Wastewater Reuse and Current Challenges PDF

The Handbook of Environmental Chemistry 44
Series Editors: Damià Barceló · Andrey G. Kostianoy
Despo Fatta-Kassinos
Dionysios D. Dionysiou
Klaus Kümmerer Editors
Wastewater
Reuse and Current
Challenges
The Handbook of Environmental Chemistry
Founded by Otto Hutzinger
Editors-in-Chief: Damià Barceló l Andrey G. Kostianoy
Volume 44
Advisory Board:
Jacob de Boer, Philippe Garrigues, Ji-Dong Gu,
Kevin C. Jones, Thomas P. Knepper, Alice Newton,
Donald L. Sparks
More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/698
Wastewater Reuse and
Current Challenges
Volume Editors: Despo Fatta-Kassinos

Dionysios D. Dionysiou
Klaus Kümmerer
With contributions by
A. Agüera E. Barca J.M. Bayona C. Becerra-Castro
A. Blanco G. Brunetti N. Cañameras J. Comas
E. Cytryn G. Del Moro C. Di Iaconi D.D. Dionysiou
D. Fatta-Kassinos D.C.Y. Foo J. Gatica D. Hermosilla
E. Kaplan K. Kümmerer D. Lambropoulou A.R. Lopes
O. Mahjoub C.M. Manaia G. Mascolo I. Michael
C. Negro O.C. Nunes C. Pastore C. Postigo
S.D. Richardson M.E.F. Silva V. Uricchio
M.I. Vasquez I. Vaz-Moreira
Editors
Despo Fatta-Kassinos Dionysios D. Dionysiou
Department of Civil and Environmental Department of Biomedical, Chemical and
Engineering Environmental Engineering
University of Cyprus University of Cincinnati
Nicosia Cincinnati
Cyprus Ohio
USA
Klaus Kümmerer
Institute of Sustainable and Environmental
Chemistry
Leuphana University Lüneburg
Lüneburg
Niedersachsen
Germany
ISSN 1867-979X ISSN 1616-864X (electronic)

ISBN 978-3-319-23891-3 ISBN 978-3-319-23892-0 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-23892-0
Library of Congress Control Number: 2016930825
Springer Cham Heidelberg New York Dordrecht London

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Editors-in-Chief
Prof. Dr. Damià Barceló Prof. Dr. Andrey G. Kostianoy
Department of Environmental Chemistry P.P. Shirshov Institute of Oceanology
IDAEA-CSIC Russian Academy of Sciences
C/Jordi Girona 18–26 36, Nakhimovsky Pr.
08034 Barcelona, Spain 117997 Moscow, Russia
and [email protected]
Catalan Institute for Water Research (ICRA)
H20 Building
Scientific and Technological Park of the
University of Girona
Emili Grahit, 101
17003 Girona, Spain
[email protected]
Advisory Board
Prof. Dr. Jacob de Boer
IVM, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, The Netherlands
Prof. Dr. Philippe Garrigues

University of Bordeaux, France
Prof. Dr. Ji-Dong Gu

The University of Hong Kong, China
Prof. Dr. Kevin C. Jones

University of Lancaster, United Kingdom
Prof. Dr. Thomas P. Knepper

University of Applied Science, Fresenius, Idstein, Germany
Prof. Dr. Alice Newton

University of Algarve, Faro, Portugal
Prof. Dr. Donald L. Sparks

Plant and Soil Sciences, University of Delaware, USA
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vii
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Series Preface
With remarkable vision, Prof. Otto Hutzinger initiated The Handbook of Environ-
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environmental chemistry was an emerging field, aiming at a complete description
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x Series Preface
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Editors-in-Chief
Volume Preface
Water is basic for all life and also for several physicochemical processes that
directly and indirectly support life and shape our planet. With an increasing
population as well as with climate change, there will be an increasing shortage of
water in different qualities and for different purposes such as for drinking water and
for irrigation. Access to clean and safe drinking water is a human right. However, it
is not yet accessible to all people. Growing humankind needs more and more
resources. This holds for water that is indispensable as drinking water as well as
for food production – with or without irrigation. Water shortage by volume is the
case particularly in arid regions; however, such a shortage is also more and more
observable in the so-called water-rich regions. Additionally, there is a shortage of
clean water, i.e., water of sufficiently high quality – not just for drinking water
purposes but also for high-tech industrial production – and sufficient quality is also
indispensable for safe food.
Therefore, increasing reuse of reclaimed water in different qualities is necessary.
There are, however, several challenges to implement this on a large scale. Depend-
ing on its further use, water needs to comply with different quality levels needed to
be met for its usage, respectively. Reclaimed water for irrigation and agriculture
needs to meet certain standards as water contaminants can be taken up by plants/
crops and/or accumulate in non-target organisms. Current challenges include the
removal of microbial contaminants such as bacteria (including antibiotic resistant
bacteria), viruses, protozoa, and other microorganisms, mobile-resistant elements,
and also organic contaminants of emerging concern and other organic and inorganic
constituents. As for the chemical compounds, it is anticipated that their usage and
introduction into the aquatic environment via various routes will increase in the
future, as will do their production and application in various products and process-
es. This holds true for the amount but also for the number of compounds. As for
(micro)organisms, the effect of climate change and increase of human population
on them is expected to be significant.
One of the most important challenges for water reuse is therefore enabling
wastewater reuse in sufficient quality and quantity in the most sustainable manner.
xi
xii Volume Preface
This book address the most important related current challenges including analyti-
cal chemical methodologies for the identification and quantification of contami-
nants of emerging concern and also of their transformation products, the various
bioassays applied for the assessment of the biological potency of treated wastewa-
ter, and the bioavailability and uptake of organic contaminants during crop irriga-
tion. It also addresses emerging issues like antibiotic resistance, both in wastewater
and in soil in downstream environments. It presents the current situation in various
countries that suffer from water scarcity and various other important issues like
water recovery systems. The potential for other reuse practices like in the paper
industry and in landfill management is also presented.
The editors would like to acknowledge all the scientists involved in the devel-
opment of the book and for creating the opportunity for fruitful discussions and
exchange of ideas and knowledge and their patience with the editors. They would
also like to thank warmly their co-workers of their research groups for their support
in the daily working routine for giving them time to edit a book in such a vital field
for the sustainable development of the urban environments and societies. Special
thanks go to Dr. Lida Ioannou and Mr. Toumazis Toumazi (Nireas-International
Water Research Center, University of Cyprus), Dr. Oliver Olsson (Institute of
Sustainable and Environmental Chemistry, Leuphana University Lüneburg), and
Ms. Xiaodi Duan (University of Cincinnati) for their significant contribution and
administrative work and support during the development of the book.
The editors would like to express their gratitude to Dr. Andrea Schlitzberger and
their team at Springer Publisher who supported in such a wonderful and construc-
tive way the idea to realize this book.
Nicosia, Cyprus Despo Fatta-Kassinos

Cincinnati, OH, USA Dionysios D. Dionysiou
Lüneburg, Germany Klaus Kümmerer
November 2015
Contents
Scope of the Book Wastewater Reuse and Current Challenges. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Klaus Kümmerer, Dionysios D. Dionysiou, and Despo Fatta-Kassinos
New Challenges for the Analytical Evaluation of Reclaimed

Water and Reuse Applications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Ana Agüera and Dimitra Lambropoulou
Bioassays Currently Available for Evaluating the Biological Potency

of Pharmaceuticals in Treated Wastewater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Marlen I. Vasquez, Irene Michael, Klaus Kümmerer,
and Despo Fatta-Kassinos
Bioavailability and Uptake of Organic Micropollutants During Crop

Irrigation with Reclaimed Wastewater: Introduction to Current Issues
and Research Needs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
N. Cañameras, J. Comas, and J.M. Bayona
Irrigation with Treated Wastewater: Potential Impacts

on Microbial Function and Diversity in Agricultural Soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Ana Rita Lopes, Cristina Becerra-Castro, Ivone Vaz-Moreira,
M. Elisabete F. Silva, Olga C. Nunes, and Célia M. Manaia
Antibiotic Resistance Elements in Wastewater Treatment Plants:

Scope and Potential Impacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Joao Gatica, Ella Kaplan, and Eddie Cytryn
Safe Drinking Water? Effect of Wastewater Inputs and Source

Water Impairment and Implications for Water Reuse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
Susan D. Richardson and Cristina Postigo
xiii
xiv Contents
Design of Water Recovery System with Process Integration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183

Dominic C.Y. Foo
Wastewater Use in Agriculture and Relevance of Micropollutants

in North African Countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
Olfa Mahjoub
Water Reuse Within the Paper Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213

Angeles Blanco, Daphne Hermosilla, and Carlos Negro
Reusing Landfill Leachate Within the Framework of a Proper

Management of Municipal Landfills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
G. Del Moro, C. Pastore, E. Barca, C. Di Iaconi, G. Mascolo,
G. Brunetti, and V. Uricchio
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
Scope of the Book Wastewater Reuse
and Current Challenges
Klaus Kümmerer, Dionysios D. Dionysiou, and Despo Fatta-Kassinos
Abstract This volume offers an overview of current challenges related to the

wastewater reuse practice, including analytical methodologies, bioassays, uptake
of organic contaminants during crop irrigation, and antibiotic resistance-related
issues. It also offers information on various wastewater reuse cases under various
scenarios.
Keywords Antibiotic resistance, Bioassays, Chemical analysis, Uptake,

Wastewater reuse practices
K. Kümmerer
Institute of Sustainable and Environmental Chemistry, Leuphana University Lüneburg,
Scharnhorststraße 1/C13, 21335 Lüneburg, Germany
e-mail: [email protected]
D.D. Dionysiou
Department of Biomedical, Chemical and Environmental Engineering (DBCEE),
Environmental Engineering and Science Program, 705 Engineering Research Center,
University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH 45221-0012, USA
Nireas-International Water Research Center, University of Cyprus, 1 Panepistimiou Avenue,
2109 Nicosia, Cyprus
D. Fatta-Kassinos (*)
Nireas-International Water Research Center, University of Cyprus, 1 Panepistimiou Avenue,
2109 Nicosia, Cyprus
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Cyprus, 1 Panepistimiou
Avenue, 2109 Nicosia, Cyprus
D. Fatta-Kassinos et al. (eds.), Wastewater Reuse and Current Challenges, 1

Hdb Env Chem (2016) 44: 1–6, DOI 10.1007/698_2015_448,
© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015, Published online: 20 December 2015
2 K. Kümmerer et al.
Water and wastewater reuse is a long-established practice used for irrigation

especially in arid countries. With the advent of modern industrial societies and
modern agriculture, the advent of modern chemical and microbiological analytical
methods and instruments, and increased knowledge related to health and well-being
brought the quality of water to be reused within recent decades more and more into
focus. The need for reuse of water is increasingly fuelled by the climate change and
increasing population. This in turn has increased the interest on safeguarding the
quality of water for reuse – not only in arid countries. The presence of “new”
contaminants in treated wastewater has led to an increased concern about the
potential direct and indirect effects to the environment and possible implications
to human health.
In response to the increasing problem of water shortage, treated urban waste-
water is currently widely reused and considered to be a reliable alternative water
source. Regions inhabited by more than 40% of the world’s population already are
in a situation where water demand exceeds supply. The shortage of water and the
increasing need for food due to the expanding world population and for irrigation
water, both in respect to sufficient quality and quantity (see also Sustainable
Development Goal No. 6 of the United Nations), render reuse an indispensable
practice. Nowadays, closing the urban water cycles is of high priority on the policy
agendas of many countries around the world.
Although reuse is accompanied by a number of benefits, and major advances
have been made with respect to producing safe treated effluents for reuse (e.g.,
successful removal of nutrients and metals, strongly reducing chemical oxygen
demand), several important questions are still unanswered, and others were recog-
nized with the advent of modern chemical and microbiological knowledge,
methods, and apparatuses. It has been learned that still barriers exist regarding
the safe and sustainable reuse practices. Available and applied technologies fail to
completely remove many of the contaminants of emerging concern, while no
consolidated information exists concerning the efficacy of the treatment technolo-
gies to remove bacteria resistant against antibiotics and the related genetic material.
The contamination of the environment, the food chain, drinking water, etc., with
antibiotic-resistant bacteria and resistance genes is presently considered as a serious
public health problem. For this reason, the World Health Organization (WHO)
identified the development of antibiotic resistance as one of the major global threats
to humankind and recommends intensive monitoring for the identification and
surveillance of critical hot spots such as wastewater treatment plants, aiming at
reducing its propagation.
Other current challenges include the analytical methods to identify and quantify
such contaminants in complex matrices like wastewater; the development of bio-
assays that can be applied to assess the effects of such contaminants and of treated
wastewater as complimentary or alternative methods to the chemical methodolo-
gies, in order to evaluate the potential of the treated flows to cause harm to the
human and environmental health; and the potential crop uptake during wastewater
reuse for irrigation of such chemical and biological microcontaminants.
Scope of the Book Wastewater Reuse and Current Challenges 3
The various chapters of this book address these important issues along with other
related issues and present specific examples [1].
The second chapter of the book aims at giving an overview of the analytical
methodologies and techniques currently applied while providing a discussion on
their requirements, potential, and limitations [2]. The presence of organic
microcontaminants in wastewater represents a significant challenge to wastewater
reclamation. Problems associated to the repeated release of treated wastewater in
the environment for reuse applications, such as infiltration into the underground
including pollution of groundwater or accumulation in soil and plants, are still
scarcely investigated. Consequently, comprehensive and high-throughput analyti-
cal methods have to be developed and validated to provide a comprehensive
evaluation of these microcontaminants in water, soils, and crops.
The development and application of bioassays able to identify and quantify the
biological potency of treated wastewater are an ongoing research effort, especially
when taking into consideration that a plethora of biological contaminants exist and
interact in the complex wastewater matrix and also with other environmental
parameters when in nature. The third chapter of the book summarizes the
available literature regarding the sensitivity of currently applied bioassays for
assessing biological effects of treated wastewater and their correlation with chem-
ical analysis [3].
Organic microcontaminants occurring in reclaimed water can be introduced into
soil, where they can interact with inorganic constituents, organic matter such as
humic compounds or anthropogenic organic matter depending on their physico-
chemical properties. In the soil water, a fraction of them can be more or less
completely biodegraded or mineralized, while another fraction including products
of incomplete mineralization can be taken up by plants and translocated further.
Once incorporated in the plant, a fraction can be metabolized to again new
compounds. These processes are tackled by the fourth chapter of the book [4].
Wastewater reuse for irrigation, apart from the introduction of some biological
and chemical hazardous agents in the environment, is a process that can potentially
cause the disturbance of the indigenous soil microbial communities. The conse-
quences of these disturbances, e.g., for soil fertility or human health, are still poorly
understood. These alterations, which involve a high complexity, may have impacts
on soil quality and productivity. In addition, possible health risks may arise, in
particular, through the direct or indirect contamination of the food chain with
micropollutants, pathogens, or antibiotic resistance determinants. The fifth chapter
summarizes the physicochemical and microbiological alterations in soil that can
result due to the irrigation with treated wastewater [5].
The sixth chapter summarizes the current understanding of antibiotic resistance
in wastewater treatment plants and downstream environments, presents knowledge
gaps that need to be bridged in order to better understand the potential ramifications
of this phenomenon [6], overviews the effect of disinfection treatments on antibi-
otic resistance elements, and finally discusses policy guidelines that should be
implemented in the future to reduce the risks of antibiotic resistance from waste-
water treatment plants.
4 K. Kümmerer et al.
The incomplete elimination of contaminants of emerging concern during con-

ventional wastewater treatment constitutes a major issue and possible limitation for
water reuse, because these compounds can undergo transformation in the environ-
ment or during disinfection and other treatment if reclaimed water is used for
drinking water production. Different emerging contaminants, e.g., perfluorinated
compounds, pharmaceuticals, antibacterials, plasticizers, preservatives, flame retar-
dants, dyes, and the products of their transformation and incomplete mineralization
(transformation products) which are in some cases more toxic than original com-
pounds, have been occasionally found in finished drinking waters. The seventh
chapter reviews the contaminants detected in drinking water and the disinfection
by-products generated by many of them present in the aquatic environment [7].
Moreover, the potential toxicologic effects that these pollutants and their transfor-
mation products pose for human health are also reviewed.
The growing need for better water management leads concurrently to the need
for development of various process integration tools for resource conservation. In
the past three decades, process integration techniques such as pinch analysis and
mathematical optimization have been developed to address various resource con-
servation issues, ranging from energy, materials, and more specifically water
recovery. The eighth chapter presents one of the major process integration tools
[8], known as water pinch analysis, for the design of water recovery system. A
water recovery case study of a steel plant is used for illustration.
Based on research findings during the last decades, the presence of
micropollutants in reclaimed water has gained interest not only in developed
countries but also elsewhere. In North African and other arid countries, in view
of the prevailing quality of reclaimed water and its current usage for growing crops,
the occurrence of such contaminants has recently raised concern with an increasing
number of research works and publications. However, it remains challenging to
identify, quantify, and prioritize the most relevant to be regulated. The ninth chapter
aims at shedding light on the usage of reclaimed water for irrigation in Algeria,
Egypt, Libya, Morocco, and Tunisia while pinpointing the potential sources of
contaminants of emerging concern in wastewaters [9].
Various industrial sectors are water intensive. Pulp and paper industry is one of
them. Sustainable water management has been achieved by following the principle
of water fit for use, which has mainly been developed through the optimization of
water circuits, the cascade use of water, etc. In fact, this sector is nowadays
regarded as a reference for water reuse. Chapter ten discusses the various opportu-
nities that exist in closing the water cycle in this type of industry [10].
Another important example of wastewater reuse is presented in the eleventh
chapter of the book [11]. It refers to the possibility of reusing leachate substances
for agronomical purposes, which might be of interest, especially in arid areas when
used in addition to the leachate water content. The study presents a simple proce-
dure for the revegetation of the walls of closed landfills, reusing the leachate as a
fertigant.
An outlook that provides the reader with information on the potential strategies
that could be applied in order to tackle the problems related with the presence of
Scope of the Book Wastewater Reuse and Current Challenges 5
contaminants of emerging concern and wastewater can be found at the end of the
companion volume Advanced Treatment Technologies for Urban Wastewater
Reuse [12].
References
1. Kümmerer K, Dionysiou DD, Fatta-Kassinos D (2015) Scope of the Book Wastewater Reuse
and Current Challenges. Hdb Env Chem. doi:10.1007/698_2015_448
2. Agüera A, Lambropoulou D (2015) New challenges for the analytical evaluation of reclaimed
water and reuse applications. Hdb Env Chem. doi:10.1007/698_2015_364
3. Vasquez MI, Michael I, Kümmerer K, Fatta-Kassinos D (2015) Bioassays currently available
for evaluating the biological potency of pharmaceuticals in treated wastewater. Hdb Env
Chem. doi:10.1007/698_2015_417
4. Ca~nameras N, Comas J, Bayona JM (2015) Bioavailability and uptake of organic
micropollutants during crop irrigation with reclaimed wastewater: Introduction to current
issues and research needs. Hdb Env Chem. doi:10.1007/698_2015_412
5. Lopes AR, Becerra-Castro C, Vaz-Moreira I, Silva MEF, Nunes OC, Manaia CM (2015)
Irrigation with treated wastewater: potential impacts on microbial function and diversity in
agricultural soils. Hdb Env Chem. doi:10.1007/698_2015_346
6. Kaplan GJE, Cytryn E (2015) Antibiotic resistance elements in wastewater treatment plants:
scope and potential impacts. Hdb Env Chem. doi:10.1007/698_2015_361
7. Richardson SD, Postigo C (2015) Safe drinking water? Effect of wastewater inputs and source
water impairment and implications for water reuse. Hdb Env Chem. doi:10.1007/698_2015_
371
8. Foo DCY (2014) Design of water recovery system with process integration. Hdb Env Chem.
doi:10.1007/698_2014_322
9. Mahjoub O (2015) Wastewater use in agriculture and relevance of micropollutants in North
African countries. Hdb Env Chem. doi:10.1007/698_2015_337
10. Blanco A, Hermosilla D, Negro C (2015) Water reuse within the paper industry. Hdb Env
Chem. doi:10.1007/698_2015_360
11. Del Moroa G, Pastorea C, Barcaa E, Di Iaconia C, Mascoloa G, Brunettib G, Uricchioa V
(2015) Reusing landfill leachate within the framework of a proper management of municipal
landfills. Hdb Env Chem. doi:10.1007/698_2015_337
12. Kümmerer K, Dionysiou D, Fatta-Kassinos D (2015) Long-term strategies for tackling
micropollutants. Handb Environ Chem. doi:10.1007/698_2015_447
New Challenges for the Analytical Evaluation
of Reclaimed Water and Reuse Applications
Ana Agüera and Dimitra Lambropoulou
Abstract Presence of unregulated and not assessed organic microcontaminants in

wastewater effluents represents a significant challenge to wastewater reclamation,
especially if intended for human consumption or irrigation practices. Problems
associated to the repeated release of treated wastewater in the environment for
reuse applications, such as infiltration into the underground including pollution of
ground water or accumulation in soil and plants, are still scarcely investigated.
Consequently, comprehensive and high-throughput analytical methods have to be
developed and validated to provide a comprehensive evaluation of these micro-
contaminants in water, soils and crops. This chapter aims to give an overview of the
analytical strategies currently used in this field, its requirements and limitations.
Keywords Mass spectrometry, Organic microcontaminants, Screening analysis,

Transformation products, Wastewater
Contents
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2 Determination of Organic Microcontaminants in Wastewater and Reclaimed Water . . . . . 9
2.1 Sample Extraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.2 Chromatographic Separation and Determination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3 Determination of Organic Microcontaminants in Soils Associated with Reclaimed
Wastewater Reuse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
A. Agüera (*)
CIESOL (Solar Energy Research Center), Joint Centre of the University of Almerı́a-CIEMAT,
04120 Almerı́a, Spain
D. Lambropoulou (*)
Environmental Pollution Control Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, Aristotle University
of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki 54124, Greece

Hdb Env Chem (2016) 44: 7–48, DOI 10.1007/698_2015_364,
© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015, Published online: 15 July 2015
8 A. Agüera and D. Lambropoulou
3.1 Analytical Methods/Sample Preparation in Soil Samples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

3.2 Occurrence of Microcontaminants in Soils Associated with Reclaimed Wastewater
Reuse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
4 Determination of Organic Microcontaminants in Crops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
4.1 Extraction Methods/Sample Preparation in Crops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
4.2 Occurrence of Microcontaminants in Crops Associated with Reclaimed Wastewater
Reuse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
5 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
1 Introduction
Reuse of wastewater is nowadays accepted as a strategy that can contribute

significantly to an efficient and sustainable water usage [1]. However, the ineffi-
cient removal of a large number of organic contaminants of emerging concern
(CECs) during wastewater treatments can represent a limitation. Pharmaceuticals,
perfluorinated compounds, artificial sweeteners, hormones, disinfection
by-products, UV filters, brominated flame retardants, benzotriazoles, naphthenic
acids, siloxanes, musk fragrances, etc. are among the long list of CECs reported, to
which we must add the transformation products (TPs) generated during water
treatment processes or by natural processes [2]. It is nowadays accepted that the
removal of these compounds prior to discharge of treated water is essential to avoid
damage of water resources. However, increasing reuse practices involve new
exposure routes, such as soils and crops. Consequently, the accumulation of
contaminants in soils after irrigation practices and the evaluation of the uptake by
crop plants are new insights that demand research.
In the last decades, scientific community has made a great effort to provide
analytical methods able to accurately determine CECs and their TPs in different
environmental matrices, overcoming limitations associated to analytes (high polar-
ity, instability, etc.) and matrix nature (matrix effects). This effort has been possible
thanks to significant technological advances in analytical instrumentation.
Chromatography–mass spectrometry coupled systems have emerged as the
undisputed leaders in this field, due to their large separation and identification
capacity for, in principle, an unlimited number of compounds. Multi-stage mass
analysers like triple quadrupole (QqQ-MS) or quadrupole linear ion trap (QqLIT-
MS) have dramatically enhanced the sensitivity, specificity and quantitative per-
formance of target analyses. Likewise, the increasing availability and application of
high-resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS) has contributed in the expansion of the
scope of analyses, by implementing wide-scope screening methods for non-target
analytes.
HRMS has also provided an excellent platform for identification studies of
unknown TPs, although in many cases results are insufficient for a reliable identi-
fication and structure allocation.
New Challenges for the Analytical Evaluation of Reclaimed Water and Reuse. . . 9
This chapter intends to provide an overview of the main analytical methodo-

logies currently applied for the evaluation of CECs and their TPs in wastewater,
reclaimed water, soils and plants. Analytical methods are discussed considering
new developments in sample preparation and determination. Finally, the current
contamination status by different groups of organic contaminants in soils and crops
is overviewed.
2 Determination of Organic Microcontaminants

in Wastewater and Reclaimed Water
Trace analysis of organic contaminants in raw and treated wastewater is usually

performed to assess the contaminants present in the effluents and identify the
formation of possible TPs. Nonselective extraction/preconcentration steps are usu-
ally combined with extensive target analyses, non-target screening methods and/or
with analytical strategies for the identification and structure elucidation of unknown
compounds, by using different chromatography–mass spectrometry approaches.
2.1 Sample Extraction
Low concentrations of contaminants in wastewater make the sample enrichment a

crucial step. However, the comprehensive evaluation of the samples entails great
difficulty due to the large number of compounds involved and the differences in
their properties. Some examples are included in Table 1.
Traditional liquid–liquid extraction (LLE) has been successfully applied for the
extraction of less polar contaminants. However, new developments tend to focus on
reducing solvent usage and improving extraction of more polar or ionic compounds.
Solid phase extraction (SPE) is the most comprehensive and widely used
technique. To extend its applicability to more hydrophilic compounds, traditionally
used sorbents have been replaced by new polymeric materials. Oasis HLB
(hydrophilic–lipophilic balance) sorbent, containing lipophilic (divinylbenzene)
and hydrophilic (N-vinyl-pyrrolidone) groups in its structure, and Strata-X material,
based on a polydivinylbenzene resin containing piperidone, have been extensively
used [3–6]. Both provide large capacity and high retention of a broad type of
compounds. However, the lack of selectivity causes undesirable matrix effects
when working with MS.
To improve selectivity and retention for ionic compounds, mixed-mode poly-
meric sorbents exhibiting both hydrophobic and ion-exchange properties have been
developed. These materials base their structure on a polymeric skeleton chemically
modified in its surface with strong and weak cationic or anionic functional groups.
Commercially available sorbents, such Oasis MAX, Oasis MCX, Strata X-C, Strata
Table 1 Analysis of organic microcontaminants in wastewater
10
Analytes Water matrix Extraction Separation Analysis Reference

Multi-class emerging organic Tap, surface and SPE Oasis HLB SymmetryShield RP18 LC-(ESI+/) [3]
pollutants (53) wastewater (2.1 150 mm, 3.5 μm) TQ-MS/MS
in positive mode
Luna Phenyl-Hexyl
(150 2 mm, 3 μm) in
negative mode
Pharmaceuticals (38), metabolites Wastewater SPE Oasis HLB Zorbax SB C18 LC-(ESI) [4]
(10), pesticides (6), disinfectants (250 3.0 mm, 5 μm) QqQLIT-
(2) MS/MS
Pharmaceuticals (50) River water and SPE Oasis HLB Acquity UPLC HSS T3 UPLC-(ESI) [5]
wastewater (100 2.1 mm, 1.8 μm) TQ-MS/MS
Pharmaceuticals (18) Wastewater SPE Strata X Gemini C18 LC-(ESI+/) [6]
(150 2 mm, 3 μm) ESI TQ-MS/MS
+
Synergi MAX-RP
(100 2 mm, 2.5 μm)
ESI
Multi-class emerging organic pol- River water and SPE Oasis MCX Acquity UPLC UPLC-(ESI [7]
lutants (pharmaceuticals, personal wastewater BEH C18 column +/)TQ-MS/
care products and illicit drugs) (50) (100 1 mm, 1.7 μm) MS
Pharmaceuticals (48) Surface water and SPE Oasis MCX BEH C18 column UPLC-(ESI [8]
and metabolites (6) wastewater (100 1.0 mm, 1.7 μm) +/)TQ-MS/
MS
Basic, neutral and acidic Wastewater SPE in series Oasis MCX and Waters Acquity HSS T3 LC-QTOF- [9]
pharmaceuticals (15) Oasis MAX (100 mm 2.1 mm, dp MS
1.8 μm)
A. Agüera and D. Lambropoulou
Amphetamine drugs Wastewater MISPE SupelMIP-Amphetamine Halo C18 LC-(ESI)TQ- [10]
(100 2.1 mm, 2.7 μm) MS/MS
Selected psychoactive pharmaceu- River water and MISPE SupelMIP-antidepressant Acquity UPLC UPLC-(ESI [11]
ticals (7) wastewater BEH C18 column +)TQ-MS/
(2.1 50 mm, 1.7 μm) MS
Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory Wastewater MISPE Affinilute MIP-NSAIDs Fused-Core™ Ascentis LC-UV [12]
drugs (15) Express C18 LC-(ESI)TQ-
(100 4.6 mm, 2.7 μm) MS/MS
β-blockers (8) Wastewater MISPE MIP4SPE™ β-blockers Purospher Star RP-18 LC-QqLIT [13]
endcapped column MS
(125 2.0 mm, 5 μm)
Pharmaceuticals (56), metabolites Hospital wastewater On-line mixed-bed multilayer SPE Atlantis T3 LC-TQ-MS/ [14]
(10) and corrosion inhibitors (2) Isolute ENV+ and Oasis HLB MS
Polar organic micropollutants (88) Ground, surface and On-line mixed-bed multilayer SPE Atlantis T3 LC-(ESI)TQ- [15]
wastewater Oasis HLB, Strata XAW, Strata (150 3.0 mm, 3 μm) MS/MS
XCW and Isolute ENV+
Cytostatics (13) and metabolites Groundwater, surface On-line SPE PLRP-s (crosslinked Purospher STAR LC-(ESI) [16]
(4) water, and raw and styrene-divinylbenzene polymer) RP-18e (125 2 mm, QqQLIT-
treated wastewater 5 μm) MS/MS
Estrogens (estrone, estradiol, Wastewater LVI (900 μL) ZORBAX Eclipse Plus- LC-(ESI)TQ- [17]
estriol and ethinylestradiol) (4), C18 (75 3.5 mm, MS/MS
perfluoroalkyl carboxylates 3.5 μm)
(C4–C11) (8), and perfluoroalkyl
sulphonates (5)
Illicit and legal drugs and urinary Wastewater LVI (1,800 μL) Atlantis T3 C18 LC-(ESI)TQ- [18]
indicators (cotinine, caffeine and MS/MS
New Challenges for the Analytical Evaluation of Reclaimed Water and Reuse. . .
(150 4.6 mm, 5 μm

creatinine)
(continued)
11
Table 1 (continued)
12
Analytes Water matrix Extraction Separation Analysis Reference

Endogenous androgens (2) and Wastewater LVI (1,800 μL) ZORBAX Eclipse Plus LC-(ESI)TQ- [19]
synthetic androgens (9) C18 (150 4.6 mm, MS/MS
3.5 μm)
Drugs of abuse, along with some Wastewater and sur- Direct injection (10 μL) ZORBAX Eclipse XDB LC-(ESI) [20]
of their respective metabolites (22) face water C8 (150 4.6 mm, QqQLIT-
5 μm) MS/MS
Micropollutants (76) Surface water, sea HS-SPME (PDMS/DVB) TRB-5MS GC-Q-MS [21]
water and wastewater (60 m 0.32 mm, 1 μm)
VOCs (20) Surface water and HS-SPME (CAR/PDMS) BP624 (30 m 0.25 mm, GC-TQ-MS [22]
wastewater 1.4 μm)
Anti-inflammatory drugs (6) Surface water and HS-SPME (PDMS) HP-5MS GC-Q-MS [23]
wastewater (30 m 0.25 mm,
0.25 μm)
Musk fragrances (9) Wastewater HS-SPME (PDMS/DVB) ZB-50 (30 m 0.25 mm; GC-IT-MS [24]
0.25 μm)
Endocrine-disrupting compounds Wastewater, solids and SBSE (PDMS) DB-5MS GC-Q-MS [27]
(14) sludge (30 m 0.25 mm;
0.5 μm)
Insect repellents and synergists (8) Surface water and SBSE (PDMS) HP-5MS GC-Q-MS [38]
wastewater (30 m 250 μm,
0.25 μm)
Chlorinated chemicals River water and SBSE (PDMS) HP-5MS GC-TQ-MS [39]
wastewater (30 m 250 μm,
0.25 μm)
Pharmaceuticals and personal care Wastewater SBSE (EG Silicone) Kromasil 100 C18 LC-(ESI)TQ- [28]
products (150 4.6 mm, 5 μm) MS/MS
Pharmaceuticals and personal care Wastewater SBSE (poly-PEGMA-co-PETRA) Kromasil 100 C18 LC-(ESI)TQ- [29]
products (16) (150 4.6 mm, 5 μm) MS/MS
Nitro musks Surface water and DLLME HP-5MS GC-Q-MS [30]
wastewater (30 m 0.25 mm,
0.25 μm)
Volatile siloxanes (8) Wastewater USA-DLLME DB-624 GC-Q-MS [31]
(60 m 0.25 mm,
1.40 μm)
MISPE molecularly imprinted SPE, SBSE stir-bar sorptive extraction, SPME solid-phase microextraction, MWCNTs multi-walled carbon nanotubes, LVI large
volume injection, HS-SPME headspace solid-phase microextraction, CAR/PDMS carboxen/polydimethylsiloxane, PEGMA-co-PETRA poly(ethylene glycol)
methacrylate-co-pentaerythritol triacrylate, DLLME dispersive liquid–liquid microextraction, USA ultrasound-assisted
13
X-WA or Bond Elut Plexa PCX, have yielded good extraction for both charged and
neutral compounds in wastewater [7, 8].
Although extraction in one single step is the most common approach, serial SPE
separation using different sorbents also represent an interesting alternative. Relying
on ion-exchange and reversed-phase mechanisms, different groups of compounds
can be isolated in separate fractions by the application of different elution condi-
tions. Thus, increasing recoveries for specific compounds and cleaner extracts can
be simultaneously obtained. Lavén et al. [9] report simultaneous extraction of
15 basic, neutral and acidic pharmaceuticals in wastewater using mixed-mode
cation- and anion-exchange SPE in series.
Another type of selective sorbents is based on molecularly imprinted polymers
(MIPs). MIPs are synthetic polymeric materials with specific molecular-recognition
properties that can specifically rebind a target molecule. The inherent specificity
prevents their application to multiresidue extraction, but the high potential for
single group analysis has contributed to their widespread use [10, 11]. As an
example, a commercial MIP specific for non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs
was successfully compared with three common sorbent (Oasis HLB, Oasis MAX
and Oasis WAX), proving to be very effective in the reduction of matrix interfer-
ences and the selective extraction of 15 acidic pharmaceuticals from effluent
wastewater samples [12]. Reduced matrix effects and higher sensitivity was also
reported by molecularly imprinted solid phase extraction (MISPE) of 8 beta-
blocker drugs, comparing with Oasis HLB [13].
An advantageous alternative to classical SPE, in terms of labour and time-
consuming are on-line SPE methods. They usually involve a two-step procedure
including automated sample loading in an extraction cartridge and subsequent
elution directly onto the analytical column. This procedure provides similar or
better detection limits than off-line methods using smaller sample and organic
solvents volumes, in a shorter analysis time, with minimal interferences and good
performance, largely due to easier handling and higher automation [14]. A recent
application of online SPE-LC–MS/MS has been reported by Huntscha et al. [15] for
the simultaneous enrichment and analysis of 88 neutral, cationic and anionic
microcontaminants in wastewater. In this study a single mixed-bed multilayer
cartridge was used, containing four different extraction materials: Oasis HLB,
Strata XAW, Strata XCW and Isolute ENV+ in order to cover the different
physical–chemical properties of the analytes. The majority of compounds was
quantified with high precision and relative recoveries between 80% and 120%,
using a sample volume of only 20 mL. The effort for manual sample handling was
limited to filtration, reducing the whole analysis time to only 36 min. Other on-line
SPE configurations use robotic systems working in parallel mode [32]. This means
that one sample is loaded in one cartridge while another one is eluted into the HPLC
system [16]. These sample preparation units use single-use cartridges, avoiding
problems associated to the reusability of the pre-columns, such as changes in
selectivity and capacity, or cross-contamination.
In contrast to SPE, large volume injection methods combined with liquid
chromatography–mass spectrometry (LVI-LC-MS) are rapidly gaining acceptance,
because of their simplicity and good performance [33]. The method basically
consists of injecting up to a few millilitres of a filtrated or centrifuged sample
directly into a chromatographic column. This method presents clear advantages
over SPE: (1) it reduces material and solvent consumption; (2) it increases sample
throughput; and (3) it eliminates analytes losses associated with the extraction
procedures. Despite its apparent simplicity, LVI also requires adequate optimi-
zation of the operating conditions to avoid effects related with overloading of the
analytical column (poor peak shapes), lack of retention of more polar analytes or
matrix effects associated to the absence of pre-treatment. Although the application
of LVI-based methods to complex matrices such as wastewater is still limited,
recent studies have demonstrated to produce analytical signals of similar quality to
SPE-based methods [17–19].
To overcome limitations of LVI and to take advantage of the increasing mass
spectrometers’ sensitivity, direct injections of smaller volumes have been assayed.
An example has been reported by Martinez Bueno et al. [20] for the simultaneous
identification/quantification of 22 drugs of abuse and their major metabolites, in
sewage and river water. The absence of pre-concentration and the use of 10 μL
injection volumes resulted in a reduction of matrix effects, with LODs ranging from
1 to 700 ng/L in wastewater.
Another group of extraction techniques includes sorptive extraction methods,
which are based on a partitioning equilibrium of analytes between the aqueous
sample and a solid sorbent supported in different devices. They mainly include
solid-phase microextraction (SPME) and stir-bar sorptive extraction (SBSE)
[34]. Both are based on the same principles and their merits yield on their simplicity
of operation, solvent-free nature of the process, possibility of full automation and
easy coupling with gas chromatography (GC).
In SPME a fine fused silica fibre coated with a polymeric stationary phase is used
to extract and concentrate analytes directly from a sample. The choice of commer-
cial fibre coatings is limited to poly(dimethylsiloxane) (PDMS), divinylbenzene
(DVB), polyacrylate (PA), Carboxen (CAR) and poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG),
while combinations of polar/nonpolar sorbents such as PDMS/DVB, PDMS/
CAR, or CW/DVB have been designed for extracting more polar compounds [21,
22, 35]. However, increasing the polarity of the sorbent also increases the affinity
for the matrix, leading eventually to the leaching of the analytes. Another choice to
expand the applicability of SPME-GC is to decrease the polarity of analytes
previously or simultaneously to the microextraction process by in situ [23] or
on-fibre derivatization [36].
Although SPME is a widespread technique, most of the studies are devoted to
natural water samples and only a little percentage of them deals with complex
wastewater samples. Applications are frequently focused to determination of spe-
cific groups of compounds [37]. Headspace mode coupled to GC is the preferred
configuration to minimize matrix interferences. Musk fragrances [24],
benzotriazole UV stabilizers [25], nonylphenol ethoxylates [26], anti-inflammatory
drugs [23] and parabens [36] are among the groups of compounds analysed.
SBSE is expected to provide higher sample capacity and extraction efficiency

than SPME derived from the larger volumes of extraction phase contained in the
SBSE device, consisting of a magnetic stir bar covered with a polymeric coating.
SBSE can be used in combination with thermal desorption and GC analysis or, in a
more simple and versatile way, by liquid desorption using a small volume of an
organic solvent, eliminating the need for specific devices and permitting GC or LC
analysis [27, 38, 39]. Until recently, the only commercially available coating was
based on PDMS, thus limiting the application of the technique to the extraction of
apolar or moderately polar analytes (generally with log Ko/w > 3). Very recently,
novel polar coatings like poly(ethyleneglycol) (PEG)-modified silicone
(EG Silicone Twister) and polyacrylate (PA) with a proportion of PEG (Acrylate
Twister) have been marketed and applied to the analysis of pharmaceuticals and
personal-care products (PPCPs) in wastewaters [28]. However, commercial coat-
ings are still limited in terms of the more polar analytes. Novel approaches applied
on the development of in-house coatings such as sol–gel technology, the synthesis
of monolithic materials and polyurethane foams (PUFs) have yield promising
results in the analysis of CECs in wastewater [29, 40, 41], but new polar monomers
and novel formats need to be explored to improve extraction of polar compounds
from complex matrices [42].
Finally, another group of miniaturized methodologies, included under the term
liquid-phase microextraction (LPME) has emerged. They are based on the use of
negligible volumes of a water-immiscible solvent (μL or sub-μL) and an aqueous
phase containing the analytes of interest [43]. Simplicity of operation, speed, low
cost and high enrichment factors are the main strengths of these techniques.
Developments have led to different approaches of LPME, namely, single-drop
microextraction (SDME), hollow-fibre LPME (HF-LPME), dispersive liquid–liq-
uid microextraction (DLLME) and solidified floating organic drop microextraction
(SFODME). Some applications of these techniques have been reported in the
analysis of CECs in wastewater, being HF-LPME and DLLME the approaches
most widely used [30, 31].
2.2 Chromatographic Separation and Determination
Liquid and gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry are by far the
analytical techniques most often used for the analysis of wastewater and reclaimed
water. In most cases the choice between GC and LC is based on the physico-
chemical properties of the selected analytes. LC is the preferred choice for polar
and less volatile compounds (e.g. pharmaceuticals, transformation products), while
GC allows the determination of less polar and volatile analytes (e.g. fragrances, UV
filters, fire retardants and antioxidants). The definition of the objective of the
analysis is crucial for the choice of the most appropriate instrumentation and/or
analysis strategy. Three approaches can be considered: (1) analysis of target
compounds, (2) comprehensive analysis of target and non-target analytes by

screening methods and (3) identification of unknown TPs.
2.2.1 Analysis of Target Compounds
The analysis of CECs in wastewater often focuses on quantitative assessment of a

selected group of compounds [44, 45]. In the last few years, there is a trend to
expand the number of compounds included in the methods, with the aim to provide
a more comprehensive assessment.
GC approaches typically use quadrupole, ion trap or triple quadrupole analysers
working in selective ion monitoring (SIM) or tandem-mass-spectrometry (MS/MS)
modes to enhance sensitivity and selectivity. These methods rely on only a few ions
and are not designed to find compounds unless they are on the target list. Full-scan
analyses improve confirmation and allow analysis of non-target compounds but the
methods are less sensitive and prone to matrix interferences.
Recent progress in instrumentation has increased the use of time-of-flight (TOF)
mass analysers coupled to GC [142]. The main advantage of TOF-MS relies on the
full spectrum acquisition, with better sensitivity than conventional instruments. The
high acquisition speed (100–500 spectra/s) provided by some instruments, make
them suitable for coupling to ultra-fast GC or comprehensive two-dimensional gas
chromatography (GC GC). GC GC-TOF-MS has emerged as a good alternative
to analyse complex samples because it offers increased peak capacity, improved
resolution and enhanced mass sensitivity. Sample preparation procedures can be
minimized or eliminated due to the superior separating power, although at the
expense of a more frequent maintenance and cleaning. In addition, the ability of
GC GC to produce structured two-dimensional (2-D) chromatograms or “finger-
print” of a sample opens up the opportunity for sample comparison protocols. These
advantages make GC GC-TOF-MS a very interesting tool in the evaluation of
wastewater treatments. However, its application to this type of studies is still
limited. Examples recently published include the application of a sensitive
multiresidue method to assess the removal of a group of 55 contaminants (PCPs,
PAHs and pesticides) in wastewater using ozonation, UV and visible light irradi-
ation and TiO2 photocatalysis [143]. Due to the enhanced separation capacity,
GC GC-EI-TOF-MS has been also successfully applied to the identification of
enantiomeric species (R) and (S) of HHCB-lactone and other relevant TPs of the
synthetic musk HHCB during its degradation by various oxidative and irradiation
processes [144].
The application of LC-MS to the quantitative evaluation of degradation pro-
cesses usually is based on the use of hybrid triple quadrupole (QqQ) or quadrupole
linear ion trap (QqLIT) analysers, which exhibit excellent performance working in
the multiple reaction monitoring (MRM) mode. New generations of instruments
allow ultrafast MRM acquisition speeds and ion polarity switching, which ensures
compatibility with UHPLC analyses and get maximum response simultaneously for
higher number of analytes.
In QqLIT analysers the third quadrupole (Q3) can be operated in the linear ion
trap mode, leading to a unique tandem mass spectrometer capable of functioning as
either a triple quadrupole for quantitative workflows or as a highly sensitive linear
ion trap for qualitative workflows. Both capabilities can be combined in one
analysis by operating under the Information Dependent Acquisition (IDA) mode.
In this case, the MRM mode is used to screen for target compounds and whenever
the MRM signal is above a specified threshold automatically enhanced product ion
(EPI) spectra are acquired. These spectra can then be searched against a mass
spectral library thus improving qualitative capabilities [4, 145]. In this way accurate
quantitative and reliable qualitative information can be simultaneously acquired.
LC-QqLIT-MS/MS based methods have been applied to monitor degradation of
selected CECs after different wastewater treatments [44, 45].
As a consequence of the increasing interest of using accurate mass high resolu-
tion mass spectrometers (HRMS), e.g. Orbitrap and time-of-flight (TOF) instru-
ments, in environmental analysis, recent studies have explored the quantitative
potential of these instruments. Compared with first-generation instruments, the
latest TOF instruments provide increased sensitivity and resolving power, and a
wider linear dynamic range, which provides adequate quantitative skills [46, 47]. In
addition, HRMS overcomes limitations of using MRM methods, such us the limited
number of transitions that can be registered without damage in accuracy or sensi-
tivity, the non-specificity of the MRM transitions or the absence of a second MRM
confirmatory. Virtually all compounds present in a sample can be determined
simultaneously operating in full-scan mode, making no pre-selection of compounds
and associated MRM transitions necessary. Hybrid instruments, like quadrupole/
time-of-flight (QTOF) or linear ion trap (LTQ) Orbitrap, have improved the capac-
ities as screening tools for target compounds with respect to single ones, due to the
combination of mass accuracy, for both precursor and product ions, and improved
sensitivity. Furthermore, their high mass resolving power enhances the identifica-
tion of isobaric compounds since they can distinguish between compounds of
identical nominal masses. These instruments also offer the possibility of informa-
tion dependent MS/MS acquisition, i.e. an MS/MS analysis is triggered if a target
compound is detected in the full scan. As an example, Fig. 1 shows the identifica-
tion of nicotine from a river water sample [46] in a QTOF system, based on (1) the
measured mass of nicotine at m/z 163.1229, which matches the calculated mass
163.1222 with an error of 4.5 ppm, and (2) mass spectral library searching of the
MS/MS spectrum (purity score ¼ 68.5).
But, despite the reported improvements of modern instruments applied to target
analysis, the matrix effects remain the main pitfall in target quantitative analysis of
complex samples [48]. The suppression or, less frequently, the enhancement of the
analytes signal is frequently observed. Standard addition is the most suitable
method for compensating matrix effects in quantitative analysis, but it is time-
consuming and laborious. Matrix-matched calibration has been widely used [146],
but the absence of blanks and the variability of the matrix throughout the set of
samples analysed, represents a drawback.
Fig. 1 Example of identification of the targeted compound nicotine in a river water sample based
on accurate mass MS and MS/MS information (from Panditi et al. [46])
The use of internal standards (IS) also reduces matrix effects since the analyte-
to-internal standard response ratio compensates for any ion suppression/enhance-
ment that may be present. Use of isotopically labelled internal standards (ILIS) is
the most recognized technique. Panditi et al. [49] report signal suppression/
enhancement values lower than 20% in most cases in the LC-MS/MS analysis of
31 antibiotics in reclaimed water. Iba~nez et al. [50] also report the use of ILIS to
evaluate the efficiency of ozone treatment in the removal of a set of pharma-
ceuticals and drugs of abuse. A detailed study of matrix effects in wastewater
samples [5] also highlight the use of ILIS, demonstrating that the selection of an
analogue eluting at close retention time did not always ensure adequate correction.
2.2.2 Screening Methods
The target approach involves the purchase and measurement of hundreds of com-
pounds, coming along with increase in time, effort and money. In addition, waste-
water effluents contain a multitude of organic contaminants and TPs, which escape
the target analysis alone. Thus, a good choice is combining extensive target analysis
for the most relevant analytes and screening analysis, to identifying other poten-
tially relevant compounds. In this sense, capabilities of HRMS are gaining in
relevance together with novel data processing approaches to complement an exten-
sive target analysis.
Krauss et al. [51] differentiate between “suspect screening”, looking for com-
pounds that are expected to be in the samples, and “non-target screening” when no
prior information about the identity of the compounds is available. Suspect
compounds can be screened using databases containing the exact mass of expected
ions, calculated from the molecular formula. However, limitations rely on the
limited availability of databases for LC-MS/MS and the lack of reproducibility
between spectra obtained with different instruments. Some authors propose the
creation of home-made suspect lists to occur in water samples [52]. A general
weakness of the approach is the peak detection, which provides an extensive list of
suspected peaks, which in many cases derived from matrix background. Thus, an
extensive compound filtering has to be applied to discard false positive detections
based on retention time prediction, the evaluation of isotope patterns, ionization
behaviour, and HRMS/MS spectra.
“Non-target screening” involves masses that are detected in the samples, but
where no a priori information on the underlying compound is available. Identifi-
cation of masses of interest is possible when the MS is operated in a data-dependent
acquisition (DDA) mode in which both MS and MSn spectra are acquired without
the need to specify parent masses. In this mode, the instrument is initially set to
operate in full-scan (“survey”) and the acquisition software looks for the MS
spectra in real-time on a scan-by-scan basis to select the most intense parent ions
for MSn analysis. This technique is capable of finding true unknowns, as long as
they are ionized and behave accordingly in the chromatographic process, since the
method does not require any pre-selection of masses. From the measured exact
mass, the elemental compositions of non-target ions are calculated with a high
degree of certainty (maximum deviation of 5 ppm is generally admitted). This
elemental composition can be used to search electronic databases (NIST Library,
Chemfinder or Chemspider) in order to provide a reliable structure assignation if the
compounds are present there. Finally, the structures found in the libraries are
evaluated based on the fragmentation patterns observed in the simultaneously
acquired product-ion spectra [53].
2.2.3 Identification of Unknown Transformation Products
Currently it is becoming evident that the absence of parent contaminants in the

analysis of wastewater does not guarantee the quality of treated or reclaimed water
and the absence of an impact in the environment. During wastewater treatment,
many organic microcontaminants undergo transformation reactions resulting in the
appearance TPs [54]. Despite efforts in the identification, only a small portion of
possible TPs that can be generated during treatments have been investigated,
mainly because of labour-intensive and time consuming experimental and ana-
lytical steps and the frequent absence of analytical standards for an unequivocal
confirmation.
HRMS represents an interesting choice for this kind of analysis because of the
ability of providing accurate mass and elemental composition of both molecular
and MS/MS product ions [55], although structural isomers cannot be distinguished.
Figure 2 shows an example of identification of the TP thiazole-4-carboxamide
generated by Fenton oxidation treatment of the pesticide thiabendazole in water
THIABENDAZOLE Thiazole-4-carboxamide
H2N
S
O N
x10 3
8.5 C2HS+
8
56.9796
7.5
S O
7
S
6.5 C4H2NOS+
6 N
H 111.9844
5.5 N
5 C3H2NS+ H
4.5
83.9905
4
H2N
3.5 S
3 -CHN
2.5
O N
2
-CO
1.5 C4H5N2OS+
1 -NH3
129.0104
0.5
48 50 52 54 56 58 60 62 64 66 68 70 72 74 76 78 80 82 84 86 88 90 92 94 96 98 100 102 104 106 108 110 112 114 116 118 120 122 124 126 128 130 132
Counts vs. Mass-to-Charge (m/z)
Fig. 2 Identification of the TP thiazole-4-carboxamide generated by Fenton treatment of the

pesticide thiabendazole in water solution based on the accurate mass spectrum obtained by
LC-QTOF-MS/MS
solution. Structural elucidation was based on the accurate mass spectrum obtained
by LC-QTOF-MS/MS and then confirmed by analysis of the analytic standard.
Most published studies dealing with the identification of TPs are performed with
individual compounds and under laboratory conditions (distilled water and high
initial concentration of the contaminant studied). However, the “ideal” conditions
applied hardly are comparable to those that occur in real processes. Methods are
needed allowing high-throughput elucidation of TP structures in real waters. With
this objective in mind, a systematic approach has been proposed [154]. This
approach is based on the use of characteristic fragmentation undergone by organic
contaminants during MS/MS fragmentation events, and its relationship with the
transformations experimented by these chemicals in the environment or during
water treatment processes [56]. Thus, a database containing accurate-mass infor-
mation of 147 compounds and their main fragments generated by CID MS/MS
fragmentation experiments was created using an LC-QTOF-MS/MS system. This
database was applied to the identification of tentative TPs and related unexpected
compounds in wastewater effluent samples. The approach comprises the automatic
extraction of compounds using the “Molecular Feature Extraction (MFE)” algo-
rithm to search and create a list of all the peaks that represent real molecules. This
list is compared to the database to identify possible matches. Once the potential TPs
have been tentatively identified, confirmation of their identity is obtained by
MS/MS fragmentation.
Another strategy has been proposed by Helbling et al. [147]. In this case,
candidate TPs were preliminarily identified with an innovative post-acquisition
data processing method based on target and non-target screenings of the full-scan
MS data obtained by an LTQ Orbitrap system. For the target analysis, single ion
chromatograms were extracted at the exact masses of plausible TPs predicted by the
University of Minnesota Pathway Prediction System (UM-PPS) [57]. In addition,
non-target screening was based on full-scan MS data obtained from two samples
obtained at t ¼ 0 and t > 0 to identify compound masses that formed during the
biotransformation experiment. A series of mass filters (mass and retention time
domain constraint, a background subtraction algorithm, a constrained molecular
formula fit, presence of 13C monoisotopic masses) was applied to reduce the
number of extracted masses. The list of candidate TPs must be further analysed
through manual inspection of the XICs, MS spectra and MS/MS spectra. This
procedure yielded the identification of 26 TPs but the extent of TP formation
remains unknown. Additional TPs may have formed but remained undetected
because of different causes, such as low concentration levels, limited ionization
efficiency, and poor separation in the LC system.
3 Determination of Organic Microcontaminants in Soils

Associated with Reclaimed Wastewater Reuse
3.1 Analytical Methods/Sample Preparation in Soil Samples
Solid–liquid extraction (SLE) is the oldest sample preparation technique for

extracting organic microcontaminants from soil and other solid matrices. It is still
used mainly because of its easy use and procedural simplicity. However, two main
disadvantages, the lengthy time and low extraction efficiency, have been pointed
out for this technique. To this purpose, ultrasound treatment is often used to
accelerate and favour the extraction process. Ultrasound-assisted solvent extraction
(USE) is considered a good option for organic-compound extraction from soil
matrices, as it provides more efficient contact between sample and solvent due to
an increase of pressure (which favours penetration and transport) and temperature
(which improves solubility and diffusivity). Thus, USE is one of the most widely
used techniques due to its distinct advantages, such as low cost, easiness of use,
wide-ranging applicability and availability. The extraction solvents employed are
usually mixtures of buffer solutions and organic solvents such as acetonitrile,
methanol, acetone and ethyl acetate. Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) and
McIlvaine buffer solutions (mixture of citric acid and Na2HPO4, (e.g. 0.1 M
Na2EDTA–pH 7 McIlvaine buffer, 50:50, v/v) a) are used as chelating agents in
order to improve the isolation of some antibiotic compounds from solid samples,
like tetracyclines (TCs) (e.g. tetracycline, chlortetracycline and oxytetracycline)
which tend to form chelate complexes with metal ions and are strongly sorbed to
soil [63–65]. In most cases, extraction conditions such as pH must be controlled in
order to enhance analyte extraction. Thus, for pharmaceutical compounds with
acidic (e.g. inflammatory drugs) or zwitterionic characteristics
(fluoroquinolones—FQs), the extraction is usually carried out at acidic pH. For
example, Chen et al. [66] reported the acidification of ethyl acetate with formic acid
for the extraction of 19 pharmaceuticals from soils. Golet et al. [67] demonstrated
that the adjustment of pH at 2 is necessary for simultaneous determination and high
extraction yields of FQ analytes from soils. At low pHs, FQs present a higher water
solubility as they are then mainly present as cations that enhances the extraction
efficiency. Moreover, both FQs and soil surface are protonated and, therefore,
electrostatically repulsed favouring the extraction [63]. On the other hand, for
basic or neutral compounds higher pHs are required to improve the extraction
efficiency [68]. Overall, pH should be chosen according to pKa value, since for
some antibiotics like β-lactams, hydrolysis may occur below or above neutral pH.
In addition to conventional SLE, instrumental methods such as pressurized
liquid extraction (PLE), also known as accelerated solvent extraction (ASE), and
microwave-assisted extraction (MAE) have attracted growing interest in CEC
analysis of soil samples (Table 2). They have the advantages of easier automation
and higher extraction throughput, whereas they require smaller volumes of solvent
and provide better extraction efficiencies (in terms of extraction yield and/or
recovery) when compared to conventional SLE. PLE has been successfully
employed for the determination of different groups of ECs [79]. A very interesting
feature of this technique is the possibility of full automation and many samples can
be extracted sequentially. The amount of time spent for method development can
therefore be significantly reduced compared to other techniques. In general, the
extraction is carried out with methanol [86, 99], mixtures of methanol (MeOH) and
hexane/acetone [85], dichloromethane (DCM) and acetone [92], water [69], or
mixtures of water with organic solvents, such as acetonitrile [100], isopropanol
[101], acetone/hexane [95] or MeOH [102, 103]. When water is used as extraction
solvent, pH is also controlled in the case of analytes with acid–base properties, as in
the case of macrolide, sulphonamide and β-lactam antibiotics (MeOH–citric acid
(0.2 M, pH 4.7) [102].
The extraction efficiency of PLE is dramatically influenced by extraction pres-
sure and temperature, and therefore, both parameters must be carefully optimized.
Extraction pressure is usually kept in the range of 500–1,500 psi. The extraction is
commonly carried out at temperatures ranging from 60 to 100 C because at higher
temperatures thermal degradation of analytes can occur and more matrix compo-
nents can be co-extracted affecting the extraction efficiency and leading to inter-
fering signals in MS chromatographic systems. Other particular variables of PLE
that are usually studied are the number of cycles and/or extraction time. Usually,
one to five cycles are carried out, although two cycles are mostly used [94]. Extrac-
tion time of 5 min is commonly used [103], whereas longer extraction is employed
in dynamic mode as in the case of static extraction process.
Another interesting and environmental friendly instrumental approach which
nowadays attracts considerable attention for the determination of CECs in solid
matrices is MAE. MAE simply involves placing the sample with the solvent in
specialized containers and heating the solvent using microwave energy. Hence,
extraction solvents available for MAE are limited to those solvents that absorb
microwaves (solvents with a permanent dipole). The use of solvent mixtures with
Table 2 Analysis of ECs in soil and crops samples
24
LOD/LOQ
Analytes Matrix Sample preparation Instrumentation Rec. (ng/g) Reference
Pharmaceuticals
Pharmaceuticals (19) Soil USE: 10 mL EtAc–formic acid) (50:1, LC-ESI-MS/ 43–245 0.02–4.20 [66]
v/v) (3) MS
Clean-up: Silica gel
Pharmaceuticals (6) and Soil PLE: acetone–hexane–HAc (50:50:2, GC-MS 62–118 0.5–2 [148]
metabolites (2) v/v/v), 100 C (MTBSTFA)
Clean-up: Oasis HLB
Pharmaceuticals (32) Soil PLE: 0.1 M ammonium–MeOH (1:1 v/ LC-ESI-MS/ 66–114 0.1–1.5 [149]
v), 80 C MS
Clean-up: MAX-HLB in tandem
Pharmaceuticals (19) Soil PLE: ACN–water (7:3,v/v), 130 C LC-ESI-MS 63–113 0.76–5.46 [100]
Pharmaceuticals (20) Crops (pepper USE: two-step extraction; 20 mL LC-ESI-MS/ 56.3–129.6 0.04–3.0 [96, 140]
collard, lettuce, MTBE; 20 mL ACN MS
radish, tomato Clean-up: OASIS HLB
Pharmaceuticals (17) Soil PLE: water, 90 C LC-ESI-MS/ 34–105 0.1–6.8 [69]
Clean-up: SAX + HLB in tandem MS
Pharmaceuticals (18) Soil MAE: 10 mL MeOH–water (3:2, v/v) GC-MS 91–101 0.8–4.7 ng/kg [75]
Clean-up: SPE (Oasis HLB) (BSTFA + 1%
TMCS)
Anti-inflammatory drugs Soil USE: 9 mL acetone + 9 mL EtAc GC-MS 52–11 70.2–0.4 [77, 105]
(4), Clofibric acid Clean-up: C18 (MTBSTFA)
Anti-inflammatory drugs Soil MAE: 10 mL DCM–MeOH (2:1, v/v) GC-MS <40 [72]
(3), Diphenhydramine (3), 115 C (pyridine–
hydrochloride Clean-up: Silica microcolumns BSTFA (2:1))
PPCPs (118) Biosolids USE: buffered ACN + ACN LC/ESI-MS/ 0.03–5,080 [150]
Clean-up: SPE MS
PPCPs (118) Crops (toma- USE: buffered ACN + ACN LC/ESI-MS/ 0.24–54.15 [150]
toes, carrots, Clean-up: SPE MS
potatoes and
sweet corn)
Ibuprofen, Ciprofloxacin Soil Shaking: ACN LC-UV 28–97 0.27–25.56 [131]
USE: 50 mL Na2-EDTA phosphate GC-MS
buffer pH 3–ACN (1:1, v/v) (MSTFA)
Clean-up: Oasis HLB
Diclofenac sodium, Crops (lettuce USE: two-step extraction; 20 mL HPLC-UV 74–85.8 [76]
Naproxen (Lactuca sativa) MTBE; 20 mL ACN
and collards Clean-up: OASIS HLB
(Brassica
oleracea
Carbamazepine Crops USE: 12 mL Methanol LC/ESI-MS/ 70 and 40 ng/L [151]
(cucumber) MS
Carbamazepine Soil USE: 15 mL isopropanol–water (8:2, GC-MS 67–96 110 [107]
v/v) (2)
Clean-up: Oasis HLB – Florisil in
tandem
Antibiotics
Antibiotics (15) Soil USE: 10 mL citric acid buffer (0.2 M, LC-ESI-MS/ 64–245 0.08–4.20 [66]
pH 4.4) + 10 mL MS
ACN (3)
Clean-up: Oasis HLB

Antibiotics (7) Soil USE: 90 mL MeOH + 45 mL acetone LC-ESI-MS/ 38–121 3–20a [78]
+ 45 mL EtAc MS
Clean-up: LiChrolut C18
(continued)
25
Table 2 (continued)
26
LOD/LOQ
Antibiotics (13) Soil SAs + TCs SAs + TCs 61–94 0.8–23 [64]
USE: 10 mL EDTA-McIlvaine buffer– LC-UV
MeOH (1:1, v/v)
QNs
Clean-up: C18 + SAX in tandem LC-FL
QNs
USE: 5 mL 50% MgNO3 aqueous solu-
tion containing 4% aqueous ammonia
Clean-up: C18 + SAX in tandem
Antibiotics (11) Soil TCs + SAs TCs + SAs 61–105 100a [63]
USE: 30 mL MeOH–EDTA-MacIlvaine LC-ESI-MS/
buffer pH 6 (9:1, v/v) (3) MS
Clean-up: C18 FQs
FQs LC-ESI-MS
USE: 30 mL ACN acidified with formic
acid 2% + 0.5 g organic substratum (3)
Clean-up: LLE (n-hexane)
Antibiotics (14) Soil USE: 10 mL citric buffer (0.2 M, pH 4)– LC-ESI-MS/ 48–160 0.08–4.2 [152]
ACN (1:1, v/v) (3) MS
Clean-up: Oasis HLB

Antibiotics (6) Soil PLE: MeOH–citric acid (0.2 M, pH 4.7) LC-MS/MS 50–100 0.6–5.6 [102]
(1:1, v/v), RT
Clean-up: SAX + HLB in tandem
Quinolones (10) Soil USE: 8 mL MgNO3 aqueous solution LC-UV 82–104 40–80 [74]
(50%, w/v) + 4% ammonia
Fluoroquinolones (5) Soil USE: 8 mL MgNO3 aqueous solution LC-UV 75–85 40–70 [153]
(50%, w/v) + 4% ammonia
Clean-up: MISPE Ciproflaxin
Tetracyclines (3), Tylosin Soil Shaking: 1.2 mL citrate buffer (1 M, LC-ESI-MS/ 33–127 1–2 [70]
pH 4.7) + 6 mL EtAc MS
Enrofloxacin, Soil Shaking and USE: 15 mL phosphate LC-FL 61–100 [71]
Ciprofloxacin buffer (pH 3)–ACN (1:1, v/v)
Clean-up: SAX + Oasis HLB in tandem
Oxytetracycline Soil USE: 25 mL MeOH–EDTA-MacIlvaine HPLC-DAD 65–78 0.08–0.50 mg/ [65]
Norfloxacin buffer pH 6 (9:1, v/v) (3) Kg
Chlortetracycline
Oxytetracycline Crops USE: 25 mL MeOH–EDTA-MacIlvaine HPLC-DAD 65–78 0.08–0.50 mg/ [65]
buffer pH 6 (9:1, v/v) (3) Kg
Norfloxacin Clean-up: (Strata-X)
Chlortetracycline
Sulphonamide antibiotics Soil PLE: MeOH–water (90:10, v/v), (3), LC-MS/MS 60–130 0.01–4.19 ng/g [103]
and their metabolites 100 C; Clean-up: OASIS HLB
Estrone Soil PLE: DCM–acetone (3:1, v/v), 60 C; GC-MS 71–118 0.02–0.19 ng/g [92]
17-Estradiol, Clean-up: Strata X (BSTFA)
17-ethynylestradiol estriol
(continued)
27
Table 2 (continued)
28
LOD/LOQ
Bisphenol A (BPA) Soil PLE: DCM–acetone (3:1, v/v), 60 C; GC-MS 90–128 0.37 [92]
Clean-up: Strata X (BSTFA)
Ionophores
Salinomycin A Soil PLE: 30 g sample with MeOH (1% APCI(+) 76 32 5.3a [79]
NH4OH)
Clean-up: UCT Diol SPE 2 g Triple quad
(QqQ)
Elution with 0.1 M SRM mode
NH4Ac–MeCN (2:3)
Monensin A Soil SLE: 1 g sample LLE with EtOAc ESI(+) 75 2,000 [82]
(NH4-citrate, NH4OH, pH 5.8) Triple quad
(QqQ)
SRM mode
Lasalocid, Monensin, Soil PLE: MeOH–water (1:1, v/v), 50 C; LC-MS/MS 71–123 0.64–0.98 μg/ [94]
Salinomycin and Narasin Clean-up: OASIS HLB kg
EDCs
Bisphenol A Biosolids USE: buffered ACN + ACN LC/ESI-MS/ 5,080 [150]
Clean-up: SPE MS
Bisphenol A Crops (toma- USE: buffered ACN + ACN LC/ESI-MS/ 396 [150]
potatoes and
sweet corn)
Bisphenol A Crops (lettuce USE: two-step extraction; 20 mL HPLC-UV 81.5 [76]
(Lactuca sativa) MTBE; 20 mL ACN
and collards Clean-up: OASIS HLB
(Brassica
oleracea
UV filters and parabens
BPs (5) Soil USE-clean-up: 16 mL GC-MS-EI- 89–105 0.07–0.28 [87]
EtAc–MeOH (90:10, v/v), C18 SIM (BSTFA)
BPs (7) Soil Shaking: 20 mL MeOH + 20 mL EtAc GC-MS 60–125 0.1 [88]
(MSTFA)
Parabens (6) Soil SAESC: 4 mL ACN (3) LC-MS/MS 83–110 0.04–0.14 [89]
Parabens (7) Soil SAESC: 4 mL ACN (3) HPLC-UV 80–90 1 [90]
Clean-up: MISPE LC-MS/MS
Triclosan, Triclocarban Soil PLE: 70% MeOH, 100 C LC-ESI-MS/ 80–142 0.1–5.1 [99]
Clean-up: pH 4 cartridge ABN MS
Parabens (6) Biosolids USE: buffered ACN + ACN LC/ESI-MS/ 3.5–14.3 [150]
Triclosan, Triclocarban Clean-up: SPE MS
Parabens (6) Crops (toma- USE: buffered ACN + ACN LC/ESI-MS/ 3–175 [150]
Triclosan, Triclocarban toes, carrots, Clean-up: SPE MS
potatoes and
sweet corn)
Triclosan Crops (Bean) SLE: 10 mL ACN–water, 1:1(v/v) HPLC-UV 76.5 0.12 mg/g dw [131]
Clean-up: SPE C18
Triclosan Soil SLE: 50 mL ACN HPLC-UV 93 1.04 ng/g dw [131]
Triclosan Soil PLE: water–isopropanol (80:20, v/v), LC-ESI-MS/ 87 2a [101]
100 C MS
Clean-up: Oasis HLB cartridge
Triclosan Soil MAE: 10 mL MeOH–water (3:2, v/v) GC-MS 92 3 ng/kg [75]
Clean-up: SPE (Oasis HLB) (BSTFA + 1%
TMCS)
Musk fragrances
Nitro musk Soil MAE: 30 mL DCM–MeOH (2:1, v/v), GC-MS 90 [72]
160 C (BSTFA)
Clean-up: Silica gel
29
(continued)
Table 2 (continued)
30
LOD/LOQ
Polycyclic musk Soil PLE-clean-up: DCM, silica gel GC-MS >80 1 [91]
+ hydromatrix, 60 C
Estrogenic compounds
Estrone Soil USE:10 mL EtAc–acetone (1:1, v/v) GC-MS 63–110 1.2 [105]
Clean-up: C18 (MTBSTFA)
Estrone Soil MAE: 10 mL MeOH–water (3:2, v/v) GC-MS 92–96 4.7–5.1 ng/kg [75]
17β-Estradiol Clean-up: SPE (Oasis HLB) (BSTFA + 1%
17α-Ethinylestradiol TMCS)
Hormones (17) Biosolids USE: buffered ACN + ACN LC/ESI-MS/ – [150]
Clean-up: SPE MS
Hormones (17) Crops (toma- USE: buffered ACN + ACN LC/ESI-MS/ 19.0–44.8 [150]
potatoes and
sweet corn)
17a-ethynylestradiol Crops (Bean) SLE: 10 mL ACN–water, 1:1(v/v) HPLC-UV 71.9 0.10 mg/g dw [131]
Clean-up: SPE C18
17a-ethynylestradiol Soil SLE: 50 mL ACN HPLC-UV 99.8 0.96 ng/g dw [131]
Alkylphenols
AEOs, ANEOs Soil PLE: (A) MeOH and (B) hexane–ace- LC-APCI-MS 27–109 7–43 [85]
tone (1:1, v/v), HAc (75 mmol/L) and
TEA (100 mmol/L), 150 C
Clean-up: Porapak RDX
APs (3), APEOs (7) Soil PLE: MeOH, 70 C GC-MS 97–104 3–38 [86]
Clean-up: Isolute ENV+ cartridges (BSTFA– 96–104 6–60
TMCS, 1:1,v/v)
LC-FL
APs, APEOs, AEOs, Soil PLE: acetone–hexane (1:1, v/v), 60 C LC-APCI-MS 89–102 0.3–30 [85]
Clean-up: C18
4-Nonylphenol Crops (lettuce SLE: 50 mL Hexane HPLC-UV 66.8 – [76]
(Lactuca sativa)
and collards
(Brassica
oleracea
MTBE methyl tert-butyl ether)
a
LOQ
31
and without dipoles opens up a variety of potential solvent mixtures. As in the case
of PLE, to develop a successful MAE, several parameters (i.e. solvent volume and
composition, extraction time and temperature, pressure, water content, matrix
characteristics, etc.) that influence the extraction yield of MAE has to be studied
and optimized.
In the case of solvent mixtures, the most popular is the MeOH–H2O mixture,
which has been applied to the extraction of pharmaceuticals, triclosan and estro-
genic compounds [75]. DCM–MeOH has also been applied for extracting
nitromusks and anti-inflammatory drugs [72] from soils. According to the literature,
the extraction times used in MAE for CECs in soil and plant samples are within
6 and 15 min. Concerning extracting volumes, they range from 10 to 60 mL,
whereas extraction temperature and pressure ranged between 110 and 130 C and
<10 mPa, respectively. In the case of microwave treatment, values in the 150–
1,600 W were applied for closed systems, while 500 W is most common used.
The MAE technique is more environmental friendly than the others as it uses
substantially smaller amounts of solvents, reduces sample consumption, waste
production and shortens extraction times, thereby reducing overall energy input
and costs [98, 104]. However, similarly to PLE, additional clean-up is usually
needed prior to chromatographic analysis. Moreover, special care with temperature
and irradiation time is required to avoid degradation of analytes. For instance,
accelerated decomposition of pharmaceuticals such as clofibric acid, metoprolol
and propranolol has been observed at high microwave powers, in combination with
long extraction times [75].
3.1.1 Clean-Up Methodologies for Soil Samples
One of the problems with most methods used for extracting organic pollutants most
prominent in solid samples is that large amounts of co-extracted compounds will
add to the complexity of the chromatograms and interfere with detection of
analytes. Thus, after the target compounds are extracted from the sample into the
liquid phase, a further sample clean-up step is necessary to enable a robust analysis.
Solid-phase extraction (SPE) is currently the most widely used choice to prepare
extracts from solid samples for instrumental analysis. Before SPE, the organic-
solvent content of the extract has to be reduced to less than 5% to prevent early
breakthrough of analytes from the cartridges. The majority of studies performed
SPE by using predominantly Oasis-HLB sorbent [66, 69, 76, 93, 96] that due to its
hydrophilic–lipophilic balance allows the separation of compounds with a wide
range of polarity. Other sorbents such as C18 [63, 78, 105], silica [66], Strata X
[69], SAX and alumina [106] have also been used. Methanol is the main solvent
used in the elution of these cartridges. Although the clean-up is, in general, carried
out using one cartridge, some authors have performed two successive clean-up
steps using SPE cartridges with different functionalities [102, 107]. For example,
PLE extracts were further cleaned by a two-step SPE clean-up using SAX and HLB
sorbents for the analysis of antibiotics [102].
3.2 Occurrence of Microcontaminants in Soils Associated

with Reclaimed Wastewater Reuse
The use of reclaimed water may often provide a technically and economically
feasible solution [73]. Nevertheless, its use in irrigation and/or aquifer recharge can
introduce a range of CECs into the terrestrial environment, if these are not effec-
tively removed during WWTPs. In addition to irrigation with reclaimed water, the
application of sludge or manure to amend land and to fertilize agricultural soils can
be another major pathway into the terrestrial and subsequently again in to the
aquatic environment for these chemicals [61, 62, 64, 65].
The fate of CECs in soils is mainly dependant on their physico-chemical
properties, which will influence their mobility, persistence and bioavailability in
the soil matrix. The physico-chemical properties of CECs can vary widely; how-
ever, many of them contain a non-polar core with a polar functional moiety which
complicated their fate patterns. Prevailing climatic conditions, soil types and a
variety of other environmental factors are also critical for their fate and transport
processes (e.g. volatilization, transformation and plant uptake).
In general, the CEC concentrations of reclaimed water are quite low (ng/L or μg/
L) and their fate and transport in the receiving soils would be difficult to track and
quantify [81]. Moreover, the water quality of reclaimed water fluctuates and thus
the stability and reliability of reclaimed water quality are difficult to be ensured in
the long run. Consequently, very little is known about the behaviour and occurrence
of such contaminants in soils associated with reclaimed wastewater reuse. Only a
few specialized reports are available on exposure of receiving soils to CECs by
reclaimed wastewater irrigation. While only a few studies have explored the
occurrence of CECs in the soil environment, available data indicate that a broad
range of pharmaceuticals and personal care product (PPCPs) classes, including
non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, antidepressants, anticonvulsants, musk
compounds, estrogens, UV filters and antibacterial agents does occur in soils in
concentrations up to the low mg/kg level [81]. For example, Xu et al. [105],
demonstrated the occurrence of six different PPCPs, endocrine-disrupting com-
pounds (EDCs) and estrogenic compounds (clofibric acid, ibuprofen, naproxen,
triclosan, bisphenol A and estrone) in soil samples collected from a golf course
irrigated with reclaimed wastewater in southern California at concentration levels
ranging from 0.55 to 9.08 ng/g dry weight soil. The findings of this study indicate
that trace organic contaminants in the reclaimed wastewater may accumulate in the
top soils during irrigation with reclaimed wastewater, consequently exposing the
groundwater to a potential contamination. Another interesting study by the same
research group [84] found that significant amounts of reclaimed water borne PPCP
and EDC compounds, such as Ibuprofen, naproxen, triclosan, bisphenol A, clofibric
acid and estrone, accumulated at the top (30 cm) of an irrigated turf grass field.
However, no compound was detected in the leachate draining through the 89-cm
profile of a loamy sand soil and a sandy loam soil turf grass field during 4 months of
irrigation. Chen et al. [77] detected six PPCPs and ECDs, namely, bisphenol-A,
4-nonylphenol, triclosan, triclocarban, salicylic acid and clofibric acid in soil

samples from four irrigated plots in Guangzhou. Finally, in a recent study, Fang
et al. [108] reported that gemfibrozil in reclaimed water applied on land might reach
the groundwater aquifer underneath.
Occurrence of synthetic musk fragrances (SMFs) (six polycyclic musk com-
pounds (galaxolide, tonalide, celestolide, phantolide, traseolide, cashmeran) and
two nitro musk compounds (musk xylene and musk ketone) was determined in soil
cores from a land application site, groundwater below as well as in plants irrigated
with treated effluent [109]. For most of the target SMFs, only traceable amounts
were detected in soil samples (ND to <1 ng/g, (method detection limit,
soil ¼ 0.3 ng/g)), except for galaxolide and tonalide, the concentration of which
ranged from trace levels to 5.69 and 6.24 ng/g in the top six inches (15,24 cm) of
soil, respectively. The findings demonstrated that there was no difference in SMF
occurrence whether samples were from inside or outside the pivot irrigation system.
For cashmeran, celestolide, phantolide and musk ketone the concentrations ranged
from ND (method detection limit, soil ¼ 0.3 ng/g), to 1.57 ng/g, while traseolide
and musk xylene were not detected in soil samples. The results of this study are in
contrast to those for a similar land application site that had similar soil type, square
metres and years applied [83]. However, it should be emphasized that the volume of
water applied in a study of Ternes et al. [83], was much lower than in the first study.
With concentrations in discharge already being lower, the absence of SMFs in
groundwater it could have been expected. In addition, other environmental factors
such as climate (e.g. arid versus humid) may play a role in the differences observed
between the two sites with similar land application characteristics.
Finally, in a recent review study by Li et al. [81], it was demonstrated that the
antibiotics (trimethoprim, sulfadiazine and triclosan), analgesics (ibuprofen and
diclofenac) and antiepileptic (carbamazepine) were among the most common
PPCPs found in soils with concentration levels up to 60.1 μg/kg. Considering the
data of five studies [66, 110–113], it can be concluded that among the target
compounds carbamazepine is the most frequently detected compound in soil. It is
worth mentioning, however, that much of the environmental occurrence of this
compound is likely associated with their selection as target compound in most
comprehensive monitoring studies It is resistant to degradation and can be
discharged to the soil in various ways. However, according to the studies by Gibson
et al. [111] and Chen et al. [66], the irrigation of reclaimed water is considered the
major pathway introducing PPCPs into soils.
In addition to the aforementioned works, a number of field and laboratory-scale
studies provided a snapshot of the PPCP mobility, persistence and bioavailability in
soil matrix [97, 114–117]. For example, Drewes et al. [118] examined the fate of
selected PPCPs during the ground water recharge at two reclaimed water reuse
sites. They found that diclofenac, ibuprofen, ketoprofen and naproxen were not
detectable, whereas carbamazepine and primidone were found in the recharged
aquifer throughout 8 years of operation. Yao et al. [119] tested the ability of
different types of biochar to sorb aqueous sulfamethoxazole (SMX) and determined
the leaching and retention of SMX in simulated reclaimed water through soils
amended with selected biochar. The authors found that mobility and bioavailability
of SMX in biochar-amended soils were lower than that of non-amended soils.
Biochar soil amelioration, therefore, should be promoted in areas where reclaimed
water or wastewater is used for irrigation.
Overall, various detailed field and screening studies have been performed during
recent years, and preliminary data are available for a variety of CECs in soils
including antibiotics, sulphonamides, fluoroquinolines, musks, etc. However, the
fate and transport of CECs in the terrestrial pathway have not been well understood,
and most emphasis should be laid on this issue.
4 Determination of Organic Microcontaminants in Crops
4.1 Extraction Methods/Sample Preparation in Crops
Similarly to analysis of PPCPs in soil, determination of trace levels of PPCPs in

plants presents great challenges due to high contents of pigments, and fatty or waxy
materials, which may induce severe matrix interferences. Therefore, sample prepa-
ration methods that eliminate potential interferences while permitting the improve-
ment of isolation and extraction of these compounds are usually performed. Most of
them are focused on commonly used techniques, including PLE [112, 120–122],
SLE by using buffers or solvent mixtures [65, 123, 124] and QuEChERS (quick,
easy, cheap, effective, rugged and safe) [125]. After extraction, purification is
usually performed by using preferably SPE.
4.2 Occurrence of Microcontaminants in Crops Associated

with Reclaimed Wastewater Reuse
Since residual concentrations of CECs from both human and agricultural uses can
be found in soils, many of these compounds have the potential to be taken up from
the soil via plant roots. Once the CEC has entered the plant, a posterior trans-
location, driven by the transpiration process, can take place. The extent of distri-
bution within the plant will depend on the compound’s physico-chemical properties
[126]. Octanol-water partition coefficient (Kow) and dissociation constant are
among the most useful chemical descriptors of for organic contaminants plant
uptake and distribution. If a compound is too hydrophilic, it will be unable to
enter and to cross hydrophobic lipid membranes. For compounds of high
lipophilicity, adsorption or “solution” in the lipid material is usually happening
which reduces its ability to cross the endodermis. Hence, in general, uptake is
greatest for compounds with a log Kow in the range of 1–4 [127] for non-ionizable
compounds. If a compound dissociates in the physiologically relevant pH range,
this will influence both uptake velocity and level [128] and log D has to be
considered instead Log Kow.
In the last decades, most plant uptake studies were focused on pesticides or on
legacy chemicals that are often less hydrophilic organic contaminants such as PCB,
dioxins and PAHs. Little attention has been paid to the plant uptake of CECs and
especially to ionized compounds and zwitterionic species. However, the presence
of PPCPs and other CECs in the environment and the possible transfer to the animal
and human food chain, calls for a better general understanding of uptake and
translocation processes in plants. Thus, the number of studies dedicated to plant
uptake of CECs is steadily increasing in recent years, proving that many of the CEC
groups such as musks and pharmaceuticals (fluoroquinolones, sulphonamides,
tetracyclines, anti-inflammatory and other drugs) are taken up by plants [123,
129–131]. For example, Eggen et al. [124] demonstrated the uptake of metformin,
ciprofloxacin and narasin in carrot (Daucus carota ssp. sativus cvs. Napoli) and
barley (Hordeum vulgare), with the root concentration factors (RCF) being higher
than the corresponding leaf concentration factors (LCF) for all the target pharma-
ceuticals. The uptake of metformin was higher compared with the other two tested
pharmaceuticals for all the target plant compartments, showing a generally higher
bioaccumulation pattern in roots (RCF 2–10) and leaves (LCF 0.1–1.5). Negative
effects on plant growth such as reduced biomass were observed for all three studied
compounds, with narasin showing the most pronounced effect. Uptake of 17-alpha-
ethynylestradiol (EE2) and triclosan in bean plants (Phaseolus vulgaris) grown in
sand and soil was demonstrated by Karnjanapiboonwong et al. [131]. According to
the authors, roots were the primary plant part in which EE2 and triclosan accumu-
lated, and the accumulation of both test compounds was higher in plants grown in
low organic carbon substrate. Antibiotics such as oxytetracycline, enrofloxacin,
chlortetracycline and sulfamethazine were found to be taken up by alfalfa, corn,
lettuce, potato, onion, cabbage and cucumber from manure-amended soil, agar
medium or nutrient solutions [132–135]. Furthermore, bioaccumulation and phyto-
toxicity in algae, rice, cucumber and wetland plants have been reported by other
authors [80, 136–138].
The majority of the aforementioned studies, however, is focused on the bio-
availability and uptake of CECs by plants grown in soil-based mediums with
artificial added contaminants [129, 139] or contaminated bio-solids used to fertilize
agricultural soils [137]. Up to date only a handful of studies have considered plant
uptake of CECs after application of reclaimed water for crop irrigation. For
instance, the uptake of eleven, frequently detected PPCPs (diclofenac, carbamaze-
pine, clofibric acid, caffeine, ibuprofen, naproxen, triclosan, methyl
dihydrojasmonate (MDHJ), galaxolide, tonalide and hydrocinnamic acid) in apple
(Malus domestica) and alfalfa (Medicago sativa) was evaluated by Calderon-
Preciado et al. [121] under actual field conditions. Five of the 11 target contami-
nants were identified and quantified, namely, ibuprofen, naproxen, MDHJ, caffeine
and tonalide. Caffeine and MDHJ were found in both crops in concentration levels
between <0.011 and 0.016 and 0.041 and 0.532 mg/kg (fresh weight), respectively,
whereas galaxolide, ibuprofen and naproxen were detected only in alfalfa with
levels from <0.011 to 0.061 mg/kg (fresh weight). Comparing the studied crops, it
seems that the occurrence of the PPCPs in alfalfa is higher than those in apple.
Besides the aforementioned field study, in vitro uptake of triclosan, hydrocinnamic
acid, tonalide, ibuprofen, naproxen and clofibric acid by lettuce (Lactuca sativa L)
and spath (Spathiphyllum spp.) was investigated by the same research group [139]
in order to evaluate the reuse of treated wastewater for irrigation of agricultural
crops. The authors conclude that compounds with a carboxylic group in their
structure such as hydrocinnamic acid, naproxen and clofibric acid exhibited higher
uptake rates. In relation to previous study, Wu et al. [140] examined a larger suite of
PPCPs (20 frequently occurring compounds in irrigation) that had different Kow or
pKa values and they compared their accumulation into four staple vegetables
(lettuce, spinach, cucumber and pepper) grown in nutrient solutions containing
PPCPs at 0.5 or 5 μg/L. Results showed significant disparities between the studied
compounds regarding their potential for root uptake and subsequent translocation.
Out of the 20 PPCPs considered in this study, triclocarban, fluoxetine, triclosan and
diazepam accumulated in roots at levels relatively higher than the other PPCPs,
while translocation to leaves/stems was more extensive for meprobamate,
primidone, carbamazepine, dilantin and diuron. The authors suggested a positive
correlation between root uptake and pH-adjusted log Kow (i.e. log Dow) for
non-ionic compounds and a negative correlation for translocation from roots and
log Dow, indicating that compounds with strong hydrophobicity (i.e. high Dow)
tended to remain in the roots with limited in-plant redistribution. Consequently, and
according to the study for the later compounds higher residues may be found in
tuber vegetables (i.e. carrot and radish), while for PPCPs with high translocation
potential, higher levels are expected in leafy vegetables such as lettuce, spinach and
cabbage.
Finally, in the field study of Jones-Lepp et al. [141], greenhouse experiments were
performed in which selected food crops were irrigated with three different water
types (wastewater effluent known to contain CECs, CEC-free well water and Colo-
rado River water containing trace-level CECs) spiked with three antibiotics. The
results showed the potential for uptake of one or more of the antibiotics evaluated at
very low levels only. The industrial flavouring agent, N,N0 -dimethylphenethylamine
(DMPEA), was consistently found in food crops irrigated with wastewater effluent,
whereas none of the evaluated contaminants were found in crops irrigated with
Colorado River water.
In summary, biosolids seem to be a more significant reservoir or sink for plant
uptake of particular compounds than reclaimed water and therefore, much of the
occurrence of some CECs is likely associated with biosolids. Meanwhile, although
relatively few studies have specifically examined the role of reclaimed water usage
in crop irrigation, detections of trace concentrations of selected CECs in different
plant species have been documented. These plant uptake studies have provided a
snapshot of the CECs in plant species, but many of them have been done at
unrealistic exposure concentrations (in most cases higher than those detected in
real samples), and therefore, more systematic investigation under real environmen-
tal conditions is required. The data generated must be supported by an appropriate
QA/QC system, which has not always been done and experiments should integrate
phytoxicity/ecotoxicity tests. In addition, further research is required to clarify the
transport processes and bioavailability of CECs to plants and whether species-
specific uptake patterns can occur from contaminated soil. Such information is
also important for the identification and prediction of CECs with potentially high
transfer to human and livestock food webs that could provide a scientific framework
for establishing environmental regulations.
5 Conclusions
Over the past few years a vast amount of research has been conducted in sample
preparation and instrumental analysis and a number of methods have been proposed
for analysis of organic microcontaminants in reclaimed water as well as in soils and
crops associated with wastewater reuse. Thus, in recent years more data and broader
knowledge have become available on CECs detection and identification in these
matrices. Despite, however, this effort, innovative methods combining efficient
extraction and selective mass spectrometric detection have to be designed and
applied to improve non-target screening and identification of unknown trans-
formation products. Furthermore, there is an urgent need for laboratory trials and
field-scale studies in order to explore the fate, distribution and uptake of a range of
organic microcontaminants in soil–plant systems to provide essential data for
modelling their environmental behaviour.
Acknowledgements This research has been co-financed by the European Union (European
Social Fund – ESF) and Greek national funds through the Operational Program “Education and
Lifelong Learning” of the National Strategic Reference Framework (NSRF) – Research Funding
Program “Excellence II (Aristeia II)”, Research Grant, No 4199, which is gratefully appreciated.
The authors would also like to thank the Cost Action “ES1403: New and emerging challenges and
opportunities in wastewater reuse (NEREUS)” for support.
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Bioassays Currently Available for Evaluating
the Biological Potency of Pharmaceuticals
in Treated Wastewater
Marlen I. Vasquez, Irene Michael, Klaus Kümmerer,

and Despo Fatta-Kassinos
Abstract Water deprivation with regard to quantity and quality is one of the most
important environmental problems of the century. The increasing demand of water
resources puts pressure on the utilization of alternative sources such as treated
wastewater. In the context of “reduce, reuse, and recycle,” the inclusion of treated
wastewater in the water cycle seems a promising practice for water management.
The lack of general acceptance of stakeholders and public, however, still hinders
the widespread application of wastewater reuse. A reason for this is, among others,
the presence of contaminants of emerging concern in treated wastewater. This has
led to an increased concern about direct and indirect effects to the environment and
possible implications to human health. The development and application of bio-
assays able to identify and quantify the biological potency of treated wastewater is
an ongoing research effort, especially when taking into consideration that a plethora
of contaminants exist and interact in this complex matrix. This chapter summarizes
available literature regarding the sensitivity of currently applied bioassays for
assessing biological effects of treated wastewater and their correlation with chem-
ical analysis. The focus is on pharmaceuticals since they represent one of the major
M.I. Vasquez (*)

Department of Environmental Science and Technology, Cyprus University of Technology, 30
Archbishop Kyprianou street, 3036 Limassol, Cyprus
Nireas-International Water Research Center, 1 Panepistimiou Avenue, 2109 Nicosia, Cyprus
I. Michael and D. Fatta-Kassinos
Nireas-International Water Research Center, 1 Panepistimiou Avenue, 2109 Nicosia, Cyprus
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Cyprus, 75 Kallipoleos
Street, 1678 Nicosia, Cyprus
K. Kümmerer
Institute of Sustainable and Environmental Chemistry, Leuphana University Lüneburg,
Scharnhorststraße 1/C13, 21335 Lüneburg, Germany

Hdb Env Chem (2016) 44: 49–80, DOI 10.1007/698_2015_417,
50 M.I. Vasquez et al.
groups of contaminants of emerging concern with many unanswered questions

currently in place.
Keywords Effect-directed bioassay, Pharmaceutical, Toxicity, Wastewater reuse
Contents
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
2 Toxicity Testing Strategy for the Assessment of Wastewater and Contaminants . . . . . . . . . 52
3 Bioassays Applied for the Assessment of Effects of Wastewater and Pharmaceuticals . . . 57
3.1 β-Blockers: The Example of Atenolol, Metoprolol, and Propranolol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
3.2 Nonsteroidal Anti-inflammatory Drugs: The Example of Diclofenac and Ibuprofen 64
3.3 Antibiotics: The Examples of Erythromycin, Ofloxacin, and Sulfamethoxazole . . . . 68
4 Future Challenges: Correlating Chemical and Biological Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
5 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Abbreviations
CEC Contaminants of emerging concern

COD Chemical Oxygen Demand
COX Cyclooxygenase
DTA Direct toxicity assessment
EC Effect Concentration
EROD Ethoxyresorufin-O-deethylase
ISO International Organization for Standardization
LC Lethal Concentration
LOEC Lowest Observed Effect Concentration
MIC Minimum Inhibitory Concentration
NADPH Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate
NOEC No Observed Effect Concentration
OECD Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development
PGE2 Prostaglandin E2
PSII Photosystem II
TU Toxic unit
USEPA US Environmental Protection Agency
WET Whole effluent toxicity
1 Introduction
The history of environmental toxicology is a quite short one since it was not until
the mid-1900s that environmental effects of chemicals became a concern [1, 2],
mainly regarding the effects of industrial wastes. Standardization and international
Bioassays Currently Available for Evaluating the Biological Potency of. . . 51
acceptance of protocols for ecotoxicological testing has improved the quality of the
data produced. Organizations, such as the International Organization for Standard-
ization (ISO), the US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA), and the Orga-
nization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), have contributed to
this direction making ecotoxicological testing nowadays a very important part of
environmental and chemical legislation such as the Registration, Evaluation,
Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals Regulation (REACH).
Ecotoxicological testing seems attractive because toxicity to living organisms is
more comprehensible than the concentration of a chemical or an effluent for non-
specialists and often is less expensive than chemical analysis. It can be used in a
“weight of evidence” approach and as a complementary tool of analytical measure-
ments. Nowadays the “environmental safe levels” are derived by taking into
account the ecotoxicity of the substance, its persistence, and its ability to
bioaccumulate. They should also include a broad scope of effects such as mutage-
nicity, carcinogenicity, and reproductive impairment [3].
In principle, ecotoxicological testing can be carried out at any biological level of
organization. The endpoints to be studied in each organization level can be selected
based on the objectives of the study. As a rule though, the majority of pollutants act
initially at the molecular level following accumulation in the exposed organism,
with effects then becoming apparent as physiological changes and effects on key
individual parameters, such as growth, reproduction, and survival [4]. These may
exert effects on population level and then potentially on ecosystem level. As a
general rule, the higher the organizational level, the more complicated, the longer
lasting, and the more expensive are the experiments required for assessing effects.
Within an ecosystem, the flow of energy and cycle of materials lead to the
development of trophic structures, biotic diversity, and nutrient cycles, as shown
in Fig. 1 [5].
A key corollary in ecotoxicological testing regarding the hierarchical levels of
ecological organization is that detrimental effects at a given level of organization
can propagate to higher organization levels. However, in reality, effects at any
organizational level may or may not propagate at higher levels. Similarly, neither
an effect at a lower organizational level may be easier to detect, nor an effect at a
higher organizational level may be easier to interpret. Organisms vary in sensitivity
and the single-species approach has limitations in population and ecosystem
extrapolation. For this, the need to evaluate effects at higher organizational levels
has been acknowledged. These experiments and observations, however, require
more effort and higher cost [6].
The legislation pursues protection and preservation of the whole environmental
entity and not that of single species. In practice, ecotoxicological testing still
focuses on the organismic level, relying on the data generated from single-species
toxicity tests. Ecotoxicological testing may differ according to its (1) duration, short
to long term; (2) method of exposing the organisms to test chemicals, static,
recirculation, or flow through; (3) type of the test, in vitro or in vivo; and (4) purpose
of the study, screening, research, surveillance, etc. [7]. It should be noted that the
point times evaluated at each bioassay are intrinsically connected to the
Fig. 1 Hierarchical view of

levels of biological
organization
Biosphere
Ecosystem
Community
Population
Organism
Cell/Organ
Molecule
organizational level under study [8, 9]. For instance, it can be performed before/
after a treatment process and/or at different point times in order (1) to estimate the
toxicity of a flux as a whole for research or compliance purposes and (2) to
investigate the effectiveness of mitigation measures.
To this end, this chapter aims at:
• Providing an up-to-date compilation of the most widely applied bioassays and
their endpoints for the assessment of effects of wastewater in general and
pharmaceuticals present in wastewater
• Bridging the gap between chemical and biological assessment by extracting
knowledge from relevant studies
• Identifying the usefulness and limitations of current practices of assessing
effects of treated wastewater when the target contaminants of emerging concern
(CEC) are pharmaceuticals
2 Toxicity Testing Strategy for the Assessment

of Wastewater and Contaminants
Scrutinizing possible adverse effects of treated wastewater and its contaminants is

one of the prerequisites to increase trust, credibility, and confidence in favor of
wastewater reuse, the overall objective being the protection of human and ecolog-
ical health. The incorporation of treated wastewater in the water cycle includes all
types of its direct or indirect use. The amount of treated wastewater can be
substantial, and its utilization may moderate the ongoing water demand of most
developed and developing countries. Common issues that need to be tackled in

order to increase the amount of wastewater reuse have been successfully identified
by Bixio et al. [10]. They consist of measures toward (1) reorientation of the water
governance, (2) strengthening cooperation among stakeholders, (3) establishing
guidelines and criteria for wastewater reclamation and reuse, (4) providing eco-
nomic benefits from wastewater reuse, and (5) building trust and confidence.
In order to benefit from any wastewater reuse scheme, it is necessary to develop
effect-directed bioassays able to pinpoint even subtle changes at any organizational
level. Taking into consideration the fate of CEC during wastewater treatment, a
battery assay with endpoints for chronic toxicity sensible even at ng/L should be
developed.
The assessment of adverse effects of complex matrices such as effluents of
sewage treatment plants is a significant application of the ecotoxicological testing.
To this end, the whole effluent toxicity testing strategy was developed since the
early 1990s by the USEPA with the main objective that “discharge of toxic
pollutants in toxic amounts is prohibited” [11]. The term “whole effluent toxicity”
(WET) refers to assessing effects on whole organisms toward broad endpoints such
as mortality, growth inhibition, and reproduction impairment. The WET approach
entails various bioassays for acute and chronic toxicity determination and was
formalized by the USEPA since 1985 [12]. The basic step is to test the effluents
in their initial conditions without any treatment and dilution. Other terms used
worldwide are “whole effluent assessment” (Europe), “direct toxicity assessment”
(DTA-Australia, New Zealand, the UK), “effluent toxicity testing” (Canada),
“whole effluent environmental risk” (Denmark), and “integrating controlling of
effluents” (Germany) [13]. Even though the WET approach was developed for the
assessment of effects of wastewater, it can be applied to practically all aquatic and
terrestrial samples (groundwater, wastewater, drinking water, sediments, soils,
etc.). A review regarding the legislative requirements for WET in various countries
has already been published [13]. The WET approach has been included in the
legislation of various countries as a tool for assessment of effects of real matrices
and environmental protection. For instance, in 1988, Environment Canada under-
took a 5-year study to quantify and regulate toxicity of industrial effluents
discharged into the St. Lawrence River [14]. Yi et al. [15] pointed out that the
Korean Ministry of Environment announced that a new standard protocol and
legislation using D. magna acute toxicity tests would be gradually implemented
from 2011 onward to regulate wastewater effluent. For discharging effluents from
sewage treatment plants, the new legislation states that the toxic unit (TU) of 24 h
should be less than 1. However, at European scale, there are no standard toxicity
tests yet or defined limits for the monitoring of effluents with the exception of Italy
(DLgs152/2006, use of D. magna) [16] and Cyprus (Law 106 (I)/2002 use of
D. magna, P. subcapitata, V. fischeri) [17].
Municipal sewage treatment plants usually receive high loads of effluents of
temporal variable qualitative characteristics from different origins such as indus-
trial, hospital, touristic, and commercial human activities. An increasing number of
contaminants exist in the urban flows that are suspected or already proved to be able
Table 1 Bridging chemical and biological assessment of wastewater
54
Toxicity
reduction
Sampling evaluation Toxicity test Identified
information Phase I Phase II (target) Phase III (TRE) applied contaminants Reference
Grab influent and pH adjustment Graded methanol Mass γ-ray D. magna 48-h Cr(VI) [22]
effluent of industrial elution balance treatment immobilization test
wastewater pH adjustment/ IC (anions) Spiking γ-ray o-Toluidine (influ-
(piggeries) aeration approaches treatment ent only)
+ Ο3
pH adjustment/ GC/MS (nonpo- Coagulation Anionic organic and
filtration lar organics) + γ-ray inorganic chemicals
pH adjustment/SPE ICP/AES treatment (effluent only)
Graduated pH (metals) (influent
only)
EDTA chelation
Oxidant reduction
manipulations
Ion exchange
manipulations
Grab effluent of Activated carbon Quantification of P. subcapitata 72-h Acetochlor [23]
industrial wastewater nitrates, nitrites, algal growth inhibi-
(tank truck) orthophosphates, tion test
sulfates
EDTA chelation ICP/MS D. magna 48-h
immobilization test
ELISA kit V. fischeri 30-min
(acetochlor and bioluminescence
acetanilide) inhibition test
30-min bacterial
nitrification inhibi-
M.I. Vasquez et al.
tion test
Grab effluent of pH, conductivity, ICP/MS (metals) C. dubia 48-h 4-nonylphenol, [24]
municipal and indus- DO, ammonium immobilization test 4-nonylphenol-
trial wastewater anions ethoxylate,
(dyeing and textile, Aeration GC-NCI-MS D. magna 48-h phthalates in the tex-
pulp and paper mills, (endocrine immobilization test tile and dyeing
electronic and elec- disruptors) industry.
troplate factories, EDTA addition GC/MS (PAH, L. minor 7-day 4-Nonylphenol,
chemical factories) PCDD/F, PCB, growth inhibition bisphenol A,
PBDE) test phthalates, and sterol
derivatives in the
Sodium thiosulfate D. rerio 96-h
paper and pulp
addition lethality test
industry. Metals in
Filtration and EDTA P. subcapitata the electronic and
addition 72-h growth inhi- electroplate factories
bition test
Filtration and Recombinant
sodium thiosulfate E. coli lumines-
addition cence inhibition
SPE and EDTA test (5 and 15 min)
addition
SPE and sodium
thiosulfate
Grab influent Fractionation SPE O. mykiss hepato- 17b-estradiol, estriol, [25]
Reverse-phase cytes for EROD alkylphenols, benzo-
HPLC activity (biomarker phenone and
GC/MS for the aryl- methylparaben as
hydrocarbon (Ah) - estrogen receptor
Bioassays Currently Available for Evaluating the Biological Potency of. . .
receptor-mediated agonists. Polycyclic

toxicity, 48 h), aromatic hydrocar-
vitellogenin pro- bons (PAHs), alkyl-
duction substituted PAHs,
(estrogenicity), and nitro-polycyclic aro-
cytotoxicity (48 matic compounds
+ 48 h) (nitro-PACs), carba-
zoles and alkyl-
55
substituted carba-
zoles for EROD
activity
(continued)
Table 1 (continued)
Toxicity
56
reduction
Sampling evaluation Toxicity test Identified
information Phase I Phase II (target) Phase III (TRE) applied contaminants Reference
24-h composite Fractionation SPE PLHC-1 cell cyto- Polar compounds [26]
influent and effluent toxicity (72 h),
samples EROD activity, and
Pgp transport activ-
ity (60 min)
GC/MS D. subspicatus
growth inhibition
test (72 h)
LC/Q-TOF S. typhimurium
genotoxicity test
(48 h)
Yeast estrogen
assay (72 h)
24-h composite EDTA addition Reverse electron- Metals [27]
effluent of industrial transport test
and municipal waste- Sodium thiosulfate V. fischeri 30-min Organic substances
water (pulp and paper addition bioluminescence
mill, pharmaceutical, inhibition test
enzyme production, pH gradient P. subcapitata 72-h Ammonia
oil refinery, polyester growth inhibition
production plant, and test
a steel factory)
pH adjustment D. magna 48-h
immobilization test
pH adjustment/ Allium cepa root-
aeration elongation test
(6 days)
pH adjustment/- Genetically modi-
filtration/SPE fied S. typhimurium
M.I. Vasquez et al.
TA 104 recN2-4
strain
to exhibit various adverse effects once released in the environment. It should be

noted that some of these contaminants not only pass through the treatment pro-
cesses without being removed completely, but also many of their products of
incomplete degradation, i.e., transformation during biological and chemical treat-
ment (e.g., nonylphenol, nonylphenol carboxylates [18], and treatment processes
[19, 20]), may as well exhibit adverse effects.
The importance of using both chemical analyses and toxicity tests for the charac-
terization and control of effluents of sewage treatment plants in the framework of
water quality programs is widely accepted nowadays [21]. Compared to chemical
analysis alone, the WET programs have advantages in that they assess the potential
biological effects of the chemicals present in wastewater, as shown in Table 1. The
WET approach has led to the identification of detrimental effects in the environment
of CEC such as insecticides, surfactants, and treatment polymers [28, 29].
The “toxicity identification evaluation” seeks to identify contaminants (i.e., sub-
stances with unknown effects) that can be also considered pollutants (i.e., substances
with known effects). In various cases, USEPA has documented that the toxicity of
effluents toward freshwater, estuarine, and marine species correlates well with eco-
toxicological measurements in the receiving water when effluent dilution is taken into
account [21]. It should be noted though, that there are still a lot of unanswered
questions when trying to correlate the biological effects of complex matrices with
the chemical analysis. For example, identifying the exact compound present in a
complex matrix like wastewater that causes an effect is not an easy task [30].
3 Bioassays Applied for the Assessment of Effects

of Wastewater and Pharmaceuticals
The OECD and other legal entities have adopted guidelines for the testing of
chemicals. Tests include the assessment of the effects to aquatic ecosystems
(algae, water flea, and fish), terrestrial ecosystems (terrestrial plants, earthworms,
avian), and technical systems such as treatment processes (activated sludge, respi-
ration inhibition tests). A summary of the most common species used for the
assessment of effects of treated wastewater and in studies assessing the effects of
pharmaceuticals is provided in Table 2.
Pharmaceuticals represent a group of contaminants with significant chemical
heterogeneity. At the same time, this group consists of compounds intentionally
designed to have biological potency. Pharmaceuticals are known to be present at ng–
μg/L in secondary and tertiary treated wastewater [31–36]. It is notable that several
publications have been devoted to the toxicity assessment of pharmaceuticals in various
model matrices (e.g., simulated wastewater, surface water, etc.) with the main focus,
however, on ultrapure water. Since wastewater reuse is a strategy that is gaining wider
acceptance and rapidly expanding, it is imperative to perform integrated toxicity assays
in real effluents which contain all contaminants and their transformation products.
Table 2 Bioassays used for toxicity evaluation of wastewater and pharmaceutical compounds
Exposure
Phylum (class) Species Common name time Endpoint
Annelida Eisenia fetida/andrei Red worm 14 days Reproduction
Arthropoda Artemia salina Brine shrimp 24 or 48 h Immobilization
(Branchiopoda) Ceriodaphnia dubia Water flea 48 h, Immobilization
6 days Reproduction
Daphnia magna Water flea 24 or 48 h Immobilization
10 or Immobilization/
21 days reproduction
Daphnia pulex Water flea 24 h Immobilization
Moina macrocopa – 7 days Reproduction
Streptocephalus – 24 h Immobilization
proboscideus
Thamnocephalus Beavertail fairy 24 h Mortality
platyurus shrimp
Arthropoda Hypoaspis aculeifer Mite 14 days Reproduction
(Arachnida)
Arthropoda Folsomia candida Springtail 14 days Reproduction
(Collembola)
Arthropoda Gammarus pulex Freshwater 1.5 h Activity
(Malacostraca) shrimp
Hyalella azteca Lawn shrimp 14 days Reproduction
Biomarkers of oxi-
dative stress
Mortality
Hydra vulgaris Common brown 96 h Morphology and
hydra 7 days feeding behavior
Bacillariophyta Cyclotella Diatom 96 h Growth
meneghiniana
Bacteria Bacillus – 3h Spore germination
stearothermophilus
Blastomonas – 24 h Growth
natatoria
Legionella – 16 h Growth
pneumophila
Micrococcus luteus – 24 h Growth
Pseudomonas – 16 h Growth
aeruginosa
Pseudomonas putida – 16 h Growth
Staphylococcus – 24 h Growth
aureus
Vibrio fischeri Luminescent 5, 15 or Growth
bacteria 30 min
24 h
(continued)
Table 2 (continued)
Exposure
Basidiomycota Ganoderma lucidum Bracket fungus 7 days Biodegradation
Irpex lacteus Milk-white 7 days Biodegradation
toothed polypore
Phanerochaete – 7 days Biodegradation
chrysosporium
Trametes versicolor – 7 days Biodegradation
Chlorophyta Chlorella vulgaris Green alga 48 h Growth
Desmodesmus Pond scum, 96 h Growth
subspicatus green weed 24 h Photosynthesis rate
Dunaliella Green alga 72 h Growth
tertiolecta
Pseudokirchneriella – 72 or 96 h Growth
subcapitata
Chordata Danio rerio Zebrafish 48, 72 or Egg and embryo
(Actinopterygii) 96 h mortality
Hatching success
Morphology
Behavior
Development
Oncorhynchus Rainbow trout 28 days Structural changes
mykiss
Oreochromis Tilapia 48 h Genotoxicity
niloticus 10 day
Oryzias latipes Japanese medaka 14 days Growth
28 days Reproduction
Pimephales notatus Bluntnose 48 h Biomarker
minnow
Pimephales Fathead minnow 4 days Hatching
promelas Survival
Salmo salar Atlantic salmon 5 days Gene expression
Salmo trutta Brown trout 21 days Histopathological
alterations
Chordata Xenopus laevis African clawed 96 h Morphology
(Amphibia) frog
Cyanophyta Synechococcus – 96 h Growth
leopoliensis
Synechocystis sp. – 72 h Growth
Biomarkers of
photosynthesis
(continued)
Table 2 (continued)
Exposure
Mollusca Dreissena Zebra mussel 96 h Oxidative
polymorpha biomarkers
7 days Cytotoxicity
Bioconcentration
Mytilus edulis Baltic blue 21 days Bioconcentration
mussel Growth
Byssus strength
Mortality
Mytilus Mediterranean 7 days Cell signaling
galloprovincialis mussel
Planorbis carinatus – 72 h Mortality
21 days Growth
Mortality
Hatching success
Potamopyrgus New Zealand 42 days Growth
antipodarum mud snail Reproduction
Rotifera Brachionus Marine rotifer 24 h Immobilization
calyciflorus 48 h
7 days
Streptophyta Lactuca sativa Lettuce 14 days Emergence
Biomass
Lemna gibba Swollen 7 days Weight
duckweed Frond number
Chlorophyll a
Lemna minor Common 7 days Reproduction of
duckweed fronds
Lepidium sativum Garden cress 72 h Emergence
Growth
Tracheophyta Brassica napus Rape 14 days Emergence
Biomass
Triticum aestivum Spelt wheat 14 days Emergence
Biomass
Vicia sativa Vetch 14 days Emergence
Biomass
A mini-review of the biological effects toward pharmaceuticals is presented

below. A selection of eight compounds belonging to the β-blockers (atenolol,
metoprolol, and propranolol), nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (diclofenac
and ibuprofen), and antibiotics (erythromycin, ofloxacin, and sulfamethoxazole)
was made. Their widespread use, their existence, and in some cases their persis-
tence in the environment along with substantial literature were among the criteria
for their selection as examples. The bioassays, endpoints, and effective
concentrations of each trophic level, producers, consumers, and decomposers are

discussed. It should be noted that the vast majority of studies investigated the
species organizational level. When applicable, other organizational levels such as
molecular, cellular, etc. are also presented. Information is provided on the parent
compounds and, if reported, on their transformation products as well.
3.1 β-Blockers: The Example of Atenolol, Metoprolol,

and Propranolol
According to the published ecotoxicological studies available so far, propranolol

exhibits higher acute toxicity than other β-blockers. This could be partly due to the
relatively higher value of the pH-dependent octanol-water distribution coefficient
(log DOW) and the fact that propranolol is a strong membrane stabilizer [37].
Atenolol was not found to be toxic to microbial respiration at concentrations up
to 100 mg/L and genotoxic using the umuC test. No mutagenicity was observed
when the Ames test was applied to metoprolol [38]. Although metoprolol is
considered as non-readily biodegradable [39], the biotransformation of its transfor-
mation products was accelerated under light conditions, implying that photo-
induced intermediates could be more easily biodegraded in river water [40]. Growth
was inhibited after exposing P. putida, P. aeruginosa, M. luteus, and B. natatoria at
the highest concentration of propranolol tested (130 μg/L). In most cases the death
rate increased; associated changes were observed in the metabolic fingerprints [41].
When tested to the algae D. subspicatus, atenolol almost failed to register a toxic
effect with an EC50 value of 620 mg/L. Metoprolol and propranolol were found to
be more toxic with EC50 values of 7.9 and 7.7 mg/L, respectively. In the same
study, L. minor was not affected to concentrations of metoprolol up to 320 mg/L
[42]. Propranolol was shown to have an EC50 value of 668 μg/L toward the blue-
green alga S. leopoliensis after a 96-h exposure time, whereas the most sensitive
organism within the phytoplankton was the diatom C. meneghiniana with an EC50
value of 244 μg/L [43]. Propranolol caused a specific photosynthesis inhibition after
a 24-h exposure time of D. subspicatus with an EC50 value of 0.7 mg/L [44].
No effects were found to terrestrial organisms at concentrations of atenolol up to
1000 mg/kg. The tests included the evaluation of the emergence and the production of
biomass of the plants T. aestivum, B. napus, and V. sativa after a 14-day exposure time,
the reproduction of the springtail F. candida, the compost worm E. fetida/andrei, and
the predatory mite H. aculeifer. In the same study, it was shown that atenolol was not
toxic to the amphipod H. azteca and the snail P. antipodarum to the highest concen-
trations tested (~10 mg/L) after 14- and 42-day exposure times, respectively [45].
At the same range with the terrestrial organisms, an effect was observed only
with the Daphnia reproduction test, in which the mortality of the offspring of the
second generation (F2) increased [45]. The cnidarian H. vulgaris showed similar
effects at the same concentrations after a 7-day exposure time [46].
The acute toxicity of metoprolol after an exposure time of 48 h was found to be

8.8 mg/L for C. dubia and higher than 100 mg/L for both H. azteca and O. latipes
[47]. The chronic effects after an exposure time of 28 days indicated that at
concentration of 1 μg/L, ultrastructural changes occurred to the liver and kidney
of the rainbow trout O. mykiss and even to the gills, if exposed at 20 μg/L
metoprolol [48].
The EC50 value of propranolol toward the rotifer B. calyciflorus was 2.59 mg/L
after an acute 24-h exposure time and 1.9 mg/L toward the crustacean
S. proboscideus [49]. For the same exposure time, propranolol was found to have
an EC50 value of 3.8 mg/L toward D. pulex. Following a 48-h exposure time to
propranolol, LC50 values of 29.8 and 0.8 mg/L were obtained, whereas reproduc-
tion decreased with NOEC values of 1 and 125 μg/L for H. azteca and C. dubia,
respectively [47].
Atenolol at the highest concentration tested (100 mg/L) was not found to cause
any effects when cytotoxicity on hemocytes, gill, and digestive gland primary cell
cultures of the zebra mussel D. polymorpha was investigated [50]. The most
sensible organism for atenolol was found to be P. promelas with a 4-day NOEC
for hatching and survival of 10 mg/L and a 28-day NOEC for growth of 3.2 mg/L
[51]. Furthermore, it was found to produce differences in the expression of 480 can-
didate genes of the Atlantic salmon S. salar when exposed for 5 days at 11.1 8 μg/
L. The effects and bioconcentration of metoprolol on the mussel D. polymorpha
after an exposure time of 7 days were investigated at concentrations in the range of
0.5–534 μg/L. Gene expression in gills and the digestive gland at higher concen-
trations was altered and a 20-fold bioconcentration at low concentrations was
observed, even though metoprolol is water soluble.
From a 2-week study, it was observed that exposure to 500 μg/L of propranolol
was able to reduce growth rates of the Japanese medaka O. latipes [47]. Propranolol
was found to bioconcentrate in the Baltic Sea blue mussels M. edulis even at 1 μg/L
when exposed for 3 weeks. Furthermore, a significantly lower scope for growth was
observed when exposed to 1–10 mg/L, which indicated that the organisms had a
smaller part of their energy available for normal metabolism, and secondly, they
had lower byssus strength and lower abundance of byssus threads, resulting in
reduced ability to attach to the underlying substrate. Higher mortality was observed
at these concentrations, whereas lower concentrations (1–100 μg/L) tended to differ
from the controls [52].
A subchronic test of 7 days with propranolol to the Mediterranean mussel
M. galloprovincialis demonstrated that propranolol at concentrations of 0.3 ng/L
was able to affect cell signaling and interacted with specific and evolutionally
conserved biochemical pathways. It also induced a stress response and affected
its physiology by interacting with the same molecular targets as in humans
[53]. According to Solé et al. [54] an exposure time of 10 days to the same species
provoked a decrease in the feeding rate with an NOEC value of 11 μg/L and an
LOEC of 147 μg/L. These concentrations caused a decrease of acetylcholinesterase
activity and an increase of the carboxylesterase and glutathione-S-transferase
activity in gills. An increase in the lipid peroxidation levels in gills and a decrease
of the glutathione-S-transferase activity in the digestive gland were also observed.

The LC50 of survival after a 24-h acute exposure time was 10.3 mg/L for
T. platyurus.
Measurement of ethoxyresorufin-O-deethylase (EROD) activity as a biomarker
for CYP1A activity was used to investigate propranolol effects on the rainbow trout
O. mykiss. It was found to provoke an increase in EROD activity in the liver and gill
at 200 μg/L, in both in vivo (albeit nonsignificantly in the liver) and in vitro, thus
supporting the use of the latter as a surrogate of the former [55]. The in vitro EROD
induction was previously reported by Laville et al. at concentrations of 8 mg/L [56].
A 96-h exposure time of O. latipes toward propranolol had an LC50 of 11.4 mg/L
[57] and a 48-h exposure time an LC50 of 24.3 mg/L [47]. When the fish juvenile
growth test was applied to O. mykiss, the LOEC of propranolol was 10 mg/L and the
NOEC 1 mg/L [58]. Furthermore, as O. mykiss is considered to have many
additional β-receptor subtypes for different physiological functions, propranolol
has the potential to cross over into non-cardiovascular systems such as homeostasis,
immunocompetence [59], and O2 chemoreceptor activity [60].
According to Huggett et al. [47], a 2-week exposure time to 500 μg/L propran-
olol reduced growth rates and a 4-week exposure time to 0.5 μg/L decreased
fecundity of O. latipes with a decrease in the total number of eggs produced and
the number of viable hatching eggs. Regarding P. promelas, a 3-day exposure time
to 3.4 mg/L propranolol caused 100% mortality or severe toxic effects that required
euthanasia. The most sensitive endpoints in the study though were the hatchability
and the female gonadal somatic index with an LOEC of 0.1 mg/L. Furthermore,
plasma concentrations of propranolol in male fish exposed to concentrations of 0.1
and 1 mg/L were 0.3 and 15 mg/L, respectively, which constitutes 436 and 1,546%
of measured water concentrations [61].
Atenolol was found to create toxic by-products to the dicotyledonous L. sativa
when chlorinated in an aqueous solution [62]. The study tried to simulate common
wastewater disinfection procedures. However, the tested concentrations used were
higher than those usually present in effluents of sewage treatment plants. Possible
bioaccumulation caused by continual irrigations was not assessed and the dangers
this may enclose should not be neglected.
A peculiarity has been reported regarding the toxicity of propranolol enantio-
mers on D. magna [63]. The immobilization percentages at 24 h of both enantio-
mers were similar with S-enantiomer being slightly more toxic than the
R-enantiomer with EC50 values of 1.4 and 1.6 mg/L, respectively. When the
enantiomers were examined for their chronic effects (21 days), the R-enantiomer
was found to be more toxic than the S-enantiomer regarding immobilization.
Furthermore, with regard to the reproduction rate, an increase of the total number
of neonates was observed for both enantiomers and a decrease on the number of
neonates when exposed to 869 μg/L of R-enantiomer.
Regarding the effects for humans, atenolol has been found not to cause DNA
damage (DNA strand brakes) at concentrations of 7,990 μg/L, whereas it was found
to cause long-term carcinogenic effects to both male and female rats when they
were exposed at 500 mg/kg/day [64]. In the same review metoprolol is reported not
to cause effects on DNA strand breaks. In the long-term carcinogenesis assay, no

effects were observed when performed on male mice, CD-1 mice, and rats at
concentrations up to 750 mg/kg/day, whereas when evaluated on female mice at
the same concentrations, lung adenomas were detected.
Metoprolol did not show significant genotoxic effects using the micronucleus
test [38]. In a recent study, atenolol has been found to cause chromosome loss
detected as micronuclei in the peripheral lymphocytes of treated patients with
chromosomes 7, 11, 17, and X being preferentially present in the micronuclei [65].
Propranolol was found to cause DNA strand breaks to rat primary hepatocytes at
concentrations of 7,880 μg/L [64]. Its photo-transformation products did not exhibit
any acute toxicity in mice or significant binding to β-adrenergic receptors using rat
cerebellum cortex membranes and their binding to β-adrenergic receptors [66].
To sum up, the following main findings are listed:
• The lowest concentration able to demonstrate an effect was at the very low ng/L
level of propranolol.
• Cell signaling and conserved biochemical pathways of M. galloprovincialis
were found to be very sensitive endpoints to assess the effect of propranolol.
• A substantial exposure period of greater than 21 days is needed to identify
effects toward mussels and fish at low μg/L concentrations for β-blockers.
• Disinfection techniques such as chlorination applied on wastewater treatment
may create more toxic transformation products for these compounds.
3.2 Nonsteroidal Anti-inflammatory Drugs: The Example

of Diclofenac and Ibuprofen
Diclofenac was found to inhibit the growth of the marine phytoplankton

D. tertiolecta at concentrations of 25 mg/L and above [67]. It was shown to have
an acute toxicity of 224.3 mg/L toward C. dubia when exposed for 48 h. Further-
more, it demonstrated sublethal effects at 25 mg/L toward B. calyciflorus exposed
for 48 h, 2 mg/L toward C. dubia exposed for 7 days, and 8 mg/L toward D. rerio
exposed for 10 days [68, 69].
Biomarkers of oxidative stress in H. azteca such as lipid peroxidation, protein
carbonyl content to evaluate oxidized protein content, and the activity of superox-
ide dismutase, catalase, and glutathione peroxidase were significantly altered by the
exposure of diclofenac to a concentration of 46.7 μg/kg. The LC50 value was much
higher (0.5 mg/kg) [70]. In chronic toxicity tests of the reproduction of D. magna,
the LOEC of diclofenac was found to be 0.2 mg/L [71]. Diclofenac inhibited the
growth of the marine phytoplankton D. tertiolecta at concentrations of 25 mg/L and
above [67].
No effects were observed in a study using eight biomarkers of the freshwater
bivalve D. polymorpha when exposed for 96 h to concentrations up to 592 ng/L
diclofenac [72]. Another biomarker, lipid peroxidation, was found to be affected at
concentration of 1 μg/L in D. polymorpha exposed for 96 h [73]. The previous

biomarker was sensitive for blue mussels Mytilus spp. when exposed for 96 h at the
same concentrations 1 μg/L [74]. Ibuprofen was found to inhibit D. subspicatus
algal growth with an EC50 value of 342 mg/L after an exposure time of 96 h [75],
whereas it inhibited the duckweed L. minor growth causing an EC50 value of 22 mg/
L after an exposure time of 7 days [76]. Ibuprofen in a different study was found to
have an EC50 value of 4 mg/L toward L. minor [77].
When D. magna was exposed to 40 and 80 mg/L of ibuprofen for 10 days, the
number of offspring reduced significantly. Interestingly, when a recovery period of
10 days followed the exposure period, ibuprofen-stressed daphnids produced off-
spring faster and by the end of the experiment the average growth was comparable
with control populations. This suggested that daphnids were susceptible during egg
maturation [78].
Detrimental effects were observed for exposure time of 21 days at 1 μg/L
diclofenac toward the rainbow trout O. mykiss to which induced tubular necrosis
in the kidney, hyperplasia, and fusion of the villi in the intestine were observed.
Furthermore, the expression levels of cyclooxygenase (COX) in the liver, gills, and
kidney were significantly reduced, and it was found that diclofenac was able to
bioaccumulate in the bile by a factor of 509–657 [79]. A 28-day exposure time of
diclofenac resulted in renal lesions and alterations of the gills at concentrations of
5 μg/L and bioconcentration of 12–2,732 in the liver, 5–971 in the kidney, 3–763 in
the gills, and 0.3–69 in the muscle, respectively [71]. Furthermore, cytopathology
effects in the liver, kidney, and gills were observed at concentrations of 1 μg/L
diclofenac [48].
Effects on the gene expression profile of O. mykiss were found at concentrations
of 1.6 μg/L and the bioconcentration factor was found to be 4.02 0.75 for the
blood plasma and 2.54 0.36 for the liver for diclofenac [80]. Laville et al. [56]
demonstrated that diclofenac was cytotoxic to the PLHC-1 cell line with an EC50
value of 5.6 mg/L and estrogenic to a primary rainbow trout hepatocytes cell line
with an EC50 value of 18.6 mg/L.
The effects of diclofenac to the brown trout S. trutta were observed at concen-
trations of 0.5 μg/L. At 7 and 14 days, the hematocrit levels were affected, whereas
after 21 days histopathological alterations were observed in the liver, gills, and
kidney. Moreover, diclofenac was able to hinder the stimulation of prostaglandin E2
synthesis in head kidney macrophages in vitro [81]. Biomarkers of cellular toxicity
(cytochrome P450 1A gene), p53-related genotoxicity (p53 gene), and estrogenicity
(vitellogenin gene) were overexpressed in O. latipes after a 4-day exposure time to
1 μg/L diclofenac [82]. Nanoinjection of diclofenac resulted in a decrease of the
survival of injected embryos of O. latipes at hatching with an EC50 value of 6 ng/
egg [83]. At 1 mg/L acute effects on the feeding behavior (time to eat midge larvae)
of O. latipes were monitored [84].
A decrease of reproduction was observed at 25 mg/L diclofenac for D. magna
after a 21-day exposure time and at 50 mg/L for M. macrocopa after a 7-day
exposure time. Furthermore, a 3-month exposure time of fish to 0.001–10 mg/L
of diclofenac caused a lower hatching success and a delay in hatch [85]. Diclofenac
did not cause any effects to early-life stages of D. rerio. The parameters investi-
gated were egg and embryo mortality, gastrulation, somite formation, movement
and tail detachment, pigmentation, heartbeat, and hatching success after 48–96-h
exposure times to up to 2,000 μg/L [86]. In another study of D. rerio, specific
effects were observed for hatching, yolk sac, and tail deformation at concentrations
above 1.5 mg/L when exposed for 72 h [87].
Ibuprofen was reported to have an LC50 of 19.6 mg/L toward T. platyurus after
an acute 24-h exposure time and an LC50 of >100 mg/L toward O. latipes after a
96-h exposure time [57]. Ibuprofen had no effect on the oxidation rate of nicotin-
amide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) and lipid peroxidation when
O. mykiss hepatocytes were exposed for 60 min at concentration of 100 μM
[88]. O. latipes demonstrated an alteration of the spawning behavior when exposed
to 0.1 μg/L ibuprofen for 42 days, indicating that a different reproduction pattern
was developed [89]. A delay in egg hatching was also observed when O. latipes was
exposed for 120 days to concentrations of 0.1 μg/L [90]. O. mykiss fry were exposed
to ibuprofen solutions for 4 days. Even at 1 μg/L the heat shock protein70 was
induced in the trout liver [91].
At 1 mg/L, ibuprofen was shown to disturb the seawater-induced elevation in
plasma osmolality and concentrations of Cl and K+. This was accompanied by
enhanced gill glycolytic capacity and reduced liver glycogen content suggesting
enhanced metabolic demand to fuel ion pumps induced elevation in gill Na+/K+-
ATPase activity [92]. After a 48-h exposure time of P. notatus to 50 μg/L and
100 μg/L, a significant reduction (30% and 80%, respectively) of the prostaglandin
E2 (PGE2) concentration of gill tissue was observed [93]. The results from daily
observations of D. rerio for a total period of 7 days indicated that developing
embryos tolerated lower (1 and 5 μg/L) doses of the ibuprofen readily, but exposure
to higher doses (>10 μg/L) caused retarded development, decreased hatching rate
and growth, cardiac anomalies, spinal curvature, pectoral fin malformation, and
behavioral alterations resulting in higher mortality of experimental embryos [94].
Ibuprofen was found to have an EC50 value of 22.4 mg/L when exposed for 96 h
to the cnidarian H. vulgaris, whereas its morphology and feeding behavior was
affected when exposed at 1.65 and 3.9 mg/L, respectively [95]. The most sensitive
of the cnidarians was found to be H. vulgaris with an effect on feeding behavior
when exposed for 7 days and an LOEC for ibuprofen of 10 μg/L [46]. Ibuprofen had
an EC50 value of 72.6 mg/L when the immobilization of the cladoceran
M. macrocopa was monitored for 48 h and an NOEC of 25 mg/L when the
reproduction was assessed after a 7-day exposure time [90].
Ibuprofen was found to increase the frequency of micronuclei to the O. niloticus
fish (tilapia) at 300 ng/L in both acute (48-h) and subchronic (10-day) exposure
times, hence inducing genotoxicity potential [96]. X. laevis was investigated and an
EC10 of 30.7 mg/L was calculated for a 96-h exposure time when deformity was
investigated as an endpoint [97].
The behavior of the amphipod G. pulex was found to be affected by ibuprofen by
quantifying its movements using a multispecies freshwater biomonitor in a test
chamber. In particular, exposure to low concentrations (10–100 ng/L) resulted in a
significant decrease in activity, whereas the activity of G. pulex at higher concentra-

tions (1 μg/L to 1 mg/L) was similar to the control [98]. Ibuprofen had an LC50 of
17.1 mg/L toward the mollusk P. carinatus when its survival was monitored for 72 h
and an NOEC of 1, 2.4, and 5.4 mg/L when exposed for 21 days when the wet weight,
the hatching success, and the survival were monitored, respectively [99]. Exposure of
M. edulis to 10 mg/L resulted in lower byssus strengths and byssus thread abundance
compared to the control treatment when exposed for 3 and 2 weeks, respectively. The
scope of growth of this organism was influenced at lower concentrations when
exposed to 1 mg/L for 2 weeks [52]. The effects of ibuprofen at 0.2–8 μg/L were
addressed to the bivalve D. polymorpha exposed for 96 h, which demonstrated a slight
cytogenotoxic effect on the mussel hemocytes at the lowest concentration tested,
whereas higher concentrations tested were able to significantly increase both genetic
and cellular damage [100]. In addition, ibuprofen was suggested to have a consider-
able effect on the activities of antioxidant and detoxifying enzymes due to the notable
oxidative status imbalances of the exposed specimens.
The nature of the bacterial community on a river biofilm was influenced by
diclofenac at 10 and 100 μg/L [101]. Lotic biofilms (bacteria and algae) were found
to be negatively affected when exposed to diclofenac at 100 μg/L for a 5-day
exposure time [102]. The effects of 10 μg/L ibuprofen to a riverine microbial
community were monitored for 8 weeks indicating a toxic effect. Cyanobacteria
were suppressed and bacterial biomass was reduced. The live-dead ratio was
affected by the exposure [103]. Ibuprofen was not able to inhibit a number of
endpoints monitored in L. gibba after a 7-day exposure time [104]. An older study
indicated that ibuprofen had antibacterial activity suppressing the growth of
S. aureus when exposed to 150 mg/L [105]. Ibuprofen at 10 mg/L was able to be
biodegraded by the rot-white fungi T. versicolor, I. lacteus, G. lucidum, and
P. chrysosporium after an exposure time of 7 days [106].
Recently diclofenac has been qualitatively detected in the hair of Eurasian otters
Lutra lutra indicating that wildlife is being exposed to this compound [107]. The most
severe adverse effects of diclofenac though were found in three species of vultures the
Indian white-rumped one (Gyps bengalensis), the Indian one (Gyps indicus), and the
slender-billed one (Gyps tenuirostris) in India and Pakistan causing a population
decline [108, 109]. Renal failure and visceral gout were observed due to their
scavenging behavior feeding on carcasses of domestic cattle treated with diclofenac
[110]. The LOEC causing renal failure was 0.007 mg/kg. Adverse effects on the same
concentrations were found for the African vultures Gyps coprotheres [111].
The effects of diclofenac on four avian species: broiler chicks (Gallus gallus,
15 days old), pigeons (Columba livia, 3 months old), Japanese quail (Coturnix
japonica, 4 weeks old), and myna (Acridotheres tristis, independent young) when
exposed to concentrations 0.3, 2.5, 10, and 20 mg/kg body weight for 7 days were
depression, somnolence, decreased body weight, and mortality. Serum creatinine
levels were elevated and kidneys and livers were enlarged. Histologically, the
kidneys showed acute renal necrosis and the livers had fatty change and necrosis
of hepatocytes. The kidneys and livers of broiler chicks and pigeons given 10 and
20 mg/kg diclofenac exhibited uric acid crystal aggregates (tophi) and associated
lesions in the parenchyma [112]. When turkey vultures Cathartes aura were
exposed to diclofenac, no signs of toxicity, visceral gout, renal necrosis, or elevate
plasma uric acid were observed at concentrations greater than 100 times the
estimated median lethal dose reported for Gyps vultures, showing a different
sensitivity among avian species [113].
Diclofenac was not found to cause bacterial mutation, cytogenotoxicity in vitro and
in vivo, gene mutation in the mouse lymphoma cells, and carcinogenicity on mouse at
concentrations of 0.02–0.04 the high animal dose (mg/m2/maximum recommended
human dose) and on rats at concentrations up to 0.09. Furthermore, no cell transfor-
mation and no effect on the dominant lethal assay were observed [114]. Ibuprofen was
reported to be non-mutagenic using the Ames mutagenicity assay (in strains TA97a,
TA100, and TA102) and weak genotoxic when using the in vivo genotoxicity test of
sister-chromatid exchange in bone marrow cells of mice [115].
As a conclusion, the following remarks should be made:
• Detrimental effects have been reported at low μg/L concentrations for both
diclofenac and ibuprofen.
• Acute and chronic adverse effects were observed at low μg/L concentrations.
• The lowest concentration reported of ibuprofen able to cause an effect is 10 ng/L.
• The most sensitive endpoint was the quantification of movements of amphipods.
3.3 Antibiotics: The Examples of Erythromycin, Ofloxacin,

and Sulfamethoxazole
Erythromycin has been found to inhibit the growth of the Cyanobacteria

Synechocystis sp. by 70% when exposed for 5 days to 1 mg/L; L. minor was
found to be inhibited by 20% when exposed for 7 days at the same concentrations
[77]. L. gibba was not inhibited using a 7-day static renewal test at concentrations
up to 1 mg/L [104]. Ofloxacin was found to be phytotoxic to L. gibba at μg/L when
exposed for 7 days with an EC50 value of 532–1,374 μg/L, depending on the
endpoint assessed [104]. L. minor when exposed to ofloxacin had an inhibition on
the reproduction of fronds after a 7-day exposure time with an EC50 value of
126 μg/L. Sulfamethoxazole could inhibit L. gibba after a 7-day exposure time to
seven endpoints evaluated (e.g. wet weight, frond number, chlorophyll a, chloro-
phyll b, carotenoids) with EC50 values ranging from 0.8 to 81 μg/L [104]. The
concentration of para-aminobenzoic acid was found to increase when L. gibba was
exposed to sulfamethoxazole suggesting a specific mode of action at concentrations
of 100–1000 μg/L during the 7-day exposure time [116].
The effects of erythromycin to P. subcapitata have been recently studied using a
biomarker battery that included photosynthetic rate, chlorophyll fluorescence, Hill
reaction activity, photophosphorylation activity, and ribulose-1.5-bisphosphate
carboxylase activity, and it was found to cause acute effects (96 h) at concentrations
of 0.6 mg/L [117]. Levofloxacin was found to inhibit the O2 evolution and the
photosystem II (PSII) activity of the Synechocystis sp. at concentrations of 0.1–

10 mg/L after 12-h exposure time [118]. The spore germination of B. stearother-
mophilus was inhibited by a 3-h exposure time with an LOEC of 23 μg/L [119]. The
growth of C. meneghiniana and S. leopoliensis was found to be inhibited when
exposed for 96 h to sulfamethoxazole with an EC50 value of 2.4 and 26 ng/L,
respectively [43]. Sulfamethoxazole was toxic to C. vulgaris when exposed for 48 h
with an EC50 value of 6.2 10 3 mM [120].
Erythromycin was found to immobilize B. calyciflorus and T. platyurus exposed
for 24 h and C. dubia exposed for 48 h with EC50 values of 27.53, 17.68, and
10.2 mg/L, respectively [121]. D. rerio was not killed when exposed for 96 h to
concentrations up to 1000 mg/L [121]. No effects on the immobilization and
morphology of adults and neonates, adult length, resting egg production, brood
size (fecundity), and proportion of male broods produced (sex ratio) when
D. magna was exposed to 6 and 30 days at concentrations of 1–100 μg/L
[122]. The growth of B. calyciflorus at 48 h and the number of female rotifers of
C. dubia at 7 days were affected with an EC50 value of 0.9 and 0.2 mg/L [121]. It
has been found that erythromycin may affect the microbiological population in
aquaculture by changing the bacterial composition, rather than the numbers of total
viable aerobic bacteria or erythromycin-resistant bacteria at 25 mg/L [123]. Immo-
bilization of B. calyciflorus and T. platyurus after 24-h and C. dubia after 48-h
exposure time to sulfamethoxazole was observed with an EC50 value of 26.3, 35.4,
and 15.5 mg/L, respectively. D. rerio was not affected when mortality was moni-
tored after an exposure time of 96 h to 1000 mg/L. Chronic exposure times of 48 h
of B. calyciflorus and 7 days of C. dubia had an EC50 value of 9.6 and 0.2 mg/L
[121]. The morphology feeding response, hydranth number, and attachment of
H. vulgaris were not found to be affected when exposed at 96 h at concentrations
up to 100 mg/L of sulfamethoxazole [95].
Erythromycin was reported to cause membrane lysis of Gram-negative bacteria
L. pneumophila with a minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of 0.5 mg/L when
exposed for 16 h [124]. At subinhibitory doses of 1.5 mg/L, repression of lectin
production in P. aeruginosa [125] and modification of the cell surface structure and
hydrophobicity were observed [126]. Erythromycin was found to inhibit ammonifica-
tion, nitritation, and nitratation at concentrations higher than 20 mg/L. It also affected
heterotrophs, particularly filamentous bacteria by causing floc disintegration and
breakage of filaments. Cell lysis was observed [127]. Adverse effects such as inhibition
of the specific evolution rate of COD and N–NH4+ and destruction of flocs were
observed in activated sludge when exposed at 10 mg/L erythromycin for 24 h [128].
Erythromycin was found to cause mortality to A. salina when exposed to 10 mg/L
for 120 h [129]. The respiration inhibition test OECD 209 was applied to erythro-
mycin for an exposure time of 20 h and the inhibition concentration 50% (IC50) was
greater than 100 mg/L [130]. Only part of the bacterial population of activated
sludge was found to be affected by erythromycin with an EC50 value ranging
between 39 and 43 mg/L [131]. Ofloxacin was found to immobilize B. calyciflorus
and T. platyurus after an exposure time of 24 h and C. dubia after an exposure time of
48 h with an EC50 value of 29.9, 33.9, and 17.4 mg/L, respectively [121]. Lethality of
D. rerio at the maximum concentration tested (1,000 mg/L) did not increase mark-
edly after an exposure time of 96 h [121]. Chronic exposure time of 48 h for
B. calyciflorus in which growth was evaluated and 7 days for C. dubia in which
the number of females was counted had an EC50 value of 0.5 and 3.1 mg/L,
respectively. Ofloxacin was found to have genotoxic properties at concentrations
of 1–2 μg/L present in hospital effluents [132].
No mutagenic effect was observed during the AMES test, to both the TA98
evaluating frameshift mutations and the TA100 monitoring base pair substitutions
for erythromycin [121]. Erythromycin at 1 and 100 mg/L did not affect the
methanogens of an anaerobic batch reactor and the biogas production, indicating
that a substantial percentage of the population was resistant to erythromycin. The
conversion of butyric acid though was inhibited when erythromycin was present,
indicating that specific substrate degradation pathways can be affected
[133]. B. stearothermophilus was inhibited to sulfamethoxazole when exposed for
3 h, and an LOEC of 132.5 μg/L to its spore germination was reported [119]. Sul-
famethoxazole was found to be mutagenic using the AMES test at high concentra-
tions 6.25 and 50 mg/L with the TA98 and TA100, respectively [121]. It was found
to be unstable in anaerobic mesophilic digesters [134, 135]. Furthermore, it could
inhibit the soil bacteria as means of leucine incorporation and endpoint for esti-
mating pollution-induced community tolerance when exposed to 20 and 500 mg/kg
for 30 days. An increase in the fungal and a decrease in the bacterial phospholipid
fatty acids were observed [136].
Erythromycin was not able to produce an increase in the frequency of bio-
markers as sister-chromatid exchanges or chromosomal aberrations in either the
presence or absence of metabolic activation to Chinese hamster ovaries
[137]. Ofloxacin was reported to display high activity not only against bacterial
topoisomerases [138], but also against eukaryotic topoisomerases [139]. According
to Li et al. [140] it could also induce oxidative stress, lipid peroxidation, and DNA
oxidative damage to chondrocytes. Although ofloxacin is toxic to mammalian cells
in culture, its mechanism of action is still not completely understood. A reason may
be that quinolones bind cooperatively to DNA, perhaps as a consequence of π–π
stacking of planar quinolone rings [141]. It should be mentioned that since the
dosing period of ofloxacin is usually short, carcinogenicity studies are not always
compulsory for its governmental approval. Sulfamethoxazole was found to be
hepatotoxic and cause systemic hypersensitivity reactions [142]. However, the
frequency of chromosomal aberrations in peripheral lymphocytes [143] and in the
bone marrow [144] did not increase. An increase of the number of micronuclei was
observed in the bone marrow [144]. More recently sulfamethoxazole was found to
be genotoxic in lymphocytes at 500 mg/L [145].
To summarize, antibiotics were found:
• To cause chronic effects at the low μg/L toward plants, daphnids, and bacteria
• In some cases, e.g., fluoroquinolones, genotoxic at the low μg/L concentration
levels
4 Future Challenges: Correlating Chemical and Biological

Parameters
The difficulty of fully correlating chemical parameters of wastewater and biological

effects is translated in the few publications published so far in the scientific
literature. The studies included in Table 1 are successful examples, in which a
TIE scheme was applied to characterize wastewater. As described by the USEPA,
each TIE consists of (1) phase I, toxicity characterization procedures; (2) phase II,
toxicant identification; and (3) toxicant confirmation [146].
As presented in Table 1, an accurate correlation of biological effects with
chemical parameters can be drawn when toxicity is mainly caused by a limited
number of compounds, for instance, in case that the main cause of toxicity is
ammonia. As Ankley et al. [147] discuss this has to do with the easy characteriza-
tion, manipulation, and assessment of effects of ammonia. This fact stresses the
limitations of the currently applied methodologies toward fully characterizing the
chemical origin of toxicity.
The TIE approach, however, has not been able to fully characterize toxicity if
many contaminants are taken into account. This has to do mainly with the bioassays
currently being applied in this approach, in which focus is given on acute toxicity
and whole organisms’ endpoints of survival, growth, etc.
The great number of components interacting in the wastewater matrix may cause
a mixture effect increasing its complexity. Pharmaceuticals, as a group, have also
been studied for mixture effects. Recent studies reviewed by Vasquez et al. [148]
indicate that mixture effects are possible at environmental concentrations. Publica-
tions correlating mixture effects of different groups of contaminants are still
lacking. The difficulty to accurately identify, quantify, and assess the effects of
contaminants, their metabolites, and their transformation products is diverting
research from a chemical-oriented approach to an effect-based approach. In this
context, complex mixtures are not seen only as many different compounds but as a
dynamic mixture. To this end, the effort is not being given in reconstituting
complex mixtures but in better understanding how complex mixtures behave, as a
whole. Complex mixtures have been primarily assessed as a black box and only
recently tools for simultaneously assessing multiple contaminants are being
developed [149].
First and foremost, a selection of relevant effect-based bioassays that constitute a
battery assay should be made. Some of the criteria to be taken into account in order
to select the assays are (1) sensitivity, (2) reproducibility, (3) ecological relevance,
and (4) cost-effectiveness. Regarding pharmaceuticals, this chapter has identified
that adverse effects have been reported at environmental concentration levels of
ng–μg/L. These effects were observed mainly after chronic exposure periods.
Molecular and cellular endpoints were found to be sensible enough to capture
effects at these minuscule concentrations. In some cases, even acute effects were
observed at the low μg/L concentrations. In general, the endpoints and bioassays
able to capture adverse effects of pharmaceuticals at environmental concentrations

are not widely applied and are missing from most current monitoring programs.
As Burgess et al. [150] have recently concluded, the research effort should be
driven in two directions. One direction would be trying to have a contaminant or
chemical approach of complex matrices. This would necessitate development of
addition of steps in the TIE approach focusing on specific chemical groups. The
target however is to simplify a complex matrix and not reconstitute it by testing
chemicals alone. The other direction would be trying to maintain the relevant
environmental bioavailability of any of the samples resulting from the TIE
approach. This may be quite challenging since bioavailability is species and even
organ specific.
Whichever path a researcher decides to follow, the ultimate goal should be the
protection of the environment. The precautionary principle should be considered in
the case of pharmaceuticals, as the ongoing research efforts to complete the
complex matrix puzzle are continued. In this context, unified and harmonized
legislative tools for wastewater reuse practices are in urgent need.
5 Conclusions
Pharmaceuticals and their products of incomplete mineralization (“transformation

products, TPs”) are considered as CEC due to their inherent ability to affect
biological systems and their occurrence and pseudo-persistence in the environment.
As presented herein, a wide variety of bioassays and endpoints have been used to
investigate adverse effects of pharmaceuticals. These bioassays include organisms
from all trophic levels (e.g., producers, consumers, and decomposers) and various
biological organizational levels (e.g., molecular, cellular, etc.). However, most of
them, due to their relatively limited environmental relevance or time duration,
cannot be used to fully understand how pharmaceuticals may behave in complex
matrices under real conditions.
The experimental designs mostly applied have only been substance oriented
rather than effect based. Moving into an effect-based direction can lead to the
identification of adverse outcome pathways that may link exposure to pharmaceu-
ticals with a molecular-initiating event leading to an adverse outcome.
Since the ultimate objective is the protection of the environment where pharma-
ceuticals are present in complex mixtures, this exact complexity cannot and should
not be resolved by component-based approaches only. Experimental designs should
embrace this complexity by simultaneously addressing multiple stressors in order to
accurately assess the potential adverse effects of pharmaceuticals in the
environment.
Acknowledgments This work was prepared in the framework of the PENEK/0609/24 research
project “Development of novel methods for the toxicity assessment of the multi-component
chemical mixtures to humans and the ecosystem” (TOMIXX), implemented within the framework
of the program for research, technological development, and innovation “DESMH 2009–2010”
and stimulated by NIREAS activities, the International Water Research Center of the University of
Cyprus (ΝΕΑ ΥΠΟΔΟMΗ/ΣΤΡΑΤΗ/0308/09). These projects are funded by the Cyprus Research
Promotion Foundation, which is co-financed by the Republic of Cyprus and the European Regional
Development Fund. The authors would also like to acknowledge the financial support provided by
COST - European Cooperation in Science and Technology, to the COST Action ES1403: New and
emerging challenges and opportunities in wastewater reuse (NEREUS).
Disclaimer
The content of this article is the authors’ responsibility and neither COST nor any
person acting on its behalf is responsible for the use, which might be made of the
information contained in it.
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Bioavailability and Uptake of Organic
Micropollutants During Crop Irrigation
with Reclaimed Wastewater: Introduction
to Current Issues and Research Needs
~ameras, J. Comas, and J.M. Bayona

N. Can
Abstract Organic contaminants occurring in reclaimed water can be incorporated

in soil, where they can interact with humic compounds or anthropogenic organic
matter depending on their physicochemical properties. In the soil water, a fraction
of these contaminants can be biodegraded, particularly in the rhizosphere, where
the process is enhanced by root exudates. Another fraction can be uptaken by plants
and translocated by xylem. Once incorporated in the plant, a fraction of the
incorporated contaminant is metabolized, while the rest remains unaltered. Three
stages can be distinguished in the metabolization process: (1) oxidation, (2) conju-
gation, and (3) accumulation in the vacuole or cell wall.
Keywords Bioavailability, Metabolization, Organic contaminants, Plant uptake,

Translocation
Contents
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
2 Factors Controlling the Bioavailability of Organic Micropollutants in Soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
2.1 Soil–Water–Contaminant Interactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
2.2 Sorption to Natural and Anthropogenic Organic Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
3 Uptake of Contaminants by Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
3.1 Uptake from a Hydroponic Medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
3.2 Uptake from Soil-Pore Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
4 Metabolization of Organic Contaminants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
4.1 Plant Detoxification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
N. Ca~nameras and J. Comas

DEAB-UPC, Campus del Baix Llobregat, Esteve Terrades, 8, Castelldefels 08860, Spain
J.M. Bayona (*)
IDAEA-CSIC, Jordi Girona, 18, Barcelona 08034, Spain

Hdb Env Chem (2016) 44: 81–104, DOI 10.1007/698_2015_412,
© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015, Published online: 11 August 2015
82 N. Ca~
nameras et al.
4.2 Metabolization Phases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

5 Future Developments and Research Needs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Abbreviations
BCFsv Bioconcentration factor soil-vegetal

BPA Bisphenol A
CYP450 Cytochrome P450
DBP Disinfection by-product
DDT Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane
DEET N,N-Diethyl-meta-toluamide
DMPEA N,N0 -dimethylphenethylamine
DMPEA N,N0 -dimethylphenethylamine
DOC Dissolved organic carbon
DOW pH-adjusted octanol-water partition coefficient:
K OW
DOW ¼
1 þ 10 pH pKa
DW Dry weight
fw Fresh weight
GSH Glutathione
GST Glutathione S-transferase
GT Glycosyltransferase
HC Hydrocarbon
HS Humic substance
Kd,solid Soil sorption coefficient
KOC Sorption coefficient
KOW Octanol-water partition coefficient
MTBE Methyl tert-butyl ether
NADP+ Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate
NSAID Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug
OP Organic pollutant
PAH Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon
PCB Polychlorinated biphenyl
PCCD Poly(1,4-cyclohexylidene cyclohexane-1,4-dicarboxylate)
PCDD Polychlorinated dibenzodioxin
PCDF Polychlorinated dibenzofuran
PPCPs Pharmaceuticals and personal care products
TSCF Transpiration stream concentration factor
UV Ultraviolet
Xenobiotic Exogenous organic compound
Bioavailability and Uptake of Organic Micropollutants During Crop Irrigation. . . 83
1 Introduction
Reclaimed wastewaters may contain different mineral nutrients, organic microcon-

taminants, and trace elements depending upon their original source (i.e., industrial,
urban, or domestic) and the treatment process (i.e., secondary, tertiary, or quater-
nary). When reclaimed water is used in agriculture, it is subjected to additional
treatment processes to meet water quality standards, including disinfection (i.e.,
chlorination, UV, photocatalysis, nanofiltration, etc.), to remove or attenuate micro-
bial pathogens and salinity [1]. During these disinfection processes, by-products
(DBPs) can be formed due to the reaction of the organic matter or recalcitrant
contaminants with the oxidants depending on the oxidant dose and contact time
between the oxidant and disinfected water [2, 3]. Some of these DBPs are of health
and/or environmental concern, exhibiting genotoxicity or carcinogenicity
[4]. Moreover, recalcitrant contaminants and DBPs contained in reclaimed irriga-
tion water may be incorporated into crops and, thus, eventually into the food chain
[5–7].
This chapter reviews processes affecting contaminants’ availability to and their
fate in plants. Factors that influence the uptake of organic microcontaminants, such
as physicochemical properties, soil sorption properties, and interaction with humic
substances (HSs), are evaluated. Although the primary focus is emerging contam-
inants of environmental and health concern such as pharmaceuticals and personal
care products (PPCPs) that are frequently detected in reclaimed water, we also
include published information about pesticides whenever no information regarding
PPCPs is available. Moreover, although the foliar route of incorporation is also
feasible [6], we pay particular attention to the radicular route, since drip irrigation is
the most commonly used technique with reclaimed water and organic contaminants
are mostly uptaken through the rhizosphere. This review does not cover the
incorporation of organic contaminants associated with biosolids, as that is a broad
topic in itself and deserves a specific attention.
2 Factors Controlling the Bioavailability of Organic

Micropollutants in Soil
A variety of organic pollutants (OPs), e.g., priority organic contaminants such as

polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs),
polychlorinated dibenzodioxins (PCDDs), polychlorinated dibenzofurans
(PCDFs), and dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDTs) or pharmaceutical and per-
sonal care products (PPCPs), can enter the soil through irrigation with contaminated
water, dry and wet atmospheric deposition, or biosolid and manure disposal.
Assessing the behavior of OPs in soil and their bioavailability by crop and soil
biota is a complex task as OP dynamics are governed by their physicochemical
properties, soil–root–microbiota interactions, and cropping practices (e.g., plowing
84 N. Ca~
nameras et al.
and irrigation). These interactions mostly occur in the rhizosphere and on the
interface between microminerals and HSs and organic carbon from anthropogenic
sources, e.g., soot and black carbon particles. The following section looks at factors
affecting the bioaccessibility and bioavailability of OPs.
2.1 Soil–Water–Contaminant Interactions
Various pools of organic matter can coexist in soil. Firstly, there is labile organic
matter that can be easily partitioned within soil-pore water exhibiting a very high
dissolved organic carbon (DOC) concentration. Secondly, there is a high-
molecular-weight organic matter known as kerogen, which cannot be extracted
using conventional solvent methods. While this fraction may contain organic
contaminants, these are not available to plants and thus will not be considered
further. Finally, soil can also contain black carbon originating during combustion
processes, which significantly impact the adsorption processes of hydrophobic
contaminants and are not usually considered [8].
Organic and inorganic contaminants in soil are strongly associated with humic
substances (HSs). These substances act as both temporary storage and transport
agents for hydrophobic organic contaminants (HOCs) such PAHs, PCDDs, PCDFs,
hormones, and fragrances, carrying them to the aquifer or surface water as colloids
[9, 10]. Cations have a major influence on the surfactant character of HSs. HS
aqueous solutions flocculate when the ionic strength is raised, e.g., humic polymers
proceed in continuous fashion – from micelle-like assemblies to macroscopic pre-
cipitates – as the salt concentration is increased [11–13].
Lowering the pH of aqueous HS solutions has an effect similar to adding metal
salts, albeit less pronounced [14]. Moreover, lowering pH causes the protonation of
the HA carboxylic groups, which eventually leads to precipitation. This usually
begins at pH ~ 3–2 and reaches completion at pH ~ 2–1 [15].
Due to the polarity of the aqueous soil solution in which organic contaminants
are contained and the electrical charge of clays, these organic molecules tend to
self-assemble into micelle-like structures, when suspended at high concentrations,
or bilayer-like structures, on microminerals [16]. In both situations, hydrophilic
exterior regions shield hydrophobic interiors from contact with water molecules
[12]. This is evidenced by the fact that when hydrophilic mineral particles are
exposed to HSs, they develop hydrophobic surfaces, rendering them more capable
of absorbing HOCs [17, 18].
That sorption process shows a rather discrete zonal sequence. In the contact
zone, strong organo-mineral associations are favored either by polar organic func-
tional groups of amphiphiles that interact via ligand exchange with singly coordi-
nated mineral hydroxyls or by protein-like substances that show a strong tendency
to bind to surfaces and to resist desorption [19], thereby adding hydrophobic
interactions to the electrostatic binding [20]. In fact, positively charged N-
containing moieties show a preferential adsorption over neutral or negatively
charged organic compounds to mineral surfaces [21, 22]. This behavior is basically
attributable to the electrostatic attraction of the positively charged N-containing
molecules at the soil pH with negatively charged mineral surfaces such as clays and
the carboxylic groups of HSs from the soil organic matter. In this regard, mineral-
associated HSs exhibit C/N ratios of 7–14, whereas water-extracted HSs have C/N
ratios of 26–55 [23]. Most N-containing products were derived from heterotrophic
bacteria, rather than plant tissues [24].
The hydrophobic character of HSs is due to the presence of elongated aliphatic
and aromatic functional groups, probably derived from plant waxes and cutins.
Carbohydrates and their derivatives, which include functional groups such as
alcohols or ethers that do not ionize under typical soil and water pH conditions,
are mildly polar. The HSs’ hydrophilic character is mainly due to the dissociation of
carboxylic acid and phenolic groups and proton acceptance of amines, which can be
positively charged under typical soil and water pH conditions. HSs have a high
aromatic content, estimated to range from 20 to 60% of the carbon present, and are
responsible for dispersive and dipole-induced interactions [25].
2.2 Sorption to Natural and Anthropogenic Organic Matter
As mentioned in the previous section, HSs make up the main pool of organic matter
and organic contaminants in soil. They can behave as a temporary storage of
organic contaminants that are released whenever the HS biodegrades or, with acidic
compounds, when the pH decreases.
In addition, black carbon and kerogen exhibit a nonlinear sorption behavior and
may dominate the overall sorption by soils [26]. Elemental carbon is generated by
combustion of fossil fuels such as coal, diesel, or gasoline and can be advectively
transported by the wind through the atmosphere and accumulate in the soil by wet
or dry deposition.
Sorption and desorption of HOCs occurring in soil-pore water on to the soil
organic matter is one of the most important mechanisms controlling the mobility of
nonpolar and low-polarity organic contaminants in surface waters, subsurface
waters, and plant uptake. Recent studies show that soils exhibit an array of
hydrophobic sorption phenomena that are inconsistent with an early partitioning
model. Experimental data from sorption–desorption studies reveal a nonlinear
isotherm, varied sorption–desorption hysteresis, solute–solute competition, and
low rates of sorption–desorption [27]. In the case of veterinary pharmaceuticals,
there is a broad range of soil sorption coefficients (Kd,solid ¼ 0.2–6,000 L kg1) and
those for a single compound can span several orders of magnitude depending on the
soil’s physicochemical properties [28] and the contaminant speciation (neutral,
cationic, anionic, or zwitterionic) at the soil pH. Accordingly, for ionizable mole-
cules, the DOW, a soil pH-corrected KOW, is used to evaluate their fate in soil. DOW
can be calculated from the following equation:
86 N. Ca~
nameras et al.
K OW
DOW ¼
1 þ 10 pH pKa
where pKa is the ionization constant of acidic molecules. In case of neutral

molecules, KOW and DOW are equivalent.
A number of hydrophobicity-independent mechanisms, such as cation exchange,
cation bridging at clay surfaces, surface complexation, and hydrogen bonding,
appear to be involved. Accordingly, different models have been proposed to deal
with the high heterogeneity of rigid HCs and the limited sorption sites available of
black carbon and kerogen, namely, the Langmuir, Freundlich, and composite
models based on distributed reactivity [27]. However, linear partitioning coeffi-
cients corrected by the organic matter, namely, KOC, are still the most widely used,
particularly for nonionic organic contaminants leading to biased results especially
at high pore water concentrations of organic contaminants since competitive dis-
placement occurs when the number of contaminant molecules exceed the number of
soil’s active sites.
3 Uptake of Contaminants by Plants
Different experimental setups have been used to evaluate the uptake of a large
variety of organic contaminants by different plant species. In the following discus-
sion, the bioavailability of organic contaminants is classified in accordance with
these experimental setups (Table 1).
3.1 Uptake from a Hydroponic Medium
Predicting the uptake of contaminants by roots and xylem translocation is of great

importance in risk assessment studies and to anticipate the effectiveness of
phytoremediation [38]. The root uptake of OPs can be passive or active, and a
commonly used descriptor is the transpiration stream concentration factor (TSCF).
It is defined as the ratio of the contaminant concentration in the transpiration stream
to that in the root zone pore water or hydroponic solution. Chemicals with a
TSCF > 1.0 are actively transported, while chemicals that move in plants at the
same rate as water have a TSCF near 1.0. Due to the interaction of OPs with the
lipid bilayer in root membranes, the TSCF is usually lower than 1. Because of the
difficulty of measuring the TSCF experimentally, estimated data based on empirical
relationships based on the log KOW are usually used. These relationships suggest
that highly lipophilic OPs (log KOW > 4) and highly hydrophilic OPs (log KOW < 1)
should not be considered available to plants [39]. However, recent studies suggest
that highly polar nonionic OPs with log KOW < 1 (e.g., MTBE) can be uptaken by
Table 1 Organic pollutants uptaken by plant from irrigation evaluated according to experimental
setups
Plant specie Target compound References
In vitro tissue culture
Armoracia rusticana Ibuprofen [29]
Linum usitatissimum Diclofenac sodium
Glycine max 2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid [30]
Triticum aestivum
Hydroponic conditions
Brassica rapa Carbamazepine [31]
Salbutamol
Sulfamethoxazole
Trimethoprim
Lactuca sativa 20 compounds [32]
Spinacia oleracea
Cucumis sativus
Capsicum annuum
Ipomoea aquatic Bisphenol A [33]
Hordeum vulgare Ibuprofen [29]
Lupinus luteolus
Phragmites australis Diclofenac sodium
4 vegetables
Brassica oleracea Bisphenol A [34]
Lactuca sativa Naproxen
4-Nonylphenol
Phragmites australis Ciprofloxacin [35]
Oxytetracycline
Sulfamethazine
Soil test-pots in greenhouses or in field trials
Brassica campestris Carbamazepine [36]
Sulfamethoxazole
Salbutamol
Daucus carota sativus Galaxolide [37]
Tonalide
Triclosan
plants [40, 41] probably by channel protein route (e.g., aquaporins). In fact,
enhanced transport occurs for small neutral solutes along this pathway [42] but
still not well understood in the case of highly hydrophilic OPs. Moreover, the
integrity of the root cell membranes is also a key factor controlling root uptake of
OPs. When damaged, roots are easily exposed to toxicants, and the TSCF can
increase significantly [38]. The following empirical relationship has been proposed
to estimate the TSCF for 25 chemicals ranging from log KOW 0.8 to 5:
88 N. Ca~
nameras et al.
11
TSCF ¼
11 þ 2:6logðKOW Þ
The main limitation of this model is that all the TSCF measurements are
performed under hydroponic conditions. Thus, soil interaction is not considered.
Moreover, it is limited to neutral OPs, whereas a large number of pharmaceuticals
are ionic or ionizable compounds. For ionizable compounds, electrostatic attraction
or repulsion and ion trap may affect the accumulation of contaminants in roots [43,
44].
In the rhizosphere – the soil area that has been physically, chemically, or
biologically altered by the presence of plant roots [45, 46] – roots absorb nutrients
but also exude many organic compounds and oxygen. Indeed, it has been estimated
that roots can release about 10–40% of their total photosynthetically fixed carbon
[47]. Organic acids, amino acids, proteins, sugars, phenols, and other secondary
metabolites are significant exudates extensively used by soil microorganisms and
mycorrhizal fungi [48]. These components help plants to access nutrients by light-
induced acidification assisted by photosynthetic activity (daytime) or alkalinization
(night), changing the redox conditions (oxygen transport) within the rhizosphere or
directly chelating nutrients [49].
Hydroponic experimental conditions do not simulate field conditions, but the
rhizosphere remains functional. Analgesics (i.e., acetaminophen), stimulants (i.e.,
caffeine), anxiolytics (i.e., meprobamate), nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs
(NSAIDs) (i.e., diclofenac, naproxen, ketoprofen), anticonvulsants (i.e., primidone,
carbamazepine, dilantin), lipid regulators (i.e., gemfibrozil, atorvastatin), polymers
and surfactant-related products (i.e., bisphenol A, nonylphenol), β-agonists (i.e.,
salbutamol), insect repellents (i.e., DEET), triclocarban, antibiotics (sulfonamides
such as sulfamethoxazole and sulfamethazine, tetracyclines such as oxytetracy-
cline, and fluoroquinolones such as ciprofloxacin), and dihydrofolate reductase
inhibitors (trimethoprim) have been widely evaluated by several authors (Table 1).
The compartmentation of contaminants in the plant system depends on the physical
properties of the contaminants. The highest concentrations are generally found in
the root system, but some compounds can be translocated to seedpods, stem, or
leaves [31]. Nevertheless, in contrast to aerial plant parts, roots accumulate too
lipophilic organic compounds [50, 51]. However, taking into account the large
variety of experimental setups, crops, water quality, and soil characteristics at
present, it is almost impossible to draw any conclusion regarding the contaminant
uptake by plants. Nevertheless, the soil organic matter and clay content lead to a
decrease in the OP bioavailability. On the other hand, the DOC content in the
irrigation water decreases also the uptake of the OP probably because they are
associated with the colloidal organic matter becoming more mobile through soil
and then less bioaccessible.
In a recent study, 20 PPCPs were evaluated in different common plant species
(i.e., lettuce, spinach, cucumber, and pepper) [32]. Out of the 20 PPCPs considered,
triclocarban, fluoxetine, triclosan, and diazepam accumulated in roots at higher
levels than the other PPCPs, while translocation to leaves/stems was more extensive
for meprobamate, primidone, carbamazepine, dilantin, and diuron. Interestingly, all
of these compounds are moderate or weak bases and can be actively transported by
the ion trap effect from neutral pH (pH 7–7.5) in the cytoplasm to acidic vacuoles
(pH 5.5) [44] where they tend to store. For nonionic compounds, root uptake was
positively correlated to log KOW which suggests that hydrophobic interactions are
relevant to root uptake, but they limit the contaminant translocation (negative
correlation with log KOW) through limited mobility either by phloem (weak acids)
or xylem (weak bases).
3.2 Uptake from Soil-Pore Water
The uptake of organic contaminants by plants is chiefly controlled by their bio-

availability in the soil-root system. Bioavailability is defined as a measure of
chemicals’ accessibility to plant roots or of their absorbability by living organisms
[52, 53]. Usually, plant uptake is measured by dimensionless bioconcentration
factor soil-vegetal (BCFSV), which is defined as follows:

Concentration in plant shoot mg kg1 DW
BCFSV ¼ :
Concentration in soil mg kg1 DW
However, several authors used aqueous concentration of contaminant in irriga-

tion water instead of soil concentration, and in this case, the BCFSV is expressed as
L kg1. Although the latter method for BCFSV is suitable for hydroponic culture
when the contaminant solution is supplied at constant concentration, if it is used in
soils, a significant underestimation occurs because some of the OPs exhibit a fast
degradation in soil.
The availability of nutrients and other organic compounds for uptake by roots is
a process that largely consists of microorganism-mediated activity, and the
enhancement of the biodegradation of contaminants decreases in accordance with
the distance from the roots. This is known as the rhizosphere effect in
phytotechnology. Nevertheless, recent studies have demonstrated an abiotic mech-
anism in the case of hydrophobic contaminants. Artificial (e.g., citric and oxalic
acids) or natural root exudates promote the desorption of hydrophobic contaminants
such as phenanthrene and pyrene sorbed to soil by decreasing the surface tension of
the pore water, and the fraction of the contaminant desorbed depends on the soil
organic matter and contaminant aging [54, 55].
Several experiments have been carried out to evaluate plants’ uptake of OPs
from irrigation water in greenhouses, allowing for the control of experimental
variables (e.g., temperature, humidity, watering, etc.) (Table 1). Wu et al. [56]
compared the uptake of OPs by soybeans from spiked irrigation water and biosolids
containing emerging contaminants. Carbamazepine, triclosan, and triclocarban
90 N. Ca~
nameras et al.
accumulated in root tissues and were translocated into aboveground parts, including
the beans. The uptake of selected compounds differed depending on the treatment.
The application of biosolids resulted in higher plant concentrations of the target
contaminants, likely due to higher loading. However, organic contaminants deliv-
ered by irrigation were more easily taken up and translocated.
In another greenhouse study with unspiked irrigation waters of different quality
(i.e., well water, secondary effluent, chlorinated water, photocatalytic oxidation)
[5], crops grown in secondary effluent were most frequently detected in the highest
concentrations, while the lowest were found in green pods. Tributyl phosphate and
butylated hydroxylanisole had the highest concentration among the 21 compounds
monitored in irrigation waters (up to 570 ng g1 fresh weight (fw)). Concentrations
for the other microcontaminants screened were found to range from 0.7 to 83 ng g1
(fw) for pharmaceuticals, from 0.4 to 573 ng g1 (fw) for pesticides, and from 4 to
336 ng g1 (fw) for fragrances. From pharmaceuticals, carbamazepine exhibited the
highest concentration in carrot (52 ng g1 fw) followed by flunixin in lettuce grown
in reclaimed waters (secondary treatment). Both compounds are secondary amines
with basic properties. From fragrances, ambrettolide exhibited the highest concen-
tration in carrot followed by lettuce (75–134 ng g1 fw) grown with reclaimed
water. All the fragrances analyzed share a log KOW >4, and the uptake is closely
related to their concentration in irrigation waters being tuber vegetables, the ones
with the highest concentrations. Phenoxy acids and triazinic acid herbicides
exhibited the highest concentrations in crops, which is consistent with their sys-
temic behavior.
In a greenhouse and field experiment, river and wastewater effluents were used
for irrigation [57]. The results showed the potential for uptake of one or more of the
antibiotics evaluated (azithromycin, roxithromycin, clarithromycin) and illicit
drugs (methamphetamine, pseudoephedrine), albeit at very low levels. In those
food crops watered with wastewater effluent, only an industrial flavoring agent, N,
N0 -dimethylphenethylamine (DMPEA), was consistently found. None of the eval-
uated contaminants were found in crops irrigated with water from the river.
However, the reported recoveries in vegetables for all the target analytes were
matrix dependent and consistently low (2–50%) which could led to an underesti-
mation of actual concentrations.
To date, very few field studies have been carried out to evaluate the incorpora-
tion of waterborne contaminants into crops. One such study was conducted in an
irrigation pipe network in which reclaimed water (secondary effluent) was mixed
with riverine water depending on the hydric demand and its availability [58]. Alfalfa
and apple were analyzed, and 5 anthropogenic compounds, namely, hydrocinnamic
acid, caffeine, ibuprofen, naproxen, and galaxolide were identified and quantitated,
with concentrations ranging from 0.014 to 16.9 ng g1 (fw). Due to the temporal
variability of contaminants in the irrigation waters, incorporation pathways (e.g.,
foliar or radicular), and the different half-life in soil, no significant correlations
between irrigation water and crop concentrations were found.
4 Metabolization of Organic Contaminants
4.1 Plant Detoxification
Plants develop defense mechanisms for survival under unfavorable abiotic and
biotic conditions [59]. One of the plant strategies for reducing OPs toxicity is
through biotransformation reactions promoted by the activation of the plant’s
enzymatic system. In contrast to heterotrophic organisms, plants do not completely
oxidize uptaken OPs because plants do not possess the enzymatic machinery to
complete the degradation of many OPs. However, plants have varying capacities to
detoxify pollutants using specific enzymatic pathways, depending on the plant
species and environmental conditions, as well as the structure of the organic
compound [60]. After being taken up by the root, OPs can have different fates.
They may be translocated [61] or transformed into less toxic compounds and
confined in plant tissues as non-available forms in vacuoles or cell walls
[62]. Plant cells can metabolize different kinds of OPs, but they have a limited
capacity to prevent their accumulation in plant tissues. It depends on the OP’s
structure, its concentration in the soil, and the uptake mechanisms [63]. A plant’s
susceptibility to an OP can also vary according to the species and cultivars.
The complete degradation of an OP by a plant can only be accomplished in the
case of low concentrations; with high concentrations, only partial mineralization is
possible [64, 65]. Moreover, biodegradation depends on the chemical structure of
the OP and its lipophilicity. The metabolization of OPs often produces alterations in
plant morphology and physiology. Many researchers have referenced these alter-
ations, especially in relation to pesticides and herbicides [64–66]. However, in the
case of emerging OPs occurring in irrigation water, the information is scarce.
4.2 Metabolization Phases
Most OPs are transformed during a sequential metabolization into more hydrophilic
and less toxic compounds. Plants usually detoxify OPs in three consecutive phases
(Fig. 1):
• Phase I: Activation, transformation, or functionalization of lipophilic organic
exogenous compounds, as
R ! R OH
where R is the organic xenobiotic and R–OH is the activated xenobiotic

• Phase II: Conjugation of metabolites formed in phase I (activated xenobiotics),
then
92 N. Ca~
nameras et al.
Fig. 1 Phases of
metabolization of organic
pollutants [67]
R OH ! R OR0
where R–OR0 is the conjugated xenobiotic. For example, in a glucuronidation

reaction,
R OH ! R O G
R NH2 ! R NH G
R SH ! R S G
and in a methylation reaction

R OH ! R O CH3
• Phase III: Compartmentation of modified compounds in vacuoles or cell walls

[67, 68]
Many different enzymes catalyze these metabolic reactions, as cytochrome P450
monooxygenases, peroxygenases, and nitroreductase in phase I or glutathione S-
transferase, glucosyltransferase, and N-malonyl in phase II. They are synthesized in
the cytosol of plant cells [69]. Sandermann [67] proposed the “green liver concept”
to explain and compare the metabolization of OPs conducted by plants with that
conducted by animals. Although plants involve more potential enzymes than
animals [70], these enzymes have numerous similarities to both normal secondary
plant metabolism enzymes and enzymes that participate in the metabolism of
xenobiotics in the mammalian liver [71], so the mechanisms for the detoxification
of xenobiotics in plants are closely related to the mammalian system [72]. The main
difference with animal metabolism is that plants do not usually have an excretory
system. In plants, metabolites must be stored in cell walls, vacuoles, or plant tissues.
The enzymes used by plants in metabolism phases I and II are generally used in the
synthesis and processing of endogenous natural compounds [73]. However, the
mechanisms involved in the distinction and detoxification of OP are still not enough
clear. Edwards et al. [70] focused their review on the proteins responsible for the
metabolism and transport of xenobiotics within plant cells, how these systems are
regulated, and their relationship with functional genes involved. According to
Edwards et al. [74], xenome in plants is the biosystem responsible for detecting,
detoxifying, and transporting xenobiotics.
4.2.1 Phase I: Activation, Transformation, or Functionalization
The main goal in phase I is to convert nonpolar organic compounds into more polar
compounds through enzymatic transformations [65, 67] in order to predispose the
contaminants for the subsequent metabolism steps (phases II and III). This trans-
formation usually involves oxidation or hydrolytic reactions [75]. Oxygenation is a
common process in pesticide and herbicide metabolism. The main metabolic
reactions involved in phase I are presented in Table 2 and discussed below.
However, when OPs have functional groups suitable for phase II metabolism
(such as hydroxyl, phenolic, and carboxylic compounds), OPs can go directly to
phase II [86].
The literature on these metabolic reactions is scarce, except in relation to
herbicides. In this regard, over the last three decades, it has been established that
CYP450 is responsible for the phase I metabolism of many different types of
herbicides [60, 75, 87, 88]. Moreover, neomycin phosphotransferase and
hygromycin phosphotransferase are known to detoxify aminoglycoside antibiotics
by phosphorylation [89].
94 N. Ca~
nameras et al.
Table 2 Selected studies of oxidative metabolization of organic pollutants observed in different

plants
Initial organic Culture
Plant species compound conditions Enzymes studied References
Triticum Acetaminophen Seedlings Peroxidase [76]
aestivum Superoxide
dismutase
Brassica juncea Acetaminophen Hydroponic Ascorbate peroxidase [77]
Catalase
Peroxidase
Caragana Bisphenol A In vitro Peroxidase [78]
chamlagu
Typha latifolia Carbamazepine Hydroponic Catalase [79]
Guaiacol peroxidase
Superoxide
dismutase
Armoracia Diclofenac In vitro Monooxygenase [80]
rusticana activity
Hordeum Hydroponic
vulgare
Populus nigra Ibuprofen In vitro Lipoxygenase [81]
Portulaca Bisphenol A Hydroponic Peroxidase [82]
oleracea
Pinus sylvestris Haloacetic acids Seedlings Peroxidase [83]
Portulaca Bisphenol A In vitro Polyphenol oxidase [84]
oleracea
Zea mays Chlortetracycline Hydroponic Peroxidase [85]
Superoxide
dismutase
Catalase
Oxidation. These reactions are mainly catalyzed by cytochrome P450 (CYP450)

associated with monooxygenases, peroxidases, and phenol oxidases [67, 75,
90]. Biotransformation reactions of CYP450 system are able to act on numerous
xenobiotics due its low specificity.
Plant CYP450 proteins are encoded by very large and diverse multigene fami-
lies, and they are the most important enzymes related to xenobiotic biodegradation
[91]. The tolerance of plants to OPs is closely related to these enzymes because
plant P450s catalyze herbicide metabolism and contribute to the activation of
detoxification mechanism of other agrochemicals [92].
The most common reaction catalyzed by CYP450 is as follows:
R-H þ O2 þ 2e- þ 2Hþ ! R-OH þ H2 O
where R can be any organic radical. Protons (H+) are usually given from NADH or
NADPH through specific amino acids in the CYP enzyme. All oxidation reactions
Table 3 Selected studies of conjugation of organic pollutants observed in different plants

Plant specie Organic compound Identified conjugates References
Brassica juncea Acetaminophen Acetaminophen glycoside [77]
Glutathionyl-acetaminophen
Caragana Bisphenol A 4-(2-Propanol)phenol [78]
chamlagu 4-Isopropenylphenol
Lemna minor Chlorinated phenols Chlorinated malonyl-glucoside [93]
Apiosyl-glucoside
Typha latifolia Carbamazepine 10,11-Dihydro-10,11- [79]
epoxycarbamazepine
Eucalyptus Bisphenol A Glucopyranosyl conjugates [94]
perriniana
Armoracia Acetaminophen Acetaminophen-glutathione [72]
rusticana
Hordeum vulgare Diclofenac Glucopyranoside
Arabidopsis [UC-14C]-3,4- [14C]-DCA-N-β-D-glucoside [95]
thaliana dichloroaniline
Glycine max DCA-N-malonate
Nicotiana Bisphenol A β-D-Glucopyranoside [96]
tabacum
Solanum nigrum 2,20 -Dichlorobiphenil Hydroxy-methoxy-polychlorinated [97]
biphenyls
Nicotiana Trichloroethylene β-D-Glucoside of trichloroethanol [98]
tabacum
Populus alba Trichloroethanol
require NADPH and O2. In the case of monooxygenases, CYP450 uses electrons
from NADPH to activate molecular oxygen to form a molecule of water and an
oxygenated product. Other enzymes that can also oxidize organic contaminants
include peroxygenases, nitroreductases, and laccases.
Hydrolytic reactions. These reactions are common in plants, especially when the
OP contains ester (catalyzed by esterases), amide (catalyzed by amidases), or nitrile
functional groups.
Reduction. These reactions are less common than hydrolysis and oxidation. The
most common reduction reaction is the reduction of nitro groups by nitroreductases
to an amino group, which requires reductants such as NADPH.
Additional examples of other types of oxidative metabolization in plants are
shown in Table 3.
4.2.2 Phase II: Conjugation
Conjugation reactions combine polar OPs or metabolites obtained in phase I with

cell-endogenous compounds (glucuronide acids, sulfates, etc.) in order to get more
polar compounds with a higher molecular weight and often higher hydrophilicity
96 N. Ca~
nameras et al.
than the initial molecules. The activated xenobiotic compounds are conjugated with
glycosides, glutathione, or amino acids. These reactions are some of plants’ most
important pathways for avoiding or reducing plant toxicity [99].
The glycosylation of OPs obtained in phase I is mainly catalyzed by glycosyl-
transferases (GTs) [73]. Glutathione (GSH) and glucosides catalyzed, respectively,
by glutathione S-transferases (GSTs) and glycosyltransferases are involved in the
conjugation of a variety of OPs [67, 69, 100]. Other enzyme classes such as
carboxylesterases, O-malonyltransferases, N-glycosyltransferases, and N-
malonyltransferases are also associated with xenobiotic metabolism in plant cells
[101]. The conjugation with GSH happens in the cytosol, but its accumulation is
harmful to the plant [86] (Table 3). Conjugation common reactions in mammalians
are mainly made with sulfate, amino acids, and glucuronic acid [102].
GSTs are very important to metabolize pollutants and give antioxidative protec-
tion. GST activities for different xenobiotics have been evaluated in 59 different
plant species and 4 plant cell suspension cultures [103], as well as for different
herbicides in Arabidopsis [74]. Table 3 shows other examples of organic xenobiotic
conjugation evaluated in different plants and culture conditions.
GSTs were first discovered in animals and later in plants, when GST activity
from maize was shown to be responsible for conjugating the chloro-S-triazine
atrazine with GSH [104].
GSTs catalyze the general reaction as follows:
R-X þ GSH ! R-SG þ HX
GSTs typically catalyze the transfer of the dipeptide GSH to a substrate (R–X)
containing a reactive electrophilic center forming a polar S-glutathionylated reac-
tion product (R-SG) [105].
Many pesticides and herbicides have been metabolized to glutathione conjugates
in higher plants cultivated in soil and in plant cell tissue culture [106, 107]. Glyco-
sylation seems to be an efficient procedure for the bioremediation of environmental
pollution by some plants, as bisphenol A (BPA), can be eliminated by formation of
its glycosides. Conjugation with glycosylation of BPA has been studied in several
plant species: (a) in soybean, wheat, foxglove, and thorn apple, three plant cell
suspension cultures where BPA was glycosylated to several glycosidic compounds,
highly polar compounds, or inextricable [108]; (b) in tobacco cell suspension and
seedling cultures were identified as two major products BPA mono-O-β-D-
gentiobioside and the trisaccharide BPA mono-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl-[β-D-
glucopyranosyl] β-D-glucopyranoside and two minor products, mono- and
di-O-β-D-glucopyransides [96, 109]; (c) in the aquatic plant water convolvulus
where most of BPA metabolites were detected in the roots and in the stems but
none in the leaves [33]; and (d) in germination and seedling hydroponic cultures of
various forage grasses and horticultural crops where BPA was removed from
aqueous solutions proportionally to the quantity they are exposed to [110]. Dogan
et al. [111] found that wheat could tolerate the oxidative stress of BPA and
tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBPA), and increases in the H2O2 level and lipid
peroxidation could be related to oxidative stress. In soybean seedlings grown in a

greenhouse experiment, low doses of BPA improved the glutamine synthetase
(GS)/glutamate synthase (GOGAT) cycle and the glutamate dehydrogenase
(GDH) pathway in ammonium assimilation. The amino acid and the soluble protein
content increased in higher doses, inhibiting the GS/GOGAT cycle and promoting
the GDH pathway. The amino acid content increased, and the soluble protein
content decreased [112]. Li et al. [113] observed that TBBPA caused stress in
wheat as measured by an increased level of malondialdehyde and changes in the
activity of superoxide dismutases, peroxidases, and catalases in leaves.
4.2.3 Phase III: Compartmentation
Conjugates obtained in phase II cannot usually be excreted by plants, but they can
be stored in cell vacuoles as conjugates or incorporated into insoluble polymers
during phase III reactions [65, 67, 75]. In this phase, xenobiotic conjugates are
converted to secondary conjugates or insoluble [114] and are sequestered from
sensitive cytoplasm and stored, for example, in vacuoles (soluble conjugates) or
incorporated into cell wall materials (insoluble conjugates) [68, 115]. The transport
to the vacuole is done by specific solute transporters in the tonoplast [68]. The
effective movement is facilitated and controlled by ATP-dependent enzymes sim-
ilar to a GSH conjugate pump [116]. This action is also called storage excretion
[68]. Often, 70% or more of the uptaken xenobiotics can be accumulated as
conjugates [64]. These conjugates may later return to the soil or enter the food
chain.
Day and Saunders [93] found chlorinated malonyl-glucoside and apiosyl-
glucoside conjugates stored in vacuoles and cell walls in duckweed plants. Schr€oder
et al. [117] postulated that barley plants can stock GSH conjugates in the vacuole
and that the transport is unidirectional. In contrast, studies conducted by Kotyza
et al. [29] with horseradish, lupin, barley, and common reed cell cultures cultivated
in a hydroponic medium suggest that acetaminophen could be stored in the vacuoles
and later gradually liberated. Klein et al. [118, 119] showed that a conjugate of
17β-estradiol was transported to the vacuole of rye and barley cells by the
ATP-dependent GSH conjugate pump.
Although the results obtained so far on the study of the metabolism of organic
xenobiotics in plant systems are encouraging, these results also highlight the need
of further research.
5 Future Developments and Research Needs
To date, the incorporation of OPs by a variety of plants in tissue, hydroponic and

greenhouse experiments have been demonstrated. Nevertheless, standardization is
needed to be able to compare results of different experimental setups. In fact, a
98 N. Ca~
nameras et al.
large number of variables may affect the final results and hinder the comparison
thereof. Although the concentrations of OPs incorporated in plants from irrigation
water are usually low, metabolites must not be neglected since mineralization is
rarely achieved during wastewater treatment. Moreover, the impact of incorporated
contaminants on the secondary plant metabolism is also of great interest since some
OPs can mimic phytohormones and promote plant growth [120], while others can
act as antagonists and inhibit it [121]. In this regard, the application of
metabolomics is likewise of great interest to evaluate whether xenobiotics incor-
porated by plants can promote the expression of specific plant genes.
Finally, the impact of soil amendment with biochar to promote soil fertility
and for carbon sequestration has some potential to restrict the bioavailability/
bioaccessibility of organic contaminants from irrigation water to plants and thus
deserves special attention. The higher partition coefficients of a variety of xenobi-
otics in soils amended with biochar suggest that the application of biochar would be
beneficial to sequester OPs from soils since it degrades very slowly and has a large
surface area capable of multiple interactions [122].
Acknowledgments Financial support was obtained from the Spanish Ministry of Economy and
Competitiveness (CGL2011-24844).
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J Agric Food Chem 58:7915–7921
Irrigation with Treated Wastewater:
Potential Impacts on Microbial Function
and Diversity in Agricultural Soils
Ana Rita Lopes, Cristina Becerra-Castro, Ivone Vaz-Moreira,

M. Elisabete F. Silva, Olga C. Nunes, and Célia M. Manaia
Abstract The reuse of treated wastewater could be a promising measure to atten-

uate the water scarcity burden. In agriculture, irrigation with wastewater may
contribute to improve production yields, reduce the ecological footprint and pro-
mote socioeconomic benefits. However, it cannot be considered exempt of adverse
consequences in environmental and human health. Apart from the introduction of
some biological and chemical hazardous agents, the disturbance of the indigenous
soil microbial communities and, thus, of vital soil functions impacting soil fertility
may occur. The consequences of these disturbances are still poorly understood.
This chapter summarises the physicochemical and microbiological alterations in
soil resultant from irrigation with treated wastewater that are described in scientific
literature. These alterations, which involve a high complexity of variables (soil,
A.R. Lopes, C. Becerra-Castro, and I. Vaz-Moreira

CBQF – Centro de Biotecnologia e Quı́mica Fina – Laboratorio Associado, Escola Superior de
Biotecnologia, Universidade Cat
olica Portuguesa/Porto, Rua Arquiteto Lobão Vital, Apartado
2511, 4202-401 Porto, Portugal
LEPABE, Laboratorio de Engenharia de Processos, Ambiente, Biotecnologia e Energia,
Faculdade de Engenharia, Universidade do Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465 Porto,
Portugal
M.E.F. Silva
Escola Superior de Tecnologia e Gestão, Instituto Politécnico de Viseu, Campus Politécnico de
Repeses, 3504-510 Viseu, Portugal
O.C. Nunes (*)
LEPABE, Laboratorio de Engenharia de Processos, Ambiente, Biotecnologia e Energia,
Faculdade de Engenharia, Universidade do Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465 Porto,
Portugal
C.M. Manaia
CBQF – Centro de Biotecnologia e Quı́mica Fina – Laboratorio Associado, Escola Superior de
Biotecnologia, Universidade Cat
olica Portuguesa/Porto, Rua Arquiteto Lobão Vital, Apartado
2511, 4202-401 Porto, Portugal

Hdb Env Chem (2016) 44: 105–128, DOI 10.1007/698_2015_346,
© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015, Published online: 31 May 2015
106 A.R. Lopes et al.
wastewater, climate, vegetal cover), may have impacts on soil quality and produc-
tivity. In addition, possible health risks may arise, in particular through the direct or
indirect contamination of the food chain with micropollutants, pathogens or anti-
biotic resistance determinants. The current state of the art suggests that irrigation
with treated wastewater may have a multitude of long-term implications on soil
productivity and public health. Although further research is needed, it seems
evident that the analysis of risks associated with irrigation with treated wastewater
must take into account not only the quality of water, but other aspects as diverse as
soil microbiota, soil type or the cultivated plant species.
Keywords Environmental contamination, Microbial communities, Public health,

Sustainable reuse
Contents
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
2 Wastewater Composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
3 Soil Holds Rich and Diverse Microbial Communities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
4 Possible Effects of Irrigation with Treated Wastewater on the Soil Microbial
Communities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
4.1 pH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
4.2 Organic Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
4.3 Salinisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
4.4 Nutrients and Macro-elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
4.5 Trace Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
4.6 Organic Micropollutants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
4.7 Microbiological Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
5 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
Abbreviations
ASC Australian Soil Classification

BOD Biological oxygen demand
CFUs Colony-forming units
COD Chemical oxygen demand
CST Chinese Soil Taxonomy
I Industrial
n.a. Not available
NR Not reported
PAHs Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
PCBs Polychlorinated biphenyls
RI Treated wastewater used in restricted irrigation
st Secondary treated
SiBCS Brazilian Soil Classification
Irrigation with Treated Wastewater: Potential Impacts on Microbial Function. . . 107
tt Tertiary treated
TSS Total suspended solids
U Urban
UI Treated wastewater used in unrestricted irrigation
USDA United States Department of Agriculture
WRB World Reference Base for soil resources
WW Wastewater
1 Introduction
The high demand of freshwater for anthropogenic activities sometimes exceeding

the minimum recharge levels has been leading to the desiccation of water streams
and depletion of groundwater [1]. The water stress index, defined as the ratio
between total freshwater abstraction and total annual renewal of water (volume),
is a useful indicator to seek an adequate balance between available water resources
and water uses. The reuse of treated wastewater has increasingly been regarded as
an important measure to attenuate the water scarcity burden, promoting an adequate
balance between water resources and water uses [2, 3]. This is observed for some
countries with severe water stress indexes (e.g. Spain and Israel) that already have
mature wastewater reuse practices [4]. Among the activities requiring freshwater
resources worldwide, irrigation consumes the highest fraction (~70%) [5]. For this
reason, wastewater reuse in agriculture and landscaping has been implemented in
countries such as the USA, Israel, Malta, Cyprus, France, Italy, Jordan or Spain [4,
6–8]. The reuse of treated wastewater in agriculture may contribute to improve
production yields, reduce the ecological footprint and have beneficial socio-
economic implications. In the socioeconomic domain, this practice can contribute
to human well-being through environmental protection and economic sustain-
ability, supporting increased production with reduced costs and fixing populations
and employment in areas at risk of desertification [6, 9–11]. Additionally, it can
contribute to reduce the discharges of effluents in the environment, minimising
the deterioration of freshwater ecosystems through eutrophication and algal
blooms [11].
The arguments presented above make the reuse of treated wastewater inevitable,
at least in some world regions. However, the associated environmental and human
health risks cannot be ignored. Since wastewater results from human activities, the
occurrence of chemical compounds and microorganisms that can persist even after
conventional and advanced wastewater treatment may be incompatible with a
reuse. For instance, the occurrence of pathogens in treated domestic wastewater is
well documented [12, 13]. With different ability to survive in the environment,
some of these pathogens can persist and spread after treated wastewater discharge,
with the possibility of infecting new hosts by direct contact or entering the food
chain [14–17]. Wastewater contains also numerous recalcitrant chemical com-
pounds, some of which are potentially toxic, teratogenic or even carcinogenic.
Table 1 Overview of physicochemical and biological properties of urban raw wastewater and the
legal standards or guidelines for treated wastewater used in unrestricted (UI) and restricted
irrigation (RI) (units, mg/L, unless indicated)
Raw Treated WW Treated WW
Parameter WWa (UI)b (RI)b
Physicochemical Chemical oxygen demand 500–1,200 10–200 60–500
(COD)
Biological oxygen demand 230–560 10–200 10–300
(BOD)
Total N 30–100 5–45 10–70
NH4-N 20–75 n.a. n.a.
Organic N 10–25 n.a. n.a.
NO3-N + NO2-N 0.1–0.5 n.a. n.a.
Total Kjeldahl N 30–100 n.a. n.a.
Total P 6–25 2–30 30
Ortho-P 4–15 n.a. n.a.
Organic P 2–10 n.a. n.a.
Total suspended solids 250–600 10–60 30–150
(TSS)
pH 7–8 4.5–9.5 5.5–9
Electrical conductivity 70–120 100–300 270
(mS/m)
Na adsorption ratio n.a. 8–10 9–10
As n.a. 0.02–0.10 0.02–0.10
Cl 200–600 250–350 250–350
Cd 1–4 0.005–0.010 0.005–0.010
Cr 10–40 0.1–0.2 0.1–0.2
Cu 30–100 0.2–1.0 0.2–1.0
Pb 25–80 0.1–5.0 0.1–5.0
Mg 1–3 0.001–0.002 0.001–0.002
Ni 10–40 0.2 0.2
Zn 100–300 0.5–5.0 0.5–5.0
Phenol 0.02–0.10 0.10 0.10
PAHs 0.5–2.5 n.a. n.a.
Phthalates 0.1–0.3 n.a. n.a.
Biological Faecal coliforms 106c 0–2 104 2 102 to
(CFU/100 mL) 4 104
Nematode eggs (no./L) n.a. 0.1–1 0.1–1
The values are from aHenze and Comeau [25]; bvalues of legal standards from [6, 27–38]; cFerreira
da Silva et al. [26]
n.a. not available, CFUs colony-forming units
Many of these are not completely removed during wastewater treatment and are
released with the final effluent [10, 18–24]. The awareness of the risks associated
with these biological and chemical hazards has motivated the introduction of
guidelines and legislation concerning the safe use of treated wastewater for
TREATED WASTEWATER
SOURCE OF CHEMICAL AND BIOLOGICAL
NUTRIENTS or CONTAMINANTS:
e.g. Content in organic matter, N- and P-; salts;
micro-pollutants (e.g., metals, surfactants,
WASTEWATER IRRIGATION organochlorines, pharmaceuticals);
microorganisms (including commensals,
POSSIBLE EFFECTS: pathogens, antibiotic resistant bacteria and
Increase of productivity; Alteration of edaphic parameters; resistance genes).
Acumulation of micro-pollutants;
Disturbance of soil microbial communities and activities;
Horizontal gene transfer to environmental and endophytic bacteria.
Fig. 1 Wastewater treatment and reuse for irrigation in agriculture: possible effects and human
and environmental health implications
irrigation and other purposes (Table 1). However, it should be noted that some
adverse effects of treated wastewater reuse cannot be evaluated based on those legal
recommendations.
The microbiological risks associated with the use of treated wastewater in soil
irrigation include three major lines: (1) the disturbance of indigenous microbial
communities of soil, jeopardising their activity and, in turn, affecting soil health and
long-term fertility; (2) the introduction of phytopathogens that may cause a reduc-
tion on either the yields or the quality of the crops or other cultivated plants; and
(3) the introduction of human or animal pathogens or antimicrobial-resistant micro-
organisms which can be hosted by plants, contaminating the environment and/or the
food chain, with implications in environmental and human health (Fig. 1). This
holistic perspective of the implications of wastewater reuse involves different
thematic areas such as soil microbial ecology, plant-microbe interactions and
environmental-clinical microbiology. This review presents a summary of the pos-
sible direct or indirect effects of wastewater reuse on the soil microbial communi-
ties, based on studies that assessed possible alterations in soil properties after
irrigation with treated wastewater. Major uncertainties, gaps of knowledge and
risks associated with wastewater irrigation are discussed. The impacts of irrigation
with wastewater will depend strongly on the plasticity of soil microbial
communities and on the composition of wastewater. Both microbial habitats, soil

and wastewater, are briefly described in the two following sections.
2 Wastewater Composition
Urban raw wastewater usually comprises domestic, industrial and sometimes storm
water. Wastewater composition is normally characterised based on few standard
parameters. The chemical oxygen demand (COD), biological oxygen demand
(BOD) and total suspended solids (TSS) are used to express the content of organic
matter. Other parameters, such as the content in different forms of N and P and
electrical conductivity, are commonly used to assess the availability of nutrients
(NH4-N, NO3-N and P) and salinity, respectively. Avoiding the impossible task of
surveying specific pathogens and parasites, the enumeration of indicators of faecal
contamination, such as total and/or faecal coliforms and nematode eggs, is the
standard method to assess the microbiological quality of water. A general overview
of the raw wastewater composition is given in Table 1. A typical secondary
treatment of urban wastewater is expected to significantly reduce the initial para-
meters such as BOD, TSS, total N and P contents. Nevertheless, the extent of
removal depends on several factors, such as the composition of the raw wastewater
and the treatment configuration and efficiency, which thus have an important
influence on the characteristics of the final effluent. There is a general agreement
about some standards with which treated wastewater must comply, and they are
widely recommended with the aim of minimising environmental and public health
negative impacts. These quality criteria are the basis for the legal standards or
guidelines of treated wastewater to be discharged to surface water as well as for
irrigation (Table 1). However, in the majority of the countries, routine monitoring
of wastewater does not include potentially harmful agents. Although at low densi-
ties, they are inevitably present in treated effluents and may have undesirable
effects on environment and human health. This is the reason why countries such
as the USA, Mexico, Israel, Jordan, Oman or Italy require the determination of
some trace metals and/or organic contaminants [e.g. As, Pb, Mg, Cr, Cd, phenols,
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), phthalates] before the discharge of
treated wastewater into the environment [6, 27–30]. However, other potentially
harmful agents, such as pesticides, personal care and pharmaceutical products,
including antibiotic residues, are not routinely monitored. Furthermore, treated
wastewater contains antibiotic-resistant genes and bacteria with potential adverse
effects on human heath [22, 39–48]. Although treatment reduces the microbial load,
treated wastewater still contains a considerable diversity and number of chemicals
and microorganisms (up to 106–107 CFU/100 mL) [26, 49, 50]. Among these,
though not considered pathogenic, antibiotic-resistant bacteria can also negatively
impact the microbiological quality of wastewater. Moreover, given the abundance
of nutrients and close contact between bacteria, the occurrence of antibiotic
resistance acquisition, mainly via horizontal gene transfer, may occur either in the
municipal collector or during wastewater treatment [43, 49, 51]. As an example,
based on experimental data from different wastewater treatment plants, it was
estimated that, irrespective of treatment type and efficiency, plant size or world
region, a domestic wastewater treatment may release up to 109 ciprofloxacin-
resistant coliforms per minute to the environment, depending on the volume and
flow of water [46]. Thus, even if it can be considered with adequate quality, treated
wastewater contains chemical and microbiota components which may negatively
impact soil quality and characteristics.
3 Soil Holds Rich and Diverse Microbial Communities
Soil is considered the most complex and heterogeneous biomaterial on earth [52],
holding structurally and metabolically diverse microbial communities [53, 54]. Due
to such metabolic diversity, microbial communities are responsible for cycling
abundant elements such as C and N (e.g. [55–62]) and less abundant, although
essential, elements such as S and Fe (e.g. [55, 63–65]). Therefore, while each
metabolic type of microorganisms has a key role in the recycling of elements, a
well-balanced microbial community is essential for an adequate biogeochemical
equilibrium of the soil. Microorganisms are also essential to the maintenance of soil
structure, in particular soil aggregation [66–68]. Moreover, rhizosphere soil micro-
organisms play a key role in plants’ development and health. Through the inter-
action with roots, microorganisms promote processes that are crucial for plant
nutrition and growth (e.g. N2 fixation, P solubilisation, siderophore production)
and confer protection against phytopathogens [69–73]. Therefore, from both per-
spectives of soil quality and plant protection, the maintenance of the physiological
and metabolic diversity of microorganisms can be considered as one of the most
important determinants of soil fertility.
Other important functions are attributed to soil microorganisms. A good exam-
ple is the biodegradation of several micropollutants which contribute to attenuate
the negative impacts of xenobiotics or other noxious compounds discharged in soil
(e.g. pesticides, organochlorides, PAHs, antibiotics, birth control and natural hor-
mones) (e.g. [74–83]). Hence, due to biodegradation activity, soil microorganisms
contribute to avoid the dissemination of micropollutants to the surrounding environ-
ment through surface run-off and leaching into aquifers. However, soil microbial
communities may have a limited capacity to regenerate soils submitted to frequent
discharges of xenobiotics (not naturally produced) or natural exogenous substances
that will act as pollutants [84–87]. In general, it can be hypothesised that the long-
term wastewater reuse, mainly if the minimal quality standards are not met, will
have implications either on the turnover of some chemical components or on the
adequate balance of microbial populations in soils. Both have adverse impacts on
soil health and agriculture production.
4 Possible Effects of Irrigation with Treated Wastewater

on the Soil Microbial Communities
The structure and function of soil microbial communities are greatly influenced by
a wide variety of abiotic and biotic factors, such as soil texture, pH, organic matter
content, N and P inputs, presence of different types of micropollutants, land use
history, agricultural management, vegetal cover, introduction of exogenous organ-
isms, among others (e.g. [88–96]). Considering the complex composition of treated
wastewater and the myriad of factors capable of affecting soil microbial commu-
nities, it is likely that irrigation with treated wastewater disturbs the soil
microbiome. Such effects may be direct, through the introduction of exogenous
microorganisms, or indirect through the alteration of soil physicochemical proper-
ties resulting in a change of the microbial activities and populations. Some of these
effects are illustrated by case studies assessing the effect of the reuse of treated
wastewater on physicochemical and microbiological soil properties (Table 2). The
studies analysed are representative of different regions (e.g. Spain, India, Mexico,
France, Pakistan, Italy, China, Greece, Turkey, Brazil, Australia, Senegal, Israel,
USA), type of treated wastewater reused (urban, industrial or synthetic), type of soil
used (e.g. golf course, land near to a wastewater treatment plan, orchard land,
agricultural, horticultural, grazed pastoral soils) and history of wastewater irri-
gation (from 4 months to 90 years). Most of these studies aimed to evaluate the
effect of treated wastewater irrigation on soil productivity and physicochemical
quality (e.g. [99, 105, 109, 116]). Other studies assessed the potential environ-
mental impacts of metals and antibiotics introduced in soil through wastewater
irrigation (e.g. [101, 107, 114, 119, 122]). The approach used in the majority of the
studies involved the comparison of soil characteristics when irrigated with treated
wastewater and with natural freshwater. The analysed edaphic parameters were soil
pH, organic matter content, exchangeable cations, Na concentration, electrical
conductivity, total available P and total N content and metal and micropollutant
concentrations, including antibiotics (Table 2). The microbiological parameters
included the soil biomass content, the enzymatic activity and the abundance of
specific microbial groups, such as the total aerobic bacteria or fungi. Few studies
focused on the diversity of specific bacterial groups, such as the ammonia-oxidising
bacteria, or antibiotic-resistant bacteria and their genetic determinants.
4.1 pH
Soil pH variation, either increase or decrease, may result from irrigation with
treated wastewater (Table 2). Although the analysed studies did not assess alter-
ations in the microbial communities, both increase and decrease of pH are known to
have a strong influence on the soil microbial richness (number of different species)
and diversity (variety of organisms) [89, 123, 124] depending on the buffer capacity
Table 2 Case studies of potential impacts of irrigation with treated wastewater

Soil descriptiona/
culture/period of
Wastewater irrigation (years)/ Physicochemical Microbiological
origina country changesa changesa Reference
U, st Calcisols " pH, water-soluble " microbial biomass, [9]
WRB/alfalfa, organic C, total avail- activity of beta-
maize, barley, able P glucosidase, alkaline
oats/>20/Spain phosphatase
I (dairy) Chromasols and " pH; total " microbial biomass [97]
tenosols organic C, total N; # C and N, soil basal
ASC/grazed pas- C/N ratio; " total respiration; meta-
toral/> available P, exchange- bolic quotient
60/Australia able Na, K, electrical
conductivity
U (flooding) Typic haplustand " pH, total organic C, " microbial biomass C, [98]
USDA/hazel active soil C basal- and substrate-
orchard/20/Italy resources, total N induced respiration; #
genetic diversity of the
ammonia-oxidising
bacteria
U Xerofluvent " pH; total organic activity of phos- [99]
USDA/grape C; " total available P, phatase, urease, beta-
crop/2/Spain electrical conductiv- glucosidase
ity; cation
exchange capacity,
water holding capac-
ity, aggregate stability
Xerorthent # pH; " total " activity of phos-
USDA/grape organic C, total phatase, urease; #
crop/20/Spain available P, cation activity of beta-
exchange capacity, glucosidase
ity; electrical con-
ductivity; # aggregate
stability
Xerofluvent # pH; " total " activity of phos-
USDA/“green fil- organic C, total phatase, urease,
ter”/20/Spain available P, cation beta-glucosidase
exchange capacity,
electrical conductiv-
ity, aggregate stabil-
ity; water holding
capacity
Xerorthent # pH; " total " activity of phos-
USDA/orange- organic C, electrical phatase; activity
tree orchard/40/ conductivity, total of urease, beta-
Spain available P; cation glucosidase
exchange capacity,
ity, aggregate stability
(continued)
Table 2 (continued)
Soil descriptiona/
culture/period of
U, st Loamy fine sand # pH; " organic mat- NR [100]
texture/alfalfa ter content, electrical
hay, sudangrass conductivity, salinity,
and winter grains/ metals (Cr, Cu, Ni and
3, 8, 20/USA Zn)
U, st Argosols and pH; " humic acids, NR [101]
cambosols CST/ metals (Cd, Cr, Cu, Ni
cereals and vege- Pb, Zn)
tables/> 40/China
U, st Fine texture/for- pH; " organic mat- NR [102]
age crops/2, ter content, total N,
5, 10/Jordan total available P, K,
salinity; metals
(Cu, Pb, Cd)
U NR/barley, corn, pH; " soil compac- NR [103]
cotton, alfalfa, tion; # Mg; total
sorghum/80/USA available P, electrical
conductivity, metal (Zn)
U, st Fine clay and silt " total organic C, NR [104]
loam texture/ total N, total
corn/NR/China available P
U, st Xerorthent " total organic C, total " activity of alkaline [105]
USDA/orange- available P phosphatase, urease,
tree orchard/43/ dehydrogenase, prote-
Spain ase, beta-glucosidase;
# arbuscular mycor-
rhizal fungi diversity
U Vertisols WRB/ " total organic C, " microbial biomass, [106]
cereals and vegeta- salinisation, metals activity of dehydro-
bles/< 80/Mexico (Pb, Cd, Cu, Zn) genase, denitrifica-
Leptosols WRB/ total organic C; " tion activity; #
cereals and vegeta- salinisation, metals adenylate energy
bles/< 80/Mexico (Pb, Cd, Cu, Zn) charge ratios
U NR/cereals, mil- " total organic C, NR [107]
lets, vegetable metal (Fe)
and fodder crops/
5/India
NR/cereals, mil- " total organic C,
lets, vegetable metals (Zn, Fe, Ni,
and fodder crops/ Pb)
10/India
NR/cereals, mil- " total organic C,
lets, vegetable metals (Zn, Cu, Fe,
and fodder crops/ Ni, Pb; # Mn)
20/India
(continued)
Table 2 (continued)
Soil descriptiona/
culture/period of
U, st Vertic xerofluvent total organic C " Cmic/Corg ratio; # [108]
USDA/maize/ activity of dehydro-
0.25/Turkey genase, urease, alka-
line phosphatase,
arylsulphatase
U Typic haplustox total organic C, NR [109]
USDA/sugarcane/ total N; " NO3-N
>1/Brazil
U, tt Horticultural soil/ organic matter " activity of laccase, [110]
NR/1/France content cellulase, protease,
urease; functional
diversity of soil
microorganisms
CLPP
I (textile) Loamy texture/ # organic matter con- " population of bac- [111]
fodder, cereals/ tent, total available P, teria, vesicular
NR/Pakistan exchangeable cations; arbuscular mycorrhi-
electric conductivity, zae, heavy metal-
total soluble salts, resistant bacterial
SO4, NO3-N; "metals strains
(Zn, Cu, Ni, Cr)
U (lagoon) Vertic xerocrept " organic N,NH4-N, microbial biomass [112]
USDA/citrus NO3-N C and N; " activity
orchard/15/Italy of hydrolase,
phosphatase
Synthetic Sandy loam tex- total N; " NH4-N, " aerobic and anaero- [113]
wastewater ture/mangrove NO3-N, total bic bacteria, ammo-
with 0 or swamp/ available P, metals nia- and nitrite-
1.5% 0.25/China (Cu, Zn, Cd, Mn) oxidising bacteria;
salinity activity of dehydro-
genase, phosphatase
U Mollic leptosol " total available P, # arbuscular mycor- [114]
and eutric vertisol metals (Cr, Cu, Ni, rhizal fungi free
WRB/maize/5 Zn, Pb) spores irrigation
and 90/Mexico 90 years
U, tt Silty sand texture/ " Ca, Mg, salinisation microbial abun- [115]
perennial rye- dance total aerobic
grass/3/Spain bacteria
U (lagoon) Quartzarenic " Na, Na adsorption NR [116]
neosol SiBCS/ ratio, exchangeable
eucalyptus/5/ Na
Brazil
I (factories) Rhizosphere soil/ " metals (Fe, Cr, Zn, " abundance of [117]
wheat/~10/India Pb, Ni, Cd, Cu) metal-resistant Azoto-
bacter chroococcum
isolates
(continued)
Table 2 (continued)
Soil descriptiona/
culture/period of
I (oil NR/agricultural/ " metals (Fe, Ni, Zn) microbial dynam- [118]
refinery) 12/India ics viable counts of
aerobic heterotrophs,
actinomycetes, fungi
and potentially
asymbiotic
diazotrophs
Synthetic NR/mangrove/ " metals (Cd, Cr, Cu, # activity of alkaline [119]
industrial 0.5/China Ni, Zn) phosphatase
wastewater
U and I Silty clay loam " endocrine- NR [120]
texture/crops/ disrupting chemicals,
50/China e.g. triclocarban, and
pharmaceuticals,
e.g. oxytetracycline,
tetracycline
U, st Dune quartz sand/ NR enumeration of [121]
citrus orchard antibiotic-resistant
lysimeter/12/ bacteria, antibiotic
Israel resistance genes
Vertisol 60%
clay/avocado
orchard/12/Israel
Loam 20% clay/
cotton, wheat/15/
Israel
Vertisol 52%
clay/olive trees/
6/Israel
U NR/parks/ " antibiotics and deg- " diversity and abun- [122]
NR/China radation products dance of antibiotic
resistance and
integrase genes
Main alterations in physicochemical or microbiological soil parameters when irrigation with
treated wastewater was compared with freshwater irrigation
a
According to the information reported in the reference. Soil classification was used when
available and indicated in parenthesis
USDA United States Department of Agriculture, WRB World Reference Base for soil resources,
CST Chinese Soil Taxonomy, ASC Australian Soil Classification, SiBCS Brazilian Soil Classifi-
cation, U urban, I industrial, st secondary treated, tt tertiary treated, NR not reported, " increase, #
decrease, no variation
of the soil. In addition, pH variation can influence the solubility of different

compounds, in particular metals and ionisable organic compounds and, therefore,
affect the soil chemical composition [107, 111].
4.2 Organic Matter
In some studies, soil organic matter-related pools increased due to irrigation with
treated wastewater (Table 2). However, through the comparison of the different
studies, it is suggested that the influence of wastewater irrigation on soil properties
may depend on the concentration and composition of organic matter in water as
well as on the soil texture [125, 126]. In either case, variations on organic matter
content and the type of organic inputs will influence the indigenous microbial
communities of soil [54, 95]. Indeed, in most of the case studies in which variation
in the organic matter content was reported, fluctuation was also observed in one or
more microbial parameters (Table 2).
4.3 Salinisation
The increase of soil electrical conductivity/salinity (i.e. water in soil) was observed
in the majority of the reviewed studies (Table 2). Soil salinity may strongly affect
soil structure, and it is described as having negative impacts on soil microbial
diversity, microbial biomass and activity. The hindering of functions related to C
and N mineralisation had also been described [127–131]. For these reasons, salinity
may reduce soil fertility and productivity.
4.4 Nutrients and Macro-elements
Wastewater has high contents of total N and P and exchangeable cations (e.g. K,
Na, Mg, Ca) [25] (Table 1). This is one of the potential beneficial aspects of
irrigation with wastewater, since it may supply nutrients and macro-elements,
substituting synthetic fertilisation [9, 11, 132]. However, it should be noted that
adverse effects can also result from the leaching of excess of available P and NO3-N
into natural waters, causing contamination [133] and eutrophication of these habi-
tats [134]. Indeed, biological P- and N-removal technologies have been developed
as a measure to reduce the impact of the introduction of these nutrients in the
environment [135]. The increase of total available P content in wastewater-irrigated
soils was consistently reported [9, 97, 99, 104, 105, 114], with a single exception,
where the reference soil is an uncultivated land with high P content [111]. In some
studies, irrigation with wastewater did not affect the soil total N content [109, 113],
but in others, it led to an increase [98, 104]. Simultaneously, N-related pools were
also influenced by wastewater irrigation, with the increase in NO3-N, NH4-N or
organic N reported in different studies [109, 112, 113]. Such variation on the impact
of wastewater irrigation on the soil N may be due to the presence of different
N-forms and concentration both in water and soils. The increase in the content of
total available P and NO3-N, and the simultaneous accumulation of macro-elements

in soils, may contribute to change the diversity and catabolic activity of microbial
communities [92, 136–139]. Whether these variations have positive or negative
impacts on soil microbiota and productivity was not clear from the analysed studies.
Probably because ammonia-oxidising bacteria populations do vary in response to N
inputs [137], increase in the abundance of ammonia- and nitrite-oxidising bacteria
was observed in soils irrigated with synthetic wastewater [113]. This is a clear
example of how chemical inputs from wastewater may lead to alterations in the soil
microbiota.
Wastewater irrigation influenced the abundance of exchangeable cations. How-
ever, no general trend was observed, since the abundance of exchangeable cations
either decreased or increased after irrigation [97, 99, 103, 111, 115]. These obser-
vations suggest that many factors in soil and other external conditions may influ-
ence the fate of nutrients and macro-elements supplied in wastewater.
4.5 Trace Metals
Given the frequent occurrence of trace metals in wastewater (Table 1), irrigation
may lead to the increase of their content in soil [100, 101, 106, 107, 111, 113, 114,
117–119]. Some of these metals, such as Fe, Zn and Cu, have a beneficial role in the
functioning of biological systems when present at low concentrations [140,
141]. Others, such as Pb, Cr or Cd, may be toxic to microbes and plants, even at
low concentrations. The adverse effects of metals may be aggravated by the fact
that they may bioaccumulate in plants and enter the food chain [100, 101, 107, 111,
119, 142]. In soil, metal accumulation may induce changes in the soil’s functional
activity and in the abundance and diversity of fungi and bacteria [111, 114,
117]. Some trace metals have bacteriostatic properties and may cause cross resis-
tance against antibiotics [143]. The selective effect of metals can be inferred from
the fact that higher density of metal-resistant organisms was observed in soils with
increased concentration of metals due to irrigation with wastewater than in control
soils [111, 117]. The phytotoxicity of some metals and the risk of metal leaching
after long periods (~20 years) of soil irrigation with wastewater [100, 119] are also
important negative impacts that may result from wastewater irrigation.
4.6 Organic Micropollutants
The introduction of personal care and pharmaceutical products, including

endocrine-disrupting chemicals (e.g. antibiotics, lipid regulator agents, anti-
inflammatory drugs, cancer therapeutics, beta-blockers, contraceptives and other
hormones), in the environment via wastewater irrigation is also a well-described
problem [10, 11, 22, 41, 46, 120, 144–146]. Depending on the mobility of the
micropollutants, different risks are posed. Highly mobile micropollutants can leach
into and contaminate groundwater, while those strongly adsorbing to soil particles,
such as tetracycline, can accumulate in the top soil layer [147]. The contamination
of the food chain, via the uptake of some pharmaceutical wastes, including antibi-
otics, by plants is another possible consequence of wastewater irrigation [146, 148–
155]. For antibiotics, the role of these pollutants in resistance acquisition and
selection cannot be ignored [122, 147]. The current state of the art shows that
treated wastewater is a reservoir of antibiotic-resistant bacteria, resistance genes
and mobile genetic elements [13, 43, 49, 122, 156–158 and contributions in this
book]. Therefore, the hypothesis that irrigation of soils with treated wastewater is a
route for resistance dissemination cannot be discarded. This is not a clear issue,
since some contradictory results were found. While the discharge of treated waste-
water in freshwater receiving environments is known to expand the levels of
antibiotic-resistant bacteria and resistance genes, it is not clear if irrigation with
treated wastewater contributes to the rise of antibiotic-resistant levels in the soil
microbiome [121, 122, 159]. The possibility of occurrence of horizontal gene
transfer between the exogenous bacteria (derived from wastewater) and the
established soil or plant microbiota is, thus, a reason of concern.
Other organic micropollutants, such as surfactants, PAHs or polychlorinated
biphenyls (PCBs), among others, may also accumulate in the soil due to long-term
irrigation with wastewater. Although it is known that some micropollutants have
the potential to disturb soil microbial communities [160, 161], to the best of our
knowledge, studies assessing such effects due to irrigation with wastewater are not
available. This is a gap of knowledge that needs to be filled.
4.7 Microbiological Parameters
Most of the analysed case studies concluded that irrigation with treated wastewater,
either of urban or of industrial origin, may lead to an increase of the soil microbial
biomass (Table 2) [9, 97, 98, 106, 108]. When an increase in the microbial biomass
was observed, it may have been due to the supplying of additional organic C and
other nutrients by wastewater [9, 106, 110]. The observed increase in the activity of
different enzymes involved in the biochemical turnover of elements such as C, N
and P, such as dehydrogenase, laccase, cellulase, beta-glucosidase as well as
alkaline phosphatase, hydrolase, protease and urease, corroborates this [105, 106,
162–164]. The input of organic matter due to irrigation with treated wastewater
may be beneficial for soil, stimulating the catabolism of not only labile compounds
but also complex substrates. However, some adverse effects of excessive microbial
growth can also be observed, for instance when biofilms cause the clogging of soil
particles, affecting the hydraulic conductivity [165].
The biogeochemical activity of microbiota is considered the most important
aspect of soil quality, with implications in soil fertility and quality of plants. One of
the concerns related with irrigation with treated wastewater is the disturbance of the
soil microbiota, which may hinder the extent and rate of biogeochemical trans-
formations. These aspects were not clearly explored in the analysed studies,
although some evidences of functional redundancy were reported. Functional
redundancy means that, despite the alterations on the microbial populations, the
same reactions will be undertaken, involving alternative microbial groups [62,
166]. For instance, this explains why ammonia and nitrite oxidation in soils are
not affected by irrigation with wastewater [98, 166]. Nevertheless, although
maintaining the normal activity, functional redundancy processes may lead to a
decrease in the genetic diversity. This effect was observed for ammonia-oxidising
populations after a long-term (20 years) irrigation with wastewater [98]. In general,
the decrease of genetic diversity may be considered an impoverishment of the soil
and, thus, an undesirable effect.
5 Conclusions
Microbial communities are extremely important to assure soil quality and produc-
tivity. Both wastewater microbiological and chemical composition may have
impacts on soil physicochemical properties, microbial abundance, diversity and
biogeochemical activity. Although often reporting contradictory trends, the
analysed case studies demonstrated changes in chemical and microbiological soil
parameters due to wastewater irrigation. However, the comparison of the different
studies indicates clearly that many variables influence the impact of irrigation with
treated wastewater on soil. Whereas no clear predictions are possible at the
moment, it seems clear that soil quality and productivity may be affected by
long-term use of treated wastewater for irrigation. The factors conditioning the
possible impacts may vary among different ecosystems, and there is always a
degree of uncertainty regarding the preferential target populations/functional acti-
vities or the interplay between different variables. Multidisciplinary studies involv-
ing the characterisation of the system wastewater-soil-plant as a whole are
necessary, supporting a deeper understanding of the impacts of irrigation with
wastewater. If these studies are not possible, at least in the short term, then the
precautionary principle should be applied.
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3426–3433
Antibiotic Resistance Elements
in Wastewater Treatment Plants: Scope
and Potential Impacts
Joao Gatica, Ella Kaplan, and Eddie Cytryn
Abstract Antibiotic resistance is considered to be one of the most significant

public health concerns of the twenty-first century. Although traditionally the prop-
agation of antibiotic resistance was considered to be limited to hospitals and other
clinical environments, there is a growing realization that it is also associated with
anthropogenically impacted environmental reservoirs. Wastewater treatment plants
are considered to be significant reservoirs of antibiotic resistance because they
combine extremely high levels of fecal- and environmental-derived bacteria with
residual concentrations of antibiotic compounds believed to induce selection. These
bacteria are primarily congregated in dense biofilms that are “hot spots” for
horizontal gene transfer, which can facilitate inter- and intraspecies transfer of
antibiotic genes, potentially resulting in the development of multidrug-resistant
strains. Several studies have demonstrated that although wastewater treatment
plants significantly reduce bacterial concentrations, relatively high levels of
antibiotic-resistant bacteria and resistance genes are still present in effluents
released to aquatic and soil environments and that under certain circumstances
these resistance elements may persist for long periods of time in downstream
J. Gatica
Department of Soil and Water, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Rehovot, Israel
Institute of Soil, Water and Environmental Sciences, Agriculture Research Organization,
The Volcani Center, Bet-Dagan, Israel
E. Kaplan
Department of Agroecology, Faculty of Agriculture, Food and Environment,
The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Rehovot, Israel
E. Cytryn (*)

Hdb Env Chem (2016) 44: 129–154, DOI 10.1007/698_2015_361,
© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015, Published online: 11 June 2015
130 J. Gatica et al.
environments. These elements may have significant epidemiological ramifications,

especially when effluents enter drinking water and food webs; and henceforth,
antibiotic resistance genes have recently been characterized as contaminants of
emerging concern. This chapter summarizes current understanding of antibiotic
resistance in wastewater treatment plants and downstream environments, presents
knowledge gaps that need to be bridged in order to better understand the potential
ramifications of this phenomenon, overviews the effect of disinfection treatments
on antibiotic resistance elements, and finally discusses policy guidelines that should
be implemented in the future to reduce the risks of antibiotic resistance from
wastewater treatment plants.
Keywords Antibiotic resistance, Antibiotic resistance genes, Antibiotic-resistant

bacteria, Horizontal gene transfer, Mobile genetic element
Contents
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
2 Mobile Genetic Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
3 Methodologies for Identifying ARB and ARGs in WWTPs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
4 Monitoring ARB and ARGs in WWTPs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
5 Impact of Disinfection Processes on ARB and ARG Abundance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
6 Impact of WWTP Effluents in Downstream Environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
7 Summary and Future Directions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
Abbreviations
AR Antibiotic resistance
ARB Antibiotic-resistant bacteria
ARGs Antibiotic resistance genes
BHR Broad host range
CFU Colony-forming units
CIs Chromosomal integrons
E-COFF Epidemiological cutoff
ERIC Enterobacterial repetitive intergenic consensus
ESBL Extended spectrum beta-lactamase
GC Gene cassettes
GFP Green fluorescent protein
HGT Horizontal gene transfer
IS Insertion sequences
ISCR Insertion sequence common regions
MAR Multiple antibiotic resistance
MDR Multiple drug resistance
MGEs Mobile genetic elements
Antibiotic Resistance Elements in Wastewater Treatment Plants: Scope and. . . 131
MIC Minimal inhibitory concentration

MIs Mobile integrons
MLST Multilocus sequence typing
MRIs Multidrug-resistant integrons
NGS Next-generation sequencing
Pc Promoter
PCR Polymerase chain reaction
qPCR Quantitative polymerase chain reaction
RIs Resistant integrons
TRACA Transposon-aided capture
UV Ultraviolet
VRE Vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecium
WW Wastewater
WWTPs Wastewater treatment plants
1 Introduction
Less than 60 years after the discovery of antimicrobial agents, we have moved from
an age of antibiotics to the age of antibiotic resistance (AR), which is rapidly
expanding [1]. To evade the toxic effects of antibiotics, bacteria have developed
an array of cellular mechanisms, including enzymatic inactivation, target modifi-
cation, efflux pumps, target bypass, and noninheritable mechanisms such as per-
sistence, biofilm production, and swarming [2, 3]. The discovery that antibiotic
resistance genes (ARGs) can be transmitted between bacteria has revolutionized
our understanding of ARG dynamics because horizontal (or lateral) gene transfer
(HGT) of mobile genetic elements (MGEs) transcends taxonomic boarders, facil-
itating acquisition of ARGs by phylogenetically diverse groups of bacteria
[4]. Although acquisition of ARGs through mutation or HGT is generally consid-
ered to be a neutral process, the propagation of bacteria harboring ARGs in a
specific environment is strongly dictated by selective pressure conferred by
antibiotic compounds.
Hospitals have long been considered the nexus of AR evolution and propagation
due to selective pressure associated with extensive application of antibiotics
coupled to the plethora of pathogenic bacteria that reside there. Although these
conditions undoubtedly accelerate the frequency of AR in pathogens and commen-
sals, there is a growing realization that AR originated in natural environments
(i.e., in soils) and that ARGs evolved long before human use of antibiotics.
Wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) combine high densities of bacteria that
are congregated in close proximity in biofilms and flocs. These include fecal
bacteria from sewage that often contain pathogen-associated ARGs, environmental
bacteria that may harbor novel AR mechanisms [5], and residual concentrations of
antibiotic compounds that potentially confer a selective advantage to bacteria that
acquire ARGs [6]. Although WWTPs substantially reduce levels of fecal bacteria,
Fig. 1 Possible routes of dissemination of ARB and ARGs to and from WWTPs
they release residual concentrations of antibiotic compounds, antibiotic-resistant

bacteria (ARB), and ARGs to downstream soil and aquatic ecosystems, which are
believed to facilitate the transfer of ARB and ARGs through food webs where they
can be ingested by humans and contribute to the global pandemic of antibiotic
resistance [7–12], as summarized in the schematic diagram shown in Fig. 1.
Treated wastewater irrigation is becoming more and more prevalent in arid and
semiarid regions of the world, and this trend is expected to increase given the
increasing food demands and the predicted effects of global climate change
[13]. Despite the obvious advantages of this process, there is a great concern
regarding the potential impact of effluent-associated chemical and microbial con-
taminants, which have been addressed by stakeholders and regulatory bodies [14]
(see also other contributions in this volume). Although regulations often address
health-related factors such as heavy metals and enteric pathogens, current standards
do not evaluate antibiotic compounds or ARB/ARG levels, which as discussed
throughout this chapter may have significant epidemiological potential.
This chapter outlines methodological approaches that are used for assessing AR
in WWTPs, summarizes the current understanding of the scope and diversity of
ARB and ARGs in WWTPs, and discusses future technological and policy devel-
opments that can potentially mitigate AR from WWTPs in the future. Section 1
overviews the mechanistic aspects of MGEs, which facilitate HGT of ARGs;
Sect. 2 presents methodologies that are currently applied for identifying ARB and
ARGs in the environment; Sect. 3 summarizes culture- and molecular-based studies
that assessed ARB and ARGs in WWTPs; Sect. 4 explores the impact of conven-
tional wastewater disinfection processes on ARB and ARG abundance; Sect. 5
presents data on the persistence of ARB and ARGs in downstream environments;
and Sect. 6 summarizes the state of the art and discusses future directions.
2 Mobile Genetic Elements
MGEs are defined as segments of DNA that encode enzymes and other proteins that
mediate the movement of DNA within genomes or between bacterial cells
[15]. They are transferred from one bacterium to another by means of transforma-
tion (i.e., uptake of naked DNA), conjugation (transfer of plasmids between bacte-
ria), or transduction (viral transmission of extracellular DNA), as outlined in the
schematic diagram in Fig. 2a–c [16]. Plasmids, bacteriophages, and conjugative
resistance transposons can facilitate the transfer of genetic material from one
bacterium to another, whereas transposons, gene cassettes, and integrons are
translocated from one genetic location to another within an individual cell
[17]. There is an increasing awareness that in-depth understanding of AR dynamics
in the environment not only requires characterizing the function of individual
ARGs that are disseminated from anthropogenic sources but also entails identifying
the primary MGEs that are responsible for facilitating ARG transfer to downstream
environments. This is especially true given the recent evidence that broad-host-
range MGEs that harbor ARGs are disseminated from animal husbandry and
Fig. 2 Primary mechanisms of HGT among bacteria. (a) Conjugation: transfer of genetic material
(plasmid or transposons, sometimes harboring ARGs) between bacterial cells by cell-to-cell
contact. (b) Transduction: genetic material is transferred from one bacterial cell to another by a
phage, with a subsequent incorporation of this genetic material into the chromosome of the
acceptor bacterial cell. (c) Transformation: naked DNA is taken up by a bacterial cell, which
incorporates and expresses this exogenous genetic material. (d) Scheme ARG integration in a class
1 integron: the intI gene catalyzes the incorporation of two gene cassettes harboring ARGs (ARG1
and ARG2)
aquaculture facilities and wastewater treatment plants through water and food webs
into clinically relevant bacteria [3, 4]. The primary MGEs associated with horizon-
tal transfer of ARGs and their modes of action are briefly summarized below.
Plasmids are circular extrachromosomal double-stranded DNA that replicate
independently of the bacterial chromosome [15, 18]. They generally don’t harbor
housekeeping genes, which are responsible for the normal function of the bacterial
cell, but instead carry accessory or functional genes that encode for toxins, viru-
lence factors, specific metabolic pathways, and protective mechanisms including
resistance to heavy metals and antibiotics [17]. These characteristics enable bacte-
ria to evolve and adapt to dynamic environments without affecting their essential
biochemical pathways [18]. Certain plasmids are only transferred between phylo-
genetically related hosts, while others, known as broad-host-range (BHR) plasmids
[19–21], can be harbored by a diverse range of bacterial phyla. These plasmids are
especially concerning because they can facilitate HGT on both inter- and intraspe-
cies levels. It makes them primary drivers of AR in general and specifically of
multidrug resistance in both clinical and natural environments.
Transposons are MGEs that facilitate the movement of DNA fragments from one
location to another on bacterial chromosomes or plasmids [18]. They are well-
structured modular systems that contain a pair of insertion sequence (IS) elements
and often contain other genes that confer a selective advantage such as ARGs [17],
which can transpose between bacteria chromosomes and plasmids and thereby be
transferred into other cells. There are many transposons that are strongly related
with AR such as Tn5 and Tn10 which encode resistance to kanamycin and neomy-
cin, and tetracycline, respectively, in many Gram-negative bacteria [22, 23]. Tn3
confers resistance to β-lactams and Tn21 to streptomycin, spectinomycin, and
sulfonamides. Both of these MGEs are frequently found in Enterobacteriaceae
[24–26]. Recently Zhu et al. showed that manure processing in three large-scale
commercial swine farms in China dramatically enriched a large fraction of ARGs
and, interestingly, also transposases were enriched 1,000-fold in soil samples and
even 90,000-fold in manure samples [27]. The authors reported a strong correlation
between ARGs and levels of transposases, with significant associations between
transposases and tetracycline and aminoglycoside resistance genes.
Integrons are two-component gene capture and dissemination elements that are
frequently involved in the capture, mobilization, and spread of ARGs in Gram-
negative bacteria [28]. An intI gene encoding for an integrase catalyzes the incor-
poration of gene cassettes (GCs) by site-specific recombination, directed by one or
more promoters (Pc) into an integration site attI through recombination with a
GC-associated attC site. A schematic description of this integration processes is
shown in Fig. 2d. Integrons can be classified in two major groups: “chromosomal
integrons” (CIs) and “mobile integrons” (MIs). CIs are located in the chromosome
of hundreds of bacterial species and can carry up to 200 cassettes that mainly
encode proteins with unknown function, whereas MIs contain a limited number of
GCs, usually encoding antibiotic resistance determinants and therefore sometimes
called “resistant integrons” (RIs) or “multidrug resistance integrons” (MRIs)
[29]. There are three principal classes of MIs associated with AR: class 1 integrons,
the most ubiquitous in resistant bacteria, especially in Gram-negative bacteria of

clinical interest, and are the most reported in animal and humans [30, 31], although
also have been reported in nonpathogenic environmental Betaproteobacteria [32];
class 2 integrons, which are less prevalent and harbor a defective integrase gene
resulting in a truncated and nonfunctional protein which generally produces a stable
GC array mainly conferring resistance to trimethoprim, streptomycin, and specti-
nomycin [28, 29]; and class 3 integrons, which have only minor relevance in
clinical settings and natural ecosystems [29]. Class 1 integrons have recently
been highlighted as potential targets for source tracking of ARGs from anthropo-
genic environments because they are generally significantly more abundant in
anthropogenic sources than in pristine environments. This was recently demon-
strated in a study by Gaze et al., who showed that the relative abundance of class
1 integrons is higher in bacteria exposed to detergents and/or antibiotic residues,
typically found in WWTPs, than in the non-exposed soil bacteria obtained from a
farm with no known history of sludge or slurry amendment [33]. These findings
should be taken with caution since a more recent study performed by Nardelli
et al. found that intI1 genes in pristine environments were not significantly more
abundant in anthropogenic environments than in remote areas from urban
centers [34].
Horizontal transfer of MGEs is conventionally associated with vital bacteria.
However, there is increasing evidence that naked DNA can be extremely stable in
the environment when attached to clay particles or organic material [35], and
therefore these vectors may be naturally transformed to bacteria in downstream
microbiomes. The potential for interspecies natural transformation of naked DNA
harboring MGEs such as transposons, integrons, and gene cassettes between bac-
terial species was demonstrated by Domingues et al., who showed that acquisition
of AR traits as well as entire integrons and transposons through natural transfor-
mation by environmental and clinically relevant bacterial strains occurred at high
rates, in the course of a 24 h exposure period [36]. The study strongly implied that
natural transformation provides a much broader capacity for horizontal acquisitions
of genetic elements than previously assumed, and this may be highly relevant when
assessing the potential risks of MGE-associated ARGs in wastewater effluents.
3 Methodologies for Identifying ARB and ARGs

in WWTPs
Isolation of bacteria is vital for determining resistance levels and phenotypes of

specific bacterial taxa, especially when evaluating pathogenic and clinically rele-
vant commensal strains that are commonly monitored in WWTPs. Nonetheless, it is
currently estimated that less than 1% of environmental bacteria can be isolated
using standard microbiological procedures, and therefore, culture-dependent
methodologies are highly limited for evaluating the full scope of AR in natural
environments [37].
Evaluation of AR elements in WWTPs can be addressed by application of both
culture-dependent and culture-independent methodologies. Pure cultures can be
screened to determine resistance profiles as well as other physiological, genetic, and
biochemical characteristics. Nonetheless, because a large fraction of bacteria are
unculturable, these methods undoubtedly neglect a large fraction of resistant bac-
teria. Molecular-based methods circumvent culturing; however, they generally can
only target a limited number of ARGs and usually are not able to link detected
ARGs to specific bacterial taxa. A brief outline of both of these approaches is given
below.
Isolation of bacteria from WWTPs generally involves serial dilutions from
selected compartments (inlet, outlet, activated sludge, etc.), using either general
media that target a broad range of bacteria or selective growth media that enrich for
particular groups of bacteria. At the most basic level, the relative abundance of
ARB for a specific medium is estimated by dividing bacterial levels on antibiotic-
amended media by the total abundance on non-amended media. In addition,
minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) and epidemiological cutoff (E-COFF)
values for individual isolates can be determined using clinical and veterinary
guidelines, such as EUCAST [38] and CLSI [39]. Resistant isolates are generally
screened against a broad range of antibiotic compounds to assess multidrug resis-
tance, and they may be subjected to a wide array of biochemical assays to charac-
terize specific resistance phenotypes such as phenotypic screening of β-lactamase
activity in Gram-negative bacteria [40]. Resistant isolates can be phylogenetically
characterized by 16S rRNA gene analysis [41], or alternatively, strain typing can be
accomplished by enterobacterial repetitive intergenic consensus (ERIC) sequence
PCR [42] or more robustly by multilocus sequence typing (MLST) [43]. Once
resistance phenotypes are characterized, strains can be screened for specific ARGs
and MGEs using standard PCR techniques [44–47]. The extremely high throughput
and economically feasibility of next-generation sequencing (NGS) platforms have
revolutionized the capacity to fully sequence genomes and associated MGEs of
ARB [48]. This can provide a much more comprehensive representation of bacterial
resistance gene potential, and therefore, these methods are expected to replace
PCR-based screening methods in the future. For example, Johnning et al. applied
NGS to sequence the genome of a multidrug-resistant bacterium isolated from an
antibiotic production facility and found that it contained a diverse array of
MGE-associated ARGs [49], whereas Wibberg et al. used NGS to characterize a
plasmid from a WWTP isolate, which was highly related to virulent plasmids from
pathogenic E. coli isolates and contained known and putative AR and virulence
genes [50].
Over the past few decades, the limitations of isolation-based methods have been
circumvented by a myriad of molecular-based, culture-independent methodologies
that target nucleic acids extracted directly from natural environments. It should
however be noted that while molecular-based methods are highly efficient for ARG
detection, these methods do not enable phenotypic analysis of antibiotic resistance
phenotypes, and therefore, optimally a combination of culture-based and culture-

independent methods should be applied for comprehensive evaluation of AR in
WWTPs and other environments. Currently, culture-independent quantitative PCR
(qPCR) is the most widely used method for determining the relative abundance of
ARGs, and these have been pivotal for source tracking of ARGs in anthropogen-
ically impacted ecosystems [51–54]. Due to time and monetary limitations, gener-
ally only a limited amount of ARGs (out of hundreds of known genes) can be
screened by qPCR, and it is therefore important to select representative ARGs that
are abundant in anthropogenic point sources but not in pristine environments. As
discussed below, there is a need to pinpoint selected ARGs that can be “gold
standards” for use in source tracking of AR in WWTPs. Recently, commercial
companies have developed platforms that enable identification and relative quan-
tification of multiple ARGs and MGEs from individual samples in a single run
[55]. Although the current cost of these platforms makes broad-scale use of them
unrealistic, they can be applied to pinpoint effluent-associated ARGs, which can
later be tracked using standard qPCR approaches.
The realization that ARGs themselves can be viewed as “contaminants of
emerging concern” due to HGT necessitates development of risk assessment tools
that can be used for tracking ARGs in WWTP and determining their fate in
downstream environments. As discussed above, qPCR has become a gold standard
for monitoring ARG dynamics in the environment and is valuable for source
tracking studies when comparing the relative abundance of ARGs within WWTPs
and in downstream environments (Table 1). Nonetheless, the lack of standardized
methodologies and knowledge gaps regarding which of the hundreds of known
ARGs are best suited for source tracking (i.e., genes that are highly associated with
anthropogenic sources and are sparse in un-impacted environments) sometimes
complicates the interpretation of qPCR data. Generally, qPCR-based studies are
much more informative when they combine the quantitative gene data with con-
ventional microbiological and chemical analyses.
Additional methods used for identifying and characterizing ARGs directly from
the environment include transposon-aided capture (TRACA) [56] and functional
metagenomics [57]. Both of these methods involve capturing DNA fragments in
genetic vectors, transforming them to competent bacterial acceptor strains and
platting transformed strains on media containing antibiotics. Since the original
competent strains are sensitive to the screened antibiotics, growth of these strains
indicates acquisition of a vector harboring an ARG. These vectors can then be
extracted and sequenced in order to identify the gene that confers resistance.
Although these methods are highly exhaustive, they enable identification of novel
ARGs and they often identify flanking MGEs that are associated with the transfer of
these genes.
Metagenomics, the capacity to sequence and analyze whole genomes of complex
microbial communities, is a powerful tool for studying the full scope of ARGs and
MGEs in the environment [58]; and the NGS revolution will inevitably facilitate a
rising number of metagenomic studies specifically targeting AR dynamics in
WWTPs and downstream environments. For example, Tiirik et al. characterized
Table 1 Commonly detected ARGs in WWTPs and associated MGEs downstream environments
Antibiotic/MGE
class ARGs in WWTPs ARGs in WWTP effluents References
Tetracyclines tet(X), tet(G), tet(M), tet(X), tet(G), tet(M), tet(C), [51, 54, 56,
tet(C), tet(33), tet(36), tet(33), tet(36), tet(W), tet(O), 60, 69, 92,
tet(W), tet(O) tet(A), tet(B), tet(C), tet(D), 93, 94,
tet(H), tet(J), tet(Z), tet(L), 97, 98]
tet(AP), tet(Y), tet(T)
Sulfonamides sul (I), sul (II) sul (I), sul (II) [54, 56, 60,
63, 94, 97,
98, 107, 109]
Β-lactams blaTEM, blaCTX-M, blaTEM, blaCTX-M, blaSHV [54, 56, 63,
blaSHV, blaOXA, 64, 65]
blaVEB, blaVIM,
blaIMP, ampC
Macrolides ermF, ermB, ermA ermF, ermB [54, 60, 69,
94, 97]
Quinolones qnrA, qnrB, qnrS, qnrA, qnrB, qnrS [54, 67, 101]
qnrQ,
Amynoglicosides aacA, aadA, strA, strB strA, strB [56, 60, 101]
Class I Integrons Intl 1 Intl 1 [6, 28, 67, 68,
69, 92, 93,
94, 97,
98, 109]
Class II Integrons Intl 2 Intl 2 [6, 68]
bacterioplankton structure and quantified ARGs in the Baltic Sea [59], whereas
Wang et al. used the same platform to assess the occurrence, diversity, and
abundance of ARGs and MGEs in sludge of a full-scale tannery WWTP in China
[60]. Although currently metagenomic analyses are not feasible for routine moni-
toring of AR in downstream environments, the exponential reduction in costs
coupled to increased bioinformatic capacities may facilitate cheap and rapid anal-
ysis in the future, thus enabling a holistic overview of MGEs and ARGs in effluent,
upstream, and downstream ecosystems.
4 Monitoring ARB and ARGs in WWTPs
Wastewater treatment significantly reduces bacterial levels. However, substantial

levels of ARB and ARGs can still be detected in effluents and therefore may
contribute to AR in downstream environments. These include an array of prominent
genes that confer resistance to tetracycline, sulfonamide, β-lactam, macrolide,
quinolone, and aminoglycoside antibiotics. A summary of ARGs detected in
WWTP isolates in the literature is summarized in Table 1, and some of these
studies are detailed below.
Culture-based assessments of bacteria in WWTPs generally focus on commensal

and pathogenic genera originating in the human intestinal tract such as E. coli,
Enterobacter, Enterococcus, and Klebsiella [35, 61]. Although enteric bacterial
levels are generally reduced by 1–4 orders of magnitude during sewage treatment,
effluent levels of Enterococci and E. coli can still reach concentrations of up to
1,000 colony-forming units (CFU)/ml [62]. There is increasing evidence that
WWTP processes may select for AR, and therefore, although total levels of enteric
bacteria are significantly lower in effluents (relative to raw sewage levels), the
relative abundance of ARB may actually increase. For example, Galvin et al. found
that the relative abundance of multiple-antibiotic-resistant (MAR) E. coli strains
harboring extended spectrum beta-lactamase (ESBL) genes was higher in WWTP
effluent than in raw sewage [63]. Screening for specific ESBL genes indicated that
60.6% of the isolates encoded blaCTX-M group 1, 38% encoded blaCTX-M group
9, 23.9% encoded blaSHV, and 19.7% encoded blaTEM genes. This evidence is
especially concerning because it indicates that effluents are point source for
enterobacteria harboring clinically associated ESBLs, which can be transferred to
downstream environments. Increased relative abundance of AR in WWTP effluents
is supported by results of Korzeniewska et al., who assessed concentrations of
E. coli in WWTP inlet and effluent sewage and receiving river water samples in
Poland [64]. Although the WWTP reduced E. coli values by 99%, 2.7 103
CFU/ml E. coli still reached the receiving water. Plasmid-mediated β-lactamase
genes were detected in almost 10% of the final effluent isolates, and these genes
could be transferred by conjugation to E. coli recipient strains, demonstrating the
capacity of effluent ARB to transfer AR-associated plasmids to downstream envi-
ronments [65]. Luczkiewicz et al. examined the resistance profiles of 199 Entero-
coccus isolates and observed elevated levels of selected resistances and of
multidrug resistance in wastewater effluents, relative to those detected within the
WWTP, again suggesting that WWTPs may select for AR [66]. This was supported
by work of Kaplan et al., who found that the MAR Enterobacteriaceae levels
(resistant to more than 4 types of antibiotics) were higher in activated sludge than
in raw sewage, and these isolates were more likely to harbor plasmid-mediated
quinolone resistance genes [67].
Although enteric bacteria may have significant epidemiological ramifications,
antibiotic resistance in WWTP has also been evaluated in other bacteria taxa, which
may be significant due to their higher survival rates in natural aquatic and terrestrial
environments. For example, Figueira et al. screened a collection of ciprofloxacin-
resistant Aeromonas isolates from activated sludge and found that some of the
resistant strains harbored clinically associated plasmid-mediated quinolone resis-
tance genes qnrS and aac(60 )-ib-cr [68]. Additionally, the prevalence of antibiotic
resistance in 366 Acinetobacter isolates to eight different antibiotics (including
multidrug evaluation) was higher in the effluent than the observed in the influent
[12]. This again indicates a potential selective advantage for antibiotic resistance
strains in WWTPs.
Several studies have specifically focused on assessing MGEs in WWTPs, instead
of merely analyzing presence of ARGs, due to the potential horizontal transfer of
these elements in downstream environments. For example, Pellegrini et al. showed

that class 1 integrase genes were 3 times more abundant than class 2 integrase in
Enterobacteriaceae isolates resistant to ampicillin obtained from a WWTP in
L’Aquila (Italy) [6]. Class 1 integrons were also profuse in ciprofloxacin-resistant
WWTP Enterobacteriaceae, detected in 50% and 42.7% of sludge and raw sewage
isolates, respectively [66]. Ma et al. observed that class 1 integron abundance in
bacterial isolates in a municipal WWTP in Jiangxinzhou (China) increased in the
course of the wastewater treatment process, from 20.4% in the influent to 30.9% in
the activated sludge to 38.9% in the final effluent. Moreover, 11 of the isolates
contained gene cassettes conferring resistance to at least two different types of
antibiotics, supporting the role of these MGEs in horizontal transfer of ARGs
[69]. Collectively, these studies suggest that the relative abundance of integrons
may actually increase in the course of the wastewater treatment process. To assess
the genetic scope of ARGs in plasmids in a German WWTP, Szczepanowski
et al. applied next-generation sequencing to a large composite sample of purified
WWTP bacterial plasmids. The study revealed an array of ARGs associated with
β-lactam, tetracycline, aminoglycoside, chloramphenicol, macrolide, sulfonamide,
and trimethoprim antibiotics and quaternary ammonium compounds that are used
as disinfectants. Furthermore, they identified several plasmids that harbored genes
encoding multidrug resistance efflux systems that can confer resistance to multiple
antibiotic compounds [70]. In a follow-up study, the same authors screened plas-
mids isolated from bacteria collected from both final effluent and activated sludge
from the same WWTP and screened them by PCR using specific primers that target
192 genes, including aminoglycoside, beta-lactam, chloramphenicol, fluoroquino-
lone, macrolide, rifampicin, tetracycline, trimethoprim, and sulfonamide as well as
multidrug efflux and small multidrug resistance genes. Almost 75% and 65% of the
genes were identified in isolates from the activated sludge and final effluent,
respectively, including some genes that were only recently described from clinical
isolates [71]. This demonstrates the rapid genetic exchange between clinical and
WWTP bacteria and demonstrates the capacity of plasmids and other MGEs to be
horizontally transferred within and between environments. Furthermore, it indi-
cates that these resistance determinants might be further disseminated in habitats
downstream of the sewage plant.
As described above qPCR circumvents the need to culture bacteria from the
environment and is therefore a vital tool for ARG source tracking in WWTPs. For
example, Gao et al. recently measured tetracycline and sulfonamide concentrations
at different WWTP stages by liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectroscopy
and concomitantly used qPCR to assess the levels of tetracycline (tet(O) and tet
(W)) and sulfonamide (sul(I)) resistance genes, which were normalized to total
bacterial abundance by targeting bacterial 16S rRNA genes [53]. In tandem,
resistant bacteria in raw influent, final effluent, and sludge samples were quantified
using conventional culture-based approaches. Absolute levels of ARGs and ARB
were 2–3 orders of magnitude lower in the effluents than in the influents, demon-
strating the capacity of WWTPs to reduce overall levels of bacteria. Nonetheless,
while the relative abundance of tet(O) and tet(W) diminished between inlet and
effluent, that of sul(I) genes remained stable throughout the treatment processes,
demonstrating that certain ARGs are more persistent than others in WWTPs and
therefore efforts should be made to focus on more persistent. This finding is
supported by similar results previously published by several groups, including
Iwane et al. and Kim et al. [72, 73], but contradicts others, who found little
difference, if any, in the resistance profiles of selected bacterial groups in different
stages of wastewater treatment [74].
Zhang et al. applied TRACA and next-generation sequencing to characterize
plasmids from uncultured bacteria in activated sludge samples from the Shatin
WWTP in Hong Kong [56]. Their results revealed high levels of ARGs encoding
for tetracycline (27.2%), macrolide (25%), and multidrug (24.9%) resistances in the
activated sludge and high levels of class 1 integrons harboring β-lactam (ampC,
blaVEΒ-3, blaVIM-2, and blaIMP-1), aminoglycoside (aacA4, aadA1, aadA2, aadA2b,
and aadA24), sulfonamide (sulI), trimethoprim (dfrA1), and quaternary ammonium
compound (qacEΔ1) resistance genes; additionally transposons and ISs were also
detected. Interestingly, the author also observed seasonal fluctuations in tetracy-
cline, sulfonamide, and vancomycin resistance genes. This approach may be pivotal
for identifying key WWTP MGE-associated ARGs in WWTPs (which can be more
robustly targeted using qPCR methods), but additional data from a larger pool of
WWTPs is necessary.
Parsley et al. applied a functional metagenomic approach to identify AR deter-
minants from bacterial chromosome, plasmid, and viral DNA from WWTP acti-
vated sludge [75]. Gene fragments transformed into E. coli conferred resistance to
chloramphenicol, ampicillin, and kanamycin. The study demonstrated that ARGs in
WWTPs are harbored on all three of the studied MGEs. Interestingly, while several
known clinical-characterized genes were identified, certain genes such as those
conferring resistance to chloramphenicol were not related to any known clinical
genes, suggesting that the WWTP may be a source of novel ARGs.
The crucial importance of plasmids in propagation of AR has led to the devel-
opment of molecular-based tools that can be applied to assess plasmid transfer
dynamics in model WWTP systems. For example, Merlin et al. applied qPCR to
monitor the fate of the AR plasmid pB10 and its E. coli DH5α donor host in
microbial communities in WWTP sludge maintained in microcosms under different
conditions [23]. In aerated activated sludge microcosms, pB10 did not persist
because of an apparent loss of the donor bacteria. However, the persistence of the
donor bacteria increased noticeably in non-aerated activated sludge microcosms
when sulfamethoxazole or amoxicillin were applied at sub-inhibitory concentra-
tions. Similar results were described by Kim et al., who found that ppb levels of
tetracycline and sulfamethoxazole resulted in enhanced plasmid transfer frequen-
cies in activated sludge [76]. Dr€oge et al. tested the potential of activated sludge
concentrate to transfer conjugative plasmids to the 3-chlorobenzoate-degrading
Pseudomonas sp. B13 (tagged with green fluorescent protein, GFP) recipient strain
[77]. Twelve distinct tetracycline-, streptomycin-, and spectinomycin-resistant
plasmids (ranging in size between 41 to 69 kb), primarily associated with the
IncP incompatibility group, were identified. Seven of these were broad-host-range
plasmids displaying extremely high transfer frequencies ranging from 101 to 102
per recipient cell. Although these plasmid transfer and acquisition assays are not
suitable for routine analyses of AR, they can be applied to models, which are crucial
for understanding HGT dynamics in WWTPs and downstream environments.
5 Impact of Disinfection Processes on ARB and ARG

Abundance
Disinfection processes are often applied to WWTP effluents for the inactivation/
eradication of pathogenic organisms in order to prevent the spread of waterborne
diseases to downstream users and the environment [78]. Various disinfection
processes have been shown to reduce levels of E. coli, Leptospira, Salmonella,
Shigella, and Vibrio cholerae (bacteria); Balantidium coli, Cryptosporidium
parvum, Entamoeba histolytica, and Giardia lamblia (protozoa); Ascaris
lumbricoides, T. solium, and Trichuris trichiura (helminths); and a wide range of
pathogenic viruses. Although disinfection processes are generally effective for
eradication of these pathogens, several studies clearly demonstrate that they do
not always remove antibiotic compounds, ARB, and ARGs [12, 13, 19, 79–
81]. Several frameworks are suggesting that future management guidelines for
WWTP effluents should determine maximal levels for antibiotic residues, ARB,
and ARGs to reduce the environmental and epidemiological risks associated with
AR, in addition to current regulations that address a very narrow selection of
pathogens [82]. To achieve this goal, conventional and novel disinfection processes
need to be evaluated to determine which methods are best suitable for alleviating
these AR elements. The impact of various disinfection processes on the diversity
and abundance of ARGs and ARB is reviewed below. Sustainable solutions should
focus on reducing bacterial and ARG abundance using technologies that do not
generate toxic by-products of antibiotic and other micro-pollutant degradation (see
other contributions in this volume).
Chlorine is the most widely used disinfectant for municipal wastewater because
it destroys target organisms by oxidizing cellular material [78]. The required degree
of disinfection for different systems is generally achieved by modifying the chlo-
rine concentrations and exposure times and is most commonly evaluated by coli-
form plate counts. Standard protocols for chlorination of wastewater effluent apply
5–20 mg/L of chlorine, for 60 min to completely disinfect coliforms from the
treated water. Unfortunately, studies have shown that other strains of ARB remain
viable even after chlorination. For example, Huang et al. found that high chlorina-
tion doses resulted in enrichment of chloramphenicol-resistant bacteria in WWTP
effluent, while lower doses of chlorination resulted in increased regrowth of a wider
diversity of ARB, including strains resistant to ampicillin and penicillin [83].
Ultraviolet (UV) disinfection transfers energy from a mercury arc lamp at
wavelengths of 250 to 270 nm that penetrate microbial cell walls and damage the
organism’s genetic material (DNA and RNA), thereby destroying the cell’s capacity
to reproduce. The effectiveness of effluent UV disinfection depends on the charac-
teristics of the concentration of colloidal and particulate constituents in the waste-
water, the intensity of UV radiation, the amount of time the microorganisms are
exposed to the radiation, and the reactor configuration [78]. Several isolation-based
and culture-independent studies have assessed the effect of UV radiation on anti-
biotic, ARB, and ARG levels. Although comparison of results between studies is
often highly ambiguous, collectively they seem to indicate that UV does not
efficiently reduce ARB and ARG levels in WWTP effluent. For example, a recent
study found that although combined UV and chlorination disinfection significantly
reduced bacterial abundance, the percentage of the resistant bacteria, relative
abundance of multidrug-resistant strains, and the detection rate of plasmid-
mediated ARGs actually increased [84]. Other recent study found that UV disin-
fection led to enrichment of sulfadiazine-, vancomycin-, rifampicin-, tetracycline-,
and chloramphenicol-resistant bacteria but reduction of isolates resistant to ceph-
alexin, erythromycin, gentamicin, and ciprofloxacin, suggesting that the specific
AR mechanisms may play a role in UV resistance either directly or through linkage
to UV resistance mechanisms [85]. McKinney and Pruden investigated the potential
of UV disinfection to damage four ARGs, mec(A), van(A), tet(A), and amp(C), in
extracellular form and within the model bacterial pathogens – methicillin-resistant
Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecium
(VRE), E. coli SMS-3-5, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa 01 [86]. The authors
found that the Gram-positive strains (MRSA and VRE) were more resistant to
UV disinfection than the Gram-negative ARB (E. coli and P. aeruginosa). Inter-
estingly, over tenfold higher UV doses were required to damage ARGs than to
inactivate ARB. Furthermore, ARB with smaller genome size were less susceptible
to the UV treatment. Finally, Rizzo et al. tested the effect of TiO2 photocatalysis on
the inactivation of a WWTP-derived antibiotic-resistant E. coli strain using differ-
ent light sources and photocatalyst concentration [87]. The authors observed higher
inactivation efficiency in the absence of TiO2 when the wastewater was irradiated
using a wide-spectrum 250 W lamp; but under solar simulated conditions, the
highest inactivation efficiency was achieved at the lower photocatalyst levels.
Interestingly, different UV and photocatalyst configurations had different effects
on the AR profiles of the tested E. coli strain.
Ozonation is also an important disinfection methods applied in some WWTPs.
The ozone applied to municipal effluents damages cell membranes, nucleic acids,
and certain enzymes in microorganisms, depending on the physicochemical quality
of the effluents and on the concentration of ozone applied [88]. Recently it was
observed that an ozone concentration of 15.5 mg/L resulted in a 99% reduction of
total coliforms, fecal coliforms, and helminth eggs [89]. Despite these promising
effects, more studies are required to confirm that ozonation is antagonistic toward
other bacteria and to determine the impact of ozonation on the stability of ARGs.
During wastewater treatment, and specifically during tertiary disinfection pro-
cesses, a large portion of the microbiota is lysed resulting in the release of large
quantities of naked DNA. Given the relatively organic content in WWTP effluents,
it is probable that high quantities of stable naked ARG-harboring MGEs from lysed
cells are released in the effluents and these elements may be associated with natural
transformation (Fig. 2c) of bacteria in downstream environments. This was
supported by a study conducted by Hong et al., who measured the persistence of
several ARGs before and after being discharged into the environment and found
some of the ARGs tested still detectable even 16 months after discharge [90]. Other
studies showed that transformation efficiency is determined by the concentration of
naked DNA and potential acceptor cells, as well as by the natural composition of
the soil or sediments, the sorption of DNA to organic and clay particles in the
environment (thus protecting it from DNase-1), and the silica and organic matter
composition of the sediment itself [91].
Additional wastewater treatment methodologies that specifically target ARGs
should also be explored. For example, thermophilic anaerobic digestion at temper-
atures ranging from 37 to 55 C was found to remove 99.9% of class 1 integrons and
have a significant impact in the reduction of tet genes encoding resistance to
tetracycline antibiotics, and therefore may be pivotal for reducing AR contamina-
tion [92, 93], although other studies have found that this process may not efficiently
eradicate all ARGs and MGEs [94]. Breazeal et al. examined the potential for
membrane treatment of microconstituent ARGs and the effect of colloids present in
the WW on the scope of their removal; ARG levels were significantly reduced in
membranes of 100 kDa and smaller, and the presence of wastewater colloids
enhanced ARG removal [95]. Furthermore, alumina membranes reduced
wastewater-derived ARGs more than polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) membranes
of the same pore size (0.1 μm). Nonetheless, Yang et al. found that ARGs are
horizontally transferred in membrane bioreactors due to the high density of bacte-
rial cells, biofilms, and the presence of ARB and ARGs, suggesting that they may
indirectly promote ARG propagation [96].
In certain cases less sophisticated methods may be even more efficient in
removing ARB and ARGs than advanced methods, and these should not be
overlooked, especially in more rural areas or in developing countries that do not
have resources for advanced disinfection processes. For example, Burch et al. found
that aerobic digestion reduced ARG abundance in municipal biosolids [97], and
Chen and Zhang found that constructed wetlands were more efficient in reducing
relative abundances of ARGs than more sophisticated technologies such as ultra-
violet disinfection [98].
Collectively, these studies indicate that conventional disinfection processes do
not efficiently alleviate ARG and ARGs from wastewater effluent, although a
broader spectrum of analyses are required to verify this preliminary findings.
Therefore, future studies should focus on improving current processes and devel-
oping novel disinfection methods such as advanced oxidation processes and
DNA-binding elements that specifically focus on reduction of ARGs and MGEs.
6 Impact of WWTP Effluents in Downstream

Environments
Following secondary or tertiary treatment, wastewater effluents are generally either

discharged into freshwater or marine water bodies or used for irrigation. The
understanding that WWTP effluents contain significant levels of both ARB and
ARGs (even following tertiary treatment and various disinfection schemes) and that
MGEs harboring ARGs can vertically and horizontally spread from WWTPs to
environmental microbiomes is highly concerning because of the potential dissem-
ination of ARGs through water and food webs into clinically relevant bacteria,
supporting their recent classification as contaminants of emerging concern [27,
99]. In this section we review the current knowledge regarding the scope and
dynamics of AR elements in downstream environments and explore the potential
impact of these elements on public health and the environment.
Effluents from most large-scale WWTPs in temperate climates are released into
the rivers, streams, and lakes. These water bodies are often used for recreation,
irrigation, and even drinking water, and therefore, it is crucial to understand their
full microbial epidemiological potential, including the scope and intensity of
AR. As described above, ARB and ARGs are crucial for developing dispersion
and risk assessment models; however, as discussed above, it is necessary to apply
appropriate genetic and bacterial markers that are highly abundant in effluents and
are not present in pristine natural environments. Slekovec et al. determined that
MDR Pseudomonas aeruginosa levels were significantly higher in effluent-
receiving river water than in upstream samples, indicating that these multidrug-
resistant opportunistic pathogens may be a good marker for anthropogenic contam-
ination [100]. Enterobacteriaceae such as E. coli are often characterized by poor
survival in natural environments, and therefore, the selection of non-enteric strains
such as Pseudomonas that are known to persist longer in natural environments may
be advantageous for source tracking experiments.
Based on the current state of the art, it seems most logical that qPCR-based
analyses that target ARGs and MGEs will be the primary tool for monitoring AR
potential from anthropogenic sources in the future. Nonetheless, the unfathomable
array of ARGs necessitates selection of specific markers that can be used as reliable
indicators of AR contamination in WWTP effluents. As discussed above these
“select” indicators should be chosen based on their presence in a broad range of
hosts, their ubiquitous occurrence in WWTP effluents, their stability, and their
absence in pristine environments. Based on current studies, we can begin to
assemble lists of ARGs and MGEs that meet these criteria. LaPara et al. applied
qPCR to examine the presence and the abundance of effluent-associated genes
encoding tetracycline resistance (tet(A), tet(X), and tet(W)) and intI1 (the type-1
integron integrase) in 13 locations in Duluth-Superior Harbor including a point
adjacent to WWTP effluent in the harbor, a point along the St. Louis River
(upstream from the WWTP), and from Lake Superior (downstream from the
WWTP). Levels of tet(A), tet(X), tet(W), and intI1 were 20-fold higher in the
tertiary-treated wastewater than the surface water samples; and a positive correla-
tion between proximity to the point of effluent discharge and tet(W) gene abun-
dance was detected, suggesting that this gene may be a prime indicator for future
source tracking studies. However, tet(W) is generally associated with Gram-
positive bacteria, and therefore, genes with broader host range or genes primarily
associated with Gram-negative bacteria should also be identified [80].
The prevalence of qnrS, blaTEM, bla CTX-M, bla SHV, erm(B), sul(I), sul(II),
tet(O), and tet(W) in both biofilms and sediment samples before and after effluent
discharge in the Ter River in Spain was evaluated using qPCR [54]; thus, although
several of the genes were detected in upstream biofilms suggesting native AR or
contamination from other anthropogenic sources, a significant increase in the
relative abundance of almost all of the analyzed ARGs was detected in the biofilm
samples proximal to the effluent discharge. Higher relative abundance of sul(1) and
sul(2) genes in sediments proximal to WWTP effluent (relative to distant sediment
levels) was also detected in a study by Czekalski et al. who applied qPCR to target
these sulfonamide resistance genes in Vidy Bay, Lake Geneva [79]. Collectively,
these two studies indicate that ARGs mitigate from the water column to biofilms
and sediments, suggesting that these static substrates may be better than water
column samples for determining the long-term impact of effluent discharge on AR
in downstream aquatic environments. Furthermore, they suggest that sul(1) and sul
(2) may be good candidates for source tracking of ARGs in aquatic ecosystems.
As discussed above, MGE capture technologies enable identification of mobile
ARGs that may have significant epidemiological potential. Akiyama et al. applied
such a plasmid capture assay to assess the type and frequency of BHR plasmids
associated with incompatibility groups IncA/C, IncN, IncP, and IncW in two
WWTP effluents and effluent-receiving streams in Northwest Arkansas [19]. The
authors detected IncP plasmid amplicons in effluent and downstream sites in both
streams analyzed, while IncN and IncW plasmid amplicons were detected in
effluent and downstream but not upstream, and IncA/C plasmid amplicons were
detected at all sites, including most upstream samples. This may suggest that IncN
and IncW may be functional markers for source tracking of mobile ARGs from
WWTPs.
Although currently not feasible for routine monitoring, high-throughput
sequencing-based metagenomic approaches can provide a broad picture of
effluent-derived ARGs and MGEs in effluent, upstream, and downstream environ-
ments. This comprehensive approach can identify prime ARG candidates for source
tracking markers, which can be used by stakeholders in routine monitoring
schemes. Kristiansson et al. applied culture-independent shotgun metagenomics
to compare upstream and downstream microbiomes in river sediments adjacent to a
pharmaceutical WWTP in India and in a municipal WWTP in Sweden [101]. The
researchers found significantly higher abundances of sulfonamide, fluoroquinolone,
and aminoglycoside resistance genes in the antibiotic production facility-
contaminated river sediment, where downstream ARG levels were significantly
higher than those measured upstream. For example, the levels of strA and strB were
22 and 54 times higher than upstream levels, and 6.7 times more copies of class
1 integrases and 24 times higher levels of transposases associated with insertion

sequence common regions (ISCRs) of class 2 integrons were found in the down-
stream sediments, strongly suggesting that the elevated AR levels were linked to
effluents from the antibiotic production facility. It should be noted that the antibi-
otic concentrations in the Indian WWTP were orders of magnitude higher than in
conventional municipal WWTP effluents, and ARGs and MGEs were rarely
detected in the Swedish sediments. Nonetheless, this study was conducted using
the 454 pyrosequencing approach and current NGS platforms that provide signif-
icantly higher sequencing depth and should provide more insight into ARGs and
MGEs in upstream and downstream sediments adjacent to municipal WWTP
discharge.
The effect of WWTP effluents on AR in soil environments has received far less
attention than downstream aquatic environments and appears to be much more
complex, seemingly due to the intricate nature of the soil microbiome. Negreanu
et al. assessed the impact of TWW irrigation on ARB and ARG abundance in
irrigation water and four different agricultural soils [13]. While ARB and ARG
levels were substantially higher in treated effluent that in freshwater irrigation
water, ARB and ARG abundances in the irrigated soils were never higher in treated
wastewater irrigated soils. Surprisingly, on several occasions, AR levels were
actually higher in freshwater-irrigated soils. Levels of sul(1), sul(2), and erm
(B) that appear to be reliable for source tracking of ARGs in aquatic environments
showed identical levels in treated wastewater- and freshwater-irrigated soils, indi-
cating high natural AR levels in soil microbiomes, regardless of the irrigation water
type used. The presence of ARB and ARG in pristine soils has been well
documented, and there is strong evidence that many clinically associated resistance
elements are found in soil microbiomes [102–104]. As stated before, there is a need
to identify ARGs that are abundant in WWTP effluents but are not profuse in soils
for monitoring discharge of ARs in effluents. McLain and Williams studied AR
patterns in Enterococcus isolated from water storage basins in central Arizona
containing either reclaimed water or groundwater. Similar to the study above,
they found that MDR levels were actually higher in the sediments of groundwater
reservoirs than in sediments containing reclaimed wastewater [105]. Although
these two studies are cause for cautious optimism regarding the use of TWW
irrigation, they demonstrate that the soil microbiome is characterized by extremely
high native AR levels, which may mask effluent-associated ARGs in soil. This
reinforces the necessity for development and application of WWTP effluent-
associated AR markers that are not abundant in native soil microbiomes, which
can be used to track mobile ARGs.
Activated sludge biosolids are frequently amended to soils following
compostation or other stabilization processes to enhance physicochemical soil
properties. These biosolids contain residual concentrations of antibiotic com-
pounds, especially hydrophobic compounds such as fluoroquinolones [106],
ARB, and ARGs [107], which can potentially be transported to amended soils. To
assess the impact of biosolid application on ARG levels in amended soil, Munir and
Xagoraraki applied qPCR to measure the relative abundance of tetracycline and
sulfonamide resistance genes in two different soils with and without biosolid
amendment and found that while in one of the soils biosolid amendment resulted
in higher ARG levels, ARG levels in the other soil were similar to non-amended
soil levels [108]. Similar to the treated wastewater study above, the observed
discrepancy is most likely associated with the high natural AR in the pretreated
soil resistome, again establishing the need for reliable effluent-specific AR markers.
7 Summary and Future Directions
The past decade has witnessed a large number of scientific studies that have
assessed AR in wastewater treatment facilities. Collectively, these studies indicate
that conventional WWTP processes may select for AR and that WWTP effluents
contain significant levels of ARB and ARG. Application of standard disinfection
processes does not remove these materials; in fact they may thoroughly select for
certain resistant strains and generate unknown transformation products. Research
has shown that WWTP-derived AR elements are often stably transferred to down-
stream environments, demonstrating the epidemiological ramifications of this pro-
cess but also underlining the complexity of monitoring AR elements released from
WWTPs in receiving aquatic and terrestrial environments. Despite the current state
of the art, a comprehensive understanding of the abundance, diversity, and mobility
of ARB and ARGs in sewage effluents and their impact on downstream environ-
ments is still lacking. Analytical methods for identification and quantification of
these markers need to be standardized, so they can be used for comparative studies
between environments and applied to routine monitoring protocols in the future.
Furthermore, there is currently a lack of available data regarding the correlations
between ARB and ARG levels and WWTP parameters such as antibiotic concen-
trations, treatment processes, and climatic conditions. There is a need for collabo-
rations that can better link such datasets and for development of publically available
databases that can integrate the data with epidemiological and toxicological data in
order to develop models and risk assessment projections.
Concomitant to elucidating the scope and epidemiological impact of effluent-
associated AR elements, there is a need for novel technologies and management
options for reducing the spread of antibiotics and antibiotic resistance determinants
from WWTPs. Certainly, more research is required to clarify the real efficiency, of
different technologies, for reduction of ARG and MGE levels in the different steps
of wastewater treatment; and the decision of which of these technologies need to be
applied in each situation needs to be determined. The characterization of ARGs as
contaminants of emerging concern could promote the development of new
approaches in technologies for risk reduction, which added to national policies
and regulations could reduce significantly both the impact of ARGs into natural
environments and the impact on human health. This undoubtedly needs to be
coupled to additional measures such as more prudent use of antibiotics in humans
and animals and development and selection of antibiotic compounds that do not
persist for long times in the environment.
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82:1169–1177
Safe Drinking Water? Effect of Wastewater
Inputs and Source Water Impairment
and Implications for Water Reuse
Susan D. Richardson and Cristina Postigo
Abstract The elimination of contaminants of emerging concern (CECs) during

conventional wastewater treatment is not complete, and therefore, different
amounts of these compounds are continuously released via wastewater effluents
into the aquatic environment. This constitutes a major issue for water reuse, because
these compounds can undergo transformation in the environment or during disin-
fection if reclaimed water is used for drinking water production. Different emerging
contaminants, e.g., perfluorinated compounds, pharmaceuticals, antibacterials,
plasticizers, and preservatives, and transformation products, which are in some
cases more toxic than original compounds, have been occasionally found in finished
drinking waters. The present chapter reviews the CECs detected in drinking water
and the disinfection by-products generated by different CECs present in the aquatic
environment. Moreover, the potential toxicologic effects that these pollutants and
their transformation products pose for human health are also reviewed. Levels of
these compounds in treated waters, and therefore exposure, could be reduced by the
use of advanced removal technologies.
Keywords Chlorination, Contaminants of emerging concern, DBPs, De facto

reuse, Disinfection by-products, Drinking water, Water reuse
S.D. Richardson (*)

Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of South Carolina, Columbia,
SC, USA
C. Postigo
Water and Soil Quality Research Group, Department of Environmental Chemistry, Institute
of Environmental Assessment and Water Research (IDAEA-CSIC), Barcelona, Spain

Hdb Env Chem (2016) 44: 155–182, DOI 10.1007/698_2015_371,
156 S.D. Richardson and C. Postigo
Contents
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
2 DBPs of Emerging Concern in Drinking Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
3 Contaminants of Emerging Concern (CECs) in Finished Drinking Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
3.1 Perfluorinated Compounds (PFCs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
3.2 Pharmaceuticals, Antibacterials, and Hormones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
3.3 Illicit Drugs and Their Human Metabolites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
3.4 Bisphenol A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
3.5 Benzotriazoles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
3.6 Dioxane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
3.7 Perchlorate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
3.8 Antimony . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
3.9 Algal Toxins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
4 Pollutant DBPs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
5 Human Exposure to CECs and DBPs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
6 Potential Removal Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
7 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Abbreviations
BDCM Bromodichloromethane
BPA Bisphenol A
CCL Contaminant candidate list
CEC Contaminants of emerging concern
DBP Disinfection by-product
E2 17β-Estradiol
EC50 Half maximal effective concentration
EDDP 2-Ethylidene-1,5-dimethyl-3,3-diphenylpyrrolidine
EE2 17α-Ethinyl estradiol
EFSA European Food Safety Authority
EPA Environmental Protection Agency
GSTT1 Glutathione S-transferase theta-1
GSTZ1 Glutathione S-transferase zeta-1
GWRS Groundwater Replenishment System
HAA Haloacetic acid
LDPE Low density polyethylene
LOEC Lowest observed effect concentration
MDA 3,4-Methylenedioxyamphetamine
MDEA 3,4-Methylenedioxyethylamphetamine
MDMA 3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine or Ecstasy
MF Microfiltration
MTBE Methyl tert-butyl ether
MX Mutagen X (3-chloro-4-(dichloromethyl)-5-hydroxy-2(5H )-furanone)
Safe Drinking Water? Effect of Wastewater Inputs and Source Water Impairment. . . 157
N-DBPs Nitrogen containing disinfection by-products

NDMA N-Nitrosodimethylamine
NF Nanofiltration
PET Polyethylene terephthalate
PFCs Perfluorinated compounds
PFCAs Perfluoroalkyl carboxylates
PFHpA Perfluoroheptanoic acid
PFHxA Perfluorohexanoic acid
PFHxS Perfluorohexane sulfonate
PFOA Perfluorooctanoic acid
PFOS Perfluorooctane sulfonate
PFPeA Perfluoropentanoic acid
PFSA Perfluoroalkyl sulfonate
PTFE Polytetrafluoroethylene or Teflon®
PVC Polyvinylchloride
REACH Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation, and Restriction of Chemicals
RO Reverse osmosis
TCA 1,1,1-Trichloroethane
THC ()-11-nor-9-carboxy-Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol
THM Trihalomethane
1 Introduction
More than four billion people in the world live in regions where scarcity of
freshwater directly threatens human water security [1, 2]. As populations continue
to grow and droughts continue to become more frequent, alternative sources of
water are being sought. Of the different potential sources, reuse of domestic
wastewater is one of the most energy-efficient, sustainable options, if compared
to interbasin transfer of water and desalination of seawater [1]. Treated wastewater
has been reused for several decades for industrial applications, agriculture, land-
scaping, habitat restoration, and recreational lakes and as a barrier to prevent
seawater intrusion to groundwater [3–5] and is now used in more than 50 countries
[6]. Of these countries, the USA is first in total volume of water reused [5]. Notably,
73% of Israel’s municipal wastewater is treated and reused for agricultural
irrigation [7].
Potable reuse of reclaimed wastewater is also now a reality in many locations.
Advanced treatment methods are typically used, and the treated water can either be
used directly (direct potable reuse) or indirectly by holding the water for a time in
groundwater or surface-water reservoirs (indirect potable reuse) [1]. The longest
running example of direct potable reuse is in Windhoek, Namibia, where recycled
wastewater has been added to the drinking water distribution system since the late
1960s [1]. The world’s largest indirect potable reuse system is the Groundwater
Replenishment System (GWRS) in Orange County, CA, which uses conventional
treatment (primary and secondary sewage treatment) followed by advanced treat-

ment using microfiltration (MF), reverse osmosis (RO), and UV-C/H2O2 [8].
In addition to planned reuse, many regions of the USA (and the world) have de
facto reuse, where treated wastewater constitutes a substantial portion of the potable
water supply [9]. In times of low rainfall in the Western USA, wastewater effluents
can make up to 90–100% of the river’s flow. For example, the Santa Ana River in
Southern California typically consists of >90% wastewater effluent from upstream
communities during the dry season (April through October) [5], and the Trinity
River, which flows south of Dallas/Fort Worth, consists almost entirely of waste-
water effluent under base flow conditions [10].
A major issue with water reuse is that many of the chemicals present in
wastewater are not fully removed in conventional wastewater treatment. As a result,
many wastewater contaminants can enter ecosystems and drinking water supplies
[11–13]. Moreover, these chemicals can often transform in the environment or
during treatment of drinking water or wastewater to form new products, which can
have greater toxicity than the parent compounds [13–15].
Treated wastewater can also impact source waters with increased nitrogen,
which can include ammonia, nitrite, nitrate, amino acids, nitrogen-containing
pharmaceuticals, pesticides, or other constituents of personal care products [16–
18]. Chlorination of these waters in drinking water treatment can result in the
formation of nitrogen-containing disinfection by-products (the so-called
N-DBPs), which are more genotoxic and cytotoxic than disinfection by-products
(DBPs) that do not contain nitrogen [19–21]. These N-DBPs include nitrosamines,
haloacetonitriles, halonitromethanes, haloamides, and cyanogen halides [16, 18,
21–23]. A large occurrence study of 16 drinking water treatment plants in the USA
focused on treated water impacted by wastewater and/or algae and found high
levels of N-DBPs when the wastewater contained high levels of inorganic nitrogen
and dissolved organic nitrogen [17].
Increased energy extraction activities, including shale gas extraction and con-
ventional oil and gas extraction, are also contributing to impaired waters, resulting
in high releases of bromide (and potentially iodide) as well as other mostly
unknown other/organic chemicals to US surface waters [24–26]. New pollution
controls being installed at coal-fired power plants are also contributing high
releases of bromide [27–29]. These activities are presenting new issues for
human health because when these high-bromide/iodide waters are chlorinated,
they can result in the formation of highly toxic brominated and/or iodinated
DBPs, several of which are genotoxic or carcinogenic [21]. The levels of bromide
being released to the environment are unprecedented, and new regions of the USA
which have not had these high-bromide levels before are now being exposed to high
levels of brominated DBPs [30], most of which have not been characterized.
Increased nitrogen and other nutrients from treated wastewater can also result in
increased algal growth and an accompanying increased incidence of shellfish
poisoning, large fish kills, and deaths of livestock and wildlife, as well as illness
and death in humans [23, 31, 32]. Toxins produced by these algae have been
implicated in the adverse effects. The most commonly occurring algal toxins are
microcystins, nodularins, anatoxins, cylindrospermopsin, and saxitoxins. “Red

tide” toxins are also often found in coastal waters. Nearly every part of the world
that uses surface water as a drinking water source has encountered problems with
cyanobacteria and their toxins. Several countries, including Australia, Brazil,
Canada, France, Italy, Poland, and New Zealand, have guideline values for
microcystins, anatoxin-a, and cylindrospermopsin (ranging from 1.0 to 1.5 μg/L).
An excellent review on the occurrence and management of harmful cyanobacterial
blooms and their toxins in surface water and drinking water was recently published
by Merel et al. [32].
2 DBPs of Emerging Concern in Drinking Water
Currently, 11 DBPs are regulated in the USA: 4 trihalomethanes (THMs),

5 haloacetic acids (HAAs), bromate, and chlorite [33]. However, DBPs of emerging
concern beyond those that are currently regulated are becoming important. In
general, brominated DBPs are now being recognized as toxicologically important
because there is indication that brominated DBPs may be more carcinogenic than
their chlorinated analogues, and new studies are indicating that iodinated com-
pounds may be even more toxic than their brominated analogues [20, 34, 35]. Bro-
minated and iodinated DBPs form due to the reaction of the disinfectant (such as
chlorine) with natural bromide or iodide present in source waters. Coastal cities,
whose groundwaters and surface waters can be impacted by salt water intrusion,
and some inland locations, whose surface waters can be impacted by natural salt
deposits from ancient seas or oil-field brines, are examples of locations that can
have high-bromide and iodide levels. A significant proportion of the US population
and several other countries now live in coastal regions that are impacted by bromide
and iodide; therefore, exposures to brominated and iodinated DBPs can be impor-
tant. And, as mentioned earlier, there are now new inputs of bromide (and poten-
tially iodide) from energy extraction and utilization activities that are resulting in
the change in speciation from primarily chlorine-containing DBPs to predomi-
nantly bromine-containing DBPs, which are more toxic. This is now happening in
regions of the USA located away from the coast (e.g., in Pennsylvania), which
generally would have near non-detectable bromide and very low brominated DBPs.
Early evidence in epidemiologic studies also gives indication that brominated
DBPs may be associated with the new reproductive and developmental problems
[36, 37], as well as cancer effects. Specific DBPs that are of current interest include
iodo-acids, bromonitromethanes, iodo-THMs, haloamides, halofuranones,
halopyrroles, haloquinones, haloaldehydes, halonitriles, and nitrosamines. In par-
ticular, N-nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) and other nitrosamines are known car-
cinogens; 3-chloro-4-(dichloromethyl)-5-hydroxy-2(5H )-furanone, better known
as “mutagen X” (MX), is also an animal carcinogen; and more recently, iodoacetic
acid was shown to be tumorigenic in mice [38].
Many of these were part of a nationwide occurrence study in the USA, which
reported the most extensive quantitative occurrence of priority, unregulated DBPs
[39, 40]. In addition, many of these are N-DBPs, which are generally more
genotoxic and cytotoxic than those without nitrogen [20]. As mentioned earlier,
increased nitrogen inputs from treated wastewater can cause increased formation of
these more toxic N-DBPs.
3 Contaminants of Emerging Concern (CECs) in Finished

Drinking Water
Several CECs from treated wastewater have been present at high enough levels in
wastewater effluents that they have been detected in source waters and in finished
drinking water. These include perfluorinated compounds (PFCs), pharmaceuticals,
antibacterials, hormones, bisphenol A, benzotriazoles, dioxane, perchlorate, and
algal toxins [13, 41, 42]. Several of these CECs were recently recommended for
monitoring in potable water reuse by a Science Advisory Panel convened by the
State of California [43] (Table 1). In this effort, environmental concentrations were
considered together with toxicity, and chemicals prioritized for study had measured
environmental concentrations greater than their monitoring trigger levels, which
were based on toxicity.
3.1 Perfluorinated Compounds (PFCs)
PFCs have been manufactured for more than 50 years and have been used to make
stain repellents, e.g., polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE or Teflon®), that are widely
applied to fabrics and carpets. They are also used in the manufacture of paints,
adhesives, waxes, polishes, metals, electronics, fire-fighting foams, and caulks, as
well as grease-proof coatings for food packaging (e.g., microwave popcorn bags,
French fry boxes, hamburger wrappers, etc.). PFCs are unusual chemically, in that
Table 1 Priority CECs recommended for monitoring in potable water reuse [43]
Analyte Compound use
17α-Ethinyl estradiol (EE2) Pharmaceutical (synthetic hormone)
17α-Estradiol Pharmaceutical
17β-Estradiol (E2) Hormone
Erythromycin Antibiotic
Estrone Hormone
N-Nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) Disinfection by-product (DBP)
Perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) Industrial chemical
Perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) Industrial chemical
they are both hydrophobic (repel water) and lipophobic (repel lipids/grease), and
they contain one of the strongest chemical covalent bonds known (C–F). Due to
these properties, they are highly stable in the environment (and in biological
samples) and have unique profiles of distribution in the body. Two of these PFCs,
perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) and perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), have
received the most attention because they are generally found the most often and
at the highest levels in the environment. Potential health concerns include devel-
opmental toxicity, cancer, and bioaccumulation. The US Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA) has listed PFOA and PFOS on the new Contaminant Candidate List
(CCL-3) [44]. PFOA was also voluntarily reduced in emissions and product content
by 95% (2010) and is being phased out in 2015 [45]. In Europe, the European Food
Safety Authority (EFSA) has established tolerable daily intakes for PFOA and
PFOS [46], and there are new restrictions on the use of PFOS as part of the
European Union’s Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of
Chemicals (REACH) program [47], and environmental quality standards have
been also set for this compound in water and biota [48].
PFCs have been widely found in environmental waters, drinking water, and biota
[23, 49]. One of the first studies of PFCs in drinking water was conducted in
Germany, in which 12 PFCs were measured in drinking waters and surface waters
[50]. A relatively high maximum concentration of PFCs was found in drinking
water (598 ng/L), with PFOA being the major component (519 ng/L). Since this
early study, there have been numerous detections of PFCs in drinking water from
several countries [42, 51–57].
An occurrence study carried out in Australia found PFOS and PFOA in 49% and
44% of the drinking water samples collected, respectively [53]. In a French
drinking water study conducted by Boiteux et al. [55], 331 source water and
110 finished drinking water samples were collected from several regions in France,
representing 20% of the national water supply. Of the ten PFCs measured, PFOS,
perfluorohexane sulfonate (PFHxS), PFOA, and perfluorohexanoic acid (PFHxA)
predominated in the source waters (detected in 27%, 13%, 11%, and 7% of the
samples, respectively). In finished drinking water, short-chain perfluoroalkyl car-
boxylates (PFCAs) predominated, suggesting a relative effectiveness of certain
water treatments in removing perfluoroalkyl sulfonates (PFSAs) but also the poten-
tial for degradation of PFCA precursors by water treatment processes. A particu-
larly interesting discovery was that eight of these drinking water treatment plants
actually had higher levels of some PFCs, PFBA, perfluoropentanoic acid (PFPeA),
PFHxA, and perfluoroheptanoic acid (PFHpA), in the finished water vs. the raw
source waters. Normally, levels would be expected to be lower in the finished water
vs. the source water, due to some partial removal, dilution, or degradation. In total,
seven of these eight plants used activated carbon to treat raw water, and results
suggest release of PFCs from saturated activated carbon or degradation of pre-
cursors during the treatment process. PFHxA was found at the highest levels in
finished drinking water, up to 125 ng/L. And as expected, areas with higher
population densities showed higher levels of PFCs in their finished drinking water.
PFCs have also been followed along the whole water cycle (wastewater, river
water, tap water, and mineral bottled water) in a large occurrence study of several
cities in Germany and Spain [56]. In this study, 21 PFCs were measured, and
perfluorocarboxylic acids were found most often in drinking water, with 54% of
the tap water samples containing perfluorobutanoic acid at levels up to 27 ng/L and
PFHpA, PFOA, and PFOS up to 53, 35, and 258 ng/L, respectively.
3.2 Pharmaceuticals, Antibacterials, and Hormones
Pharmaceuticals, antibacterials, and hormones have become important CECs, due

to their ubiquitous presence in environmental waters, threat to drinking water, and
potential estrogenic and other effects to ecosystems and humans [58, 59]. A major
concern also includes the development of bacterial resistance from the release of
antibiotics and antibacterials, such as triclosan, to the environment [60]. Pharma-
ceuticals are introduced not only by humans but also through veterinary use for
livestock, poultry, and fish farming. Various drugs are commonly given to farm
animals to prevent illness and disease and to increase the size of the animals. One
lingering question has been whether the relative low environmental concentration
levels of pharmaceuticals (generally ng/L range) would cause adverse effects in
humans or wildlife. It is estimated that approximately 3,000 different substances are
used as pharmaceutical ingredients, including painkillers, antibiotics, antidiabetics,
betablockers, contraceptives, lipid regulators, antidepressants, and impotence
drugs. However, only a very small subset of these compounds has been investigated
in environmental studies so far. Three pharmaceuticals – erythromycin, nitroglyc-
erin, and 17α-ethinyl estradiol (EE2) – are included as priority drinking water
contaminants on EPA’s CCL-3 list [44]. In Europe, the pharmaceuticals diclofenac
and EE2, following proposal for their consideration as EU priority substances, have
been recently included in the first watch list in order to gather additional monitoring
data to facilitate the determination of appropriate measures to address their poten-
tial environmental risk [61].
While many pharmaceuticals can have an acute or chronic effect on aquatic or
other organisms, most of the lowest observed effect concentrations (LOECs) are
substantially above environmental concentrations. However, there are a few nota-
ble exceptions, where toxicity LOECs approach concentrations observed in envi-
ronmental waters or wastewater effluents. These include ciprofloxacin, the
synthetic hormone EE2, salicylic acid, diclofenac, propranolol, clofibric acid,
carbamazepine, and fluoxetine [13]. Two compelling studies highlight the potential
adverse effect of pharmaceuticals on wildlife. In the first study, residues from the
veterinary use of diclofenac were implicated in the death of approximately 40 mil-
lion vultures in Pakistan (more than 95% of the vulture population) [62]. This
incident is being referred to as the “worst case of wildlife poisoning ever,” far
eclipsing the numbers of birds affected by dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT)
a few decades ago. In the second study, EE2 was shown to feminize male fish and
cause complete collapse of a wild fish population [63]. This 7-year study involved
dosing of 5–6 ng/L of EE2 to a lake in the experimental lake area of Ontario,
Canada, in which chronic exposure of the fathead minnow led to production of
vitellogenin mRNA and protein and impacts on gonadal development in males and
altered oogenesis in females, ultimately leading to a near extinction of this native
species in the lake due to lack of reproduction. These two studies highlight the fact
that low, environmentally relevant doses of pharmaceuticals can adversely impact
wildlife.
Triclosan (5-chloro-2-(2,4-dichlorophenoxy)phenol) is an important
antibacterial, as it is commonly used in many hand soaps and is one of the most
common personal care products found in the environment [64]. Its use as a
preservative in cosmetic products has been recently restricted in Europe [65], and
the ban of its use as disinfectant and algaecide, film preservative, and fiber, leather,
rubber, and polymerized material preservative is still under discussion. In the
Kolpin et al. study of wastewater-impacted streams and rivers in the USA, triclosan
was detected in 58% of the locations sampled [12]. There is concern that levels
found in the environment are contributing to antibiotic resistance; in fact, many
triclosan-resistant bacteria have already been found [64]. Triclosan is also toxic to
aquatic organisms, such as fish, crustaceans, and algae, with half maximal effective
concentrations (EC50) close to environmental concentrations observed, and it has
cytotoxic, genotoxic, and endocrine disrupting effects [64]. Moreover, triclosan can
transform into potentially more toxic compounds in wastewater and drinking water
treatment (as discussed later under Sect. 4 on Pollutant DBPs).
Parabens are a group of substances (alkyl esters of p-hydroxybenzoic acid) with
bactericidal and fungicidal properties that are widely used as preservatives in
personal care products, pharmaceuticals, and food. Similarly as for triclosan, their
use as preservatives in cosmetic products is also restricted in Europe [65]. To date,
only a few studies have investigated their presence in the aquatic environment.
Parabens have been found in surface waters at levels as high as 3,142 ng/L [66,
67]. Methylparaben and propylparaben, which are the most commonly detected
parabens in waters (in agreement with their extensive use in cosmetic formula-
tions), have been quantified in tap water at levels up to 40 [68, 69] and 135 ng/L
[70], respectively. The main concerns regarding the presence of parabens in the
environment arise from their endocrine disrupting potential and their possible
involvement in the process of carcinogenesis, both of which are currently under
investigation [67].
Natural and synthetic hormones can have inputs from wastewater and agricul-
ture, and they are often not completely removed in wastewater treatment, such that
they have the potential to enter drinking water sources. There is concern due to
potential estrogenic and androgenic effects, but mostly for wildlife, and not for
human health [71]. Nine natural and synthetic hormones (EE2, 17α-estradiol, 17-
β-estradiol (E2), equilenin, equilin, estriol, estrone, mestranol, and norethindrone)
are included on the US EPA’s CCL-3 [44] as priority drinking water contaminants.
Two hormones E2 and EE2 are included in the first EU watch list for future
consideration as EU priority substances [61].
Pharmaceuticals, antibacterials, and hormones have been reported in finished

drinking water from several countries [57, 70, 72–76]; these are typically ones that
are present at highest levels in wastewater and are not well removed in wastewater
treatment. Drinking water systems that treat surface waters generally have the
highest levels in their drinking water, with ibuprofen, triclosan, carbamazepine,
phenazone, clofibric acid, gemfibrozil, and acetaminophen found most often, with
levels up to high ng/L [73, 77].
Recent “source-to-tap” studies have reported the fate of pharmaceuticals over
the cycle from wastewaters to river waters, to source waters, and to finished
drinking water. Due to some removal during wastewater treatment followed by
some removal/degradation in river waters and further removal/transformation in
drinking water treatment, pharmaceuticals are only occasionally reported in fin-
ished drinking water. For example, in a study carried out in Canada by Metcalfe
et al., antidepressants and their metabolites were removed in wastewater treatment
by ~40%, with two (venlafaxine and bupropion) detected in untreated drinking
water source water, but none detected in finished drinking water [74]. Several of
these compounds persisted in river water collected several kilometers downstream
of the wastewater treatment plants, and modest accumulation factors (<100) were
observed in caged fathead minnows downstream of the plants. In another study,
Watkinson et al. followed the occurrence and fate of 28 antibiotics from three
hospital effluents, five wastewater treatment plants, six rivers, and a drinking water
storage catchment in Southeast Queensland, Australia [78]. Most antibiotics were
detected at least once and were up to 14.5 μg/L in hospital effluents, up to 64 μg/L in
wastewater influents, up to 3.4 μg/L in wastewater effluents, and up to 2 μg/L in
surface waters, but they were not detected in finished drinking waters. On the other
hand, Benotti et al. reported measureable levels of pharmaceuticals in finished
drinking water in a study of 20 pharmaceuticals and other contaminants in 19 drink-
ing water treatment plants from the USA[11]. The 11 most frequently detected
compounds were atenolol, atrazine, carbamazepine, estrone, gemfibrozil, mepro-
bamate, naproxen, phenytoin, sulfamethoxazole, tris(1,3-dichloro-2-propyl)phos-
phate, and trimethoprim. Maximum pharmaceutical levels observed were
110, 42, and 40 ng/L for source waters, finished drinking water, and distribution
system tap water, respectively. The occurrence in finished drinking water was
controlled by the type of disinfectant (ozone or chlorine) used at each plant.
Most pharmaceuticals, antibacterials, and hormones are “removed” in drinking
water treatment, such that the parent chemicals are no longer detected following
disinfection, filtration, and other treatments, but as discussed later, DBPs can be
formed by them, which often have unknown properties, fate, and toxicity.
3.3 Illicit Drugs and Their Human Metabolites
Illicit drugs have been detected in different environmental matrices [79]. The
investigation of this class of CECs in the aquatic environment has a double
objective: (1) to increase the knowledge on their environmental levels to evaluate

their potential environmental risk and (2) to back-calculate illicit drug use at the
community level [80]. Cocaine, methadone, and their respective metabolic
by-products, benzoylecgonine and 2-ethylidene-1,5-dimethyl-3,3-diphenylpyr-
rolidine (EDDP), are the most ubiquitous compounds in tap waters [81]. Illicit
drugs and metabolite levels in drinking waters are at the low ng/L, with 15 ng/L of
benzoylecgonine the highest value reported [81]. The low concentrations found in
drinking waters can be attributed to removal and transformation of these com-
pounds during water treatment processes, because slightly higher concentrations of
these compounds are frequently found in surface waters, and they can reach the μg/
L level in wastewaters [82].
3.4 Bisphenol A
Bisphenol A (BPA) is widely used in the manufacture of many consumer products,

as a monomer in the synthesis of polycarbonates and as a polymerization inhibitor
in polyvinylchloride (PVC) pipes. BPA is commonly found in wastewater effluents
and in surface waters and has also been observed in drinking water [41, 73, 83–85].
Levels as high as 41 μg/L have been reported in surface waters in the USA [12], and
BPA levels in the μg/L range have been also detected in rivers from Spain and
China [86]. In a study of 17 drinking water systems in Ontario, Canada, BPA was
among the contaminants most frequently measured in finished drinking water, with
levels up to 420 ng/L [73]. Concerns surround BPA due to its estrogenicity.
3.5 Benzotriazoles
Benzotriazoles are complexing agents widely used as anticorrosives (e.g., in engine

coolants, aircraft deicers, or antifreeze liquids) and for silver protection in
dishwashing liquids. Benzotriazoles are soluble in water, resistant to biodegrada-
tion, and only partially removed in wastewater treatment. There is evidence for
estrogenic effects in vitro [87] and in vivo, as observed in recent fish studies
[88]. While reports of benzotriazoles are fairly recent, studies indicate that they
are likely ubiquitous environmental contaminants. Janna et al. reported an interest-
ing study entitled “From dishwasher to tap? Xenobiotic substances benzotriazole
and tolyltriazole in the environment” [89]. This study demonstrated their presence
in UK wastewaters, rivers, and drinking water and suggested that their use as silver
polishing agents in dishwasher tablets and powders may account for a significant
proportion of inputs to wastewaters. Benzotriazole and tolyltriazole ranged from
840 to 3,605 ng/L and 2,685 to 5,700 ng/L, respectively, in sewage effluents and
from 0.6 to 79.4 ng/L and <0.5 to 69.8 ng/L, respectively, in drinking water. More
effective removal of tolyltriazole by activated carbon was suggested as the reason
for its lower levels in finished drinking water vs. river water [89]. Also, in a
multicountry-European study by Loos et al., 1H-benzotriazole and methylbenzo-
triazole were found in >50% of the groundwaters sampled, up to 1.03 and 0.52 μg/
L, respectively [90]. Maximum concentrations of 8 and 20 μg/L in surface waters
for benzotriazole and tolyltriazole, respectively, were observed in a study carried
out in rivers from 27 European countries, where these compounds were among the
most ubiquitous and abundant polar pollutants investigated [91].
3.6 Dioxane
1,4-Dioxane is a widespread industrial contaminant in environmental waters (often

exceeding water quality criteria and guidelines) and has been found in contami-
nated groundwater up to 2,800 μg/L [92], as well as in drinking water [13, 93,
94]. Dioxane is a high production chemical used as a solvent stabilizer in the
manufacture and processing of paper, cotton, textile products, automotive coolants,
cosmetics, and shampoos, as well as a stabilizer in 1,1,1-trichloroethane (TCA), a
popular degreasing solvent. It has been classified as a probable human carcinogen
and is currently listed on the US EPA’s CCL-3 [44]. Dioxane is considered
nonbiodegradable and is difficult to remove from water. A recent study in Germany
found it to be up to 62,260 ng/L in wastewater effluents, 2,200 ng/L in river water,
and 600 ng/L in finished drinking water, which was above the precautionary
guideline limit of 100 ng/L [93]. Interestingly, wastewater effluent levels from
one plant were higher than wastewater influents due to dioxane impurities in the
methanol used in the postanoxic denitrification process.
3.7 Perchlorate
Recent studies have found perchlorate in finished water, with median levels up to
1.2 μg/L [95]. Using individual tap water consumption data and body weight, the
median perchlorate dose attributable to tap water was 9.1 ng/kg-day. Perchlorate
was also measured in tap water and bottled water from China in another recent
study, which found perchlorate in 86% of the samples and mean levels of 2.5 and
0.22 μg/L, respectively [96]. Perchlorate is a widespread contaminant in surface
waters, and it results from the use of perchlorate in rockets, missiles, fireworks, and
highway flares, as well as in fertilizers [13]. It can also be a contaminant in sodium
hypochlorite (liquid bleach) that is used in drinking water treatment. Perchlorate is
not removed by conventional water treatment processes, so human exposure can
also occur through drinking water. Health concerns arise from perchlorate’s ability
to displace iodide in the thyroid gland, which can affect metabolism, growth, and
development. The US EPA has recently decided to regulate perchlorate in drinking
water, and a new regulation is currently under development [23].
3.8 Antimony
Antimony can leach into bottled drinking water from polyethylene terephthalate
(PET) plastic water bottles, producing the highest levels of human exposure to
antimony, close to 10 μg/L [97]. Antimony trioxide is used as a catalyst in the
manufacture of PET plastics, and it can contain >100 mg/kg of antimony. Highest
levels of antimony can leach from these plastic bottles over prolonged storage and
especially at warm temperatures [98]. This is a concern because of the growing
popularity of bottled water. Compared to PET bottles, low density polyethylene
(LDPE) bottles contain much lower levels (~1%) of antimony [99].
3.9 Algal Toxins
Algal toxins or cyanotoxins (i.e., hepatotoxins, neurotoxins, and dermatotoxins) are

harmful metabolites synthesized by certain species of cyanobacteria. The
hepatotoxins microcystins, nodularins, and cylindrospermopsin and the neuro-
toxins, anatoxins, and saxitoxins are considered as priority hazards to human and
animal health. To date, microcystins are the most investigated cyanotoxins, since
they are also the most widespread. The presence of microcystins is regulated in
many countries at a maximum level of 1 μg/L in drinking water [32, 100]. The
reported total microcystin (intracellular plus dissolved) levels in surface waters
vary from trace to several mg/L; however, the dissolved fraction usually does not
comprise more than 10% of the total. This is not the case for cylindrospermopsin,
which is often found at higher levels in the dissolved form than within the cells
[101]. In fact, this cyanotoxin has been commonly detected in drinking waters from
Taiwan, reaching levels as high as 8.6 μg/L [102]. Microcystin-LR has been
measured in tap waters from Serbia and China at a concentration of 2.5 μg/L
[103] and 1.3 μg/L [104], respectively. Intracellular cyanotoxins are also released
following oxidation of cyanobacterial cells. This could result in higher cyanotoxins
in oxidant treated waters if the oxidative treatment applied presents low reactivity
to the metabolites released [105].
4 Pollutant DBPs
Just as natural organic matter can react with disinfectants to form DBPs in drinking
water, many pollutants which have activated benzene rings, phenol groups, amine
groups, or double bonds can also react with disinfectants to form DBPs. As such,
DBPs have been reported for pharmaceuticals, illicit drugs, antibacterial agents,
estrogens, BPA, pesticides, textile dyes, parabens, alkylphenol ethoxylate surfac-
tants, musks, and even algal toxins like microcystins or cylindrospermopsin, as
illustrated in Fig. 1.
Methylparaben NDMA
Dichloromethylparaben
Tetrachloro-BPA
Wastewater
treatment Plant Bisphenol A (BPA)
(WWTP) Carbamazepine diol
Carbamazepine
Chlorinaon
Ranidine Triclosan tank
Chloroform
Drinking water
Rivers and creeks treatment Plant
Diclofenac (DWTP) 5-Chloro-
Cylindrospermopsin
Decarboxy-chloro- or cylindrospermopsin
bromo- diclofenac
Fig. 1 Transformation of not fully eliminated CECs in WWTPs during disinfection in a chlori-
nation system to produce safe drinking water
For example, a microbial transformation product of the fungicide tolylfluanide

(N,N-dimethylsulfamide) can react with ozone to form NDMA [106]. This was
discovered after high ng/L levels of NDMA were observed in ozonated drinking
water from Germany and came as a surprise because ozone does not form NDMA
by reaction with natural organic matter. However, the (CH3)2-N group of
tolylfluanide is highly reactive with ozone to produce stoichiometric levels of
NDMA. Moreover, the presence of bromide was later shown to catalyze this
formation [107], and as mentioned earlier, wastewater inputs can increase bromide
levels, which could result in increased formation of NDMA.
An initial electrophilic attack of chorine on the aromatic ring or amine group of
diclofenac produces up to four major DBPs: chloro-diclofenac, bromo-diclofenac,
decarboxy-diclofenac, and chloro-decarboxy-diclofenac [108, 109]. Reaction of
ozone with this compound generates several hydroxylated and dechlorinated
products [110].
The antiepileptic drug carbamazepine, one of the most frequently detected
pharmaceuticals in drinking water systems in Europe and in the USA, rapidly reacts
with ozone, producing three DBPs: 1-(2-benzaldehyde)-4-hydro-(1H,3H )-
quinazoline-2-one, 1-(2-benzaldehyde)-(1H,3H )-quinazoline-2,4-dione, and
1-(2-benzoic acid)-(1H,3H )-quinazoline-2,4-dione [111]. Oxidation of carbamaz-
epine at chlorination conditions commonly used in water treatment systems was
observed to be low. However, reaction of this pharmaceutical with chlorine formed
monohydroxylated, epoxide, diol, and monohydroxylated chlorinated derivatives
and carbamazepine chloramide [112].
Pharmaceuticals used for medical imaging can also react with disinfectants to
form DBPs. For example, the X-ray contrast media iopamidol can react with
chlorine or chloramine to form highly toxic iodo-THM and iodo-acid DBPs, e.g.,
dichloroiodomethane and iodoacetic acid [14]. The parent X-ray contrast media
compounds are not toxic and are used in high doses (200 g/person/day) for medical
imaging; however, iopamidol can transform in treatment to form the most
genotoxic DBPs identified to date. The mechanism of reaction is not yet known
and is currently under investigation. Chloraminated and chlorinated source waters
with iopamidol were genotoxic and cytotoxic in mammalian cells. This is in
agreement with the previously reported high genotoxicity and cytotoxicity of the
iodo-acids and iodo-THMs [34, 35]. Reactivity of amphetamine-like compounds,
cocaine, and the cannabis metabolite ()-11-nor-9-carboxy-Δ9-tetrahydrocannab-
inol (THC-COOH) with chlorine has been also reported in the peer-reviewed
literature [81, 113, 114]. 3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, also
known as Ecstasy), 3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine (MDA), and
3,4-methylenedioxyethylamphetamine (MDEA) react with chlorine to form a
highly stable product, 3-chlorocatechol, in the case of MDMA, and
3-chlorobenzo-1,3-dioxole, in the case of MDA and MDEA [115]. In the case of
cocaine, four transformation products, i.e., benzoylecgonine, norcocaine,
norbenzoylecgonine, and N-formylnorcocaine, were formed via hydrolytic
dealkylation of the ester group and chlorine attack on the amine group, leading to
N-dealkylation and, to a minor extent, to amide formation [113]. Chlorination DBPs
of THC-COOH were formed by electrophilic substitution of hydrogen per chlorine
(or bromine) in the aromatic ring and via additional hydration and/or halogenation
reactions of the C–C bond conjugated with the carbonyl moiety of the THC-COOH
molecule [114].
NDMA, a DBP commonly found in chloraminated drinking water, can be
formed from contaminants that contain dimethylamine groups [13]. Among differ-
ent pharmaceuticals containing dimethylamine groups, the antacid ranitidine
showed the strongest potential to form NDMA [116, 117].
The antibacterial triclosan can react with chlorine or chloramine to form chlo-
roform, 5,6-dichloro-2-(2,4-dichlorophenoxy)phenol, 4,5-dichloro-2-
(2,4-dichlorophenoxy)phenol, 4,5,6-trichloro-2-(2,4-dichlorophenoxy)phenol,
2,4-dichlorophenol, and 2,4,6-trichlorophenol [118]. The reaction of triclosan
with monochloramine is slow, however, compared to chlorine [119]. The
chlorophenoxyphenols are formed via electrophilic substitution of triclosan. In
the presence of iodide, iodo-phenols can form [120].
Levels of free chlorine usually present in tap waters are sufficient to form mono-
and dihalogenated by-products of parabens, with brominated species dominating
when trace amounts of bromide are present [121]. Di-chlorinated forms of
methylparaben and propylparaben were found to be recalcitrant to further chlorine
oxidation, and therefore, they are likely to be found in environmental waters
[121]. In fact, these compounds, together with monochlorobenzylparaben, were
the only paraben DBPs out of the 14 investigated monochloro- and dichloro-
parabens found in chlorinated swimming pool waters [122], and they have been
also reported to be present in surface waters [123]. Ozonation of parabens in
aqueous solutions produced paraben DBPs mainly through hydroxylation of their
aromatic ring and/or their ester chain [124].
The plasticizer BPA also has phenolic groups that can readily react with
chlorine, forming monochloro-, dichloro-, trichloro-, and tetrachloro-derivatives
[125]. These reactions also occur by electrophilic substitution. When iodide is
present in source waters, it can react with aqueous chlorine to form HOI, which
reacts with the phenolic groups of BPA to form iodo-phenol derivatives [120]. As
mentioned earlier, iodo-DBPs are generally much more toxic than chloro-DBPs
[34]. BPA can also react with ozone to form catechol, ortho-quinone, muconic acid
derivatives of BPA, benzoquinone, and 2-(4-hydroxyphenyl)-propan-2-ol [126].
Estrogens can also react with chlorine and ozone to form by-products [76]. Struc-
tures of 46 natural estrogen and synthetic estrogen (EE2) DBPs have been pro-
posed, along with the oxidation/disinfection processes that give rise to them. The
reaction of estrogens, i.e., estrone, E2, and EE2, with free chlorine occurs mainly
via an electrophilic substitution at the ortho and para positions, which results
eventually in cleavage of the aromatic structure. Several authors have reported
that dichlorinated derivatives present less estrogenic activity than monochlorinated
derivatives, and in most cases, estrogen DBPs are less potent in terms of
estrogenicity than the parent compounds. Molecular ozone can react with double
bonds, activated aromatic structures, or heteroatoms, but it can also form highly
reactive and nonselective free radicals, e.g., HO•. As a result, some of the estrogen
DBPs generated during the ozonation of estradiol water solutions are common to
those formed during diverse photocatalytic processes (O3/UV, TiO2/UV, and
photo-Fenton) [15]. In addition to forming hydroxylated derivatives from estro-
gens, ozone can also form dicarboxylic acids via the opening of an aromatic ring.
This transformation route was also identified during the heterogeneous
photocatalysis with TiO2 of estradiol [76].
The algal toxins microcystins, nodularins, cylindrospermopsin, and saxitoxins
are highly reactive to chlorine, but this is not the case for anatoxin-a. Overall,
reaction of algal toxins with monochloramine and chlorine dioxide is slower than
with free chlorine, and therefore, these disinfectants are not as efficient for com-
pound removal in water treatment processes [32]. As a consequence, most research
on DBP formation from algal toxins has been performed with chlorine. The reaction
of cylindrospermopsin with free chlorine leads to the formation of three DBPs:
5-chloro-cylindrospermopsin, cylindrospermopsic acid, and an unnamed
by-product with m/z 375.097 (C13H18N4O7S) [127]. In the case of microcystins,
up to six chlorination DBPs and their respective isomers have been identified:
dihydroxy-microcystin, monochloro-microcystin, monochloro-hydroxy-microcystin,
monochloro-dihydroxy-microcystin, dichloro-dihydroxy-microcystin, and trichloro-
hydroxy-microcystin. Ozonation of microcystins transforms these molecules through
initial HO• attack on the conjugated diene and cleavage of the Adda amino acid that
leads to the opening of the peptide ring [32]. In the case of microcystins and
saxitoxins, the toxicity of the mixture after chlorination and ozonation was
decreased.
5 Human Exposure to CECs and DBPs
Human exposure to contaminants through drinking water includes ingestion, inha-

lation, and dermal adsorption routes. Exposure through ingestion includes not only
contaminants in drinking water but also when tap water is used to make other
drinks, such as coffee and tea, and when tap water is used in the cooking of foods.
Foods can adsorb and concentrate DBPs and other contaminants (like solid-phase
extraction materials) [128], and they can also be a source of precursors to form
additional DBPs [129, 130].
Inhalation and dermal exposure to DBPs and CECs can occur during showering,
bathing, and swimming in chlorinated swimming pools [131–148]. THMs, HAAs,
and haloketones have been measured in human blood, urine, or exhaled breath after
showering, bathing, or swimming [131, 133, 135, 136, 142, 143, 146, 149]. Inhala-
tion can sometimes give much higher exposure to volatile chemicals. For example,
inhalation during a 10-min shower has been shown to produce twice the level of
THMs in blood compared to drinking 1 L of water [150]. Dermal exposure can also
result in higher blood levels than ingestion for some chemicals and can result in
different blood concentration profiles [133, 150–153]. A human exposure study
involving 13C-labeled bromodichloromethane (BDCM) showed that blood levels of
BDCM from 1-h dermal exposures were 25–130 times higher than from oral
exposures. Moreover, BDCM remained in the blood much longer following dermal
exposure vs. oral ingestion, such that BDCM was still detectable in the blood 24 h
after dermal exposure, whereas BDCM returned to preexposure levels within 4 h
after oral ingestion.
New epidemiologic studies suggest that exposure to chlorinated water through
dermal and inhalation routes may contribute to bladder cancer [154], and bromine-
containing THMs (or co-occurring iodo-DBPs) may be a significant contributing
factor to populations with certain genotypes [133, 143, 155, 156]. There is also new
evidence that genetic susceptibility may play a role in bladder cancer. A recent
epidemiologic study conducted in Spain revealed that people who carry a particular
glutathione S-transferase zeta-1 (GSTZ1) polymorphism and are missing one or
both copies of glutathione S-transferase theta-1 (GSTT1) were particularly suscep-
tible to bladder cancer when exposed to >49 μg/L THMs in drinking water
[155]. Approximately 29% of the Spanish study population had this genetic sus-
ceptibility, and approximately 25% of the US population would also have this
genetic susceptibility.
These three exposure routes contribute to the overall dose of contaminants and
DBPs through drinking water, and as highlighted earlier, water reuse has the
potential of increasing human exposure to CECs and to DBPs. Because DBPs are
ubiquitous whenever chemical disinfectants are used, they may impact human
health more than other contaminants that are generally found at lower levels in
finished drinking water.
6 Potential Removal Technologies
Some advanced removal technologies are effective for removing many of these
CECs. For example, ketoprofen, diclofenac, sulfamethoxazole, carbamazepine,
hydrochlorothiazide, propyphenazone, glibenclamide, sotalol, and metoprolol can
be removed to a large extent (>85%) with the use of nanofiltration (NF) and RO
membranes [157]. X-ray contrast media and perfluorinated compounds are also
well removed (<90%) by RO membranes [158]. However, lower molecular weight
compounds, such as NDMA, methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE), gemfibrozil, and
mefenamic acid, are not as effectively removed by these membranes (e.g., almost
no removal to 70% removal) [157, 159]. For compounds with molecular weights
between 100 and 200 Da, there is a large range of rejection values depending on the
membrane type [158]. Membrane feed temperature, permeate flux, feed solution
pH, and ionic strength can affect removals by RO membranes, causing disparate
results for NDMA in the literature [159]. It has been suggested that while NF and
RO are effective for removing many micropollutants, it cannot serve as an absolute
barrier, and additional treatment technologies, such as ozonation or activated
carbon adsorption, could be combined with RO or NF to ensure complete
removal [160].
For example, ozone is effective for removing many CECs whose structures
contain activated aromatic rings, amine groups, or double bonds, such as sulfa-
methoxazole, diclofenac, and carbamazepine, which could be removed during
wastewater treatment to below detection (<25 ng/L in most cases) with ozone
concentrations of 0.47 g O3/g dissolved organic carbon (DOC) [161]. More resis-
tant compounds, such as atenolol and benzotriazole could be removed by >85%
with an increased ozone dose of 0.6 g O3/g DOC, which is a concentration still
relevant to real-world wastewater treatment. In a study of 220 micropollutants, only
a few contaminants, including X-ray contrast media and triazine herbicides, were
not effectively removed by ozonation [161]. Some compounds that were formed by
ozonation (e.g., NDMA and bromate) were at concentrations lower than drinking
water standards. Further, it was possible to remove biodegradable compounds by
biological sand filtration, such that NDMA could be removed by 50%.
While advanced treatment using membranes, ozonation, and filtration have been
shown to be effective for removing many CECs in laboratory- or pilot plant-based
studies, the situation can be somewhat different at full-scale advanced wastewater
recycling plants. For example, in a recent study by Linge et al., full-scale plants in
Perth, Australia, had several DBPs (THMs, dihalomethanes, HAAs, haloaceto-
nitriles, and haloketones) in their MF/RO effluents that were not otherwise present
in the incoming secondary wastewater or were initially present at significantly
lower levels [162]. This is because MF/RO treatment typically includes
chloramination of wastewater before MF to minimize RO membrane fouling
[162, 163], and thus, chloramination DBPs can form. The majority of DBPs are
typically small, neutral molecules that show intermediate or poor RO rejection.
Plant residence time played an important role in the levels of DBPs observed, which
resulted in greater frequency of detections at the full-scale plants vs. pilot-scale

plants (which have smaller residence times). An unusual finding was the consistent
detection of two dihalomethanes: dibromomethane and bromochloromethane,
which are not routinely monitored and may be more toxicologically important
than the regulated THMs [162]. It was suggested that DBP precursor removal
should be optimized in secondary wastewater, such as implementing advanced
biological treatment upstream of MF and RO processes.
7 Conclusions
In conclusion, population increases and climate change are resulting in increased

complexity of chemicals present in environmental waters and in drinking water.
CECs, such as pharmaceuticals, antibacterials, PFCs, hormones, BPA,
benzotriazoles, dioxane, perchlorate, antimony, and algal toxins, are not completely
removed by wastewater treatment and are entering drinking water supplies, where
they can either contaminate finished drinking water directly or become transformed
by disinfectants into DBPs. Increased nitrogen and bromide are also entering from
wastewater, agriculture, and energy extraction and utilization activities, and they
are resulting in the formation of more toxic nitrogen- and bromine-containing
DBPs. While some contaminants can be effectively removed by advanced treat-
ment (e.g., RO, UV, and ozonation), others are not removed completely even by
these advanced technologies. Moreover, when chloramine is used to prevent foul-
ing of RO membranes, DBPs (including unregulated ones) can form that are not
completely removed by the RO membranes. These new DBPs have unknown
properties and toxicity. As a result, it is wise to look beyond the chemicals that
are regulated in drinking water and consider these CECs and their potential
transformation products, especially when assessing the safety of impaired waters
for potable use.
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Design of Water Recovery System
with Process Integration
Dominic C.Y. Foo
Abstract Water is commonly used in the process industries as raw material and
utility systems as well as for washing operations. In recent years, stricter environ-
mental regulations and water scarcity issues have led to the growing need for better
water management. Concurrently, the development of various process integration
tools for resource conservation has become very established in recent years. This
chapter presents one of the important process integration tools, known as water
pinch analysis, for the design of a water recovery system. A water recovery case
study of a steel plant is used for illustration.
Keywords Pinch analysis, Process design, Process synthesis, Targeting, Water

reuse/recycle
Contents
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
2 Conceptual Understanding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
3 Process Integration Tools for Direct Water Reuse/Recycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
3.1 Algebraic Targeting Tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
3.2 Network Design Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
4 Case Study: Water Recovery for a Steel Plant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
D.C.Y. Foo (*)

Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, Centre of Excellence for Green
Technologies (CEGT), University of Nottingham Malaysia, Broga Road, 43500 Semenyih,
Selangor, Malaysia

Hdb Env Chem (2016) 44: 183–192, DOI 10.1007/698_2014_322,
© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2014, Published online: 5 February 2015
184 D.C.Y. Foo
Abbreviations
MCA Material cascade analysis

NNA Nearest neighbour algorithm
RCN Resource conservation network
1 Introduction
A recent report by the United Nations revealed that global water demand (in terms
of water withdrawals) is projected to increase by approximately 55% by year 2050
[1]. This is due to the growing needs from several sectors such as manufacturing
(400%), electricity generation (140%) and domestic use (130%). The net effect of
this trend is the freshwater scarcity situation. It is expected that more than 40% of
the global population will be living in areas of severe water stress through 2050
[1]. The report also mentioned that groundwater supplies are diminishing, with
approximately 20% of the world’s aquifers being overexploited. Apart from this
mismanagement of water resources, the rising of population growth, water pollu-
tion problems and climate change also increase water stress [2, 3]. In the process
industry, there is a growing need for better water management to secure sustainable
development.
In the past three decades, process integration techniques such as pinch analysis
and mathematical optimisation have been developed to address various resource
conservation issues, ranging from energy, material and more specifically water
recovery. To date, process integration techniques are documented in various text-
books [4–10] and review papers [11–15]. One of the widely accepted definitions for
process integration is given as a holistic approach to process design, retrofitting
and operation which emphasises the unity of the process [8].
In the following section, conceptual understanding of process integration for
resource conservation is first given. Process integration tools based on pinch
analysis techniques are next illustrated, followed by a case study on water recovery
in a steel plant.
2 Conceptual Understanding
In the past two decades, generic process integration tools were developed for
various material resource conservation networks (RCNs) including water
minimisation, gas recovery and property integration [10]. Different strategies for
RCN are formally defined from the perspective of process integration, i.e. direct
reuse/recycle and regeneration reuse/recycle. Direct reuse refers to the scheme
where a process effluent is sent to other processes and does not re-enter its original
Design of Water Recovery System with Process Integration 185
Fig. 1 Strategies for an RCN: (a) direct reuse, (b) direct recycle, (c) regeneration reuse,
(d) regeneration recycle [10, 16]
Fig. 2 Conceptual understanding of process source and sink [10]
process. On the other hand, direct recycle refers to the recovery scheme where the
process effluent re-enters its original process. A process effluent may be partially
purified in an interception unit to improve its quality prior to reuse/recycle; these
are known as regeneration reuse and regeneration recycle. Figure 1 shows the
recovery schemes for an RCN. For most cases, the priority is given to direct
reuse/recycle scheme, as it involves lowest investment cost and ease of
implementation.
To better understand an RCN problem, it is important to understand the concept
of process sink and source. Source refers to a process stream that can be recycled
(normally the outlet) where material recovery is to be performed. On the other hand,
sink refers to a process unit where a resource (typically a fresh material) is needed
(Fig. 2).
186 D.C.Y. Foo
3 Process Integration Tools for Direct Water Reuse/

Recycle
Different variants of pinch analysis tools are eligible for use to design a water
recovery system. Typically, pinch analysis involves a two-step design stage. In step
1, targeting tool is used to perform benchmarking to identify the maximum recov-
ery targets, which corresponds to the minimum freshwater and wastewater
flowrates for an RCN. For this stage, various graphical or algebraic tools such as
limiting composite curve [16] and material recovery pinch diagram [17, 18] may be
used. For step 2, the RCN is designed to match the targets identified in step 1. For
this step, one may utilise tools such as sink-source mapping diagram [7] or nearest
neighbour algorithm (NNA) [18]. Due to space constraint, only the targeting and
design for direct reuse/recycle scheme will be illustrated here. Readers may refer to
the review paper [14] to understand the strength and weakness of the various
targeting and design tools.
3.1 Algebraic Targeting Tool
The algebraic targeting tool has the advantage of identifying accurate RCN targets,
overcoming the cumbersome problems of the graphical tools. One of such tool is
the material cascade analysis (MCA) technique, with the general framework given
in Table 1 [19].
Flowrates of the process sinks (FSKj) and sources (FSRi) are located at their
quality levels in the first three columns of Table 1, in which the quality levels (qk)
are arranged in descending order. At each quality level k, the total flowrate of the
process sink(s) is deducted from that of the process source(s), with the net flowrate
given in column 4. In the following column, net flowrate is cascaded down the
quality levels to yield the cumulative flowrate (FC, k). The first entry of this column
corresponds to the fresh resource (i.e. water) consumption for the RCN (FR), which
is first assumed to be zero, i.e. FR ¼ 0. The last entry in this column is the minimum
waste (i.e. wastewater) discharged from the RCN (FD). In column 6, the impurity/
property load in each quality interval (Δmk) is calculated, given by the product of
the cumulative flowrate (FC, k, column 5) with the difference across two quality
levels (qk + 1 qk). The load values are cascaded down the quality levels to yield the
cumulative load (Cum. Δmk) in column 7 of Table 1. If negative Cum. Δmk values
are observed, the interval fresh resource flowrate (FR, k) is calculated for each
quality level in column 8, by dividing the cumulative loads (Cum. Δmk, column 7)
by the difference between the quality levels of interest (qk) with that of the fresh
resource (qR), given by Eq. (1):
Table 1 General framework for MCA
qk ΣjFSKj ΣiFSRi ΣiFSRi ΣjFSKj FC, k Δmk Cum. Δmk FR, k
FR
qk (ΣjFSKj)1 (ΣiFSRi)1 (ΣiFSRi ΣjFSKj)1 ⇩
FC, k Δmk
qk + 1 (ΣjFSKj)k + 1 (ΣiFSRi)k + 1 (ΣiFSRi ΣjFSKj)k + 1 ⇩ Cum. Δmk + 1 FR, k + 1
FC, k + 1 Δmk + 1 ⇩
... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
qn 2 (ΣjFSKj)n 2 (ΣiFSRi)n 2 (ΣiFSRi ΣjFSKj)n 2 ⇩ Cum. Δmn 2
Design of Water Recovery System with Process Integration
FC, n 2 Δmn 2
qn 1 (ΣjFSKj)n 1 (ΣiFSRi)n 1 (ΣiFSRi ΣjFSKj)n 1 ⇩ Cum. Δmn 1 FR, n 1
FC, n 1 ¼ FD Δmn 1 ⇩
qn Cum. Δmn FR, n
187
188 D.C.Y. Foo
Δmk
F R, k ¼ : ð1Þ
ð qk qR Þ
The absolute value of the largest negative FR, k in column 8 is identified as the
minimum fresh resource consumption (FR) of the network. This value is then used
as the first entry in column 5, and all calculations in columns 5–7 are repeated. The
quality level where zero cumulative load value (Cum. Δmk, column 7) is found
indicates the pinch quality.
3.2 Network Design Technique
One of the useful tools to design an RCN that achieves the flowrate targets
(identified in step 1) is the NNA [18]. To utilise NNA to design a water recovery
network, two important criteria are to be met by all process sinks, i.e. flowrate
(FSKj) and load (mSKj) requirements. The latter is given by the product of its
flowrate and quality index (i.e. mSKj ¼ FSKj qSKj). In most cases, the quality index
for a water recovery network is the concentration of the main impurity. The detailed
design steps of NNA are given as follows [18]:
1. Arrange all material sinks and the sources in descending order of quality levels,
respectively (i.e. ascending order of impurity concentration). Note that the
sources should include the external fresh(water) resource, with their respective
flowrates obtained in the targeting stage. Start the design from sink with highest
quality index (qSKj).
2. Match the selected sink SKj with source(s) SRi of the same quality level, if any
are found.
3. Mix two source candidates SRi (with flowrate FSRi and quality qSRi) and SRi + 1
(with flowrate FSRi + 1 and quality qSRi + 1) to fulfil the flowrate and load require-
ments of sink SKj. Note that the source candidates SRi and SRi + 1 are the nearest
available ‘neighbours’ to the sink SKj, with quality levels just lower and just higher
than that of the sink, i.e. qSRi < qSKj < qSRi + 1. The respective flowrate between the
source and the sink is calculated via the mass balance Eqs. (2) and (3):
FSRi, SKj þ FSRiþ1, SKj ¼ FSKj ; ð2Þ

FSRi, SKj qSRi þ FSRiþ1, SKj qSRiþ1 ¼ FSKj qSKj ; ð3Þ
where FSRi, SKj is the allocation flowrate sent from SRi to SKj. If SRi has
sufficient flowrate to be allocated to SKj, i.e. FSRi FSRi, SKj, go to step 5, else
to step 4.
4. If the source has insufficient flowrate to be used as the allocation flowrate,
i.e. FSRi, SKj > FSRi, then whatever is available of that source is used completely.
A new pair of neighbour candidates is considered to satisfy the sink.
5. Repeat steps 2–4 for all other sinks. Once all sinks are fulfilled, the unutilised
source(s) are discharged as waste.
4 Case Study: Water Recovery for a Steel Plant
In this section, a water recovery case study in a steel plant [20] is illustrated. The
limiting water data is shown in Table 2. The impurity in concern for water recovery
is identified as the chlorine content. From Table 2, it is observed that the freshwater
and wastewater flowrates for the base case design are identified as 5,280 and
3,720 t/d, respectively, given by the summation of the individual flowrates of
sinks and sources. In order to minimise freshwater and wastewater flowrates for
the process, direct reuse/recycle scheme is explored. For this case, freshwater has
an impurity (chlorine) content of 20 mg/L.
Step 1 of water pinch analysis is first carried out using the MCA. Following the
MCA procedure, the feasible cascade table (i.e. no negative Cum. Δmk is observed
in column 7) is shown in Table 3. The MCA identifies that the minimum freshwater
(FFW) and wastewater (FWW) flowrates for the direct reuse/recycle scheme are
2,234.21 and 674.21 t/d, respectively. This corresponds to a reduction of 57.7% and
81.8% of freshwater and wastewater flowrates in the base case design.
Table 2 Limiting water data for steel plant case study

j Sinks, SKj FSKj (t/d) CSKj (mg/L) i Sources, SRi FSRi (t/d) CSRi (mg/L)
1 Hot-air furnace 1,680 90 1 Hot-air furnace 960 400
2 Blast furnace 1,920 75 2 Blast furnace 1,440 100
3 Power plant 1,680 40 3 Power plant 1,320 45
Table 3 Feasible cascade table for steel plant case study

Ck ΣjFSKj ΣiFSRi ΣiFSRi ΣjFSKj Cum. Δmk
(mg/L) (t/d) (t/d) (t/d) FC, k (t/d) Δmk (g/d) (g/d)
FFW ¼ 2,234.21
20
20 2,234.21 44.68
40 1,680 44.68
5 554.21 2.77
45 1,320 47.46
30 1,874.21 56.23
75 1,920 103.68
15 45.79 0.69
90 1,680 102.99
10 1,725.79 17.26
100 1,440 85.74
300 285.79 85.74
400 960 0
999,600 FWW ¼ 674.21 673,940.84 (Pinch)
1,000,000 673,940.84
190 D.C.Y. Foo
Fig. 3 Water recovery network for steel plant case study
Next, the NNA is used to design the water recovery network. Note that the sinks
are arranged from lowest to highest concentration order. For SK3, we first identified
freshwater (FW) and SR3 as its neighbour candidates. However, since SR3 has
lower flowrate than the allocated flowrate as determined by Eqs. (2) and (3), the
entire SR is sent to SK3, in which FW and SR2 are identified as the new pair of
neighbour candidates for SK3. The design then proceeds to SK2 and SK1. Note that
SK1 has the same situation as SK3, where SR2 is fully allocated before FW and
SR1 are being identified as new neighbour candidates. The unutilised water from
SR1 is sent for wastewater treatment. A complete water recovery network is shown
in Fig. 3. Note that the design achieves the minimum freshwater and wastewater
flowrates identified using the MCA in step 1.
5 Conclusion
This chapter presents process integration techniques to design a water recovery

system. The technique is based on pinch analysis technique, which is divided into a
two-step approach. In step 1, the minimum flowrates of freshwater and wastewater
are first identified. In step 2, the water recovery network is designed to match the
identified water flowrate targets. Other industrial case studies for water recovery
may be found in literatures [8,10].
References
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synthesis. Ind Eng Chem Res 48(11):5125–5159
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Eng 2:461–474
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18. Prakash R, Shenoy UV (2005) Targeting and design of water networks for fixed flowrate and
fixed contaminant load operations. Chem Eng Sci 60(1):255–268
19. Foo DCY, Manan ZA, Tan YL (2006) Use cascade analysis to optimize water networks. Chem
Eng Progress 102(7):45–52
20. Tian JR, Zhou PJ, Lv B (2008) A Process integration approach to industrial water conserva-
tion: a case study for a Chinese steel plant. J Environ Manag 86:682–687
Wastewater Use in Agriculture and
Relevance of Micropollutants in
North African Countries
Olfa Mahjoub
Abstract Irrigation is the largest practice of water reuse worldwide. In North

African countries, both formal and informal uses of wastewater were practiced
for a long time thus exposing users and consumers to microbiological and chemical
health risks. Negative environmental impacts are also of concern because second-
ary biological treatment is not effective in removing ubiquitous and persistent
contaminants like some emerging micropollutants. Based on research findings
during the last decades, the presence of micropollutants in reclaimed water has
gained interest in developed countries, and the release of some of them into water
bodies has been regulated. In North African countries, in view of the prevailing
quality of reclaimed water and its current usage for growing crops, the occurrence
of such contaminants has recently raised concern with an increasing number of
research works and publications. However, it remains challenging to identify,
quantify, and prioritize the most relevant to be regulated. This paper aims at
shedding light on the usage of reclaimed water for irrigation in Algeria, Egypt,
Libya, Morocco, and Tunisia while pinpointing the potential sources of micro-
pollutants in wastewater. It discusses the extent to which some micropollutants
could be relevant and challenging to public health and environmental quality.
Keywords Agriculture, Micropollutants, North Africa, Reuse, Wastewater
O. Mahjoub (*)
National Research Institute for Rural Engineering, Water, and Forestry (INRGREF),
P.O. Box 10, Ariana, Tunisia

Hdb Env Chem (2016) 44: 193–212, DOI 10.1007/698_2015_337,
© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015, Published online: 16 May 2015
194 O. Mahjoub
Contents
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
2 Wastewater Status . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
3 Wastewater Reuse in Agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
4 Challenging Risks Related to Micropollutants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
4.1 Reclaimed Water Reuse and Environment-Related Risks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
4.2 Reclaimed Water Reuse and Health-Related Risks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
5 Relevant Emerging Micropollutants in Reclaimed Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
5.1 Heavy Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
5.2 Pesticides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
5.3 Estrogenic and Endocrine Disrupting Compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
5.4 Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
6 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
Abbreviations
BOD Biochemical oxygen demand

DDD Dichlorodiphenyldichloroethane
DDE Dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene
E1 Estrone
E2 17β-estradiol
E3 Estriol
EC Electrical conductivity
EE2 17α-ethinylestradiol
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization
HCB Hexachlorobenzene
HCH Hexachlorocyclohexane
PAHs Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
PCBs Polychlorinated biphenyls
PPCP Pharmaceuticals and personal care products
TDS Total dissolved solids
US EPA United States Environmental Protection Agency
WFD Water Framework Directive
WHO World Health Organization
Wastewater Use in Agriculture and Relevance of Micropollutants in North. . . 195
1 Introduction
Wastewater is recognized as the main source of large classes of organic

micropollutants to natural water resources. More than 65 million chemicals are
identified and currently listed in SciFinder. About 100,000 are frequently used
including a large class of synthetic organic compounds. A great share of these
chemicals is emitted into the environment resulting in adverse effects on eco-
systems and human health [1]. Considering the efficiency of the existing conven-
tional treatment technologies, micropollutants are not expected to be completely
removed. Hormones (natural and synthetic), pharmaceuticals and personal care
products (PPCPs), detergents, plasticizers, pesticides, etc., are all frequently
detected at trace level in treated wastewater.
Reclaimed (waste) water or recycled water is treated wastewater that can be
officially used under controlled conditions for beneficial purposes like irrigation. In
North African countries, reuse encompasses secondary, primary, and partially
treated and untreated wastewater. By combining this range of effluent qualities
and the regular types of reuse as direct and indirect and planned and unplanned [2],
various schemas of wastewater reuse are observed.
Environmental and health impacts of reuse are assessed based on a certain
number of actual data and assumptions for risk assessment. A recent review
attempted to address the impact of the repeated release of treated wastewater for
reuse applications in respect to the wastewater residual load of heavy metals in soil,
plants, and their edible parts [3]. The occurrence of emerging micropollutants like
endocrine disrupters, PPCPs, drugs’ metabolites, illicit drugs, transformation prod-
ucts, etc. in wastewater is clearly highlighted when in case of reuse and is becoming
relevant to the agricultural environment [3]. However, to decide on the relevance of
a contaminant to a given milieu, studies should be carried out. For instance, in the
United States, the determination of the concentrations of 48 high-priority sub-
stances, including pharmaceuticals, hormones, degradation products of surfactants
(alkylphenols), bisphenol A, and perfluorinated compounds in 50 treatment plants
by the US EPA, has led to the conclusion that the risk related to the prevalence of
these substances in wastewater is low for humans [4]. The increasing interest to
micropollutants in wastewater and their transfer to the agroecological environment
through reuse in the developing countries should raise the following questions:
Are micropollutants relevant to these countries or is it just an emerging topic?
Do we know already enough? Which countries might be the more concerned?
What should be the rationale behind prioritization, if needed, and what are the
challenges?
In an attempt to answer these questions, available water resources (quantity and
quality), wastewater status and reuse practices, potential micropollutants occurring in
agricultural environment, and potential environmental and health issues related to
micropollutants in North African region are the focus of the present paper. The
emphasis is put on the four following countries of the region: Algeria, Egypt, Morocco,
and Tunisia. Examples from Libya are given when proper information is available.
196 O. Mahjoub
2 Wastewater Status
Since micropollutants are detected in surface waters [5], reclaimed water-irrigated

soils [6], and groundwater [7], a brief overview on the current status of wastewater
management in various countries is described in this section.
Egypt is the largest producer of wastewater; it generates about 5,400 million m3/
year [8]. About 40% is not treated [9] because of the lack of connection to improved
sanitation, especially in the rural areas. Along the Nile River, 79% of the existing
industrial facilities discharge more than four billion m3/year of wastewater, directly
and indirectly [10]. Agricultural drainage water represents the largest amount of
wastewater in Egypt flowing into the Nile River. It represents 4.9% of the total
water resources. Drainage water and wastewater of domestic, industrial, and com-
mercial activities are blended in the agricultural drains and reused for irrigation
[11]. In Tunisia, 240 million m3/year of secondary treated wastewater is produced
in 110 treatment plants. Many are outdated representing a real threat for the
environment, in case of both reuse and disposal in the receiving environment.
This volume is expected to reach 10% of the available resources by the year
2021. Wastewater is 80% domestic, 15% industrial, and 5% from the tourism
sector. Areas affected by industrial pollution are generally located on the coastline
of Tunis, Sfax, Bizerte, Sousse, Nabeul, and Gabes [12]. Morocco is producing
700 million m3/year of domestic wastewater. However, only 25% is treated in
62 sewage treatment plants; 90% are primary and secondarily treated [8]. Textile
and tannery activities generate ten million m3/year of wastewater. The domestic
and industrial sewage from Fez City is directly discharged into the Sebou River
[13]. The volume of wastewater is expected to reach 900 million m3 by 2020,
representing about 4% of the total water resources [14]. About 660 million m3 of
wastewater was discharged in the water bodies in 1985 in Algeria. Around 85% is
released from the industrial sector which is discharged without appropriate treat-
ment. The agro-food and textile sector effluents represent 55 and 22% of the total
produced wastewater, respectively [10]. The number of treatment plants has raised
to 123 in 2011 with a total treatment capacity of 700 million m3/year. By 2020, 1.2
billion m3/year is expected [15]. To prevent industrial pollution, 158 projects were
launched for the construction of infrastructure for sewage network. In Libya,
wastewater hardly represents 1% of the total water resources [16]. Wastewater is
disposed off partially treated or untreated. In Al Jabal Al Akhdar, nine treatment
plants treating 5,000–15,000 population equivalents were planned for 2009. Cur-
rently, the political unrest is preventing from obtaining any update on the situation
of wastewater status in the country [17].
3 Wastewater Reuse in Agriculture
Wastewater reuse is the most suitable solution to fill the increasing gap between the
limited water resources and the growing demand. North African countries are
producing around 6,300 billion m3 of wastewater. Only 15% is reused chiefly in
agricultural irrigation (Table 1). Based on the different types of wastewater and
categories of reuse [20], there is a clear trend toward the direct use of treated
wastewater spread in all the countries and the indirect use of treated and untreated
wastewater [21]. In this regard, North African countries have evolved with different
perspectives toward reuse of wastewater. While in all the countries, reuse of raw
wastewater for irrigation of eaten-raw vegetables is forbidden by law, in Algeria
eaten-raw crops are allowed to be irrigated by treated wastewater if they comply
with the standards [22]. Regulations, when they do exist, allow fruit tree, forest,
forage, and urban irrigation. As per the revised WHO guidelines, they are not well
understood by the stakeholders and thereby are not adjusted to the local needs [23]
to prevent risks related to irrigation.
Egypt is the largest wastewater user in the Arab countries as a whole. Primary
treated wastewater has been used since 1911 in agriculture in El Gabal el Asfar and
Abou Rawash, near Cairo, to irrigate about 1,260 ha. Unofficial wastewater reuse is
significant and planned, and regulated types of reuse are still limited. Up to four
billion m3/year are used thus posing threats to human health and environment and
hampering the implementation of governmental plans and strategies [24]. About 5.5
to 6.5 billion m3/year of wastewater was produced in 2011. The sewage water
drained to the agricultural canals is reused after blending with less polluted water
downstream [11]. The total amount of official drainage reuse reached around seven
billion m3 in 2010 [19]. Egypt is developing reuse in afforestation projects in the
desert and establishing greenbelt around the capital [25]. Nowadays, 63 forests and
about 5,040 ha (12,000 feddan) are cultivated with sunflower, Jatropha, casuarinas,
etc. [11].
Tunisia is the most advanced country in North Africa. Reuse of treated waste-
water has been practiced since the 1960s for the irrigation of citrus in the northeast
of the country, and it has become an integral part of the National Water Resources
Strategy since the 1990s [26]. Reuse was developed within the National Strategy for
Table 1 Produced, treated, and reused wastewater in North African countries in 2009 [11, 14, 18, 19]
Produced (million Treated (million Reused (million Ratio reused to
Country m3/year) m3/year) m3/year) produced (%)
Algeria 820 700 51 6
Egypt 7,600 2,971 700 19
Libya 546 40 40 7
Morocco 700 177 80 11
Tunisia 461 240 68 15
Total 10,127 4,128 939 15
198 O. Mahjoub
Wastewater Reuse, as well, to reach the rate of 35%. In Tunisia, the national
standards are limiting the range of crops allowed to be irrigated with secondary
treated wastewater [8] causing some reluctance. Irrigated areas cover around
8,100 ha of fruit trees and fodder crops and 1,490 ha of landscape [27]. For the
future, it is planned to transfer 135 million m3 of reclaimed water from Grand Tunis
area in the northeast to water-short area after complementary treatment.
In Morocco, 45% of the treated wastewater is reused in agriculture, green spaces,
groundwater recharge, and industry [14]. About 80 million m3/year of untreated
wastewater is reused. Raw wastewater is sometimes mixed with water from wadis.
The irrigated area covers around 7,000 ha located mainly in Marrakech (2,000 ha),
Meknes (1,400 ha), and Oujda (1,175 ha). Recent pilot projects were implemented
in Fez, El Attaouia, and Drarga including the construction of innovative wastewater
treatment plants [21]. The national program “Plan National d’Assainissement
Liquide et d’Epuration des Eaux” has focused on the depollution of the river
Sebou and building of treatment plants for all populated centers on the Mediterra-
nean coast. Comparatively, Algeria has a very low rate of reuse (3.2%) [28] due to
the malfunctioning state of the park of treatment plants. Since 2005, a remarkable
progress has been made within the National Water Plan [29]. The decree regulating
reuse was enacted in 2012 [22]. Nowadays, 15,770 ha is irrigated [19], and by 2020,
1,200 million m3/year is expected to irrigate 100,000 ha. As for Libya, in 1999, a
volume of 546 million m3 of wastewater was produced, but only 40 million m3 was
treated and reused [28]. Tripoli and Benghazi were the main areas of reuse with
6,000 ha with crops limited to fruit trees and animal fodders [30].
4 Challenging Risks Related to Micropollutants
Risk management related to reuse of reclaimed wastewater in agriculture is chal-

lenging in the North African region. Few initiatives have been taken within the
water policy components and regulations which are still not sufficiently enforced
for that purpose. When it comes to micropollutants and to their long-term impacts
on soils and plants, trace metals are deemed to be relatively well addressed.
4.1 Reclaimed Water Reuse and Environment-Related Risks
Contamination of water resources and soil is the major environmental risk ensuing
from the reuse of reclaimed water. The presence of toxic chemicals in raw waste-
water could be due to the illegal discharge of industrial effluents in the sewer system
which can disrupt the treatment process at the facility and result in the release of
more toxic compounds as metabolites.
Mixing effluents of different types and origins may result in the transfer of
chemical substances and their potential accumulation in soil and the irrigated crops
or their migration to groundwater [2]. From the WHO and reuse experts’ perspec-
tive, heavy metals are the compounds to consider in priority because of their
toxicity under specific conditions [23]. For instance, wastewater used for irrigation
in Marrakech City was shown to be polluted with heavy metals such as Cd, Pb, and
Cr. Craft industries using chemical products in the treatment of wool and leather
are probably responsible for their high content in wastewater [31] and deleterious
effects.
From an environmental standpoint, it is widely recognized that spreading
domestic wastewater on soil through irrigation would result in less polluting burden
than discharging it directly into the water bodies [23]. Irrigation of crops using raw
or treated wastewater was identified as the main route of contamination of the
environment in both developed and developing countries. Cities with large histo-
rical background in wastewater treatment and reuse like Braunschweig in Germany
[32], Mezquital Valley in Mexico City [33], and others have evidenced the presence
of some organic micropollutants in the agricultural environment after a long time of
reuse; hormones and pharmaceuticals were detected in groundwater. Similarly, the
impact of wastewater discharge in the North African countries has been tackled by
the scientific community during these recent years. Studies on the aquatic environ-
ment have demonstrated the effects of wastewater release on aquatic organisms
with several cases of loss of aquatic life in addition to the acute and chronic
toxicities detected by using bioassays and various bioindicators [34, 35]. In over
and above organic compounds, heavy metals like Cd, Hg, Pb, and some of their
compounds are recognized as micropollutants of concern [36].
4.2 Reclaimed Water Reuse and Health-Related Risks
Environmental health risks associated with the presence of emerging micro-

pollutants in wastewater used for irrigation were considered negligible because of
the limited instrumental capabilities. Nowadays, they have become more obvious
but still not well evidenced. In developed countries, human health risks are miti-
gated by conducting epidemiological studies and setting regulations. Indeed, the
Water Framework Directive (WFD) limited the discharge of 45 chemical com-
pounds to preserve the ecological and chemical status of water and human health
[20]. In North African countries, and considering the routes of exposure, limited
observations have been made on the impacts of wastewater on human health, like
the increase of the prevalence of some types of cancers. In Morocco, the detection
of Pb and Al in infant’s hair was extremely alarming and clearly linked to their
exposure to sewage water in suburban area [37]. A significantly high correlation
was previously found between Pb concentrations in hair of children whose parents
were exposed to wastewater through agricultural activity. Family occupation and
200 O. Mahjoub
direct contact with wastewater, in addition to customs and food habits, were
significant factors influencing the metal content of children’s hair [38].
Based on this review, to the best of our knowledge, no epidemiological studies
were carried out, or at least published, in the North African region linking the
occurrence of micropollutants in wastewater reused for irrigation to adverse health
effects, except for some regulated heavy metals. Even for regulated toxic heavy
metals, risk communication is strictly linked to risk management strategies which
depend on decision-making. For organic micropollutants potentially transferred to
wastewater-irrigated crops, the long-term impacts on consumers’ health are not
under investigation yet because risk assessment, which should be performed by the
scientific communities, is still not established.
As for animals, exposure to heavy metals through feeding crops irrigated with
wastewater has been evidenced in Morocco. Toxic trace metals were detected in the
muscles, bones, liver, and kidney of bovine grazing on the municipal wastewater
spreading field of Marrakech City. High concentrations of Cd in the liver (5.1 μg/g)
and kidney (10.3 μg/g) resulted in a reduction in Zn and Cu concentrations as
essential elements. Since livestock feed is based on wastewater-irrigated lucerne
and corn leaves, the concentration factor (concentration in animal tissues/concen-
tration in plants) was greater than 3. The bioaccumulation of Cd is calling for an
extensive epidemiological study of the population consuming wastewater-irrigated
products like garden market crops and meat produced in the area of Marrakech
[39]. The direct use of the wastewater for animal watering has also significantly
increased the frequency of genetic damage in the animals’ white blood cells
induced by exposure to pollution, and a serious genotoxic risk was identified.
Some authors suggested in previous work to use herbivore mammals (sheep,
dairy cows) as the most suitable “bioindicators” to assess risks for human
health [40].
In view of the current status of knowledge and agricultural practices in North
African countries, more research is needed in order to address long-term health
risks related to (organic) micropollutants transferred to crops during irrigation with
(treated) wastewater.
5 Relevant Emerging Micropollutants in Reclaimed Water
In Europe, limiting the load of micropollutants in wastewater is intended for

protecting water resources. Since wastewater reuse is still optional in large number
of European countries, setting threshold values for reclaimed water is not a priority.
The situation is quite different in North African countries and is worth thorough
study.
5.1 Heavy Metals
The reuse of treated wastewater contributes to the contamination of irrigated soils

by toxic heavy metals like Cd, Cr, Ni, Hg, Pb, and Zn [41]. In view of the large
scientific knowledge acquired on the subject, the objective of this section is not to
showcase the range of concentrations encountered in the different environmental
compartments in the various countries but rather to highlight the most relevant
elements based on the pollution sources, the type of reuse, the prevailing quality of
wastewater, and the irrigation practices under the local conditions. The presence of
toxic metallic elements in wastewater has been largely studied since the 1980s.
However, long-term studies are usually missing to reflect on the risks incurred by
living organisms and natural resources. In almost all the North African countries,
heavy metals are the main micropollutants whose concentrations in effluents are
regulated. Table 2 depicts the allowed concentrations for some of them in treated
wastewater used for agricultural irrigation. Morocco and Tunisia have almost the
same threshold concentrations adapted in major part by the WHO guidelines
Table 2 Quality standards for pH, EC, and some heavy metals applied to treated wastewater for
reuse in agriculture in the North African countries
Parameter/Country Algeria (1) Egypt (2) Morocco (3) Tunisia WHO
pH 6.5–8.5 7–8.5 6.5–8.4 6.5–8.5 6.5–8
EC (mS/cm) 3 500 mg/L as TDSa 12 5 0.7–3b
Al (mg/L) 20 – 5 2–5c 5
As (mg/L) – – 0.1 0.1 0.1
Be (mg/L) 0.5 – 0.1 0.1 0.1
B (mg/L) 2 – 3 2 –
Cd (mg/L) 0.05 0.01a, 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.1
Co (mg/L) 5 – 0.05 0.05 0.05
Cr (mg/L) 1 – 0.1 0.1 0.1
Cu (mg/L) 5 1a, 0.2 0.2 (1) 0.2 0.2
F (mg/L) 15 0.5a 1 1–1.5c 1
Hg (mg/L) – 0.001a 0.001 – –
Mn (mg/L) 10 – 0.2 0.2 0.2
Mo (mg/L) 0.05 – 0.01 0.01 0.01
Ni (mg/L) 2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2
Pb (mg/L) – 5 5 5 5
Se (mg/L) 0.02 – 0.02 0.05 0.02
Zn (mg/L) 10 1a 2 2 2
(1): [42]
(2): [43]
(3): [44] for Morocco, figure between brackets is the new threshold value for the revised version
a
Standards for mixing drainage water with canal water for reuse [11]
b
Depends on sodium adsorption ratio
c
For category III (recharge of aquifer in which water is used for irrigation)
202 O. Mahjoub
[23]. As mentioned earlier, the use of raw wastewater in Morocco is among the
most threatening practices not only in terms of type of pollutant [45] but also in
terms of irrigated crops. In the 1990s, it was found that the concentrations of Cu,
Zn, Pb, and Cd in the plots and irrigated crops (broad bean, carrot pea, lettuce,
common wheat, and oats) with raw wastewater for more than 30 years are signifi-
cantly higher than those observed in the control [46]. It was previously noticed in
the area of Marrakech that the population has the highest prevalence of Cd and Pb,
exceeding the recommended threshold values by the WHO [47]. Indeed, plants
were further tested for their capacity to accumulate heavy metals as a technique of
phytoremediation [48] of soils.
In Egypt, the code of practice for the reuse of wastewater for agricultural
purposes and for mixing drainage water with canal water shows that values for
Pb and Cd are similar to those recommended by the WHO. The presence of heavy
metals in wastewater, soil, and irrigated products was extensively studied. Long-
term irrigation in El Gabal El Asfar showed that Cd accumulated (0.8–3 mg/kg)
with Pb, while Ni did not reach hazardous levels in the soil top layer [49]. In Katta-
ElKheel, the concentrations of Mn, Cr, and Co in soil exceeded the limit values
recommended by FAO (1976). Irrigation with wastewater has also caused the
accumulation of Co, Cr, Pb, Zn, and Mn in soil and alfalfa plants [50]. Health
risk assessment of heavy metals in products irrigated from Bahr el-Baqar drain
showed that Al, B, Co, Cr, Cu, Mn, Mo, Ni, Sr, and Zn exceeded the limits allowed
by WHO/FAO standards. Hence, consumption of vegetables was of high risk for the
human health for Cu, Mn, Mo, and Ni [51].
In Tunisia, the impact of irrigation with treated wastewater on the soils was
studied since the 1980s [52]. For the first time in 2006, the short- and long-term
impact of wastewater use in agriculture on one of the most important areas in
Tunisia (El Hajeb, Sfax) that received wastewater for more than 20 years showed no
significant accumulation of heavy metal in soil despite the concentrations of Cr in
the irrigation water were exceeding the limit (0.11–0.17 mg/L) [53]. Likely, furrow
irrigation and applied cropping system contributed to the leaching of element. Ben
Fredj [54] also concluded that the accumulation is less likely to occur in the top
layer of soil irrigated for 20 years than in soil irrigated for 12 years. The concen-
trations of Co, Cr, Ni, Pb, and Zn were detected at 20 and 40 cm depth inducing
toxicity to cells in in vitro bioassays. The absence of heavy metals would be the
result of leaching to groundwater, especially in sandy soils.
In Algeria, the concentrations of Al, Mn, Pb, Hg, and Zn allowed in effluents
used for irrigation are very high compared to those recommended by the WHO.
Very high concentrations of Cd, reaching more than 12 mg/kg at the 30 cm horizon
of soil, were found in a soil irrigated with wastewater while the limit is set at 2 mg/
kg. Concentrations in plants’ roots and shoots (maize) were excessive with 100-fold
the allowed concentration [55]. In another study, Cu was identified as the main
source of contamination of soils in agricultural environment [56]. Cu, Cd, and Zn
are known to show high concentrations in agricultural soils due to the use of
fertilizers and pesticides.
5.2 Pesticides
In North African countries, pesticides are among the most occurring pollutants
responsible for water resource degradation in agricultural areas. However, in the
context of wastewater reuse for irrigation, their contribution is not assessed if we
exclude run-off as a source. In Egypt, reuse of drainage water contaminated with
pesticides is a real threat for health since it is reused for the irrigation of market
garden crops. Numerous studies were carried out on pesticides in the 1980s.
Chlorinated insecticides were found in municipal water in Alexandria City, but
the concentrations were not threatening [57]. Leptophos, a stable organophosphorus
pesticide, was detected in water samples from Nile River water and drainage water
[58]. Surface water and groundwater were contaminated by 18 organochlorine
pesticides in El Rahawy area. α-HCH, γ-HCH, heptachlor, heptachlor epoxide,
endosulfan I, endosulfan II, p,p0 -DDE, p,p0 -DDD, and endrin were present in
surface water with a total concentration of 0.34–2.16 μg/L. In groundwater, almost
all compounds were below the detection limits (0.01 ng/L). A seasonal trend was
observed for endosulfan I with 0.021–0.375 μg/L and 0.08–0.82 μg/L in dry and wet
seasons, respectively [59]. Chlorinated pesticides were also detected in the Nile
River tributaries and canals after a long period of their ban [60, 61]. Organo-
phosphorus compounds were also investigated in drainage water from canals.
Chlorpyrifos-methyl and prothiphos were detected at 30.0 and 41.5 ng/L, respec-
tively [62]. Several studies have evidenced organochlorine and organophosphorus
pesticides in drainage water either from irrigation or drainage canals. Chlor-
pyriphos, dimethoate, parathion, endosulfan, carbosulfan, carbaryl, and aldicab
were ranging between 3.4 and 290 μg/L [63]. In the new Damietta drainage
canal, chlorpyriphos and malathion were found at concentrations exceeding
300 μg/L [64]. Chlorinated compounds DDT, γ-HCH, and HCB, in addition to
PAHs and organotin compounds, are of the highest concern in water resources
[65]. In spite of the several cases of contamination observed for waters, the contami-
nation of crops through the use of wastewater for irrigation is not well studied yet.
In Tunisia, the list of domestic and agricultural pesticides existing in the market
includes some substances suspected for their endocrine disrupting potency like
cypermethrin, permethrin, glyphosate, malathion, mancozeb, maneb, methomyl,
metribuzin, trifluralin, and ziram. Pesticide residue occurrence in water bodies and
sewerage network is regulated by the National Standards NT 106.002 (1989) under
the term “pesticides and similar substances.” It includes insecticides (organo-
phosphorus and carbamates), herbicides, and fungicides. Their total concentration
is limited to 0.001 mg/L in water bodies, 0.005 mg/L in marine environment, and
0.01 mg/L in public sewerage system. This term is vague and needs profound
revision and precision of the type of molecules.
In Tunisia, studies about pesticide detection in water resources date back to the
1980s, but they are related to wastewater discharge rather than reuse [66]. Organo-
phosphorus pesticides in surface and tap waters were also studied [67]. Water
and sediment contamination by organochlorine, organophosphorus, carbamates,
204 O. Mahjoub
phytohormones, and synthetic pyrethroids was evidenced for the first time in 1994
in the protected area of Ichkeul Lake, north of Tunisia [68]. In sediments from the
Bizerte lagoon, p,p0 -DDT was detected showing recent inputs in the environment
from run-off; HCB and DDT concentrations were moderate, while high ratios of
ΣPCBs/ΣDDTs indicated predominant industrial origin [69] and contamination
through effluent discharge. Direct exposure to pesticides through ingestion, inhal-
ation, or skin contact is the main direct route of contamination of humans rather
than through reuse of wastewater. However, mobility, behavior, fate of pesticides in
soil, and transfer to groundwater should be considered during reuse because the
organic load of wastewater can interfere.
5.3 Estrogenic and Endocrine Disrupting Compounds
In North Africa, Tunisia was the most advanced in addressing the emerging topic of
estrogenic compounds in water resources. Estrogenicity of wastewater was
evidenced in 2004 [70]. Later, estrogenic compounds in natural and sewage waters
were studied [71]. Currently, estrone (E1), 17β-estradiol (E2), estriol (E3), and
17α-ethinylestradiol (EE2) and their metabolites are investigated at a larger scale in
Tunisian effluents [72]. E3 was detected at 300 ng/L in influent and 36 ng/L in
effluent with a removal rate of 85% by biological treatment, while E2, E1, and EE2
were removed at a lower rate (less than 75%) [73]. Different types of treatment
processes were assessed for their efficiency in removing estrogens from domestic
effluents. In two sewage treatment plants, one touristic and one domestic, the
anoxic/aerobic activated sludge process with a high hydraulic retention time
(40 h) resulted in more than 97 and 77% of removal of E1 and EE2, respectively.
This study investigated the removal, the diurnal trends, and the daily loads of
estrogens [74]. However, research was based on assumptions and estimations.
Data on the consumption and discharge of contraceptive pills, for instance, was
not provided for the estimation of the EE2 load as the latter has a lower rate of
degradation. Qualitative studies on estrogens were made possible, thanks to the
introduction of new tools like in vitro bioassay systems and the use of biomarkers
[75]. Indeed, in Tunisia E2 was detected in streams [71, 75]. In Egypt, the first study
on E2 in Bahr el-Baqar (receiving raw wastewater) and surrounding ecosystem
showed significantly high concentrations (1,029 μg/L) [76] indicating the relevance
of the estrogenic compounds if they are not degraded. The estrogenic potency of
nonylphenols was first evidenced through their induction of morphological dis-
orders in toads in the Nile River [77].
Dyes released by textile industries may be also estrogenic. Some of the blue dyes
are classified as mutagenic, associated with bladder cancer development. In Tuni-
sia, the low removal rate of dyes from industrial textile facilities is widely recog-
nized. Their endocrine disrupting effects were studied recently. A weak estrogenic
but significant antiestrogenic effect was measured for 23 dye types after the release
of blue jeans textile effluent [78]. In Morocco, where leather and textile industries
are very well developed, the topic is still emerging and no studies were carried out
for our knowledge.
At the Arab level, not only North African, the environmental regulations limiting
the discharge of harmful compounds are not sufficiently enforced. Raw and treated
wastewater represents a route of contamination of soil and groundwater by estro-
genic compounds [79]. The relevance of estrogens and estrogenic compounds to the
agro-environmental environment is still not well recognized, and the occurrence of
estrogenic compounds in soils and groundwater is not well studied yet. Estrogen-
like compounds in treated wastewater used for irrigation, groundwater, and soils
were studied in Tunisia in 2005 for the first time [80]. In 2010, evidences were
given of the implication of heavy metals in the estrogenic activity of domestic and
industrial influents/effluents, and treated wastewater used for irrigation. Estrogenic
activity in groundwater used for irrigation and contaminated by effluents was also
studied [80]. Estrogenic activity may disappear in soil irrigated with treated efflu-
ents, in spite of the high activity observed in the irrigation water [54]. Other
chemicals with endocrine disrupting activity, in addition to dioxin-like compounds,
were also investigated in wastewater, irrigated soils, and groundwater in an area
that have received wastewater for more than 30 years [81].
In view of these preliminary results, the estrogenic chemicals could be challeng-
ing for aquatic organisms. When wastewater is used for irrigation, more studies are
needed because it is merely unclear whether they are harmful to soil quality.
Transfer to groundwater would be more problematic if its usage extends to potable
purposes.
5.4 Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products
Studies carried out on the occurrence of pharmaceuticals and personal care products
(PPCPs) in water resources date back to the 1970s [82] driven by their detection in
and aquatic environment in developed countries [83]. The interest shown to trans-
formation products excreted or produced after structural change in the treatment
plants is more recent because of the tedious analytical procedures required for
metabolites. These metabolites may have different properties than the parent
compounds; thereby, different fates and behaviors are expected. For their removal
and degradation, many advanced technologies were tested in case of reuse [84–
86]. Till now, accumulation of parent compounds and metabolites in soils and
plants requires more studies even in developed countries.
Tunisia was the first North African country where pharmaceuticals have been
studied and detected in wastewater and irrigated soils. Carbamazepine, a persistent
antiepileptic drug, and four of its major metabolites were identified for the first time
in wastewater and groundwater in the area of Nabeul where reuse is practiced since
the 1980s. Concentrations from 0.28 to 0.94 ng/g dw were observed at the top soil
[87]. The load of carbamazepine in influents was also predicted based on sales in
various countries. Egypt and Morocco had almost twice the concentration predicted
206 O. Mahjoub
for Tunisia with 650, 667, and 1,187 ng/L, respectively, while Europe was a hot
spot with concentrations above 1,000 and 2,000 ng/L [88]. In Korba (Tunisia)
where wastewater was used for 4 years for an aquifer recharge, a combination of
carbamazepine and isotope tracers was used to assess the impact of this practice on
the coastal aquifer contamination [89]. Since carbamazepine was found to migrate
in plants to reach leaves and fruits [90, 91], it is highly relevant to assess health risks
related to indirect reuse in this context.
Studies on natural and advanced treatment technologies are currently carried out
at laboratory scale. In Tunisia, the use of olive cake, as an agricultural by-product,
was tested after transformation into active carbon to remove ketoprofen, ibuprofen,
naproxen, and diclofenac [85]. Similar experiments were implemented based on the
properties of the chemicals, like the ability to degrade or produce persistent
metabolites. However, very few of them refer to the actual concentrations in
wastewater produced in the treatment plants by taking into account consumption,
degradation, and kinetics in the local conditions. In Egypt, clofibric acid, the active
metabolite of clofibrate, was detected in El Gabal El Asfar area at 40–75 ng/L in
groundwater as a result of raw wastewater use for more than 80 years [92]. Few are
research works dealing with the removal of some compounds from wastewater [93–
95], and results on the occurrence of pharmaceuticals in irrigated areas are still very
scarce. In Algeria, research studies are still carried out at laboratory experimental
scale. A case study on effluents from the treatment plant of Boumerdes has
investigated the impact of doxycycline (antibiotic), ketoconazole (antifungal),
and loratadine (histamine antagonist) on the degradation of the organic load as
BOD and COD. An effect on organic matter was observed and sludge process was
affected [96].
During the last decade, antibiotics were pinpointed as the chemicals of main
environmental concern and health risks [97] because they may result in the devel-
opment of bacterial and gene resistance.
6 Conclusion
Wastewater reuse in agriculture has considerably progressed in North African

countries. The assessment of risks related to the current farmers’ practices com-
bined with the quality delivered/available for irrigation shows that reuse objectives
are not fully achieved in terms of environment preservation and human health
protection. The relevance of micropollutants and their occurrence in wastewater,
water resources, and soils does need more attention because the issue remains
exclusively raised by scientific research communities; the topic is neither well
understood/perceived by farmers and stakeholders nor does represent a priority of
decision-/policy-makers for setting appropriate policies and regulations.
The state of knowledge on the occurrence of emerging micropollutants in
wastewater used for irrigation and in the agroecological environment in the special
context of the North African region varies among the countries. Countries lagging
behind like Libya might be the most exposed to a certain type of contaminants,
since research results and data are not available. Egypt, as the largest platform of
unplanned and informal reuse for irrigation, still needs to tackle the impacts of this
activity on the aquatic environment and public health. In Morocco, the most
challenging and serious risk is related to heavy metals. The relevance of organic
molecules is worth thorough studies under local conditions. Serious measures have
to be taken to limit mixing industrial and domestic effluents and enforce the ban of
raw wastewater use. In Tunisia, a pace was made forward with significant advance-
ment in research. The critical environmental status observed these recent years has
to be closely examined to monitor some micropollutants issued from illegal indus-
trial discharges. In Algeria, the disposal of treated and untreated effluents directly in
the receiving environment is of high concern when the reuse is not regularly
practiced. Observations on the contamination of crops and soils have become
alarming, pushing toward more studies for setting and enforcing regulations.
In view of the current situation, it is the role of the scientific communities
gathered into consortia and multidisciplinary teams to take up the challenge for
identifying and to monitoring some relevant micropollutants from quantitative
(concentration) and qualitative (type of pollutant) point of view taking into account
the different types of reuse in agriculture in the region. Research results should be
brought to the large audience to raise awareness among wastewater end users and
decision-makers. This would help taking the appropriate actions upstream the
treatment plant to reduce the load of pollutants before they reach the food chain.
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75:417–434
Water Reuse Within the Paper Industry
Angeles Blanco, Daphne Hermosilla, and Carlos Negro
Abstract Pulp and paper industry is still an intensive water consumer, although
fresh water use by this sector has decreased by 90% along the last three decades,
which currently shows its long water reuse tradition. Sustainable water manage-
ment has been achieved by following the principle of water fit for use, which has
mainly been developed through the optimization of water circuits, the cascade use
of water, the implementation of internal water treatments, the optimal treatment of
effluents to be reused and the use of alternative water sources, such as reclaimed
water from municipal wastewater treatment plants. In fact, this sector is nowadays
regarded as a reference for water reuse. Paper mills need to use fresh water to
compensate evaporation losses and in critical applications. In addition, the final
degree of circuit closure depends on the quality of the final product. For example,
whereas unbleached paper grade mills may work with highly closed circuits, this is
not usually possible for virgin pulp and bleached paper grade mills. Filtration and
dissolved air flotation are the most common treatments applied to internal water
reuse. Otherwise, the combination of physicochemical, biological and filtration
technologies is generally considered to enable the reuse of mill effluents. Finally,
tertiary effluent from municipal wastewater treatment plants must be further treated
by filtration technologies and disinfection stages to be finally reused within the
papermaking process safely.
Keywords Effluents, Integrated water management, Paper, Reclamation, Water

reuse
A. Blanco (*), D. Hermosilla, and C. Negro

Department of Chemical Engineering, Complutense University of Madrid, Avda.
Complutense, s/n, 28040 Madrid, Spain
e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]

Hdb Env Chem (2016) 44: 213–238, DOI 10.1007/698_2015_360,
© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015, Published online: 11 June 2015
214 A. Blanco et al.
Contents
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
2 Water Uses in the Pulp and Paper Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
3 Internal Water Reuse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
3.1 Internal Treatment Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
4 Reusing Mill Wastewater: Towards a Zero Liquid Effluent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
5 Reusing Reclaimed Water from Municipal Wastewater Treatment Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
5.1 Industrial Case Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
Abbreviations
AOX Adsorbable organic halogens

BAT Best available technologies
CIP Cleaning-in-place
DAF Dissolved air flotation
EFC Elemental chlorine-free
EGSB Expanded granular sludge blanket
IC Internal circulation
MBRs Membrane bioreactors
MF Microfiltration
MWWTPs Municipal wastewater treatment plants
NF Nanofiltration
RO Reverse osmosis
TCF Totally chlorine-free
TMP Transmembrane pressure
TOC Total organic carbon
UASB Upflow anaerobic sludge blanket
UF Ultrafiltration
1 Introduction
Pulp and paper industry provides an essential commodity with more than 500 dif-
ferent uses. Paper is primarily a sheet of cellulose fibres combined with a certain
amount of fillers and additives that are designed to provide the final product with the
quality that is demanded by its designed use. Pulp for papermaking is mainly
produced from wood or recycled paper, and it may be bleached (for white grades)
or not (brown grades). There are many different paper grades, which may be
manufactured either in integrated mills (pulp + paper) or nonintegrated mills. Sim-
ilar products can be made from different fibre mixes and processes, but these
combination alternatives generate different emissions [1].
Water Reuse Within the Paper Industry 215
The paper sector was considered one of the heaviest water-consuming and
polluting sectors 30 years ago, whereas it enjoys great recognition for its good
water-use practices nowadays. In fact, it is considered as a reference model for
water reuse applications in industry. Although pulp and paper industry is still an
intensive water user, only a 5–8% of the water that is used in the process is actually
consumed, whereas the remaining 92–95% returns back to water streams or net-
works after its proper treatment [2, 3]. Organic matter, solids content and pH are the
main pollution parameters to consider in the effluents from pulp and paper mills. In
addition, adsorbable organic halogens (AOX), colour and metals (mainly zinc, iron
and manganese) content may be also of concern when virgin fibre is produced
(directly from wood) and then processed [4]. In general, the presence of toxic
substances (mainly AOX and chlorinated dioxins) has been reduced by 95%
down to a level of 0.1 kg AOX · t1 of pulp since 1990, mainly thanks to the
substitution of chlorine gas by chlorine dioxide in elemental chlorine-free (ECF)
pulps or by oxygen, ozone and hydrogen peroxide in totally chlorine-free (TCF)
pulps [2, 5]. The amount of chemical oxygen demand (COD) discharged in the
pulping process is basically inversely proportional to the pulp yield, resulting that
high-yield pulping, such as mechanical pulping, produces less COD than low-yield
chemical pulping. In turn, there is no significant trend regarding the COD load of
the wastewater that is generated by the paper manufacturing process of any of the
possible different types of paper products because the yield is similar; but there is
however a direct relationship between product quality specifications, internal
process-water reuse and the COD loads in these effluents. Therefore, board or
packaging paper grades may be produced with closed or nearly closed water
circuits, which implies low water consumption (just the amount devoted to com-
pensate water evaporation during the process, which is 1.5 m3 t1 of paper),
whereas the production of white paper grades generally requires more open sys-
tems. In addition, paper mills processing recycled paper show higher concentrations
of dissolved organic substances in their process water.
Over recent decades, the trend to minimize water consumption per production
unit has been driven by three main factors: environmental legislation in force, the
cost of energy and certain water-use issues:
• Before 1990, the pulp and paper industry mainly focused efforts on water
conservation by reducing water demand in their different units and closing
water circuits without affecting the process. The developed programmes for
water reduction firstly aimed to optimize the most significant volumetric dis-
charges; these were due to paper manufacturing (35%) and bleaching (33%)
processes in integrated mills [4]. The initial concept of a zero effluent mill was
next conceived, and the separation of water loops began to be adopted in the
mills. In addition, since retention is a preponderant aspect of controlling the level
of materials build-up under conditions of low water use, new retention control
strategies for closed systems were implemented.
• The development of non-polluting papermaking processes represented the main

challenge for the sector during the 1990s. Therefore, the accumulation of
contaminants in closed water circuits was thoroughly monitored, their sources
identified and the processes wisely modified to become more environmentally
friendly. As a result, many mills partially reopened their water circuits due to
severe operational and quality problems [6, 7]. The new set of objectives
included (1) improving the prediction of the level of contaminant build-up as a
function of process effluent discharge, (2) identifying optimum water consump-
tion for different types of paper products approaching the zero liquid effluent
production as far as possible without reaching that point at which operational
and product quality problems may occur, (3) implementing internal treatments
to clean up process water and achieve further closure of the water circuits and
(4) integrating energy consumption issues. On the other hand, external treat-
ments were also applied to reduce the contaminant load of the final discharge,
thus minimizing the overall environmental impact of the mills.
• In the 2000s, papermakers implemented best available technologies (BAT) to
their processes and developed the concept of “more from less” by considering an
integrated approach aiming to optimize the combination of internal and external
technologies to both improve the efficiency of resources use (fibres, fillers,
chemicals, water and energy) and minimize environmentally related capital
and operating costs, especially considering the increase of the cost in energy.
In this sense, the concept of “water fit for use” was further developed adapting
water quality use to the specifications of each of the different processes that are
run in the mills aiming to minimize the cost of treatment, as well as considering
the use of new alternative water sources [8]. In addition, emerging technologies
were validated at industrial sites serving as actual demonstration cases.
In any case, these efforts have not resulted enough to solve the problem because
water scarcity has re-emerged as one of the most serious natural resource concerns
the world is currently facing. Water is no longer just a consumable or a utility, but a
highly valuable asset. As a consequence, water use has also become an important
strategic issue for the pulp and paper industry potentially affecting the ability of a
large number of mills located worldwide to remain in operation. Achieving an
integrated responsible and sustainable water use therefore represents a new chal-
lenging aim for this industrial sector. In this context, a better understanding of the
environmental impacts of water use, considering water availability and quality at
both local and regional levels, is a key factor for a sustainable paper industry.
Accordingly, best practices and tools for assessing water sustainable use, water
footprinting and its disclosure, are being used in the paper sector to identify and
manage business risks related to water use.
Further reduction of water demand may only be achieved by radical innovations

of the pulp and paper processes – developing lower water demanding ones or
improving effluent treatment to open new opportunities for internal and external
water reuse. As the access to water resources is an issue of global concern, it is
critical to recognize local site-specific resources, including alternative water
sources, in regions suffering water scarcity. In particular, reclaimed water from
municipal wastewater treatment plants (MWWTPs) may be used to substitute fresh
water intake [9]. In this case, innovative integrated water management practices
must be adopted to save high-quality water use and avoid mill shutdowns during
severe drought episodes.
2 Water Uses in the Pulp and Paper Industry
Among its many functions and roles within the pulp and paper mill processes, water
is also one of the key components of pulp and paper manufacturing itself, as well as
it is used to transport raw materials and additives through the different stages of the
process (woodyard, cooking, pulping, bleaching, deinking, washing, refining,
cleaning and paper forming). In addition, it is also used for dilution, to prepare
chemical additives and filler suspensions, in showers for cleaning forming and press
fabrics; to perform process cooling; to clean equipment, as a sealant in vacuum
systems; to generate steam; etc. [1, 3]. If fresh water is used for all these purposes
without considering recovery and reuse possibilities, a huge volume of water would
be needed (>200 m3 t1). However, the closure of water circuits has significantly
reduced water consumption in the last decades. It can be estimated that an overall
90% water reduction has globally been achieved during the last three decades; but
these water savings depend on process-related factors, such as the type of process,
the particular paper or pulp grade being produced, the used raw materials, the age of
the mill and its optimization level. In addition, general local conditions such as
wastewater discharge requirements, water scarcity and environmental awareness
tradition in each region [3] are also other contributing factors. Particularly, it has
been reported that effluent volumes have decreased by 78% (from 46 to 10 m3 t1 of
paper) in Germany’s pulp and paper industry between 1974 and 2007 [1]. Moreover,
water consumption decreased by 45% in Europe between 1990 and 2012 [2] and
about 70% in North America between 1960 and 2010.
Actual fresh water consumption figures in European mills span from 9 to
90 m3 t1 of pulp (average of 30 m3 t1) and from <1.5 to 65 m3 t1 of paper
(average of 10 m3 t1) [1, 5] (Fig. 1). The highest water consumption values are
generally related to the production of bleached kraft pulp. Water use is also high for
mills producing specialty papers, mainly because of the high-quality requirements
Fig. 1 Maximum and 100

minimum fresh water 90
consumption values in pulp 80
and paper mills [1]
70
60
m /t
3
50
40
30
20
10
0
Kraft pulp
Sulphite pulp
Mechanical pulp
Newsprint
Tissue
Liner and fluting
Board
Speciality papers
Fine paper
Coated paper
of the products and the high number of grade changes, which in many cases require
cleaning the machine. The lowest figures are currently provided by mills producing
packaging paper. Some of these mills have almost closed water circuits, resulting in
water consumptions of 1.0–1.8 m3 t1 of paper product and zero effluent production
[10]. Fresh water must generally be used in processes demanding high water quality
[11]: mainly showers, chemical preparation, sealing circuits, steam production,
cooling and pulp washing. In addition, minor quantities of fresh water may also
be used in other applications such as cutting the web. In addition, water from the
above-mentioned processes is also further reused in cascade in other pulp and
papermaking processes.
Fresh water must meet several different quality standards depending on its use
and the paper grade to be manufactured (Table 1) [15]. In addition, these require-
ments are further tightened in order to satisfy the guaranties that are agreed with
equipment suppliers. In this respect, hardness and alkalinity are among the most
critical parameters to consider because they may produce scaling in machinery and
water circuits, as well as they may promote the formation of aggregates and
deposits with organic colloids present in pulp suspensions. Furthermore, silica
may also produce scaling and irreversible fouling in membranes; and some metals
(Fe, Al or Mn), chloride and sulphate are highly corrosive and their presence may
likewise cause scaling and odour. In addition, the presence of colloidal material
may produce deposits and product quality losses. Finally, the presence of microor-
ganisms may produce biofilms and odour troubles [15, 18, 19].
Table 1 Limit values that water must fulfil for its use in different pulp and paper mill processes
Pulp and paper grades [15–17]
Cooling Boilera Sealing Mechanical Paper (high pressure Pulp and paper Chemical pulp
Parameter [12] [13] [14] pulping showers) bleached unbleached
pH 6.9–9.0 8.5–9.5 >7.0 6–10 6.5–7.5 6–10 6–10
TSS (mg L1) 100 – – 40 5 10 10
TDS (mg L1) 500 – 1000 250–1,000 300 300 300
Conductivity – – 2.0 – 0.5 – –
(mS cm1)
Cl (mg L1) – 1,000 200 200
Turbidity (NTU) 50 – – 70 – 40 40
Water Reuse Within the Paper Industry
Color (PCU) – – – 30 30 10 30
COD (mg L1) 75 – – – 5 – –
BOD5 (mg L1) 25 – – – – – –
TOC (mg L1) – – – – – – –
Hardness 650 0.3–0.0 200 100–200 200 100 100
(mgCaCO3 L1)
Alkalinity 350 – – 75–150 100 75 75
(mgCaCO3 L1)
Ammonia-N 1.0 – – – 0.5 – –
(mg L1)
PO43 (mg L1) 4.0 – – – – – –
HCO3 (mg L1) 24 – – – – – –
NO3 (mg L1) – – – – – – –
Si (mgSiO2 L1) 50 – – 50 5 50 50
(continued)
219
Table 1 (continued)
220
Pulp and paper grades [15–17]

Cooling Boilera Sealing Mechanical Paper (high pressure Pulp and paper Chemical pulp
Parameter [12] [13] [14] pulping showers) bleached unbleached
Cu (mg L1) – 0.05– – – – – –
0.01
Fe (mg L1) – 0.10– – 0.3 0.1 0.1 1
0.01
Mn (mg L1) – – – 0.1 0.05 0.05 0.5
a 7
These values depend on drum pressure. The most restrictive ones are for 15–20 10 Pa
A. Blanco et al.
3 Internal Water Reuse
The primary water circuit of paper mills consists of a short loop enabling a direct
reuse of white water after draining from the wire section (Fig. 2). This holds the
largest volumetric flow, and its main purpose is diluting the stock in the approach
system to about 1%. Performance conditions on the wire section, such as retention,
dewatering and additive performance, are decisive providing water characteristics.
The excess of water from the wire and press sections is clarified by filtration
(e.g. disc filters) or by dissolved air flotation (DAF); and clarified water may be
reused in the process (e.g. consistency control and machine showers). Internal
treatments (e.g. ultrafiltration, biological treatment, evaporation and ozonation)
may be used to further close the water circuit producing the high water quality
that is demanded for certain applications, such as in the showers. Finally, the excess
of water is recirculated to the secondary circuit to be used in the pulping process;
and the excess of water from the stock preparation is sent to the wastewater
treatment plant, which is generally based on a primary and secondary treatment
combination. The tertiary circuit includes the recirculation of the treated effluent
back to the process. In this case, the effluent can actually be recirculated from the
primary, secondary or tertiary treatments. In some cases, a double-membrane
tertiary treatment plus disinfection is included for applications requiring very
high water quality.
Facing the fact that process-water reuse is limited by the accumulation of
dissolved matter from raw materials (wood or recycled paper and fillers), and
chemicals entering the process, is nowadays among the key challenges of pulp
and paper mill management [20]. Table 2 shows the main advantages and disad-
vantages of closing water circuits in the paper industry. Some of the problems that
are associated with the accumulation of contaminants are deposition and scaling,
foaming, corrosion, low efficiency of chemicals, etc., which may produce opera-
tional problems and degradation of the quality of the final product. For example,
Fig. 3 represents the predicted accumulation of contaminants when fresh water
consumption is reduced in the production of recycled newsprint paper, showing that
1200 1200 800
Sulphate
Cationic demand, meq·L -1
1000 COD 1000

Calcium
TOC
-1
600
TOC & COD, mg·L
Cationic demand
Chloride
800 800 Sodium
mg·L -1
600 600 400
400 400
200
200 200
0 0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
m3·t -1 m3·t -1
Fig. 2 Accumulation of dissolved COD, TOC, cationic demand and salts for the production of
recycled newsprint paper
Table 2 Advantages and disadvantages of closing water circuits in the paper industry [21]
Advantages Disadvantages
Increase in suspended solids
Reduction in raw material losses Plugging of pipes and showers
Less production of sludge Dirt and spots in the final product
Deposit formation
Abrasion
Fabric life reduction
Increase of fines
Modification of the drainage capacity
Loss of tensile strength
Increase in dissolved solids
Increased retention of dissolved Scaling
material Formation of deposits
Increase of biological activity
Corrosion
Colour
Bad odour in the process and product
Reduction in brightness
Less stability in the wet-end
Higher temperature
Better drainage processes Sizing problems
Energy savings Reduction of the vacuum pump efficiency
Increase and/or alteration of the microbiological
activity
further closure of the circuits beyond 7–8 m3 t1 would produce an exponential
accumulation of dissolved and colloidal contaminants in the process water. More-
over, some contaminants are less accumulated and easily removed in the product
than others, such as cationic demand (amount of cationic polymer required to
neutralize the anionic charge of water) versus COD or TOC or sulphates versus
chlorides [20].
Wastewater from washing represents one of the main water flows in pulp mills,
and it would also be a highly loaded effluent to manage if it cannot be integrated in
the chemical recovery system of the plant, which is composed of multiple evapo-
rators and black liquor concentrators. In addition, the implementation of more
efficient washing equipment and the use of the condensate from evaporation are
effective procedures to reduce water consumption. Moreover, press washing at the
ultimate stage would be able to reduce the amount of water from 6–10 to 2–
3 m3 t1, thereby increasing the amount of chemicals and contaminants that are
burnt in the recovery boiler, that is, further reducing the contamination load of final
effluents. Furthermore, dry debarking, recirculation of alkaline or ozone bleaching
source of fibers fresh water treatment

evaporaon
primary circuit primary circuit

PULP PREPARATION
evaporaon
secondary circuit
PAPER MACHINE
terary circuit
press water
white water
PRODUCT
advanced treatments
internal
effluent treatment plant
Fig. 3 Simplified outline of water circuits in a pulp/paper mill
filtrates and ECF bleaching are other alternatives to additionally reduce water
consumption [1]. A strict separation of water loops is always recommended to
maintain the paper machine as clean as possible. In particular, the pulp is thickened
up to 30% before leaving the stock preparation stage. In this way, detrimental
substances are retained in the stock preparation water loop.
As it has already been mentioned, the quality of reused water is critical when it is
intended to be used back in paper mills. The values of key water quality parameters
are included in Table 3 [11]. COD, cationic demand, conductivity and pH have a
high influence on critical processes such as the wet-end or the operation of internal
treatments. Nutrients are of crucial importance because they will determine bacte-
rial growth. In addition, other parameters may also be relevant in certain specific
cases, such as pathogens content if reclaimed or post-biological treated water is
reused in the mill.
The types of contaminants that are present in wastewater are basically deter-
mined by the type of raw materials and chemicals that are used in the processes. For
example, natural plant constituents (such as hemicelluloses, pectin, lipophilic
extractives like resin acids, lignin, lignin-related substances, terpenes, catechol,
hydroxybenzaldehyde, carbohydrates and carboxylic acids in small quantities, such
as acetic and formic) are the main expected contaminants in mills using virgin fibres
[22–24], whereas starch-related contaminants are more present in wastewater from
recycled paper mills [25], resulting in a much more biodegradable pollutant
matrix [26].
Table 3 Limit values of process water quality for different paper grades [11]
224
Packaging Sanitary paper Sanitary paper

Graphic paper paper (virgin fibre) (recovered fibre)
Process water 1st loop 2nd loop Mechanical Process water Process water PM Process water PM
Parameter Unit PM loop DIP DIP pulp PM loop loop loop
pH – 7.0–8.5 7.5–8.5 7.5–8.5 6.0–7.0 (5.9) 6.3–7.3 7.1–8.1 7.1–8.3
(7.5)

Temperature C 40–60 40–60 40–60 60–80 35–48 (48) 36–44 30–46
Conductivity, mg L1 1,000 3,500 2,000 1,500–2,000 2,000–6,000 500–1,700 (3,500) 1,000–2,500 (4,000)
25 C (13,000)
COD mg L1 1,000 3,500 2,000 2,000–3,000 1,000–8,000 150–450 (1,000) 500–1,500 (2,500)
(10,500) (25,000)
Cationic μeq L1 25 200 125 – – – –
demand
Cl mg L1 100 n.a. n.a. – 100–700 50–350 (700) 60–250 (700)
(1,200)
SO42 mg L1 100 300 200 – 200–900 80–200 (900) 150–350 (600)
(1,600)
Hardness mg L1 50 200 150 – – –- –
(CaCO3)
Ca2+ mg L1 – – – – 200–1,200 50–400 (1,800) 80–250 (330)
(3,800)
N-NH4+ mg L1 1 1 1 – – – –
N-NO3 mg L1 1 1 1 – – – –
N-NO2 mg L1 1 1 1 – – – –
Total P mg L1 1 1 1 – – – –
Fungi UFC·ml1 2 2 2 – – – –
Algae UFC·ml1 2 2 2 – – – –
Microorganisms per ml 10 10 10 – – – –
A. Blanco et al.
LSI – – – – – <0.5 <0.5

Furthermore, wastewater characteristics are also different depending on pulp yield

and the type of bleaching process. For example, different toxic chlorinated organic
compounds (e.g. chlorinated catechols, dehydroabietic acid, guaiacols and syringols),
dioxins and furans can be found in low proportions in ECF pulp mill wastewater [24,
27, 28], whereas an additional load of 5–15 kg t1 of BOD7 and 15–40 kg t1 of COD
is expected in effluents from TCF processes due to the use of hydrogen peroxide and
at the same time that its content of hemicelluloses is lower and the presence of pectin
and aliphatic carboxylic acids is higher. Additionally, the papermaking operation also
introduces several chemical compounds to the wastewater stream, such as different
additives, fillers (e.g. CaCO3, kaolin, clay, talc), whiteners (e.g. diaminostilbene
sulphonate derivatives), dyes (e.g. direct dyes having a highly conjugated, planar
structure and an anionic charge due to the presence of sulphonate groups; they may be
modified with amine groups to be cationic), defoamers (e.g. esters or amides of fatty
acids and polyethylene glycols), dispersion/antiscaling agents (polyphosphates,
hydroxyl ethyl diphosphate, poly(acrylic acids) and relatively low-molecular-weight
polymers containing carboxylic, phosphonic, phosphoric and other functional
groups), surfactants (e.g. fatty acid soaps, polyethylene oxide alkyl ethers), biocides
and slimicides (e.g. quaternary ammonium compounds, glutaraldehyde, halogenated
hydantoin, 2-bromo-2-nitropropane-1,3-diol, 5-chloro-2-methyl-4-isothiazolin-3-
one, 2,2-ibromo-2-cyanoacetamide) and complexing agents (e.g. ethylenedia
minetetraacetic acid, diethylene triamine pentaacetic acid), among others [29]. More-
over, all these products may incorporate other compounds to the flow, such as
endocrine disruptors like bisphenol A and phthalates, which may come from soft-
eners, additives, glues and printing inks; alkylphenolic constituents of some
defoamers, cleaners and emulsifiers; pentachlorophenol, which is a major component
of some biocides; complexing agents; photoinitiators like acetyloxytrimethylbicyclo-
heptanedione; and adsorbents like acetylmorpholine [24, 30].
The main general purification strategies that are implemented in modern mills
aiming for reducing fresh water consumption and optimizing water circuit closure
are listed in Fig. 4. A particular good strategy for systems of separated loops is the
one based on calculating the K values defined by Kappen and Wilderer, which
actually compares COD figures at different locations of the production process
[31]. K1 evaluates the efficiency of fresh water use in the paper machine by
calculating the ratio between COD values (in filtered samples) of the effluent and
white water 1 (water from the forming wire and press section in the paper machine),
whereas K2 is an indicator estimating the concentration ratios in the water loops of
stock preparation and paper machine:
Improved water Freshwater savings Water treatment Advanced water

Management and recirculaon treatment and
recirculaon
· Analysis & · Water loop · Use of ‘kidney ‘ · Use of ‘kidney ‘

opmisaon
pmisaon of separaon techniques for techniques for
water circuit
circuits, · Counter-current the eliminaon the eliminaon
water use anand flow of suspended of dissolved
consumers
onsumers · Decreased flow solids substances
· Eliminaon
liminaon of rate of freshwater · Filtraon · Fresh water
osses
losses consumers · Fresh water substuon
· Reorganizaon
eorganiza of · Freshwater substuon with with effluent
water circuit
circuits substuon with super clear purified water
· Model-based
Model-base re-use water filtrate · Closed water
valuaon o
evaluaon of · Fresh water · Re-use of circuits
pmised
opmised substuon by condensates · Substuon of
measured clarified water from fresh water by
· Trained
rained staff · Cooling/steaming evaporaon reclaimed water
· Monitoring o of water re-use · High consistency
water qualit
quality and · Sealing water in loops separaon
reatment
treatment close circuit · Washing process
ystems
systems · ECF/TCF bleaching opmizaon
· Opmisaon of · Dry debarking (use of wash
water use · Spillage presses)
wit
according with prevenon
uality need
quality needed · Efficient save-alls
· Stewardship
wardsh · Adequate storage
am
programs capacity
· Efficient broke
system
Fig. 4 General purification strategies aiming to reduce fresh water consumption in pulp and paper
mills (adapted from [1]). Green: management. Blue: technical solutions
CODEffluent CODStock preparation

K1 ¼ K2 ¼
CODWhite water 1 CODWhite water 1
If K1 is lower than 1, water has not been used efficiently and K2 must be greater
than 1, which means that the contamination load is partially being accumulated in
the stock relieving the paper machine. For simple systems just bearing one stock
preparation system and one paper machine, the K1/K2 ratio further allows assessing
the design of the circuits of the water loops in the stock preparation stage and the
paper machine. In fact, K1/K2 ¼ 1 indicates good countercurrent arrangement, that
is, wastewater is mainly being discharged from the section holding the highest COD
load (Fig. 5) [32]:
4
target area with
loop separaon
3 target area without

loop separaon
K2 2
0
0 1 2 3 4
K1
Fig. 5 Representation of K1 and K2 values in different European paper mills. Note: Δ represent
values for coated paperboard, square for packaging board and circle for a highly optimized graphic
paper mill (adapted from [31])
K1 CODEffluent
¼
K2 CODStock preparation
3.1 Internal Treatment Technologies
Figure 6 shows potential treatments that may be applied to remove COD, bacteria,
suspended solids and salts from wastewater of pulp and paper mills. DAF and
filtration are the mostly used technologies for internal water treatment, although
other processes may be used to some extent, namely, micro-/ultrafiltration; anaer-
obic and/or aerobic biological treatments aiming for removing dissolved organic
substances to minimize odour problems in the final product; ozone treatment to
further reduce organic matter, colour and odour or achieve disinfection; or enzy-
matic treatments devoted to decolourize, degrade lignin compounds and reduce
xenobiotic compounds [33]. Electrodialysis and ionic exchange may also be used to
separate and/or recover some ions.
Particularly, DAF is a really cost-effective treatment for large water flows
transporting a wide range of solids content (300–5,000 mg L1), so much so that
it is possible to implement up to five DAF units (first loop, second loop, paper
machine loop, sludge treatment and effluent treatment) in recycled paper mills,
which may efficiently remove 80–98% of the suspended solids, as well as a wide
variety of contaminants such as ink particles and lipophilic extractives. Further-
more, it is possible to efficiently remove finely dispersed and colloidal organic
particles (>0.2 μm) using appropriate coagulants and flocculants. On the other
hand, there is a limit to about 20% of the COD for the reduction of organics
[34]. Finally, sludge from DAF units may be jointly treated in some mills with
sludge flowing out the biological wastewater treatment plant.
Evaporation
Electrodialysis
Reverse osmosis
Nanofiltration
Micro/Ultrafiltration
Biological treatments
Coagulation/Flocculation
+Sedimentation/DAF
TSS COD Salts Bacteria
Fig. 6 Qualitative efficiency of the removal of contaminants by different treatments
Although membrane technologies may consume more energy than other pro-
cesses, they are able to significantly improve water quality fulfilling all required
standards and reducing the emission of contaminants of emerging concern [30]. Fur-
thermore, they may also be easily installed close to the treatment location, such as
an additional treatment for clear filtrate devoted to obtain high-quality water for
wire section showers [35]. The development of new membrane filtration systems
and membrane materials aiming for reducing its fouling has much extended the
implementation of this technology in the paper sector, although fouling and erosion
of the active layer are still the critical factors limiting its further application [36].
As mentioned above, the reuse of condensate (about 8–10 m3 t1) from the
chemical recovery system is a key issue to reduce water consumption in pulp mills.
These condensates include a high amount of organic compounds (10–20 kg COD
m-3) that may be reused (e.g. ethanol) after treating these streams by stripping,
which also subsequently produces a water free of metals content that could be
reused in different applications, contributing to further close water circuits (e.g. in
the bleaching plant, liquor scrubbing, in lime kilns or as white liquor make-up
water) [1].
4 Reusing Mill Wastewater: Towards a Zero Liquid

Effluent
Several different alternative systems may be operated in paper mills for the
treatment of their final effluents depending on the types of mill and load that is
present in the wastewater to be regenerated (Fig. 7). In general, an equalization of
the flow is usually performed before the removal of solids (>90%) is addressed by
Other treatment processes

i.e. suspended carrier biofilm processes/MBR
High capacity trickling filters

+ acvated sludge
Acvated sludge Acvated sludge

(one-stage) (two-stage)
Aerobic submerged
biofilters (two-stage) Two stage treatment with a
high sludge loading step
Aerobic (i.e. MBBR + acvated sludge)
submerged
biofilters Two-stage anaerobic & acvated sludge
(single-stage)
Mul-stage biological treatment + Filtraon/UF/RO
Low & medium capacity
trickling filters Mul-stage biological treatment + O3
100 1000 1500 mg BOD 5 ·L-1
Fig. 7 Water treatment technologies applied to the treatment of effluents of the pulp and paper
mills in the function of the organic load of the effluent (adapted from [1])
physical or physicochemical procedures. If necessary, biodegradable organics may

be removed by means of a biological treatment implementation. The selection of
this treatment depends on the paper grade being produced [1]. Activated sludge
processes are the most commonly used for this purpose, followed by trickling filters
and moving beds bioreactors, all of them resulting in a BOD removal of about 80–
95% at a retention time of <1 day. In addition, aerated oxidation lagoons, despite
requiring a large space for its implementation, are also still being used in Northern
Europe and North America, resulting in a 60–80% BOD removal after a dwell time
of 3–10 days. Finally, a final clarification step is applied to separate sludge from
water, which is partially returned back to the process. Sludge bulking has been one
of the major problems affecting activated sludge performance under specific con-
ditions, so flotation has therefore been preferred over sedimentation in several paper
mills. Additionally, filtration or chemical precipitation has also been implemented
in some cases as a tertiary treatment aiming for removing nondegradable COD,
nutrients (mainly phosphorus) and suspended solids.
Nevertheless, anaerobic digestion is nowadays taking over in detriment of
aerobic treatment, mainly due to its complementary capacity to produce energy
and its much lower sludge production [35]. The efficiency of anaerobic treatment
widely depends on the volumetric organic load, temperature and the characteristics
of the wastewater to be treated (e.g. alkalinity). Particularly, organic loads in the
range of 5–15 kg COD m3 day1 usually provide the best results; and mesophilic
conditions (20–45 C) favour the stability of the process, although thermophilic
ones (45–120 C) have been assessed to potentially improve treatment efficiency
[33, 35, 37]. Particularly, the production of methane will be reduced when the
inflow especially contains a significant quantity of inorganic sulphur (COD/SO42
<7.5), and the resulting sulphide content will cause biogas management problems
[37]. Particularly, UASB (upflow anaerobic sludge blanket) reactors have been
widely and successfully applied in the pulp and paper industry [37]. EGSB
(expanded granular sludge blanket) and IC (internal circulation) reactors, which
are actually the evolution of the UASB type, have also already been implemented
improving digestion rate and gas yield.
Moreover, anaerobic processes may be combined with aerobic ones to improve
BOD removal and the oxidation of some inorganics such as hydrogen sulphide. The
resulting treated water may finally be subjected to sedimentation, flotation and sand
filtration before being reused as low-quality water, but taking into account that the
potential presence of bacteria should be reported within the health and safety
assessments of the mills. This combination of treatments has successfully been
implemented in different European mills such as Smurfit Kappa Zülpich Paper
(Germany), AssiDomän Packaging in Lecoursonnois (France), Papierfabrik Julius
Schulte S€ ohne in Düsseldorf (Germany), Stora Enso Sachsen (Germany) and VPK
(Belgium) [38–42] – all of them producing different grades of paperboard.
In addition, the implementation of advanced treatments will be necessary when
the effluent is going to be reused as high-quality water. In this case, the key contents
to remove are salts (e.g. sulphate, carbonate and silica), in order to avoid scaling
and corrosion, and nutrients (mainly nitrogen, phosphorous and carbon), aiming to
prevent biogrowth and the presence of pathogens for safety control. Furthermore,
soluble organic matter must especially be removed to a higher extent than 95% to
control biofouling [35, 37]. Effluents from biological treatments of paper mills are
particularly characterized by their high concentration of solids, including fibres and
bacterial flocs, among other production residues. Therefore, microfiltration (MF) or
ultrafiltration (UF) is a necessary pretreatment for this wastewater that will be
inflowing a final nanofiltration (NF) or reverse osmosis (RO) unit aiming for
removing its salts content [43].
Although MF is suitable for removing suspended solids, including larger micro-
organisms like protozoa and bacteria, UF may even remove viruses and organic
macromolecules down to approx. 0.02 μm. In general, UF has intensively been used
in treatment plants reclaiming wastewater worldwide. MBRs (membrane bioreac-
tors) are currently gaining popularity for different urban and industrial applications.
Therefore, and although encased dead-end-mode UF systems may imply a lower
operational cost [9, 44], MBRs are able to operate in a submerged design, thus
requiring to work at low values of transmembrane pressure (TMP), which minimize
fouling effects. Moreover, as MF or UF membranes are installed to separate sludge,
MBR technology will not show problems associated with filamentous bulking,
which may occur when sedimentation or flotation is implemented instead. Further-
more, incorporating membrane treatment to biological processing makes reactors
run with a higher dry solids concentration (8–15 g L1) than conventional activated
sludge (3–5 g L1), therefore producing less biological sludge. These properties
also lead to require lower hydraulic retention time and/or volumes to perform the
biological treatment in MBRs [45]. In any case, it should be considered that encased
dead-end-mode UF systems may entail lower operational cost [9, 44].
RO systems and disinfection are recommended as the final steps joining any
treatment train aiming for reducing electrical conductivity and pathogens content
up to potable water values, which ensures a final water quality that is safe for
operating workers and guarantees very stable operational conditions. Nevertheless,
scaling and fouling phenomena may however cause water production rate to
decline, a lower permeate quality, unsteady-state operation conditions and severe
damage to the integrity of membranes in these systems [46–49]. Furthermore, the
management of the generated rejects must also be considered. In short, these are the
main actual bottlenecks that paper mill managers must carefully deal with, mainly
scaling associated with silica and calcium compounds contents.
Advanced oxidation processes (mainly ozone, which is already used for
bleaching in some paper mills) have already also been used in some cases aiming
for removing bio-recalcitrant organic compounds, odour and colour and to provide
disinfection – all in order to meet the limits that may be imposed for the charac-
teristics of the effluent. In addition, AOPs have likewise been combined with
biological treatment to allow water reuse [50], although oxidation may also gener-
ate by-products of toxicological concern that may limit the posterior biological
stage. The content of these bio-recalcitrant compounds will have more importance
in the presence of chlorinated compounds, which are usually produced during
chlorinated bleaching processes. Although scientific research regarding the effects
of these compounds in pulp and paper industrial wastewater is still limited, the
determination of its presence and concentration is every day becoming more
important in relation to reducing the emission of contaminants of emerging concern
[51]. Finally, algae, fungal and enzymatic treatments are actually being assessed,
mainly at a small scale, as emerging environmentally friendly treatment
alternatives.
There are only a few examples of the full-scale application of the above-
mentioned technologies. For example, different UF, NF and RO membranes were
comparatively assessed at Stora Enso Kotka’s mill (Finland) aiming for the treat-
ment of part of the effluent, although RO permeability was as low as
2.5 L m2 h1·bar1 [19]. McKinley Paper Mill (New Mexico, USA), which
produces linerboard from 100% recycled board and old corrugated containers, is
already operating an MF + RO system that recycles all the effluent within the mill.
This paper mill is currently consuming just 1.2 m3 of fresh water per ton of
produced paper, a volume that is mainly devoted to compensate evaporation losses
during paperboard drying [18]. In addition, Mondi Paper Mill (Piet Retief,
South Africa) has successfully reported reusing up to 1,700 m3 d1 of black liquor
after its treatment with tubular UF, ion exchange and RO. Finally, more recent pilot
trials have been performed at Holmen Paper’s newsprint paper mill in Madrid
(Spain), consisting of a treatment train integrating an anaerobic biological stage
followed by another aerobic one, UF and RO membrane filtration. This system was
able to produce water fulfilling the quality parameters that are required to substitute
fresh water use in some critical applications of the paper machine, such as its high-
pressure showers, although permeate recovery is limited by the high silica content
that is typical in deinked paper mill effluents [44].
5 Reusing Reclaimed Water from Municipal Wastewater

Treatment Plants
Municipal wastewater reclamation, that is, treating and reusing effluents from
MWWTP, represents a viable alternative to water shortage and contributes to
integral sustainable water management, representing an important alternative
water source for many regions worldwide [15]. The most viable treatment train to
purify these effluents will depend on the final use of water, the legislation in force,
the particular requirements that would be allowed, the level of water availability, its
geographical situation, stakeholders’ acceptance and the economic figures of imple-
mentation and operation.
The occurrence of potential health hazards is one of the most important issues to
consider when assessing the use of MWWTP reclaimed water as a possibility for
fresh water substitution. This is, in fact, the main question that is highlighted within
all available legislations in force regulating this particular application [12, 17, 52–
54]. The removal of pathogens (bacteria, helminths, protozoa and enteric viruses)
must be primarily ensured as mandatory by the processes that would be applied to
reclaim water [55]. Moreover, the control of the presence of microorganisms will
also aid limiting biofilm growth, scale and corrosion, which are actually associated
with their activity. Additionally, the removal of salts should likewise serve to avoid
clogging and scaling problems, especially in high-pressure showers [9, 19]. Besides,
it would complementarily be necessary to also remove those compounds that may
affect product quality, for example, providing colour to white paper grades. Fur-
thermore, contaminants of emerging concern must be removed to avoid their
accumulation in the process.
Table 4 includes the summary of the removal efficiencies that are expected to be
achieved by applying different technological alternatives to reclaim water from
MWWTPs [9, 15, 46]. Conventional tertiary treatment (flocculation + clarification
+ filtration + disinfection) is usually applied when reclaimed water is going to be
used for less stringent uses, whereas membrane filtration is required for more
exigent applications to avoid potential health hazards. In this sense, MF and UF
are generally adopted as the preferred processes for the retention of microbial and
suspended solids and as best suitable pretreatments for posterior NF or RO stages,
which are able to generate process water of a very high quality standard, even
drinking water [56, 57].
Although almost any membrane design can be applied to the treatment of
wastewater with low suspended solids content, only specifically designed modules
with suitable operation modes would be able to handle effluents carrying high
amounts of solids, bacteria and/or organic pollutants, which are very frequent in
effluents from MWWTPs. In these cases, higher cross-flow velocities or submerged
systems may be a good option, including MBRs [15, 45]. In addition, the optimi-
zation of the operating cost must be mainly limited by technical considerations.
Therefore, while pressurized systems run at higher pressure thresholds, which
implies a greater cost associated with pumping, submerged systems require a
Table 4 Removal efficiencies (%) achieved by different treatments applied to reclaim municipal
sewage.
CAS + CAS +MF/
CAS + CAS BNR + MBR UF +RO
Parameter CASa filtration +BNRb filtration MBR +IE MBR+RO
TSS (mg L−1) 96–94 98 95–96 99 >98 >98 >99
TDS (mg L−1) 0 0–19 0–19 0–19 0–19 – 85–98
VOCs (μm) 90 90 90–95 90–95 90–95 90-95 >99
COD (mg L−1) 84–90 88–91 92–95 92–96 >96 >96 96–99
BOD5 (mg L−1) 93–95 94–95 95–96 98–99 >99 >99 >99
TOC (mg L−1) 85–88 88–90 90–92 98–99 >98 >98 99.0–99.9
Total nitrogen 25–50 25–50 85–89 90–93 >86c >80 >95
(mg L−1)
Total phospho- 0–17 0–33 75–83 >83 58– >80 >86
rous (mg L−1) 93d
Metals (mg L−1) 33–40 33–40 33–40 33–40 Trace Trace –
Total coliforms 99.0–99.9 >99.9 99.0– 99.0– >99.9 >99.9 ~100
(CFU·100 mL−1) 99.9 99.9
Protozoan cysts 0–99.9 >99.9 >99.9 >99.9 >99.9 >99.9 ~100
and oocysts
(CFU·100 mL−1)
Viruses 0–90.0 0–99.9 0–90.0 0–90.0 >90 >90 ~100
(PFU·100 mL−1)
a
CAS: conventional activated sludge+nitrification
b
BNR: biological nutrient (N and P) removal
c
With anoxic stage
d
With coagulant addition
Adapted from [12]
greater investment in aeration application, and thus recovery rates are lower as well.
The cost assessment for this application also includes the consideration of other
factors, such as water quality, operating flux, recovery rate of the systems, type of
pretreatment and the costs of labour and materials.
One of the main challenges for the viability of this technology is minimizing the
occurrence of fouling. In general, the content of dissolved organic matter that is
typically present in effluents from MWWTPs (TOC 5–20 mg L1; BOD5 3–
10 mg L1), together with the presence of other colloidal matter, may produce
membrane fouling. Furthermore, although the salinity of these effluents is much
lower than the figures in seawater (1,500 versus 38,000 mg L1, respectively),
scaling may also occur, particularly when the MWWTP receives a large amount of
industrial wastewater [9]. In this case, special attention must be paid to industrial
cleaning processes, which may lead to periods of time in which residual chemicals
will create membrane fouling in the treatment train of the MWWTP. In order to
minimize fouling problems, membrane surface may be modified to further enhance
its antifouling behaviour [48]. Another alternative strategy consists in the installa-
tion of aeration systems, mainly in MF and UF modules, aiming to enhance surface
membrane shear, but it highly increases the cost of treatment [45]. The selection of
the best cleaning strategy (type of chemical, cleaning conditions and frequency) for
backwash and cleaning-in-place (CIP) operations is a key to achieve both a constant
membrane system performance and the lowest possible contribution to the cost of
operation [58]. Furthermore, the removal of micropollutants would be another
challenge to face.
Finally, the management of the rejects that are produced in membrane technol-
ogy applications must be focused on finding direct applications for them, that is,
addressing its recycling as much as possible. Besides, several initiatives have been
reported regarding the removal of hazardous components from concentrated
streams [59]. Although some compounds are effectively removed, others equally
dangerous do remain, so special attention should be paid in the future to detecting
and treating the accumulation of new contaminants of emerging concern.
5.1 Industrial Case Studies
The substitution of process water by reclaimed wastewater has not yet been widely
applied in the paper industry. Only some pulp and paper mills located in the USA
(e.g. Simpson Paper and Garden State Paper in California, Bronx Community Paper
in New York, Blue Heron Paper in Georgia and SCA Tissue, Flagstaff, Arizona)
and South Africa (Mondi Paper Mill in Durban, Sappi Enstra, Sappi Cape Mill and
Sappi Fine Paper, Port Elizabeth) currently use reclaimed water from MWWTPs,
although these are not applying a final membrane treatment [60]. For example,
Durban’s water reclamation plant particularly supplies 47,000 m3 day1 of tertiary
treated water (sedimentation + ozonation + activated carbon filtration
+ chlorination) to Mondi Paper Mill [61, 62]. In Europe, Holmen Paper Madrid
(Spain) has totally substituted fresh water use by reclaimed water since 2013. The
reclamation treatment train consists of a combination of pressurized UF and RO
systems that are applied after a conventional tertiary treatment [9]. This is the first
paper mill in Europe of such characteristics using the 100% of reclaimed water.
After one year from the implementation of this initiative, no runnability issues have
been reported to date or any effect on the quality of the final product that could be
associated with this use.
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Reusing Landfill Leachate Within
the Framework of a Proper Management
of Municipal Landfills
G. Del Moro, C. Pastore, E. Barca, C. Di Iaconi, G. Mascolo, G. Brunetti,

and V. Uricchio
Abstract The possibility of reusing leachate substances for agronomical purposes

might be of interest, especially in arid areas when used in addition to the leachate
water content. This study presents a simple procedure for the revegetation of the
walls of closed landfills, reusing the leachate as a fertigant. The results demon-
strated the real possibility of employing blended leachate as a fertigant for the
revegetation of the walls of closed landfills. The native plants Lepidium sativum,
Lactuca sativa and Atriplex halimus, which suit the local climate, were chosen for
this study in Southern Italy. The methodology was structured into three phases:
(i) early-stage toxicity assessment phase (apical root length and germination tests),
(ii) adult plant resistance assessment phase and (iii) soil properties verification
phase. The rationale of the proposed approach was first to look at the distinctive
qualities and the potential toxicity in landfill leachates for fertigation purposes.
Afterwards, through specific tests, the plants used were ranked in terms of resis-
tance to the aqueous solution that contained leachate. Finally, after long-term
irrigation, any possible worsening of soil properties was evaluated. In particular,
the plants maintained good health when leachate was blended at concentrations of
lower than 25% and 5%, respectively, for Atriplex halimus and Lepidium sativum.
Irrigation tests showed good resistance of the plants, even at dosages of 112 and
133.5 mm/m2, at maximum concentrations of 25% and 5%, respectively, for
Atriplex halimus and Lepidium sativum. The analysis of the total chlorophyll
content and of aerial parts dried weight confirmed the results reported above.
G. Del Moro, C. Pastore, E. Barca, C. Di Iaconi, G. Mascolo (*), and V. Uricchio

Istituto di Ricerca Sulle Acque, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Viale F. De Blasio 5,
70132 Bari, Italy
G. Brunetti
Di.S.S.P.A. - Dipartimento di Scienze Suolo, della Pianta e degli Alimenti, Universita degli
Studi di Bari, Via Amendola 165/A, 70126 Bari, Italy

Hdb Env Chem (2016) 44: 239–256, DOI 10.1007/698_2014_325,
© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2014, Published online: 11 September 2015
240 G. Del Moro et al.
Keywords Atriplex halimus, Closed landfill, Fertigation, Lactuca sativa, Landfill

leachate, Lepidium sativum
Contents
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
2 Employed Leachate and Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
3 Phytotoxicity Bioassay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
4 Irrigation Trials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
5 Possible Soil Degradation Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
6 Data Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
7 Toxicity Assessment at Early Stages (Apical Root Length and Germination Tests) . . . . 247
8 Resistance of Adult Plants (Irrigation Trials) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
9 Soil Worsening Assessment After Plant Growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
10 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
Abbreviations
ANOVA Analysis of variance

AOP Advanced oxidation process
DMSO Dimethylsulfoxide
EB Electron beam
EC50 Half maximal effective concentration
ECP Electrochemical peroxidation
GI Germination index
LOEC Lowest observed effect concentration
MATC Maximum acceptable toxic concentration
NOEC Not observed effect concentration
PEC Photoelectrochemical
TSS Total suspended solid
US Ultrasound
UV Ultraviolet
VSS Volatile suspended solid
1 Introduction
A landfill site is a large area of ground where waste materials are dumped or
disposed of. This method is widely used because of its cost-effectiveness. One of
the most important problems with designing and maintaining a landfill is managing
Reusing Landfill Leachate Within the Framework of a Proper Management of. . . 241
the leachate that is generated when water passes through wastes. Therefore, leach-
ate is the aqueous effluent, generated by rainwater percolation through wastes,
biochemical processes in waste cells and the inherent water content of the waste
itself [1–4].
The chemical composition of landfill leachate is influenced by a number of
factors including seasonal precipitation, waste composition and the age of the
landfill [5]. The age of the landfill site is one of the main variables that affect
leachate characteristics [4, 6]. Usually, young landfill leachates contain large
amounts of biodegradable organic matter (i.e. volatile fatty acids) that decreases
with increasing landfill age as a result of anaerobic decomposition that takes place
in landfill site. As volatile fatty acid content decreases, organic matter in the
leachates becomes dominated by refractory compounds, such as humic-like com-
pounds and fulvic acid-like substances with consequent reduction of BOD/COD
ratio [7]. Also, ammonia concentration increases with the increase of landfill age as
a result of the fermentation of protein-containing organic matter, being typical
concentration values higher than 2 g/L in old landfill leachates. Therefore,
stabilised landfill leachates are much more difficult to treat as compared to young
ones. Although leachate composition may vary widely within the successive aero-
bic, acetogenic, methanogenic stabilisation stages of the waste evolution, in gen-
eral, three types of leachates can be defined according to landfill age, namely,
recent, intermediate and old.
According to widely employed regulations, landfill leachate must be properly
treated before its disposal of to receiving water bodies. The most common practice
to avoid environmental risks is to pump and discharge leachate into conventional
wastewater treatment plants [8]. However, landfill leachate is very difficult to treat
biologically, due to the presence of recalcitrant compounds and high concentration
of ammonia. Therefore, new technologies and new treatment combinations are
required [9]. Selection of treatment must also be cost-effective, allowing compli-
ance with local discharge standards at the lowest cost [10].
One method of leachate management that is more common in uncontained sites
was leachate recirculation in which leachate is collected and reinjected into the
waste mass. This process greatly accelerates decomposition and therefore gas
production and has the impact of converting some leachate volume into landfill
gas and reducing the overall volume of leachate for disposal. However, it also leads
to substantial increase of the concentrations of recalcitrant compounds making it a
more difficult waste to be treated [11].
Conventional landfill leachate treatments can be classified into three major
groups: (a) leachate transfer, i.e. recycling and combined treatment with domestic
sewage; (b) biodegradation, aerobic and anaerobic processes; and (c) chemical and
physical methods, i.e. chemical oxidation, adsorption, chemical precipitation,
coagulation/flocculation, sedimentation/flotation and air stripping [4].
Examples of the most used physicochemical processes for stabilised leachate
treatment also include electro-oxidation processes, Fenton reaction, ozonation, ion
exchange, coagulation/flocculation, adsorption, air stripping or combinations of
two processes or more.
Biological treatments of landfill leachate are more attractive, and they are,
probably, the most efficient and cheapest processes to reduce the chemical oxygen
demand (COD) and nitrogen from leachate. These biological treatment processes
are quite effective for leachate generated in the early stage with a high BOD5/COD;
however, they generally fail to treat a landfill leachate with a rather low BOD5/COD
ratio [12–16]. Some recent breakthroughs in the membrane filtration industry have
now made possible the employment of some previously difficult separation appli-
cations. Nowadays, by the use of open high turbulence membrane modules that are
resistant to fouling and plugging, membranes are becoming one of the most used
options for treating landfill leachate. Microfiltration, ultrafiltration, nanofiltration
and reverse osmosis are the main membrane processes applied in landfill leachates
treatment [17–21].
On the other hand, advanced oxidation processes (AOP) are able to decompose a
great number of organic compounds. These processes are characterised by the
transformation of a large number of organic pollutants into carbon dioxide, water
and inorganic anions through degradation reactions involving oxidative transitory
species, mainly the hydroxyl radical (HO•) [22]. AOPs have been demonstrated to
oxidise organic substances to their highest stable oxidation states being carbon
dioxide and water (i.e. to reach complete mineralization) or to improve the biode-
gradability of recalcitrant organic pollutants up to a value compatible with subse-
quent economical biological treatment. Most of the AOPs, except simple ozonation
(O3), use a combination of strong oxidants, e.g. O3 and H2O2; irradiation,
e.g. ultraviolet (UV), ultrasound (US) or electron beam (EB); and catalysts,
e.g. transition metal ions or photocatalysts.
AOPs, such as electrochemical oxidation, Fenton oxidation, electro-Fenton
oxidation, photoelectro-Fenton, photoelectrochemical (PEC), electrochemical per-
oxidation (ECP), etc., have been proved highly capable and efficient in reducing
refractory organic substance and colour as well as in oxidising ammonia from raw
and pretreated landfill leachate [23]. In any case, AOPs remain an expensive way to
deal with leachate management.
However, it would be also desirable to reuse the leachate. The composition of
leachate is characterised by a high organic load, a high concentration of a lot of
elements and important macro- and micronutrients for plants, namely, N, K, Mg,
Ca, Zn and B [7].
The possibility of reusing leachate substances for agronomical purposes might
be of interest, especially in arid areas when used in addition to the leachate water
content. There is even a possibility of reusing leachate as a fertigant for many crops
which are not for human consumption [24]. There have been several studies on the
possibility of using leachate for irrigation purposes. There are papers focused on
soil properties related to leachate irrigation [25–28], on using pretreated leachate
[24] and on fertigation of plants for energy productions purpose [29]. But, more
importantly, it would be beneficial to apply in situ procedures using leachate for
fertigating the walls of the same landfill.
If we look at landfills where solid waste has reached its maximum available load
and therefore the waste can no longer be disposed of (i.e. has reached the end of its
life cycle), then a new perspective can be proposed. In situations such as these, it is
necessary to ensure that the landfill is maintained in a safe condition after its closure
and that it can also be adaptable for future use. Governments have started
converting closed landfills into recreational facilities such as playgrounds, sports
facilities and parks, after suitable restoration. One of the main issues of the
management of closed landfills is the disposal of leachate which still continues to
be produced for a long time after the closure of the landfill. Such leachate could be
thought to be employed for irrigation of vegetation that covers closed landfills. The
use of leachate as a fertigant could therefore lead to added value which otherwise
would be lost, contributing to a substantial reduction of disposal operating costs.
The employment of leachate as a fertigant for the revegetation of the walls of closed
landfills could prove an attractive proposition. Assessing the opportunity for the
revegetation of the walls of closed landfills employing the leachate as a fertigant
requires a specific plant choice in order to overcome the problems such as water
stress, methane exhalation and relatively high soil temperatures. The plant species
should be chosen from native species.
The procedure proposed here includes a set of experimental tests aimed at
assessing leachate toxicity, plant sensitivity and soil degradation. These three
tests provided information about the real possibility of using a particular leachate
with respect to the resistance capability of the chosen set of plant species and finally
the impact of leachate on soil matrix. In fact, the procedure gives the manager the
information about leachate dilution so that it can be suitable for the growth of
specific plant species minimising the negative impact on soil. It supports the
manager in selecting plant species most suitable for the specific landfill and
leachate, providing a viable option for environmentally sustainable management.
2 Employed Leachate and Procedure
Raw leachate was sampled from a medium-aged (5 years) municipal landfill located
in Apulia, Southern Italy. The landfill contains nonhazardous waste including
municipal solid waste. In the present study, leachate was characterised according
to standard methods [30]. The obtained chemical and physical properties are listed
in Table 1.
The procedure that was used consisted of three phases: (i) early-stage toxicity
assessment (apical root length and germination tests), (ii) adult phase plant resis-
tance assessment (irrigation trials) and (iii) soil degradation assessment. Phytotox-
icity of the leachate was determined by calculating the germination index of
Lepidium sativum Linnaeus and Lactuca sativa Linnaeus seeds. The plant species
used for the irrigation trials were L. sativum and Atriplex halimus Linnaeus. The
latter is one of the most tolerant species to leachate [31, 32] and among the most
popular in the area of the selected landfill. Finally, at the end of the test, pH and
electric conductivity were measured on growth substrate extracts.
Table 1 Municipal landfill Parameter Unit Value range

leachate composition range -1
(used in this study) COD gL 2.8–3.6
BOD5/COD 0.2–0.3
DOC g L-1 0.9–1.2
NH4–N g L-1 1.5–2.0
pH 7.8–8.3
Ptot mg L-1 4–6
TSS mg L-1 150–300
VSS mg L-1 120–230
Chlorides g L-1 3.0–4.0
Conductivity mS cm-1 16–22
Sulfates g L-1 1.0–1.5
Na g L-1 1.5–2.0
K g L-1 1.2–1.6
Mg g L-1 0.2–0.4
Cr mg L-1 <0.1
Ni mg L-1 0.5–1
Mn mg L-1 <0.02
Fe mg L-1 1–1.5
Zn mg L-1 <0.01
Cu mg L-1 0.01–0.2
3 Phytotoxicity Bioassay
Germination tests of L. sativum were carried out according to 850.4200 EPA

method [33] using cress (L. sativum) and lettuce (L. sativa) seeds. The composite
germination index (GI) was determined according to the following formula [34]:
GI ¼ GsLs/GcLc where Gs and Ls are seed germination (%) and root elongation
(cm) for the sample, respectively, while Gc and Lc are the corresponding control
values. To facilitate comparison between different tests, GI was expressed as a
percentage of the GI of control. Raw leachate was diluted by Milli-Q water to the
desired concentration (see Fig. 1).
Ten healthy seeds of each species were placed randomly in a Petri dish (9 cm
diameter) lined with Whatman no. 1 filter paper which was moistened with 5 mL of
diluted leachate. Distilled water was used as a control and five replicates were made
for each used dilution (Fig. 1). Germinated seeds were counted and the primary root
length was measured (rounding at the nearest cm) after 2 days for L. sativum seeds
and 5 days for L. sativa.
100
Lepidium sativum
80 Lactuca sativa
60
GI (%)
40
20
0
0 3 5 10 20 40
leachate concentration (% v/v)
Fig. 1 Profiles of germination index (SE) for L. sativa and L. sativum. Error bars deriving from
standard error of 50 measurements are also reported
4 Irrigation Trials
L. sativum and A. halimus were used. The hostile environment of the walls of the
closed landfill caused by water stress, methane emission and relatively high soil
temperatures were taken into consideration. The plants were chosen using native
species, which suited the South Italian climate, as this is where the investigations
were carried out. The selection of the plants was made by taking into account the
plants’ ability to engraft themselves and grow on the landfill final coverage layer
resisting to leachate stress [35, 36]. Furthermore, these species tolerate harsh
conditions such as salinity, light stress and drought [37–39].
For each plant the experimental design included five different concentrations (%
v/v) of raw leachate to be used, consisting of 0% (i.e. irrigation with tap water as a
control), and 5, 25, 50 and 100 (%), respectively. For each concentration, 15 repli-
cates were prepared leading to a total of 150 plant samples for both species. They
were arranged according to a randomised block design in a covered and ventilated
structure to avoid any interference from rain. The only water supply was the one
used throughout the test. Through one growing season (January–July), the plants
were irrigated according to their water needs (as to keep the soil moist) with known
volumes of diluted and undiluted leachate specified as aqueous solution dosage
(mm/m2). Plants were left to grow in pots with a diameter of 14 cm (L. sativum) and
16 cm (A. halimus) filled with peat as the growth substrate. Several solution dosages
were used (Table 2) to evaluate the plant growth in terms of height and leaf
chlorophyll content.
Plant height was measured manually with a measuring tape. Determination of
leaf chlorophyll content was carried out by sampling three leaves from each of the
Table 2 Amount of aqueous

Lepidium sativum Atriplex halimus
solution dosed while checking
the health of the plant Leachate dosage (mm/m2)
0 0
58.8 59.7
133.3 112
– 248.8
15 plant replicates. 100 mg of leaf tissue was placed in a glass centrifuge vial
containing 7 mL of dimethylsulfoxide (DMSO). Chlorophyll was extracted by
heating the sampled leaves in a water bath at 65 C for 30 min. The extract was
then transferred into a graduated tube and diluted with DMSO up to 10 mL. The
chlorophyll extract was then transferred to a 10 mm cuvette, and the absorbance at
645 and 663 nm was measured using a spectrophotometer against a DMSO blank.
The content of chlorophyll a and b was determined according to the following
equations [40]:

Chla g L1 ¼ 0:0127 A663 A645 0:00269;
1

Chlb g L ¼ 0:0229 A663 A645 0:00468:
The total chlorophyll content was obtained by totalling the two contributions (Chla
+ Chlb). At the end of the test, the aerial parts were collected and dried in an oven at
40 C for 4 days and then weighed.
5 Possible Soil Degradation Assessment
Soil pH, in deionised water and in KCl 1 M, and electrical conductivity were
measured in order to verify any possible accumulation of salts and pH changes
due to increasing leachate dosage. The pH in water estimates the H+ ions concen-
tration in the soil circulating solution while in KCl estimates H+ ions both in the
circulating solution and those adsorbed on the exchange complex. Determination of
pH and conductivity were carried out according to EN 13037 method [41] in soil
extracts using growth substrate sieved to 2 mm, with a solid phase: liquid phase
ratio equal to 1:50. The electrical conductivity was measured on the same aqueous
extracts according to EN 13038 method [42] using a conductivity metre equipped
with a thermometer for temperature compensation.
6 Data Testing
The GI was analysed using one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) to identify

significant effects with a type I error rate (α) of 0.05. To test the assumptions of
ANOVA, the data set was subjected to an analysis of residual error for the end point
to ensure that errors were independent, homogeneous and randomly distributed.
Kolmogorov–Smirnov test [43, 44] was used to determine if raw observations
followed a normal distribution. When a normal distribution was not observed, the
end point was subjected to a Box-Cox transformation. Bartlett test and Levene test
were applied on raw data to check the homogeneity of variance. Finally,
Anscombe-Tukey test [45] was applied to check for the presence of outliers.
After applying ANOVA, groups were analysed by means of Fisher-LSD test
(α ¼ 0.05) which allows for unplanned multiple comparisons between all means
and the control. This procedure allows obtaining values of NOEC (not observed
effect concentration), LOEC (lowest observed effect concentration), MATC (max-
imum acceptable toxic concentration) and EC50 (half maximal effective
concentration).
7 Toxicity Assessment at Early Stages (Apical Root Length

and Germination Tests)
The two end point values, namely, the germinated seeds percentage and the apical
root average length for both investigated plant species, are listed in Table 3.
Results show that, for both investigated species, using leachate concentrations at
10%, the percentage values of germinated seeds were identical, within the
experimental error, to the values obtained when leachate was absent. When using
a higher leachate dosage, the number of germinated seeds drastically decreased
leading to an absence of germination at leachate concentration of 40%. Average
length of apical root showed that for both species there was similar behaviour to that
of the germinated seeds percentage. Using L. sativum with leachate concentrations
lower than 5%, results show values comparable, within the experimental error, to
those obtained when leachate was absent. When leachate concentrations were
higher than 5%, the average length of apical roots decreased down to 0.5 0.1 cm,
corresponding to a length reduction of 72%. Results obtained for L. sativa, with
leachate concentrations of lower than 10%, were shown to be comparable to those
obtained when leachate was absent. It was again found that at higher leachate
dosages the average length of apical roots decreased reaching 0.4 0.2 cm at the
concentration of 20%, corresponding to a 78% reduction compared with the plant
irrigated without leachate. The obtained results for both species therefore showed
that the response of the average length of apical roots was an order of magnitude
higher than that of germinated seeds percentage. It follows that average length of
apical roots was more sensitive to toxicity of the leachate, since the response
Table 3 Percentage of germinated seeds and average length of apical roots during irrigation with
landfill leachate at several dilution rates
Leachate Lepidium sativum Lactuca sativa
concentration (% Germinated Average length of Germinated Average length of
v/v) seeds (%) apical roots (cm) seeds (%) apical roots (cm)
0 98.0 4.5 1.8 0.4 94.0 5.5 1.8 0.9
3 96.0 5.5 1.8 0.2 90.0 7.1 1.9 0.2
5 92.0 8.4 0.9 0.2 86.0 8.9 1.6 0.2
10 92.0 8.4 0.5 0.2 82.0 10.1 1.0 0.1
20 62.0 3.1 0.5 0.1 68.0 7.9 0.4 0.2
40 2.0 4.5 0.5 0.1 n.g. n.g.
60 n.g. n.g. n.g. n.g.
80 n.g. n.g. n.g. n.g.
100 n.g. n.g. n.g. n.g.
n.g. not germinated
Table 4 Relevant toxicity parameters, namely, NOEC, LOEC, MATC and EC50, calculated by
ANOVA as a consequence of the presence of leachate (percentage added to the irrigation water) on
Lepidium sativum and Lactuca sativa
Species NOEC (%) LOEC (%) MATC (%) EC50 (%)
Lepidium sativum 3 5 3.8 6
Lactuca sativa 5 10 7.1 10.6
change rate of the average length of apical roots was greater than that of germinated
seed percentage. Indeed, such a trend was more evident at lower leachate dosages.
At the same leachate concentration, the values of germinated seeds percentage were
comparable, while values of the average length of apical roots were significantly
lower for the L. sativum. This suggests a greater sensitivity of L. sativum than
L. sativa to the leachate. The two end points were then merged to create a single
germination index (GI) in order to better assess the effect of the toxicity of leachate
on the two investigated species. The GI vs leachate dosage for the two species is
shown in Fig. 1. GI values for L. sativa are always greater than for L. sativum,
suggesting that the latter species was the most sensitive to the toxicity of leachate.
Furthermore, the obtained values of LOEC and NOEC for the two investigated
species (Table 4) showed greater sensitivity of L. sativum to the leachate treatment.
Irrigation water containing 5% of leachate concentration did not lead to an
observable toxic effect for L. sativa, while toxic effect was obtained for
L. sativum at a leachate dosage of 3%. At the same time, the calculated values of
MATC (Table 4) were 3.8 and 7.1 (%), respectively. From GI profiles it was also
calculated that EC50 was 6 and 10.6 (%) for L. sativum and L. sativa, respectively.
The high toxicity values are fully justified by the landfill-impacted environment. In
fact, as landfill age increases, the organic fraction in the leachate becomes domi-
nated by refractory compounds, such as humic substances; moreover, the ammonia
concentration increases as a result of the fermentation of organic matter containing
proteins [4]. According to the age of studied landfill (5 years), the values shown in
Fig. 1 and Table 4 are not surprising. Nevertheless, even by using solutions with
low leachate content, its reuse is possible and could be included within a proper
management protocol of closed landfills especially for irrigation of plant species on
both top cover and side slopes of landfills.
8 Resistance of Adult Plants (Irrigation Trials)
The influence of leachate concentration on the average height of L. sativum and

A. halimus is shown in Table 5.
Results showed that the plants were able to grow even when high concentrations
of leachate were used. As for L. sativum, Table 5 showed that using leachate
concentrations at low aqueous solution dosages tended to give rise to the same
statistically average height plants, but they differed at higher concentrations. At the
dosage of 58.5 mm/m2, leachate concentration ranging from 0 to 25% had the same
effect on plant growth. At the two greater dilutions, however, average plant heights
were statistically different and also lower than the values obtained at higher
leachate concentrations. At the aqueous solution dosage of 133.3 mm/m2, a similar
trend to the lower dosage was obtained; the higher the leachate concentration is, the
lower the average plant height. However, a greater differential between adjacent
leachate concentrations was obtained, and the average heights were always much
higher than those obtained at the dosage of 58.5 mm/m2 except for 100% leachate
concentration where no increase in average height was found. Results obtained by
A. halimus were similar to those of L. sativum and showed an increase of the
average height at greater aqueous solution dosages, even though such an increase
was much more limited. On the other hand, the results obtained were shown to be
very different when considering the average heights obtained within a fixed dosage
of aqueous solution. Results revealed that the effects of different leachate concen-
trations on the average height were negligible, statistically not different, up to a
dosage of 112 mm/m2. Also, at 248 mm/m2 dosage, the effect of leachate concen-
tration on the plants’ average height began to be evident. Overall, both species
showed a degree of adaptability to the leachate which was more pronounced for
A. halimus which gave lower differences to the leachate concentration within each
investigated aqueous solution dosage. Thus, the A. halimus was more ‘suitable for
purpose’ than L. sativum. The former plant, even at the highest investigated aqueous
solution dosage (248 mm/m2), could be fertigated with a 25% leachate solution
without any detriment to the plant growth.
The influence of leachate concentration on total chlorophyll (a plus b) of the
investigated plants is shown in Table 6.
Results show that for both L. sativum and A. halimus, increasing the dosage of
the irrigation solution led to a slight decrease of total chlorophyll content which was
more evident at higher concentration of leachate. The same trend was evident
within each aqueous solution dosage. This suggests that the general trend was
Table 5 Average height of L. sativum and A. halimus as a function of aqueous solution dosage at
several leachate dosages
Lepidium sativum Dosage (m/m2)
58.5 133.3
Leachate concentration (%) Average height (cm)
0 47 6.5 89 9
5 43 5.2 79 6.7
25 35 5.1 61 5.9
50 33 2.7 41 5.5
100 27 2.3 28 1.5
Atriplex halimus Dosage (m/m2)
59.7 112 248.8
Leachate concentration (%) Average height (cm)
0 42 3.7 45 3.9 70 3.5
5 43 4.9 49 6.1 63 3.3
25 42 4.2 52 6.3 60 3.2
50 43 6.0 49 5.8 52 3.5
100 42 5.6 45 5.5 49.2 2.3
Table 6 Total chlorophyll (a plus b) of L. sativum and A. halimus during irrigation with aqueous
solutions containing landfill leachate
Lepidium sativum Dosage (m/m2)
58.5 133.3
Leachate concentration (%) Total chlorophyll (mg/gwet weight)
0 1.7 0.06 1.5 0.06
5 1.7 0.03 1.6 0.03
25 1.3 0.23 1.2 0.21
50 1.3 0.25 1.1 0.22
100 0.8 0.19 0.6 0.23
Atriplex halimus Dosage (m/m2)
59.7 112 248.8
Leachate concentration (%) Total chlorophyll (mg/gwet weight)
0 2.1 0.09 2.1 0.10 2.1 0.09
5 1.9 0.14 1.8 0.15 1.6 0.14
25 1.4 0.06 1.3 0.18 1.1 0.06
50 1.4 0.09 1.2 0.27 0.9 0.09
100 1.3 0.09 1.2 0.32 0.8 0.09
that the higher the absolute amount of leachate within the aqueous solution, the
lower the total chlorophyll content of plants. Specifically, for the L. sativum, the
results showed that for several levels of leachate concentrations, statistically iden-
tical results were obtained. Interestingly, at the aqueous solution dosage of
133.3 mm/m2, the measured value at leachate concentration of 5% was higher
600
Lepidium sativum
500 Atriplex halimus
400
dried weight (g)
300
200
100
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
leachate concentration (%)
Fig. 2 Dried weight of aerial parts of L. sativum and A. halimus at the end of irrigation trials
(i.e. at maximum dosage for each concentration)
than that obtained without any leachate suggesting a fertilising effect of the leachate
at such a percentage. A. halimus shows similar results to L. sativum, with a general
trend characterised by lower total chlorophyll content at higher leachate concen-
tration (Table 6). At the end of the irrigation trials (i.e. at maximum dosage for each
concentration), the dried weight of plant aerial parts were also measured. This was a
typical measurement of plant biomass and was aimed at assessing the status of plant
biology and growth, thus evaluating the impact of leachate solutions at different
investigated concentrations. The results obtained for L. sativum and A. halimus are
displayed in Fig. 2 and show that both plants had a similar bell-like trend.
The maximum dried weight was obtained at two different leachate concentra-
tions for the two plant species, namely, at 5% and 25% for L. sativum and
A. halimus, respectively. Results depicted in Fig. 2 suggest that the leachate has
two opposite effects on the plants, namely, a fertilising effect and a toxic effect. The
fertilising effect was evident at low leachate concentrations which gave rise to a
higher dried weight of the plants irrigated without any leachate. The toxic effect
was evident at high leachate concentrations where lower values of dried weight
were measured. Therefore, the trends reflected a balance between the two afore-
mentioned opposite effects. It follows that for both plants a threshold value of
certain leachate concentration was obtained, and above that threshold value the
progressive increase of leachate concentration led to a drop in dried weight.
The calculated threshold concentration of leachate was quite different between

L. sativum and A. halimus due to the strength of each plant species. Height values
greater than the observed control can be explained knowing that some substances,
although toxic at higher doses, can be stimulatory or even beneficial at low doses.
This biphasic dose–response phenomenon is commonly termed hormesis. How-
ever, hormetic effects are not necessarily entirely beneficial for an organism, as, for
example, increased shoot elongation at the cost of stem robustness may lead to more
fragile plants, or increased biomass growth at the expense of pathogen defence
compounds could make treated plants more vulnerable to diseases [46]. In fact, in
the case at hand, the increase in average height was accompanied by a decrease of
chlorophyll contents.
9 Soil Worsening Assessment After Plant Growth
In order to check for a possible worsening of the soil characteristics, several

parameters could be measured. As the proposed method was thought to be fast
and economical at the same time, the choice was to balance the obtained informa-
tion amount and the considered number of parameters. The pH and electrical
conductivity were selected, because indirectly, these parameters provide informa-
tion on microbial communities structure, biogeochemical cycles, solubility equi-
librium and precipitation of the elements as well as information on the speciation
and toxicity potential of some elements [47]. The pH (in both water and KCl) and
electrical conductivity were measured on the substrate used for plant growth (peat)
at the end of irrigation tests (Fig. 3).
It was evident that for L. sativum the pH (in both water and KCl) did not change
significantly by increasing the leachate concentration. For A. halimus, instead, a
slight increase of pH was found at higher leachate concentrations. The increase was
higher in KCl than in water, being 1.4 with respect to 0.5 pH unit. It is also worth
noting that the pH measured for L. sativum was always higher than that found for
A. halimus. Conductivity results showed quite different behaviour, the higher the
leachate concentration, the (much) higher the conductivity. For L. sativum, con-
ductivity increased from 276 up to 2,253 μS cm1, while for A. halimus a much
higher increase was measured, namely, from 188 to 4,140 μS cm1. Irrigation with
the leachate solutions did not significantly affect the pH of substrate used for the
plant growth, possibly due to the buffering capacity of the soil. On the other hand,
under the experimental conditions that were characterised by the absence of rain
leaching, the irrigation with the leachate solutions led to an accumulation of soluble
salts leading ultimately to an evident increase of electrical conductivity. This
phenomenon would generate negative effects on plant growth, by affecting the
root absorption of nutrients, ultimately causing nutritional deficiency in plants
[48]. However, from the results that were obtained, it can be concluded that, for
both investigated plant species, at low leachate concentrations (5–25%), the soil
quality did not become compromised as a result of the irrigation process.
a 9
8
7
6
5
pH
4
pH (water) - Lepidium sativum
3
pH (KCl) - Lepidium sativum
2 pH (water) - Atriplex halimus
1 pH (KCl) - Atriplex halimus
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
b 5000
4000 Lepidium sativum

Atriplex halimus
EC (µS/cm)
3000
2000
1000
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Fig. 3 pH (a), in water and KCl, and electrical conductivity (b) measured on the substrate
employed for plant growth (peat) at the end of irrigation tests
10 Conclusions
The investigations as set out in this work have demonstrated that a speedy,
economical methodology for the possible revegetation of the walls of closed
landfills, employing the leachate as a fertigant, is potentially available. This method
could be of importance to decision makers seeking to switch from standard landfill
management mode to a more environmentally sustainable one. The methodology
was structured into three phases: (i) early-stage toxicity assessment phase (apical
root length and germination tests), (ii) adult plant resistance assessment phase and
(iii) verification phase of possible worsening of the soil characteristics. The ratio-
nale of the proposed approach was firstly to identify the potential degree of toxicity
in landfill leachate for fertigation purposes. Secondly, through specific tests, the
chosen plants were ranked in terms of their resistance to the aqueous solution that
contains leachate. Finally, after a long-term irrigation programme and investiga-
tion, the possible worsening of soil properties was evaluated. By using such
an approach, it was found that a leachate characterised by high concentration of
N–NH4 and COD could be used for fertigation purposes up to a dosage of 112 and
133.5 mm/m2, at 25% and 5% concentration for A. halimus and L. sativum,
respectively. The proposed procedure was applied to a specific leachate, and the
obtained results appeared able to be realistically extended to a wider range of cases.
In fact, the landfill average age and intrinsic characteristics of leachate seem to be
truly representative and can be found in a wide class of real-world situations [4, 49].
The purpose is the application of this procedure in different situations in order to
collect the widest possible cases (different leachates, different plant species and
different climatic conditions) until to formalise a semiautomatic tool of wide
application. The correct use of the proposed procedure can lead to the solution of
two important problems: the recovery of an exhausted landfill and the disposal of
leachate through recirculation. Further study would be needed, however, in order to
understand whether, and to what extent, very long-term use for irrigation of such a
saline water matrix could affect the electrical conductivity of the soil and thus
adversely affect and cause deterioration of its fertility.
Acknowledgements The experimental work was performed within the strategic project PS_057
“Ottimizzazione e recupero ambientale di discariche da RSU”, co-funded by Apulia Region and
the European Commission under the POR Puglia 2000-2006 Misura 3.13 “Ricerca e Sviluppo
Tecnologico”.
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Index
A B
Acetylmorpholine, 224 Bacteria, antibiotic-resistant 129
Acetyloxytrimethylbicycloheptanedione, 224 Benzotriazoles, 15, 160, 165
Adsorbable organic halogens (AOX), 215 UV stabilizers, 15
Advanced oxidation processes (AOP), 144, Benzoylecgonine, 165
231, 242 Beta-blockers, 11, 14, 60, 61, 88, 118, 162
Agriculture, 2, 105, 157, 193 Bioassays, 1, 3
reclaimed water, 83 Bioavailability, 81
wastewater reuse, 193, 197 Bioconcentration factor soil-vegetal, 89
Algal toxins, 167 Biodegradation, 59, 89, 91, 94, 111, 165, 241
Algebraic targeting tool, 186 Biological oxygen demand (BOD), 110
Algeria, 196 Bisphenol A (BPA), 28, 33, 87, 88, 94–96, 160,
Alkylphenol ethoxylate surfactants, 167 165, 168, 170, 195, 225
Aminoglycosides, 138 Bleached kraft pulp, 217
Ammonia, 56, 71, 97, 112, 118, 158, 219, Boron, 202
241, 248 BPA. See Bisphenol A (BPA)
Amoxicillin, 141 Bromide, 158
Ampicillin, 140 Butylated hydroxylanisole, 90
Anatoxins, 167
Antibacterials, 162
Antibiotics, 34, 111, 131, 162, 206 C
resistance, 1, 129 Cadmium, 200
genes, 129 Caffeine, 11, 36, 88, 90
Antiestrogenic effects, 204 Carbamazepine, 36, 89, 205
Anti-inflammatory drugs, 12, 15, 64, 88 Catechols, chlorinated, 225
nonsteroidal (NSAIDs) 14, 64, 88 Chemical analysis, 1
Antimony, 167 Chemical oxygen demand (COD), 2, 110, 215,
Atenolol, 60, 61, 164, 172 242
Atrazine, 96, 164 Chloramphenicol, 140
Atriplex halimus, 239 Chlorination, 64, 83, 142, 155, 158, 168–170,
Azithromycin, 90 234

Hdb Env Chem (2016) 44: 257–262, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-23892-0,
© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016
258 Index
Chlorine, 142, 158, 168–170, 234 Endosulfan, 203

Chlorpyrifos, 203 Enrofloxacin, 36
Chlortetracycline, 36 Enterobacterial repetitive intergenic consensus
Chromatography, 16 (ERIC) sequence PCR, 136
Chromium, 202 Environmental contamination, 105
Chromosomal integrons (CIs), 134 Epidemiological cutoff (E-COFF), 136
Clarithromycin, 90 Erythromycin, 60, 68–70, 143, 160, 162
Clofibric acid, 24, 32–37 Estradiol, 27, 30, 55, 97, 170, 204
Cobalt, 202 Estriol, 163, 204
Cocaine, 165, 169 Estrogenic compounds, 33, 65, 162, 204
Colorado River, 37 2-Ethylidene-1,5-dimethyl-3,3-
Contaminants, of emerging concern (CECs), diphenylpyrrolidine (EDDP), 165
155 Ethynylestradiol (EE2) 30, 36, 160, 162, 204
organic, 81
Copper, 200
Crops, organic microcontaminants, 35 F
Cumulative flowrate, 186 Fenton oxidation, 242
Cyanogen halides, 158 Fertigation, 239
Cyanotoxins, 167 Fez, 196
Cyclooxygenase (COX), 65 Flowrates, 186
Cylindrospermopsin, 167 Fluoroquinolone, 140
Cypermethrin, 203 Fragrances, 8, 15, 29, 34, 84, 90
Fresh resource flowrate, 186
Fungicides, 203
D
Daphnia magna, 53
Daucus carota, 36 G
DDE/DDD, 203 Galaxolide, 34, 36, 87, 90
DDT, 83, 162, 203, 204 Gas recovery, 184
DEET, 88 Gemfibrozil, 34, 88, 164, 172
Dehydroabietic acid, 225 Glibenclamide, 172
Detoxification, by plants, 91 Guaiacols, 225
Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDTs), 83,
162, 203, 204
Diclofenac, 25, 34, 36, 64, 87, 94, 162, 168, H
172 Haloacetonitriles, 158
Dihalomethanes, 173 Haloamides, 158
N,N-Dimethylphenethylamine (DMPEA), 37, Halonitromethanes, 158
90 HCH, 203
Dioxane, 166 Heavy metals, 110, 118, 132, 134, 195, 201
Disinfection, 142 Hordeum vulgare, 36
Disinfection by-products (DBPs), 83, 155 Horizontal gene transfer, 129
Dissolved air flotation (DAF), 221 Hormones, 8, 30, 84, 118, 160–164, 195, 199
Dissolved organic carbon (DOC), 84 Humic substances (HSs), 84
Drinking water, 155 Hydrochlorothiazide, 172
Hydrocinnamic acid, 90
Hydrophobic organic contaminants (HOCs), 84
E
Ecotoxicological testing, 51
Effect-directed bioassay, 49 I
Effluents, 213 Ibuprofen, 25, 33–37, 60, 64, 164, 206
Egypt, 196 Ichkeul Lake, 204
Electrochemical peroxidation (ECP), 242 Illicit drugs, 90, 164
Endocrine-disrupting compounds (EDCs), 33, Integrated water management, 213
204 Interception unit, 185
Index 259
Iopamidol, 168 Mobile integrons (MIs), 134

Irrigation, 3 Molecular feature extraction (MFE), 21
Molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs), 14
Molecularly imprinted solid phase extraction
K (MISPE), 14
Kanamycin, 141 Molybdenum, 202
Kraft pulp, 217 Morocco, 196, 198
Multidrug resistance integrons (MRIs), 134
Multilocus sequence typing (MLST), 136
L Municipal wastewater reclamation, 217, 232
Lactuca sativa, 37, 239 Musk fragrances, 8, 12, 15, 29, 34
Landfill leachate, reuse, 239 Mutagen X (MX), 159
Landfills, closed 239
Lead (Pb), 108, 118, 199, 202
Leaf concentration factors (LCF), 36 N
Lepidium sativum, 239 Nanofiltration (NF), 83, 172, 230, 242
Levofloxacin, 68 Naproxen, 37
Libya, 196 Narasin, 36
Limiting composite curve, 186 Nearest neighbour algorithm (NNA), 186
Lipid peroxidation, 64 Nickel, 202
Liquid–liquid extraction (LLE), 9 Nile River, 196
Nitrogen-containing disinfection by-products
(N-DBPs), 158
M Nitroglycerin, 162
Macrolides, 138 Nitrosamines, 158, 159
Malathion, 203 N-Nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA), 159
Malus domestica, 36 Nodularins, 167
Mancozeb, 203 Nonylphenol ethoxylates, 15
Manganese, 202 Nonylphenols, 15, 31, 34, 55, 57, 87, 88, 204
Marrakech, 200 North Africa, 193
Mass spectrometry, 7 Nutrients, 117, 223
Material cascade analysis (MCA), 186
Material recovery pinch diagram, 186
Mathematical optimization, 4 O
Matrix effects, 8 Oxytetracycline, 36
Medicago sativa, 36 Ozonation, 17, 143, 169–173, 221, 234, 241
Mefenamic acid, 172
Membrane bioreactors, 144, 230
Metabolization, 81, 91 P
Methadone, 165 Paper industry, water reuse, 213
Methamphetamine, 90 Parabens, 15, 29, 163–169
Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus Parathion, 203
(MRSA), 143 Pentachlorophenol, 224
Methyl dihydrojasmonate (MDHJ), 36 Perchlorate, 166
Methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE), 24, 86, 172 Perfluorinated compounds (PFCs), 160
Metoprolol, 32, 60, 61, 64, 172 Perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS), 161
Microbial communities, 105, 111 Perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), 160–162
Microcontaminants, organic, 7 Pesticides, 17, 36, 83, 90, 110, 158, 167, 195
Microcystin, 167 North African, 203
Microfiltration (MF), 158, 230, 242 Pharmaceuticals, 14, 49, 57, 205
Micropollutants, 193 Pharmaceuticals and personal-care products
organic, 81, 118 (PPCPs), 16, 83, 88, 205
Minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC), 136 Phaseolus vulgaris, 36
Minimum fresh resource consumption, 187 Phenanthrene, 89
Mobile genetic elements (MGEs), 129, 133 Phenoxy acids, 90
260 Index
Phenytoin, 164 Soils, agricultural, 105

Phthalates, 224 microbial communities, 3
Phytohormones, 98, 204 pH, 112
Phytotoxicity, bioassays, 244 samples, clean-up methodologies, 32
Pinch analysis, 4, 183 Soil–water–contaminant interactions, 84
Pinch quality, 187 Solid–liquid extraction (SLE), 22
Plant detoxification, 91 Solid-phase extraction (SPE), 9
Plant uptake, 81 Sorbents, 9
Plasmids, 134 Sorption, 85
Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), 36, 83 Sotalol, 172
Polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDFs), 83 Spectinomycin, 141
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), 36, Steel plant, water recovery, 189
83, 110 Streptomycin, 141
Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), 160 Sulfamethazine, 36, 87, 88
Process design, 183 Sulfamethoxazole (SMX), 34, 60, 68, 70, 87,
Process sink/source, 185 88, 141, 164, 172
Process synthesis, 183 Sulfonamides, 88, 134, 138–141, 146, 148
Property integration, 184 Surfactants, 57, 84, 88, 109, 119, 167,
Propranolol, 32, 60–64, 162 195, 225
Prothiphos, 203 Sustainable reuse, 105
Pseudoephedrine, 90 Synthetic musk fragrances (SMFs), 8, 12, 15,
Public health, 105 29, 34
Pulp, paper, 213 Syringols, 225
bleaching, 225
Pyrene, 89
Pyrethroids, 204 T
Targeting, 183
Tetracycline, 22, 27, 36, 88, 119, 134, 138–147
Q Tetrahydrocannabinol, 169
Quinolones, 138 Textile industries, 166, 196, 204
Thermophilic anaerobic digestion, 144
Thiabendazole, 20
R Thiazole-4-carboxamide, 20
REACH, 51, 161 Tolylfluanide (N,N-dimethylsulfamide), 168
Reclamation, 213 Tolyltriazole, 165
Regeneration reuse/recycle, 184 Tonalide, 34
Resistant integrons (RIs), 134 Total suspended solids (TSS), 110
Resource conservation networks (RCNs), 184 Toxicity, 49
Reuse, de facto 155 Toxic units (TU), 53
Reverse osmosis (RO), 172, 230 Trace metals, 110, 118, 198, 200
Rifampicin, 140, 143 Transformation products (TPs), 7, 8, 20
Root concentration factors (RCF), 36 Translocation, 81
Roxithromycin, 90 Transpiration stream concentration factor
(TSCF), 86
Transposon-aided capture (TRACA), 137
S Triazinic acid herbicides, 90
Salinisation, 117 Tributyl phosphate, 90
Sample extraction, 9 Triclocarban, 89
Saxitoxins, 167 Triclosan, 29, 36, 37, 87–89, 162, 169
Screening analysis, 7 Trihalomethanes (THMs), 159
Sink-source mapping diagram, 186 Trimethoprim, 140
Slimicides, 224 Tris(1,3-dichloro-2-propyl)phosphate, 164
Soil-pore water, 89 Tunisia, 193–207
Index 261
U inputs, 155
Ultrafiltration (UF), 221, 227, 230, 242 reclaimed, 81, 195
Ultrasound-assisted solvent extraction (USE), reuse, 1, 49, 193
22 treated, 105
Ultraviolet (UV) disinfection, 142 Wastewater treatment plants, municipal
Uptake, 1, 86 (MWWTPs), 217, 232
Water, reuse/recycling, 155, 183, 213
minimisation, 184
V pinch analysis, 4
Vancomycin, 141, 143 Water Framework Directive (WFD), 199
Whole effluent toxicity (WET), 53
W
Wastewater, 7 Z
in agriculture, 193 Zinc, 108, 114–118, 200, 242
composition, 110 Ziram, 203

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The Handbook of Environmental Chemistry 44

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Prof. Dr. Kevin C. Jones

Prof. Dr. Thomas P. Knepper

Prof. Dr. Alice Newton

Prof. Dr. Donald L. Sparks

The Handbook of Environmental Chemistry is included in Springer’s eBook

Aims and Scope

Since 1980, The Handbook of Environmental Chemistry has provided sound

“pure” chemistry, including those in industry, business, government, research

Nicosia, Cyprus Despo Fatta-Kassinos

Scope of the Book Wastewater Reuse and Current Challenges. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

New Challenges for the Analytical Evaluation of Reclaimed

Bioassays Currently Available for Evaluating the Biological Potency

Bioavailability and Uptake of Organic Micropollutants During Crop

Irrigation with Treated Wastewater: Potential Impacts

Antibiotic Resistance Elements in Wastewater Treatment Plants:

Safe Drinking Water? Effect of Wastewater Inputs and Source

Design of Water Recovery System with Process Integration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183

Wastewater Use in Agriculture and Relevance of Micropollutants

Water Reuse Within the Paper Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213

Reusing Landfill Leachate Within the Framework of a Proper

Klaus Kümmerer, Dionysios D. Dionysiou, and Despo Fatta-Kassinos

Abstract This volume offers an overview of current challenges related to the

Keywords Antibiotic resistance, Bioassays, Chemical analysis, Uptake,

D. Fatta-Kassinos et al. (eds.), Wastewater Reuse and Current Challenges, 1

Water and wastewater reuse is a long-established practice used for irrigation

The incomplete elimination of contaminants of emerging concern during con-

Ana Agüera and Dimitra Lambropoulou

Abstract Presence of unregulated and not assessed organic microcontaminants in

Keywords Mass spectrometry, Organic microcontaminants, Screening analysis,

D. Fatta-Kassinos et al. (eds.), Wastewater Reuse and Current Challenges, 7

3.1 Analytical Methods/Sample Preparation in Soil Samples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

Reuse of wastewater is nowadays accepted as a strategy that can contribute

This chapter intends to provide an overview of the main analytical methodo-

2 Determination of Organic Microcontaminants

Trace analysis of organic contaminants in raw and treated wastewater is usually

2.1 Sample Extraction

Low concentrations of contaminants in wastewater make the sample enrichment a

Analytes Water matrix Extraction Separation Analysis Reference

(150 4.6 mm, 5 μm

Analytes Water matrix Extraction Separation Analysis Reference

SBSE is expected to provide higher sample capacity and extraction efficiency

2.2 Chromatographic Separation and Determination

compounds, (2) comprehensive analysis of target and non-target analytes by

2.2.1 Analysis of Target Compounds

The analysis of CECs in wastewater often focuses on quantitative assessment of a

2.2.2 Screening Methods

2.2.3 Identification of Unknown Transformation Products