muhammad b. Khalid [al-Barqi (d. late third century/
ninth century)] in al-Mahdsin. And in [Man ld Yah.darahu] al-Faq[h,
[Muhammad b. 'Ali al-Qummi, Ibn Babawayh (d. 381/991-92)] al-Saduq
related from [Imam Ja'far]al- adiq, on Him be peace, [that] He said " There are
four [sorts of] judges [of whom] three are in Hell and one is in Paradise. A man
who knowingly judges in accordance with injustice is in Hell. A man who
unknowingly judges in accord with injustice is in Hell. A man who unknowingly
judges in accord with truth is in Hell. A man who knowingly judges in accord
with truth is in Paradise." [There is also] Their statement, on Them be peace,
" There are two [sorts of] judgements. The judgement of God and the judgement
of ignorance. Whoever errs in the judgement of ignorance attains the judgement
of God, and whoever errs in the judgement of God attains the judgement of
ignorance." There are many akhbar with this intent.
[There are also] the Qur'anic verses, " Who does not judge in accord with
what God has revealed, they are the wrongdoers " (Qur'an 5:45), " and they are
the sinful " (5:47), " and they are the unbelievers " (5:44).
They [i.e. the Akhbaris] deny the soundness of the tradition which they [i.e.
the mujtahids]transmit on the authority of Him [i.e. the Prophet], on Him and
His family be peace, because it is in none of the books of our traditions. On the
contrary it is transmitted solely by the Sunnis and is one of their fabrications.31
As for the transmission of it by our companions in usuil al-fiqh, this is an
inadvertence of theirs. If it were sound it would be contradicted by the sound

31The hadfth of the Prophet in question is cited by the Sunni traditionist Abufi'l-HasanMuslim b.
al-Hajjaj (d. 261/875) in his .Sahih,12 (Cairo, 1347-49/1929-30), 13-14, on the authority of 'Amr b.
al-'As:
' If a judge makes the right decision through
ijtihddhe shall be doubly compensated;
if he errs he shall be compensated once.'
46 ANDREW J. NEWMAN

traditions of our companions which agree with the Qur'an and disagree with the
Sunnis. These are two correct methods for determining preferencein the akhbdr.
There are also two other methods. One of these is al-shuhra (widespread
knowledge). This is [based on] Their statement, on Them be peace, " Take that
which has become widely-known among your companions and cast aside the
anomalous which is not well-known." Clearly the transmissions we have cited
are well-known among those of our companions who specialize in the traditions
unlike that [tradition of the Prophet which they cite]. The second [method] is
conformity with caution. This is one of the bases of giving preferences as is
related in the transmissions.
19. The mujtahids say: In relation to the mujtahid questions are one of two
[sorts]. Either it is a question whose evidence is clear even if based on conjecture.
Then adherence to that is obligatory. Or it is question whose evidence is
unknown. Then it is obligatory to take recourse to the bases in the Almighty's
rules themselves. Hesitation and caution are not required.
The Akhbaris say: On the contrary, in relation to someone other than the
Infallible these questions are [of] three [sorts]. [The first is] a matter in which
right conduct is clear and is to be pursued. [The second is] a matter [in which]
delusion is clear and is to be avoided. [The third comprises] uncertainties
between these.32Whoever follows a course based on uncertainties is doing what
is forbidden. He will perish because he has no knowledge. Caution is obligatory
with regard to every issue on which there is no text transmitted on Their
authority, on Them be peace.
20. The mujtahidsmaintain the correctness of inferring doctrines on the basis of
the evidence of the theologians absent agreement with the Qur'an and the
traditions.
The Akhbaris do not permit this as you have already seen.
21. The mujtahids maintain the correctness of inferring the principles of the
sources of evidence infiqh from the principles of legal methodology deduced by
the Sunni 'ulamd'.33
The Akhbaris do not permit this. On the contrary, they maintain the
necessity of being limited in matters of legal methodology and positive law to
the evidence found in the traditions. [This is] based on the statement of [Imam
Ja'far] al-Sadiq, on Him be peace, " Do not take [religious instruction] except
from Us; this way you will be one of Us "; and His statement, on Him be peace,
"Woe to you if you propound something you did not hear from Us "; and His
statement, on Him be peace, " All of what does not come from this House is
invalid "; and His statement, on Him be peace, "By God, we wish you to speak
when We speak and to be silent when We are silent. We are what is between you
and God, may He be exalted and glorified. God did not make it good for
anyone to oppose Our command "; and His statement, on Him be peace, "The
people have neither truth nor what is proper except what comes from Us, Ahl
al-Bayt "; and His statement, on Him be peace, " If you want sound knowledge
it is with us, Ahl al-Bayt. We are Ahl al-Dhikr of whom God said, 'Ask Ahl
al-Dhikr if you do not know'" (Qur'an, 16:43);and Their statement, on Them
be peace, to one of Their companions, " Go east or west and by God you will
never discover sound knowledge except with those to whom Jibra'il came
down "; and the statement of God, " Ask Ahl al-Dhikr if you do not know ";
and others of their proofs they have for this.

32See also number 37.

33See also number 40.
 THE AKHBARI/USULI DISPUTE IN LATE SAFAWID IRAN 47

22. [18] The mujtahidsdo not permit inferring doctrines from the Qur'an and
traditions. Indeed some sometimes forbid inferring issues in usul al-fiqh from
the traditions if this is based on isolated [traditions]. [This is] because they
require certainty in legal methodology and the isolated tradition does not
provide this.
The Akhbaris maintain the opposite as you have already learned.
23. [16, 19] The mujtahidspermit difference of opinion on legal issues based on
conjectural ijtihad. They do not declare sinful someone who makes a statement
contrary to the truth on issues of positive law in so far as the basis of the
judgements is conjecture. Each of them allows the other to be correct even if he
thinks he is in error.
The Akhbaris do not permit difference of opinion and declare sinful
someone who makes a statement contrary to the truth. [They do so] on the basis
of the verses [of the Qur'an] and the transmissions which furnish evidence of
this, and the statement of the Commander of the Faithful [i.e. Imam 'Al], on
Him be peace, censuring the disagreement of the 'ulama' in their issuing of a
fatwa: " An issue may be referred to one of them concerning a certain legal
ruling and he gives a ruling on the matter based on his opinion. Exactly the
same question is then referred to someone else, and he issues a ruling which
disagrees with his [i.e. the first's]judgement. Then the judges come together with
their Imam who appointed them to judge, and he declares all their opinions
correct. [Yet] their God is the same, their prophet is the same, and their
scripture is the same. Did God the Most High command them to disagree and
so they obeyed Him? or did he forbid them and they disobeyed? or did Most
Holy God reveal a flawed religion and ask them for help for its completion? or
are they partners of God, exalted and glorified, and so they have the right to
make their own decision and He has to be content? or did God reveal a complete
religion but the Prophet, blessings on Him and His Family, did not impart it
properly while Most Holy God said 'We neglected nothing in the Qur'an'
(Qur'an 6:38), [... to the end of] the tradition."
This is an explicit [statement] about what is claimed [by the Akhbaris],
except when the disagreement does not stem from a deduction or ijtihdd but
rather from a disagreement in the akhbdr. Perhaps some understand these
[akhbdr]convey the truth but others understand they convey taq7ya,or one does
not know it is contradicted, or two disagree in their understanding [of the
akhbdr]after each had striven and undertaken researchto understand them, and
each reached a decision based on what he understood. This is excusable because
he used the tradition but was unaware of its meaning. The unaware [person] is
excused as long as he is unaware, based on what was .said to [Imam Ja'far]
al-Sadiq, on Him be peace, " I left your companions disagreeing so can I pray
behind them?" He [i.e. the Imam] said, "I have left them to disagree"; and His
statement, on Him be peace, "It is permitted [for them to] use what the Imam
says even if it is taqTya";and Their statement, on Them be peace, " You are free
to choose whichever of the two you choose as an act of submission." And so in
other traditions. If the disagreement arose from the Imams, on Them be peace,
for the benefit of taqiya, disagreement then is not forbidden if someone is
unaware of what has been transmitted in reality concerning the truth. This is not
like disagreement in issues related to ijtih&d,all of which have been shown to
belong to general principles and rational deductive rules which are not present
in the traditions at all. There are many of these, such as Their statement that the
command [to do] something necessitates forbidding its opposite; and Their
statement, "The command is for duty and the prohibition is for making
unlawful "; and Their support for the method of priority, deduced cause, and
48 ANDREW J. NEWMAN

continuance in the legal issues themselves after the occurrence of the issue at
hand; and Their statement that the speech of the lips is not universal; and Their
statement that man is under obligation [to act] on the basis of his conjecture, to
other rules and principles which do not result in an outcome.
24. [20] The mujtahidsforbid the mujtahidto refer to someone inferior or equal
to himself in sure knowledge if he has not found a tradition. Rather he is obliged
to refer to his knowledge and his rules.
The Akhbaris, by contrast, make incumbent on him searching and asking
for the legal norm and seeking traditions from someone else even if from a
student or an ordinary believer. He must not make a statement [on the issue] on
the basis of his [own] opinion. This is based on the statement of the Imams, on
Them be peace, " The people perish only because they do not ask questions";
and Their statement concerning someone afflicted with smallpox whom [the
people] washed but [who] then died: "They killed him. Why did they not use
sand [for ritual purification]?Why did they not ask questions? The remedy for
ignorance is raising questions."
25. The mujtahidsmaintain all the Shi'i 'ulamd'in the period of the occultation
were mujtahids. The ancients, from the time of al-Kulayni to the time of al-
Shaykh 'All b. 'Abd al-'Ali [al-Karaki] (d. 940/1534) and [Shaykh Zayn al-Din
b. 'All] al-Shahid al-Thani (d. 965/1557), [were thus] one [i.e. all mujtahids].
The Akhbaris differ with them on this. They maintain the ancients, such as
al-Kulayni and al-Sadfiq and those like them, were Akhbaris. Al-Sayyid ['AIl b.
al-Husayn al-Muisawi]al-Murtada (d. 436/1044), al-'Allama [al-Hilli], the two
martyrs,34 and al-Shaykh 'All [al-Karaki], and others of that sort were
mujtahids.The correctness of this claim and the falseness of the other are clear.
26. [1] The mujtahids maintain ijtihdd is obligatory either collectively or
individually. The majority maintain the first and the minority maintain the
second.
The Akhbaris maintain rather that seeking sure knowledge is a [religious]
obligation on every Muslim, that the seeking of sure knowledge [means] taking
it from the Infallible, on Him be peace, directly or by an intermediary or
intermediaries, that all the people are followers of Him-just as the mujtahids
say it is obligatory to take [sure knowledge] from the mujtahiddirectly or by
intermediary or intermediaries-and that the scholar and the ignorant
[individual] who takes from the scholar by an intermediary from the Infallible
or directly are [both] called a knower of the judgement he has learned, and that
seeking sure knowledge is not obligatory except in case of need.
27. [21] The mujtahidsdo not allow anyone to uphold a legal norm none of the
previous 'ulamd'has vouchsafed even if he has clear evidence on the issue.
The Akhbaris do not distinguish between the precedence of someone who
upheld the judgement or the lack thereof. [This is] because action is based on
evidence, that is solely the statement of the Infallible, on Him be peace. [Action
is] not [based on] the maker of a statement-even if there are many [of the
latter]-absent Him.
28. The mujtahids require the study of the disciplines of al-adab such as
grammar and morphology, logic and theology and similar [disciplines].[This is]
because this is a condition in ijtihddwhich is a collective obligation. The study of
the[se] premises is a collective obligation because what is accomplished only by
that [i.e. by what is obligatory] is itself obligatory.
The Akhbaris require nothing of this. [This is] because understanding

34The first shahld (martyr) was Muhammad b. Makki al-'Amilr (d. 786/1384). See also the
reference to him in number 31.
 THE AKHBARI/USULI DISPUTE IN LATE SAFAWID IRAN 49

traditions does not depend on it, sure knowledge does not depend on the
discipline of theology, and because thefaqih does not need the discipline of logic
at all. To inquire about the tradition, to understand it, and to be acquainted
with its wording are sufficient in seeking sure knowledge.
29. [22] The mujtahidsdo not apply [the term] " the reliable " in transmissions
except to the righteous, exactly transmitting Imami.
The Akhbaris maintain that on the contrary the meaning of " the reliable"
in the discourse of scholars of earlier generations of learned personalities is
nothing but the individual who is reliable in transmission [and]trusted not to lie.
This is known by means of social intercourse. Neither [his general] trustworthi-
ness nor his probity are mandatory.
30. [23] The mujtahidsamong us maintain that obedience to the mujtahidis as
obligatory as obedience to the Imam, although they permit [the mujtahid]to err
but do not grant this [possibility] to the Infallible. Regarding the infallibility of
the Imam they argued that if the possibility of His making an error were allowed
it would follow God had initiated evil since He ordered that He be followed
while following Him in a case of error is evil. Thus God would have commanded
it. This is impossible because it contradicts the evidence of justice. It is this
exactly which is valid against them concerning the mujtahid.
None of this applies to the Akhbaris because they require obedience only to
the Imam and do not require obedience to the scholar, unless his source is the
Imam and the Imam had commanded it. If not, obedience to him [i.e. the
scholar] is not required. The situation [of the two groups] is thus different, and
the difficulty disappears.
31. The mujtahidand the Akhbari are combined in one matter but separate on
another, demonstrating that between them there is a generality and a particu-
larity in one respect. They are combined where the 'dlim has attained the
qualifications for ijtihdd, but does not permit inferring norms except on the
basis of the transmissions. [Such an individual] is a mujtahid-muhaddith,like
al-Muhaqqiq [Muhammad] al-Amin al-Astarabadi, Maulana Khalil [b. Ghazi]
al-Qazwini, al-'Allama Muhsin al-Kashani, Maulana Muhammad Tahir
[al-Shirazi] al-Qummi, Maulana 'Abdallah al-Yazdi,35 and our shaykh
[Muhammad b. al-Hasan] al-Hurr al-'Amilr.
The mujtahid is separate from the muhaddith if he has attained the
qualifications [for ijtihdd]and permits deduction, employment of the rules of
legal methodology, the rational sources of evidence, and consensus, without a
tradition which is clear or sound, general or specific. [This is] like al-Murtada,
[Muhammad b. Mansuiir]Ibn Idris [al-Hilli (d. 598/1202)], al-'Allama [al-Hilli],
those who succeeded him such as his son Fakhr al-Din [i.e. Fakhr
al-Muhaqqiqin, Muhammad b. al-Hasan al-Hilli (d. 771/1370)], the two
martyrs, al-Muhaqqiq al-Shaykh 'All [al-Karakqf,and others like them.
The muhaddith is separate from the mujtahid if he has not attained the
qualifications for ijtihdd and possesses knowledge and understanding of the
traditions, like those of the students of our shaykh al-Hurr [al-'Amili] with
whom we spoke-of whom there are many in holy Mashad-and some of those
with whom we have spoken elsewhere. They have knowledge of the traditions
greater than [common] knowledge; indeed, perhaps it exceeds the knowledge of
the mujtahids because, with regard to the meanings of the traditions, the
35
The identify of this individual is unclear. Placement of his name after al-Qummi and before
al-Hurr al-'Amili suggests, however, that al-Yazdi died between 1098/1687 and 1104/1693, the
death dates of al-Qummi and al-Hurr al-'Amili respectively, making it unlikely this is a reference to
'Abdallah b. al-Husayn al-Yazdi (d. 983/1575) or a misreference to 'Abdallah al-Tiin? (d. 1071/
1660-61).
50 ANDREW J. NEWMAN

mujtahidsoverstep all bounds with regard to the meanings of the traditions [to
reach a point] not intended. He [i.e. such an individual] is an Akhbari not a
mujtahid.This shows there is a difference between the two.
32. [17, 24] The Akhbaris do not permit action on the basis of presumed
exoneration in denying the prohibition of a positive action-for example,
denying the prohibition for an individual to touch the text of the Qur'an when
he has annulled his state of ritual purity with a minor infraction-nor in
denying a conventional norm-such as, for example, denying that an excretion
from [a path] other than the two paths [i.e. urinating or excretion, e.g. vomiting]
destroys [the state of ritual purity]. They permit action on the basis of this
[principle] in denying the necessity of a positive action-such as denying the
obligatory nature of the witr prayer-not with respect to the principle of
exoneration, but rather based on what is widely reported from Them, on Them
be peace, that " The people are free [from an obligation] as long as they do not
know" and " Something about which God has shielded knowledge from His
servants is [a burden] lifted from them."
33. [24] In the event of contradictory akhbdr the Akhbaris do not permit
determining preference on the basis of presumed exoneration.
The mujtahidspermit this.
34. [29] A group of Akhbaris-including the scholar al-Amin al-Astarabadi,
may God sanctify his secret, in al-Fawd'id al-Madaniyya-permit delay of the
explanation beyond the time of need.
The mujtahidsagree on its being forbidden. The disagreement among them,
however, concerns [the issue of] the delay of explanation beyond the time of the
making of the statement.
35. [25] The Akhbaris do not permit action on the basis of the consensus
claimed in the statements of our recent fuqahd if there is no path to sure
knowledge based on the inclusion of the statement of the Infallible, on Him be
peace, without a transmission from Him.
Some mujtahidsagree with them on this. [This is] because [they maintain]
consensus may not be a proof without the ascertainment of the [inclusion] of the
statement of the Infallible, since, by common agreement among us, it [i.e.
consensus] is not evidence in itself. Rather it sheds light on the statement of the
Proof, that is the Infallible. If not a single transmission on the issue on which
consensus is claimed is traced back to Him, not to mention general circulation
or widespread successive transmission, how is the statement of the Infallible
ascertained? If the latter is not ascertained, it is certainly not evidence or a
proof. You know that in the mujtahids'discourse it [i.e. consensus] is one of the
proofs, such that a group of them claim consensus related on the basis of an
isolated tradition is a proof, after the model of action on the [basis of] the
isolated transmitted tradition. This [claim] is invalid because acting on the basis
of an isolated tradition is authorized based on numerous, indeed widespread
successive, traditions. [This is] unlike the statement based on one isolated
tradition containing a claim of consensus.
36. [26] The mujtahids-or the majority of them-do not take notice of
disagreement [in consensus] where the name of the individual disagreeing is
known. This does not detract from consensus.
As for the Akhbaris, they do not take notice of this basis [i.e. of consensus].
They do not distinguish between [an opponent whose] name is known or one
[whose name is] unknown. Rather action is based on evidence and consensus is
absolutely not evidence of His view, as you know. Rather evidence is the
statement of the Infallible. If that is ascertained, whether it is with someone
 THE AKHBARI/USULI DISPUTE IN LATE SAFAWID IRAN 51

known or unknown or not, that [statement] is evidence. If [it can]not [be

ascertained to be the Imam's statement] it is not [evidence].
37. [17, 24] The mujtahids maintain the basic state in [legal] questions is
permissibility. [This is] based on the statement of the Imam, on Him be peace,
" Everything is unrestricted until prohibition comes down concerning it ", and
on the basis of the universality of the Almighty's statement "He made for you
all that is on the earth" (Qur'an, 2:29).
The Akhbaris hesitate on this. Rather, according to them where something
does not have a text permitting it there is no means to permitting or forbidding
it. Rather it is in the category of uncertainty. [Legal] issues are of three [sorts]:
[that] wherein lawfulness is clear, [that] wherein prohibition is clear, and
between that [categorization there are] uncertainties.
I hesitate on this question. Indeed, what seems clear to me is preference for
the statement of the mujtahids based on [Qur'anic] verses and transmissions.
God knows best.
38. [27] The Akhbaris believe in the soundness of all that is in the four books 36
except what they determine to be weak. [This is] because these [traditions] are
either successively transmitted or detailed or are those whose link to the People
of Infallibility, on Them be peace, is known, as more than one of them [i.e.
Akhbari scholars] has explicitly stated.
The mujtahidsdo not maintain this.
39. [28] The Akhbaris do not permit action on the basis of continuance except
where the text indicates it, such as " Everything is pure until you know it is
impure ", and " If you have performed ablutions then do not perform them
again until you know you have become defiled ", and other similar statements.
Some mujtahids,such as [al-Sayyid] al-Murtada, agree. Our Shaykh [Sulay-
man al-Bahrani al-Mahuzi], the most erudite man of the Age, said " and this is
the stronger one [of the two opinions] for me". For the majority of the
mujtahidsit is a proof. Indeed al-Muhaqqiq [Ja'far b. al-Hasan al-Hilli (d. 676/
1277)] in al-Mu'tabarcounted it an equal portion to the four proofs, making it a
fifth [proof]. Subsequent scholars included it within the proof of reason.
40. The mujtahids require the mujtahid to refer to the principles of legal
methodology and its rules derived by the Sunni 'ulamd,such as [Abu 'Abdallah
Muhammad b. Idris] al-Shafi'i (d. 204/820) and [al-Nu'man b. Thabit] Abu
Hanifa (d. 150/767). All agree that the first to devise the principles of
jurisprudence were the Sunnis. The first of these was al-Shafi'i, as a group of the
'ulamd'have explicitly stated.
The Akhbaris do not make this obligatory. Indeed they do not permit this
except where the statements of the People of Infallibility point to it. According
to them it is obligatory only to refer only to the rules of the People of
Infallibility.

36 These are the four books of Twelver akhbdr

compiled in the two centuries after the occultation
of the twelfth Imam. They are al-Kdfi of al-Kulayni, Man la Yahduruhal-Faqfh of al-Shaykh
al-Saduq, and Tahdhfbal Ahkdm and al-Istibsar of al-Shaykh Muh.ammadb. al-Hasan al-Tusi.