Process control

PROCESS
Process as used in the terms process control and process industry,
refers to the methods of changing or refining raw materials to create
end products. The raw materials, which either pass through or remain
in a liquid, gaseous, or slurry (a mix of solids and liquids) state
during the process, are transferred, measured, mixed, heated or
cooled, filtered, stored, or handled in some other way to produce the
end product.
Process industries include the chemical industry, the oil and gas
industry, the food and beverage industry, the pharmaceutical industry,
the water treatment industry, and the power industry.

Control in process industries refers to the regulation of all aspects of the process. Precise
control of level, temperature, pressure and flow is important in many process applications. This
module introduces you to control in process industries, explains why control is important, and
identifies different ways in which precise control is ensured

The Importance of Process Control

Refining, combining, handling, and otherwise manipulating fluids to profitably produce end
products can be a
precise, demanding, and potentially hazardous process. Small changes in a process can have a
large impact
on the end result. Variations in proportions, temperature, flow, turbulence, and many other
factors must be
carefully and consistently controlled to produce the desired end product with a minimum of raw
materials and
energy. Process control technology is the tool that enables manufacturers to keep their
operations running
within specified limits and to set more precise limits to maximize profitability, ensure quality and
safety.

PROCESS CONTROL
Process control refers to the methods that are used to control process
variables when manufacturing a product. For example, factors such
as the proportion of one ingredient to another, the temperature of the
materials, how well the ingredients are mixed, and the pressure under
which the materials are held can significantly impact the quality of
an end product. Manufacturers control the production process for
three reasons

_ Reduce variability
_ Increase efficiency
_ Ensure safety
Reduce Variability

Process control can reduce variability in the end product, which

ensures a consistently high-quality product. Manufacturers can also
save money by reducing variability

Increase Efficiency

Some processes need to be maintained at a specific point to maximize

efficiency. For example, a control point might be the temperature at
which a chemical reaction takes place. Accurate control of temperature
ensures process efficiency. Manufacturers save money by minimizing
the resources required to produce the end product

Ensure Safety

A run-away process, such as an out-of-control nuclear or chemical

reaction, may result if manufacturers do not maintain precise control
of all of the processg variables. The consequences of a run-away
process can be catastrophic.

SETPOINT
The setpoint is a value for a process variable that is desired to be
maintained.

control loop

In the
control loop, a variable (temperature) fell below the setpoint (your
comfort level), and you took action to bring the process back into the
desired condition by adding fuel to the fire. The control loop will
now remain static until the temperature again rises above or falls
below your comfort level.

THREE TASKS
Control loops in the process control industry work in the same way,
requiring three tasks to occur:
_ Measurement
_ Comparison
_ Adjustment

A process variable is a condition of the process fluid (a liquid or gas)

that can change the manufacturing process in some way. In the
example of you sitting by the fire, the process variable was
temperature. In the example of the tank in Figure 7.1, the process
variable is level. Common process variables include:
_ Pressure
_ Flow
_ Level
_ Temperature
_ Density
_ Ph (acidity or alkalinity)
_ Liquid interface (the relative amounts of different liquids that are
combined in a vessel)
_ Mass
_ Conductivity

MEASURED VARIABLES, PROCESS VARIABLES, AND

MANIPULATED VARIABLES
In the temperature control loop example, the measured variable is
temperature, which must be held close to 100 °C. In this example and
in most instances, the measured variable is also the process variable.
The measured variable is the condition of the process fluid that must
be kept at the designated setpoint.
Sometimes the measured variable is not the same as the process
variable. For example, a manufacturer may measure flow into and out
of a storage tank to determine tank level. In this scenario, flow is the
measured variable, and the process fluid level is the process variable.
The factor that is changed to keep the measured variable at setpoint is
called the manipulated variable. In the example described, the
manipulated variable would also be flow
MANUAL AND AUTOMATIC CONTROL
Before process automation, people, rather than machines, performed
many of the process control tasks. For example, a human operator
might have watched a level gauge and closed a valve when the level
reached the setpoint. Control operations that involve human
action to make an adjustment are called manual control systems.
Conversely, control operations in which no human intervention is
required, such as an automatic valve actuator that responds to a level
controller, are called automatic control systems.

CLOSED AND OPEN CONTROL LOOPS

A closed control loop exists where a process variable is measured,
compared to a setpoint, and action is taken to correct any deviation
from setpoint. An open control loop exists where the process variable
is not compared, and action is taken not in response to
feedback on the condition of the process variable, but is instead taken
without regard to process variable conditions. For example, a water
valve may be opened to add cooling water to a process to prevent the
process fluid from getting too hot, based on a pre-set time interval,
regardless of the actual temperature of the process fluid.

Components of Control Loops

Primary element/sensor
• Transducer
• Converter
• Transmitter
• Signal
• Indicator
• Recorder
• Controller
• Correcting element/final control element
• Actuator
PRIMARY ELEMENTS/SENSORS
In all cases, some kind of instrument is measuring changes in the
process and reporting a process variable measurement. Some of the
greatest ingenuity in the process control field is apparent in sensing
devices. Because sensing devices are the first element in the control
loop to measure the process variable, they are also called primary
elements. Examples of primary elements include:

_ Pressure sensing diaphragms, strain gauges, capacitance cells

_ Resistance temperature detectors (RTDs)
_ Thermocouples
_ Orifice plates
_ Pitot tubes
_ Venturi tubes
_ Magnetic flow tubes
_ Coriolis flow tubes
_ Radar emitters and receivers
_ Ultrasonic emitters and receivers
_ Annubar flow elements
_ Vortex shedder

A transducer is a device that translates a mechanical signal into an

electrical signal. For example, inside a capacitance pressure device, a
transducer converts changes in pressure into a proportional change in
capacitance.

A converter is a device that converts one type of signal into another

type of signal. For example, a converter may convert current into
voltage or an analog signal into a digital signal

TRANSMITTERS
A transmitter is a device that converts a reading from a sensor
or transducer into a standard signal and transmits that signal
to a monitor or controller. Transmitter types include:
q Pressure transmitters
q Flow transmitters
q Temperature transmitters
q Level transmitters
q Analytic (O2 [oxygen], CO [carbon monoxide], and pH)
transmitter

SIGNALS
There are three kinds of signals that exist for the process industry to
transmit the process variable measurement from the instrument to a
centralized control system.
1. Pneumatic signal
2. Analog signal
3. Digital signal

Pneumatic Signals
Pneumatic signals are signals produced by changing the air pressure
in a signal pipe in proportion to the measured change in a process
variable. The common industry standard pneumatic signal range is
3–15 psig. The 3 corresponds to the lower range value (LRV) and the
15 corresponds to the upper range value (URV). Pneumatic signalling
is still common. However, since the advent of electronic instruments
in the 1960s, the lower costs involved in running electrical signal wire
through a plant as opposed to running pressurized air tubes has made
pneumatic signal technology less attractive

Analog Signals

The most common standard electrical signal is the 4–20 mA current

signal. With this signal, a transmitter sends a small current through a
set of wires. The current signal is a kind of gauge in which
4 mA represents the lowest possible measurement, or zero, and 20
mA represents the highest possible measurement

For example, imagine a process that must be maintained at 100 °C.

An RTD temperature sensor and transmitter are installed in the
process vessel, and the transmitter is set to produce a 4 mA signal
when the process temperature is at 95 °C and a 20 mA signal
when the process temperature is at 105 °C. The transmitter will
transmit a 12 mA signal when the temperature is at the 100 °C
setpoint. As the sensor’s resistance property changes in
response to changes in temperature, the transmitter outputs a
4–20 mA signal that is proportionate to the temperature changes. This
signal can be converted to a temperature reading or an
input to a control device, such as a burner fuel valve.

INDICATORS
While most instruments are connected to a control system, operators
sometimes need to check a measurement on the factory floor at the
measurement point. An indictor makes this reading possible. An
indicator is a human-readable device that displays information about
the process. Indicators may be as simple as a pressure or temperature
gauge or more complex, such as a digital read-out device. Some
indicators simply display the measured variable, while others have
control buttons that enable operators to change settings in the field
Digital Signals
Digital signals are the most recent addition to process control signal
technology. Digital signals are discrete levels or values that are
combined in specific ways to represent process variables and also carry
other information, such as diagnostic information. The methodology
used to combine the digital signals is referred to as protocol.
Manufacturers may use either an open or a proprietary digital
protocol. Open protocols are those that anyone who is developing a
control device can use. Proprietary protocols are owned by specific
companies and may be used only with their permission. Open digital
protocols include the HART® (highway addressable remote
transducer) protocol, FOUNDATION™ Fieldbus, Profibus, DeviceNet,
and the Modbus® protocol.

INDICATORS
While most instruments are connected to a control system, operators
sometimes need to check a measurement on the factory floor at the
measurement point. An indictor makes this reading possible. An
indicator is a human-readable device that displays information about
the process. Indicators may be as simple as a pressure or temperature
gauge or more complex, such as a digital read-out device. Some
indicators simply display the measured variable, while others have
control buttons that enable operators to change settings in the field.

RECORDERS
A recorder is a device that records the output of a measurement
devices. Many process manufacturers are required by law to provide a
process history to regulatory agencies, and manufacturers use
recorders to help meet these regulatory requirements. In addition,
manufacturers often use recorders to gather data for trend analyses.
By recording the readings of critical measurement points and
comparing those readings over time with the results of the process,
the process can be improved.
Different recorders display the data they collect differently. Some
recorders list a set of readings and the times the readings were taken;
others create a chart or graph of the readings. Recorders that create
charts or graphs are called chart recorders.

controller
A controller is a device that receives data from a measurement
instrument, compares that data to a programmed setpoint, and, if
necessary, signals a control element to take corrective action.
Local controllers are usually one of the three types: pneumatic,
electronic or programmable. Contollers also commonly reside
in a digital control system

Controllers may perform complex mathematical functions to compare

a set of data to setpoint or they may perform simple addition or
subtraction functions to make comparisons. Controllers always have
an ability to receive input, to perform a mathematical function with
the input, and to produce an output signal. Common examples of
controllers include:

Programmable logic controllers (PLCs)—PLCs are usually

computers connected to a set of input/output (I/O) devices. The
computers are programmed to respond to inputs by sending
outputs to maintain all processes at setpoint.

Distributed control systems (DCSs)—DCSs are controllers that,

in addition to performing control functions, provide readings of
the status of the process, maintain databases and advanced
man-machine-interface.

CORRECTING ELEMENTS/FINAL CONTROL ELEMENTS

The correcting or final control element is the part of the control
system that acts to physically change the manipulated variable. In
most cases, the final control element is a valve used to restrict or cut
off fluid flow, but pump motors, louvers (typically used to regulate air
flow), solenoids, and other devices can also be final control elements.
Final control elements are typically used to increase or decrease fluid
flow. For example, a final control element may regulate the flow of
fuel to a burner to control temperature, the flow of a catalyst into a
reactor to control a chemical reaction, or the flow of air into a boiler
to control boiler combustion.

ACTUATORS
An actuator is the part of a final control device that causes a physical
change in the final control device when signalled to do so. The most
common example of an actuator is a valve actuator, which opens or
closes a valve in response to control signals from a controller.
Actuators are often powered pneumatically, hydraulically, or
electrically. Diaphragms, bellows, springs, gears, hydraulic pilot
valves, pistons, or electric motors are often parts of an actuator system.