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Res. Rep. Fac. Eng. Mie Univ., Vol. 29, pp.
31-64 (2004) 31
Original Paper
Phase Change Materials for Low Temperature Solar Thermal

Applications
Someshower Dutt SHARMA†, Hiroaki KITANO and Kazunobu SAGARA†
(Dept. of Architecture)
(Received September 17, 2004)
Abstract
Latent heat storage in a Phase Change Material (PCM) is very attractive because of its high
storage density with small temperature swing. It has been demonstrated that, for the
development of a latent heat storage system, the choice of the PCM plays an important role
in addition to heat transfer mechanism in the PCM. The information on the latent heat
storage materials and systems is enormous and published widely in the literatures. In this
paper, we make an effort to gather the information from the previous works on PCMs and
latent heat storage systems. The paper contains a list of about 250 PCMs and more than 220
references.
Key words: Phase change material, Solar energy, Latent heat storage system
1. Introduction
Scientists all over the world are in search of new and renewable energy sources. One of the options is to
develop energy storage devices, which are as important as developing new sources of energy. Thermal energy
storage is essential for many processes. Latent heat storage is one of the most attractive because large amounts of
energy can be stored in a small volume with a small temperature change in the media. Latent heat storage is a
relatively new area of study and pioneered by Dr. Telkes in the 1940s [1]. It did not receive much attention
however until the energy crisis of late 1970s and early 1980s where it was extensively researched for use in solar
heating systems [1, 2]. When the energy crisis subsided much less emphasis was put on latent heat storage.
Although research into latent heat storage for solar heating systems continues [3, 4], it is increasingly being
considered for waste heat recovery and load leveling for power generation [5]. Latent heat storage can be
accomplished through solid-liquid, liquid-gas, solid-gas, and solid-solid phase transformations, but the only two
of practical interest are the solid-liquid and solid-solid. The solid-gas and liquid-gas systems are of limited utility
because of the large volumes required for such systems. Of the two practical systems, the solid-liquid system is
the most studied and most commonly commercially available. Solid-solid systems shows much promise, but are
only recently being studied [6]. Many phase change materials (PCMs) have been studied for practical use. This
paper is a compilation of much of practical information on different PCMs and system developed based on latent
heat storage technology.
2.0 Thermal Energy Storage
Thermal energy storage can be stored as a change in internal energy of a material as sensible heat, latent heat
and thermo - chemical or combination of these.
In Sensible Heat Storage (SHS), thermal energy is stored by raising the temperature of a solid or liquid. SHS
system utilizes the heat capacity and the change in temperature of the material during the process of charging
and discharging. The amount of stored heat depends on the specific heat of medium, the temperature change and
the amount of storage material.
∫ (
Q = mC p dT = mC ap T f − Ti ) [1]
† Department of Architectural Engineering, Osaka University, Suita, Osaka 565-0871, Japan

32 Someshower Dutt SHARMA, Hiroaki KITANO and Kazunobu SAGARA
Latent Heat Storage (LHS) is based on the heat absorption or release when a storage material undergoes a phase
change from solid to liquid or liquid to gas or vice – versa. The storage capacity of the LHS system with a PCM
medium is given by
m f
∫
Q = mam ∆hm + mC p dT +
i ∫ mC dT
m
p
[ (
= m am ∆hm + Csp (Tm − Ti ) + Clp T f − Tm )] [2]
LHS systems have certain benefits in comparison with SHS systems. The most important is the higher
energy density per unit mass and per unit volume.
Thermo chemical systems rely on the energy absorbed and released in breaking and reforming molecular
bonds in a completely reversible chemical reaction. In this case, the heat stored depends on the amount of
storage material, the endothermic heat of reaction, and the extent of conversion.
Q = ar m∆hr [3]
Amongst above thermal heat storage techniques, latent heat thermal energy storage is particularly attractive
due to its ability to provide high energy storage density and its characteristics to store heat at constant
temperature corresponding to the phase transition temperature of phase change material (PCM). Phase change
may be in the following form: solid – solid, solid – liquid, solid – gas, Liquid – gas.
In solid – solid transitions, heat is stored when the material is transformed from one crystalline to another.
This transition generally has smaller latent heat and volume changes than solid – liquid transitions. Solid–solid
PCMs offer the advantages of less stringent container requirements and greater design flexibility [9]. Most
promising materials are organic solid solution of pentaerythritol, pentaglycerine, Li2SO4 and KHF2 [10]. Trombe
Wall with these materials could provide better performance than a plain concrete Trombe Wall.
Solid - gas and liquid – gas transition through have higher latent heat of phase transition but their large
volume changes on phase transition are associated with the containment problems and rule out their potential
utility in thermal storage systems. Large changes in volume make the system complex and impractical.
Solid – liquid transformations have comparatively smaller latent heat than liquid - gas. However, these
transformations involve only a small change (of order of 10 percent or less) in volume. Solid- liquid transitions
have proved to be economically attractive for use in thermal energy storage systems. PCMs themselves cannot
be used as heat transfer medium. Heat transfer medium must me employed with heat exchanger in between to
transfer energy from the source to the PCM and from PCM to the load. The heat exchanger to be used has to be
designed specially, in view of the low thermal diffusivity of PCMs in general. The volume changes of the PCMs
on melting would also necessitate special volume design of the containers to wholes PCM. It should be able to
absorb these volume changes and should also be compatible with the PCM used. Any latent heat energy storage
system must, therefore, posses at least following three properties: a suitable PCM with its melting point in the
desired temperature range, a suitable heat exchange surface and a suitable container compatible with the PCM.
3.0 Latent Heat Storage Materials
Phase Change Materials (PCM) is latent heat storage material. As the source temperature rises, the chemical
bonds within the PCM break up as the material changes phase from solid to liquid (as is the case for solid-liquid
PCMs which are of particular interest here). The phase change is a heat-seeking (endothermic) process and
therefore, the PCM absorbs heat. Upon storing heat in the storage material, the material begins to melt when the
phase change temperature is reached. The temperature then stays constant until the melting process is finished.
The heat stored during the phase change process (melting process) of the material is called latent heat. The effect
of latent heat storage has two main advantages: 1. It is possible to store large amounts of heat with only small
temperature changes and therefore to have a high storage density. 2. Because the change of phase at a constant
temperature takes some time to complete, it becomes possible to smooth temperature variations. They store 5 to
14 times more heat per unit volume than sensible storage materials such as water, masonry, or rock [14]. A large
number of PCMs are known to melt with a heat of fusion in any required range. The PCM to be used in the
design of thermal storage systems should passes desirable thermo physical, kinetics and chemical properties [11,
12].
PCMs for Low Temperature Solar Thermal Applications 33
Thermo physical properties
(i) Melting temperature in the desired operating temperature range.

(ii) High latent heat of fusion per unit volume so that the required volume of the container to store a
given amount of energy is less.
(iii) High specific heat to provide for additional significant sensible heat storage.
(iv) High thermal conductivity of both solid and liquid phases to assist the charging and discharging of
energy of the storage systems.
(v) Small volume changes on phase transformation and small vapor pressure at operating temperatures
to reduce the containment problem.
(vi) Congruent melting of the phase change material for a constant storage capacity of the material with
each freezing/melting cycle.
Kinetic properties
(i) High nucleation rate to avoid super cooling of the liquid phase.
(ii) High rate of crystal growth, so that the system can meet demands of heat recovery from the storage
system.
Chemical properties
(i) Chemical stability.

(ii) Complete reversible freeze / melt cycle.
(iii) No degradation after a large number of freeze / melt cycle.
(iv) Non-corrosiveness to the construction materials.
(v) Non-toxic, non-flammable and non-explosive materials for safety.
Moreover, low cost and large-scale availability of the phase change materials is also very important.
3.1 Classification of PCMs
A large number of phase change materials (organic, inorganic and eutectic) are available in any required
temperature range. A classification of PCMs is given in Fig. 1.
Fig.1: Classification of latent heat storage materials
There are a large number of organic and inorganic materials, which can be identified as PCM from the point of
view melting temperature and latent heat of fusion. Organic and inorganic types of PCMs are given in Table 1
and 2 respectively. As no single material can have all the required properties for an ideal thermal storage media,
one has to use the available materials and tries to make up for the poor physical property by an adequate system
design. For example metallic fins can be used to increase the thermal conductivity of PCMs, super cooling may
be suppressed by introducing a nucleating agent in the storage material and incongruent melting can be inhibited
by use of suitable thickness. For their very different thermal and chemical behavior, the properties of each sub
group, which affects the design of latent heat thermal energy storage systems using PCMs of that sub group, are
discussed in detail below.
Table 1: List of organic PCMs [94 - 98]

Material Melting point Latent heat of Material Melting point Latent heat of
O O
( C) fusion (kJ/kg) ( C) fusion (kJ/kg)
N-Tetradeca 5.5 226 N-Penta Cosane 53.7 164
Formic Acid 7.8 247 Myristic Acid 54.0 199
N-Pentadeca 10.0 205 Oxolate 54.3 178
Acetic Acid 16.7 273 Tristearin 54.5 191
N-Hexadeca 16.7 237 O-Xylene 55.0 121
Caprilone 40.0 260 β-Chloroacetic 56.0 147
Docasyle 40.0 201 N-Hexacosane 56.3 255
N-Henicosan 40.5 161 Nitro Naphthalene 56.7 103
Phenol 41.0 120 α-Chloroacetic 61.2 130
N-Lauric 43.0 183 N-Octacosane 61.4 134
P-Joluidine 43.3 167 Palmitic Acid 61.8 164
Cynamide 44.0 209 Bees Wax 61.8 177
N-Docosane 44.5 157 Glyolic Acid 63.0 109
N-Tricosane 47.6 130 P-Bromophenol 63.5 86
Hydrocinna 48.0 118 Azobenzene 67.1 121
Cetyl 49.3 141 Acrylic Acid 68.0 115
O-Nitroanili 50.0 93 Dintro Toluene 70.0 111
Camphene 50.0 239 Phenylacetic Acid 76.7 102
Diphenyl 52.9 107 Thiosinamine 77.0 140
3.11 Paraffins
The normal paraffins of type CnH2n+2 are a family of saturated hydrocarbons with very similar properties.
Paraffins between C5 and C15 are liquids, and the rest are waxy solids. Paraffin wax is the mainly used
commercial organic heat storage PCM [1,14]. It consists of mainly straight chain hydrocarbons that have melting
temperatures from 23 to 67 °C [2]. Commercial grade paraffin wax is obtained from petroleum distillation and is
not a pure substance, but a combination of different hydrocarbons. In general the longer the average length of
hydrocarbon chain the higher the melting temperature and heat of fusion [13]. Properties of some paraffin are
given in Table 3. Paraffins are easily available from many manufacturers and are usually more expensive than
salt hydrates [1,14].
3.11.1 Advantages
Paraffin waxes show no tendency to segregate. They are also chemically stable although Lane [1] reports
slow oxidation when exposed to oxygen requiring closed containers. Sharma [8, 145] reports stable properties
after 1500 cycles in commercial grade paraffin wax. Paraffin waxes show high heats of fusion as shown in Table
3. They also have no tendencies to super cool, so nucleating agents are not necessary [1, 14]. Paraffin waxes are
safe and non-reactive [14,15]. They are compatible with all metal containers and easily incorporated into heat
storage systems [1]. Care however should be taken when using plastic containers as paraffin's have a tendency to
infiltrate and soften some plastics [1].
3.11.2 Disadvantages
Paraffins have low thermal conductivity in their solid state as can be seen from Table 4. This presents a
problem when high heat transfer rates are required during the freezing cycle. Velraj [16] reports that this problem
can be decreased through the use of finned containers and metallic fillers or through combination latent/sensible
storage systems. Aluminum honeycombs has been found to improve system performance [14]. Paraffins have a
high volume change between the solid and liquid stages. This causes many problems in container design [15].
Paraffin's are flammable, this can be easily alleviated by a proper container [13 - 15]. Lane [1] also reports that
paraffins can contract enough to pull away from the walls of the storage container greatly decreasing heat storage
capacity. Unlike Salt Hydrates, commercial paraffins generally do not have sharp well-defined melting points.
Abhat [2] reports melting ranges of up to 43 °C. This is due to the fact that they are a mixture of materials and a
solid-solid phase transformation in commercial grade parafffins immediately before melting that stores a great
amount of the latent heat capacity of the material [2]. This decreases the efficiency of the heat storage system, as
is no longer isothermal.
3.12 Non-paraffins
This is the largest category of candidate’s materials for phase change storage. Lane et al [1, 18 - 19], Abhat
[2] and Buddhi [12] have conducted an extensive survey of organic materials and identified a number of esters,
fatty acids, alcohol’s and glycol’s suitable for energy storage. These materials are flammable and should not be
exposed to excessively high temperature, flames or oxidizing agents. Non - paraffins are tabulated in Table 4.
3.13 Fatty acids
Fatty acids, characterized by the chemical formula CH3(CH2)2nCOOH, have much the same characteristics
as paraffins. Their advantages of sharper phase transformations are offset by the disadvantage of about three
times the cost of parffins [15]. They are also mild corrosive. Some fatty acids of interest to low temperature
latent heat thermal energy storage applications are tabulated in Table 5. Sharma [8, 145] reports stable properties
after 1500 cycles for stearic acid.
3.14 Salt hydrates
Salt hydrates are some of the oldest and most studied heat storage PCMs [1]. They consist of a salt and water,
which combine in a crystalline matrix when the material solidifies. They can be used in alone or in eutectic
mixtures [2]. Properties of some salt hydrates are given in Table 6. There are many different materials that have
melting ranges from 15 to 117 °C [1]. Salt hydrates are the most important group of PCMs, which have been
extensively studied for their use in latent heat thermal energy storage systems. Three types of the behavior of the
melted salts can be identified: congruent, incongruent and semi congruent melting.
3.14.1 Advantages
Low cost and easy availability of salt hydrates makes commercial attractive for heat storage applications.
Two of the least expensive and most available salt hydrates are CaCl2.6H2O and Na2SO4.10H2O [1]. Many salt
hydrates are sufficiently inexpensive for the use in storage [18]. Salt hydrates have a sharp melting point, this
maximizes the efficiency of a heat storage system. They have a high thermal conductivity when compared with
other heat storage PCMs. This can increase heat transfer in and out of the storage unit. They have a high heat of
fusion to decrease the needed size of the storage system. Salt hydrates have a lower volume change than other
PCMs.
Segregation is formation of other hydrates or dehydrated salts that tend to settle out and reduce the active
volume available for heat storage. Abhat [2] reports a decrease in heat of fusion of over 73% in Na2SO4.10H2O
after 1000 melt/freeze cycles. This problem can be eliminated to a certain extent through the use of gelled or
thickened mixtures [1] though this process negatively impacts the heat storage characteristics of the mixture and
the mixture still degrades with time [2]. Salt hydrates shows supercooling because of not able to start
crystallization at the freezing point of PCM. This can be avoiding using suitable nucleating materials to start
crystal growth in the storage media. Lane [1] offers a comprehensive listing of nucleating materials for most
common salt hydrates. Abhat [2] reports material degradation in CaCl2.6H2O after only two cycles when the test
sample was not hermetically sealed. Therefore it is necessary to design containers to contain the material without
letting water out. Another problem of salt hydrates is their tendency to cause corrosion in metal containers that
are commonly used in thermal storage systems [2]. Compatibility of PCM and container should always be
checked before use.
3.15 Eutectics
A eutectic is a minimum melting composition of two or more components, each of which melts and freezes
congruently [19]. Eutectic nearly always melts and freezes without segregation since they freeze to an intimate
mixture of crystals, leaving little opportunity for the components to separate. On melting both components
liquefy simultaneously. A list of eutectic is given in Table 7.
Table 2: List of inorganic PCMs [1, 2, 12, 94 - 98]

Name Melting point Latent heat of Name Melting point Latent heat of
(OC) fusion (kJ/kg) (OC) fusion (kJ/kg)

H2O 0.0 333 BI3 31.8 10
POCl3 1.0 85 SO3(β) 32.3 151
D2O 3.7 318 TiBr4 38.2 23
SbCl5 4.0 33 H4P2O6 55.0 213
H2SO4 10.4 100 SO3 (γ) 62.1 331
IC l (β) 13.9 56 SbCl3 73.4 25
MOF6 17.0 50 NaNO3 307 172 - 199
SO3(α) 17.0 108 KNO3 333 - 380 116 - 266
IC l (α) 17.2 69 KOH 380 149
P4O6 23.7 64 MgCl2 714 - 800 452 - 492
H3PO4 26.0 147 NaCl 800 - 802 466 - 492
Cs 28.3 15 Na2CO3 854 275
Ga 30.0 80 KF 857 452
AsBr3 30.0 38 K2CO3 897 235
Table 3: Melting point and latent heat of fusion of paraffins [1, 2, 12, 94 - 99]
Name No. of "C" Melting point Density Thermal Conductivity Latent heat of
O 3
Atoms ( C) (kg/m ) (W/mK) fusion(kJ/kg)
n - Dodecane 12 -12 750 n.a.
n - Tridecane 13 -6 756 0.21S n.a.
n - Tetradecane 14 4.5 - 5.6 771 231
n - Pentadecane 15 10 768 0.17 207
S
n - Hexadecane 16 18.2 774 0.21 238
n - Heptadecane 17 22 778 215
n - Octadecane 18 28.2 814S[14], 775L 0.35S [14], 0.149L[14] 245
n - Nonadecane 19 31.9 222
n - Eicosane 20 37 247
n - Heneicosane 21 41 215
912S, 769L 0.21S
n - Docosane 22 44 249
n - Tricosane 23 47 234
n - Tetracosane 24 51 255
n - Pentacosane 25 54 238
Paraffin Wax n.a. 32 785S[15], 0.514S[15], 0.224L[15] 251[15]
n - Hexacosane 26 56 770 257
n - Heptacosane 27 59 773 236
n - Octacosane 28 61 255
0.21S
n - Nonacosane 29 64 S
910 , 765 L 240
n - Triacontane 30 65 252
n - Hentriacontane 31 n.a. n.a.
n - Dotricontane 32 70 930S, 830L n.a.
n - Tritricontane 33 71 189
S: solid; L: liquid; n.a.: not available

Table 4: Melting point and latent heat of fusion of non - paraffins [1, 2, 12, 94 - 99]
Name Melting point Density Latent heat of fusion
(OC) (kg/m3) (k J/ kg)

15C
Formic Acid 7.8 1226.7 247
Acetic Acid 16.7 105020C 187
20C
Glycerin 17.9 1260 198.7
Lithium Chloride Ethanolate 21 n.a. 188
Polyethylene Glycol 600 20-25 110020C 146
D – Lattic Acid 26 124915C 184
1-3 Methyl Pentacosane 29 n.a. 197
Camphenilone 39 n.a. 205
Docasyl Bromide 40 n.a. 201
Caprylone 40 n.a. 259
Heptadecanone 41 n.a. 201
1-Cyclohexylooctadecane 41 n.a. 218
4-Heptadacanone 41 n.a. 197
20C
Cyanamide 44 1080 209
79C
Methyl Eicosanate 45 851 230
3-Heptadecanone 48 n.a. 218
Camphene 50 84254C 238
Methyl Behenate 52 n.a. 234
Pentadecanoic Acid 52.5 n.a. 178
Hypophosphoric Acid 55 n.a. 213
20C
Chloroacetic Acid 56 1580 130
20C
Trimyristin 33-57 862 201-213
Heptaudecanoic Acid 60.6 n.a. 189
Bee Wax 61.8 950 177
Glycolic Acid 63 n.a. 109
Oxazoline-Wax-TS 970 74 n.a.
Arachic Acid 76.5 n.a. 227
81C
Bromcamphor 77 1449 174
Durene 79.3 83820C 156
Acetamide 81 1159 241
Methyl Brombrenzoate 81 n.a. 126
98.7C
Alpha Napthol 96 1095 163
Glautaric Acid 97.5 1429 156
p-Xylene Dichloride 100 n.a. 138.7
Methyl Fumarate 102 1045 242
Catechol 104.3 137015C 207
Quinone 115 131820C 171
Acetanilide 115 12104C 142
Succinic Anhydride 119 1104 204
Benzoic Acid 121.7 126615C 142.8
Stibene 124 116415C 167
Benzamide 127.2 1341 169.4
Phenacetin 137 n.a. 136.7
Alpha Glucose 141 1544 174

Acetyl – p- Toluidene 146 n.a. 180
Phenylhdrazone Benzaldehy 155 n.a. 134.8
Salicylic Acid 159 144320C 199
Benzanilide 161 n.a. 162
O-Mannitol 166 148920C 294
20C
Hydroquinone 172.4 1358 258
p- Aminobenzoic Acid 187 n.a. 153
Table 5: Melting point and latent heat of fusion: Fatty acids [1, 2, 12, 94 - 99]
Name Melting point Density Thermal conductivity Latent heat of fusion
(OC) (kg/m3) (W/mK) (kJ/kg)

Propyl Palmiate 10 n.a. n.a. 186
Isopropyl Palmiate 11 n.a. n.a. 100
Oleic Acid 13.5 - 16.3 86360C n.a. n.a.
Isopropyl Stearate 14 - 19 n.a. n.a. 140 - 142
Caprylic Acid 16 90130C 0.14939C 148
Butyl Stearate 19 n.a. n.a. 140
Dimethyl Sabacate 21 n.a. n.a. 120 - 135
Myristic Acid + Capric 24 88825C, 10181C 0.16439C, 0.15461C 147.7
Vinyl Stearate 27 - 29 n.a. n.a. 122
Methyl Palmitate 29 n.a. n.a. 205
Capric Acid 32 87845C 0.15338.5C 152.7
Erucic Acid 33 85370C n.a. n.a.
60C
Lauric Acid 42 - 44 862 , 100724C n.a. 178
Elaidic Acid 47 85179C n.a. 218
Pelargoinc Acid 48 n.a. n.a. n.a.
55C
Myristic Acid 49 - 51 861 n.a. 205
65C 68.4C
Palmitic Acid 64 850 0.162 185.4
Stearic Acid 69 84870C 0.17270C 202.5
Valporic Acid 120 n.a. n.a. n.a.
Table 6: Melting point and latent heat of fusion of salt hydrates [1, 2, 12, 94 - 99]
Name Melting Density Thermal Conductivity Latent Heat Melting
Point (OC) (kg/m3) (W/m K) (kJ/kg) Behaviora [13]

LiClO3.3H2O 8 n.a. n.a. 253 c
NH4Cl.Na2SO4.10H2O 11 n.a. n.a. 163 n.a.
K2HO4.6H2O 14 n.a. n.a. 108 c
NaCl.Na2SO4.10H2O 18 n.a. n.a. 286 n.a.
KF.4H2O 18 n.a. n.a. 330 c
K2HO4.4H2O 18.5 144720C, 145518C, n.a. 231 n.a.
Mn(NO3)2.6H2O 25 173820C[12], n.a. 148 n.a.
LiBO2.8H2O 25.7 n.a. n.a. 289 n.a.
FeBr3.6H2O 27 n.a. n.a. 105 n.a.
32C 24C 61.2C 23C
CaCl2.6H2O 29 - 30 1562 , 1802 0.561 , 1.008 170 - 192 ic
LiNO3.3H2O 30 n.a. n.a. 189 - 296 c
24C
Na2SO4.10H2O 32 1485 0.544 251 - 254 ic
Na2CO3.10H2O 33 - 36 1442 n.a. 247 ic
KFe(SO4)2.12H2O 33 n.a. n.a. 173 ic
CaBr2.6H2O 34 195635C, 219424C n.a. 115 - 138 n.a.

LiBr.2H2O 34 n.a. n.a. 124 ic
Na2HPO4.12H2O 35 1522 n.a. 256 - 281 ic
36C 24C 39.9C 61.2C
Zn(NO3)2.6H2O 36 1828 , 1937 , 0.464 , 0.469 134 - 147 c
Mn(NO3)2.4H2O 37 n.a. n.a. 115 n.a.
FeCl3.6H2O 37 n.a. n.a. 223 c
CaCl2.4H2O 39 n.a. n.a. 158 ic
CoSO4.7H2O 40.7 n.a. n.a. 170 n.a.
CuSO4.7H2O 40.7 n.a. n.a. 171 n.a.
KF.2H2O 42 n.a. n.a. 162 - 266 c
MgI2.8H2O 42 n.a. n.a. 133 n.a.
CaI2.6H2O 42 n.a. n.a. 162 n.a.
Ca(NO3)2.4H2O 43 - 47 n.a. n.a. 106 - 140 c
Zn(NO3)2.4H2O 45 n.a. n.a. 110 n.a.
K3PO4.7H2O 45 n.a. n.a. 145 n.a.
Fe(NO3)3.9H2O 47 n.a. n.a. 155 - 190 ic
Mg(NO3)3.4H2O 47 n.a. n.a. 142 n.a.
Na2SiO3.5H2O 48 n.a. n.a. 168 n.a.
Na2HPO4.7H2O 48 n.a. n.a. 135 - 170 ic
Na2S2O3.5H2O 48 1600 n.a. 209 n.a.
K2HPO4.3H2O 48 n.a. n.a. 99 n.a.
MgSO4.7H2O 48.4 n.a. n.a. 202 n.a.
Ca(NO3)2.3H2O 51 n.a. n.a. 104 n.a.
Na(NO3)2.6H2O 53 n.a. n.a. 158 n.a.
Zn(NO3)2.2H2O 55 n.a. n.a. 68 c
FeCl3.2H2O 56 n.a. n.a. 90 n.a.
CO(NO3)2.6H2O 57 n.a. n.a. 115 n.a.
Ni(NO3)2.6H2O 57 n.a. n.a. 168 n.a.
MnCl2.4H2O 58 n.a. n.a. 151 n.a.
CH3COONa.3H2O 58 n.a. n.a. 270 - 290 ic
LiC2H3O2.2H2O 58 n.a. n.a. 251-377 n.a.
MgCl2.4H2O 58.0 n.a. n.a. 178 n.a.
NaOH.H2O 58 n.a. n.a. 272 n.a.
Na(CH3COO).3H2O 58 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a.
Cd(NO3)2.4H2O 59 n.a. n.a. 98 n.a.
Cd(NO3)2.1H2O 59.5 n.a. n.a. 107 n.a.
Fe(NO3)2.6H2O 60 n.a. n.a. 125 n.a.
NaAl(SO4)2.12H2O 61 n.a. n.a. 181 ic
FeSO4.7H2O 64 n.a. n.a. 200 n.a.
Na3PO4.12H2O 65 n.a. n.a. 168 n.a.
Na2B4O7.10H2O 68 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a.
Na3PO4.12H20 69 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a.
LiCH3COO.2H2O 70 n.a. n.a. 150 - 251 c
Na2P2O7.10H2O 70 n.a. n.a. 186 - 230 ic
Al(NO3)2.9H2O 72 n.a. n.a. 155 - 176 ic
Ba(OH)2.8H2O 78 193784C, 207024C, 0.65385.7C, 0.67898.2C, 265 - 280 c
Al2(SO4)3.18H2O 88 n.a. n.a. 218 ic
Sr(OH)2.8H2O 89 n.a. n.a. 370 ic
94C 25C 95C 110C
Mg(NO3)2.6H2O 89 - 90 1550 , 1636 0.490 , 0.502 , 162 - 167 c
KAl (SO4)2.12H2O 91 n.a. n.a. 184 n.a.

(NH4)Al(SO4).6H2O 95 n.a. n.a. 269 n.a.
Na2S.51/2H2O 97.5 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a.
LiCl.H2O 99 n.a. n.a. 212 ic
CaBr2.4H20 110 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a.
Al2(SO4)2.16H2O 112 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a.
MgCl2. 6H2O 115 - 117 1450120C, 144278C, 0.570120C, 0.598140C, 165 - 169 n.a.
NaC2H3O2.3H2O 137 1450 n.a. 172 n.a.
n.a..: not available; c: congruent melting; ic : incongruent melting
3.16 Cross-linked polyethylene
Cross-linked Polyethylene is much like the polyethylene used in plastic bottles except for the fact that it is
lightly cross-linked to prevent it from turning into a liquid when it melts. Like a liquid-solid PCM it stores
energy in the forming and breaking of crystalline structure. Properties of two cross-linked polyethylene are
shown in Table 8. Unlike a liquid-solid PCM, it has a stable form and can be used without encapsulation.
3.16.1 Advantages
Although higher cost than other PCMs, Therefore, low cost is required for entire heat storage system and
more feasibilities than other PCMs [1]. Cross-linked polyethylene is nontoxic and mostly chemically inert.
The operating temperatures of 110 to 140 °C are too high for some applications such as space and water
heating. To the author’s knowledge no company has commercially developed cross-linked polyethylene for heat
storage applications at this time.
3.17 Polyalcahols
There has also been research done in playschools [1]. Polyalcahols store energy in a structure change from a
heterogeneous state at lower temperatures to a face centered cubic form at higher temperatures [6]. Polyalcahols
have many advantages over solid-liquid PCMs such as small volume change, no leaking, and no degradation of
the material [6]. These advantages come with the disadvantages of low latent heat, high phase change
temperatures, and higher cost. Wang [6] reports a system of combining polyalcahols to adjust working
temperatures. Some of his results are shown in Table 8 for Neopentyl Glycol (NPG)/ Penaerythritol (PE) and
Neopentyl Glycol (NPG)/Trihydroxy Mthyl-Aminomethane (TAM) systems.
Table 7: List of organic and inorganic eutectics [1, 2, 10, 12, 94 - 99]
Name Composition (wt %) Melting point (OC) Latent Heat of fusion (k J/ kg)
Na2SO4+NaCl+KCl+H2O 31+13+16+40 4 234
Na2SO4+NaCl+NH4Cl+H2O 32+14+12+42 11 n.a.
C5H5C6H5+ (C6H5)2O 26.5+73.5 12 97.9
Na2SO4+NaCl+H2O 37+17+46 18 n.a.
Na2S4+MgSO4+H2O 25+21+54 21 - 24 n.a.
C14H28O2 + C10H20O2 34 + 66 24 147.7
Ca(NO)3.4H2O + Mg(NO)3.6H2O 47 + 53 30 136
NH2CONH2 + NH4 NO3 - 46 95
Mg(NO3)2.6H2O + NH4 NO3 61.5 +38.4 52 125.5
Mg(NO3)2.6H2O + MgCl2.6H2O 58.7 + 41.3 59 132.2
Mg(NO3)2.6H2O + Al(NO3)2.9H2O 53 +47 61 148
Mg(NO3)2.6H2O + MgBr2.6H2O 59 + 41 66 168
Napthalene + Benzoic Acid 67.1 + 32.9 67 123.4
AlCl3+NaCl+ZrCl2 79+17+4 68 234
AlCl3+NaCl+KCl 66+20+14 70 209

NH2CONH2 + NH4Br 66.6 + 33.4 76 151
LiNO3 + NH4 NO3 + NaNO3 25 + 65 + 10 80.5 113
AlCl3+NaCl+KCl 60+26+14 93 213
AlCl3+NaCl 66+34 93 201
NaNO2+NaNO3+KNO3 40+7+53 142 n.a.
Table 8: Melting point and latent heat of fusion of some selected solid - solid PCMs [1, 2, 10, 94- 99]
Name Melting point (OC) Latent heat of fusion (kJ/kg)
38.2%NPG/61.8%PE 26 - 32 18 - 75
38.2%NPG/61.8%TAM 22 - 35 27 - 33
76.4%NPG/33.6%TAM 28 - 38 75 - 80
76.4%NPG/33.6%PE 31 - 37 35 - 46
91%NPG/9%PE 31 - 36 68
91%NPG/9%TAM 30 - 39 143 - 150
Neopentyl Glycol(NPG) 43 130
Diamnopentacrythritol 68 184
2-Amino - 2 - Methyl - 1, 3 - Propanediol 78 264
2 - Methyl - 2 - Mtro - 1, 3 - Propanediol 79 201
Trumethylolethane 81 192
Pentaglycerin 81 192
2-Hydroxymethyl-2-Methyl-1, 3 - Propanediol 81 192
Monoaminopentaerythritol 86 192
Cross-Linked Polyethylene 110 - 115 125 - 146
Tris(Hydroxymethyl)Acetic Acid 124 205
2-Amino-2-Hydroxymethyl-1, 3 - Propanediol 131 285
Cross-Linked HDPE 125 - 146 167 - 201
2,2-Bis(Hydroxymethyl) Propionic Acid 152 289
38.2%NPG/61.8%PE 170 147
Penterythritol(PE) 185 303
4.0 Latent Heat Storage Systems
The intermittent and dynamic nature of solar irradiance and the need to utilize solar energy systems in a
continuous and static load, make the use of storage systems essential in most of the potential uses of solar energy.
Amongst the various heat storage techniques of interest is latent heat storage in comparison to sensible heat
storage. The use of phase change materials (PCMs) can be found in solar energy storage systems for water
heating, green houses, heating and cooling of buildings, cooking and waste heat recovery systems.
4.1 Solar water heating
Solar water heater is getting popularity [21-23] since they are relatively inexpensive and simple to fabricate
and maintain. Prakesh et al. [24] analyzed a built in storage type water heater containing a layer of PCM filled at
the bottom (Fig. 2). During the sunshine hours, the water gets heated up which in turn transfers heat to the PCM
below it. The PCM collects energy in the form of latent heat and melts. During off sunshine hours, the hot water
is withdrawn and is substituted by cold water, which gains energy from the PCM. The energy is released by the
PCM on changing its phases from liquid to solid. This type of system may not be effective due to the poor heat
transfer between PCM and water.
Fig.2: Built -in storage type heater with PCM layer
A cylindrical storage unit in the closed loop with a flat plate collector (Fig.3) has been theoretically studied
by Bansal and Buddhi [25] for its charging and discharging mode. As a result, a theoretical model for cylindrical
latent heat storage system was developed. The calculations for the interface moving boundary and fluid
temperature were made by using paraffin wax (p-116) and stearic acid as phase change materials. Tiwari et al.
[26] presented an analysis of a PCM storage for water heater by incorporating the effect of water flow through a
parallel plate placed at the solid-liquid interface. In order to reduce the night heat losses from the exposed
surface, movable insulation has been made. They concluded that the hot water (temperature 15 –20 °C > Ta) can
obtain throughout the day and night, and the fluctuations in water temperature decrease with an increase in the
melted region of the PCM water heater. Tayed et al. [27] developed a system for domestic hot water using
Na2SO4.10H20 as a PCM and compared with the simulation model which gives the optimum flow rate of the
inlet water supply required to maintain the constant-temperature water at outlet. Font et al. [28] conducted a
preliminary study for the design of a device for domestic water using solid - solid PCM. Numerical simulation
has been made using unidirectional model and verified with the experimental results. The concordance between
both experimentally and simulation results shows that this model is available to study the heat transfer
phenomenon in the PCM in order to optimize the design of the device.
Fig.3: A domestic hot water system with separate PCM heat
Chauarsia [29] and Gu [32] reported that paraffin wax could be used as a storage system for solar water heating.
Baran and Sari [30] reported the eutectic (melting point 52.3 OC, latent heat of fusion 182 kJ/kg) of palmitic acid
(64.2wt%)+ stearic acid (35.8 wt%) is suitable for domestic water heating application. Bhargava [31] utilized the
PCM in solar water heater and concluded that the efficiency of the system and the outlet water temperature
during the evening hours increases with the increase in the thermal conductivity of the solid-liquid phases of the
materials. Hasan et al. [33] has investigated some fatty acids as a phase change materials for domestic water
heating. They recommended that myristic acid, palmitic acid and stearic acid, with melting temperature between
50 OC - 70 OC are the promising phase change materials for water heating. Thermophysical properties of
identified PCMs were determined using differential scanning calorimeter (DSC). They concluded that the little
reduction of the latent heat was found after 450 heating cycles (20–80°C), while a reduction of up to one-third of
the latent heat was found after 21 heating cycles (20–150°C).
Kurklu et al. [34] developed a new type of water - PCM solar collector and its short-term thermal
performance was investigated (Fig.4). The solar collector consisted of two adjoining sections one filled with
water and the other with a PCM (Paraffin Wax, 45–50 OC). The results of the study indicated that the water
temperature exceeded 55 OC during a typical day of high solar radiation and it was kept over 30 OC during the
whole night. The present solar collector was much advantageous over the traditional solar hot water collectors in
Turkey in terms of total system weight and the cost in particular. This type of collector might use of PCM–water
solar panels on the south faces of buildings for energy storage applications.
PCM relief and filling connection
Water relief pipe
Water outlet for domestic use

Water store
PCM store
3 mm glass
Water supply
PCM evacuation
(if necessary)
Insulation
Fig.4: Water - PCM solar collector
4.2 Heating
Jurinak and Khalik [35, 36] have studied the effects of PCM on the performance of an air-based solar
heating system. Their main conclusion was that the PCM should be selected based on its melting temperature,
rather than its latent heat, i.e. melting temperature has a significant effect on system performance. They also
reported that systems utilizing Na2SO4.10H20 requires roughly the one-half storage volume of a conventional
water tank system. An effective heat capacity for the latent heat storage unit was also obtained as a function of its
mass, latent heat, specific heat, and melting temperature. Acquired effective heat capacity could used to estimate
the thermal performance of the system utilizing PCM. Klein and Beckman [37] presented a simulation study for
closed-loop solar thermal system, which could use for a variety of applications including space heating,
absorption air conditioning, and certain types of process heating. This design method can be used to estimate the
long-term performance of such type systems. Bulkin et al. [38] suggested a mathematical model for designing a
solar heating and hot-water supply system on the basis of solar absorbers and a heat pump with two
thermal-storage tanks, taking into account the system’s interaction with the outside climate and with the room
being served. Ghoneim [39] has studied the effect of assumptions in the models of earlier studies on both the
fraction of the load met by solar energy, and the required storage capacities.
Kaygusuz et al. [40] developed an experimental model to determine the dynamics of solar-assisted heat
pump, collectors, dryer, and energy storage tank used for drying grains. Kaygusuz [41] investigated the
performance of a dual-source heat pump system for residential heating (Fig.5). In the dual-source configuration,
the evaporator is designed so that it can receive energy from either the atmosphere or from the solar-energy store.
He concluded that the dual source system could save more energy than the parallel and series system. Kaygusuz
[42] also conducted an experimental and a theoretical study to determine the performance of phase-change
energy storage materials, and the variation of the outlet fluid temperature with different values of NTU (the
number of transfer units of the storage unit) for water based solar heating systems (Fig.6). This system consists
of the solar collector, energy storage tank, water-to-air heat exchanger, auxiliary electrical heater, water
circulating pump and other measuring and control equipment.
Fig.5: Solar -assisted heat pump system linked to energy storage tank
Whenever solar energy is available, it is collected and transferred to the energy storage tank that is filled by
1500 kg encapsulated phase change material (PCM) and the heat transfer fluid (water) flows parallel to them
(Fig. 7). From the experimental and theoretical investigations, they concluded that heat storage is an important
component in moderate climatic conditions (i.e. Trabzon, Turkey), and for this purpose, CaCl2.6H20 or
Na2SO4.10H2O can be used as a PCM and would provide a desirable alternative to rock and water storage
systems. PCM storage is more preferable as a heat source than the water and rock storage for a heat pump
because the energy storage temperature of the PCM is around 25-35°C for either CaCl2.6H20 or Na2SO4.10H2O.
This temperature range is suitable for solar-assisted heat pump applications in Turkey. Mehmet [43] also
investigated the thermal performance of a solar-aided latent heat storage used for space heating with heat pump
using 1090 kg encapsulated PCM (CaCl2.6H2O). He concluded that the shorter and thinner pipe should be used
for effective heating in the beginning of the experiments.
Fath et al. [44] developed a simple solar air heater integrated with thermal energy storage system shown in Fig.
8. Heat storage materials were filled in the tubes and set as an absorber of the collector. Paraffin Wax (melting
point 50 OC, latent heat of fusion 190 kJ/kg) and Na2SO4.10H20 (melting point 32 OC, latent heat of fusion 251
kJ/kg) are used as PCMs. These systems increase the heat transfer area; coefficient and reduce the
radiation/convection losses. Based on a simple transient analysis, explicit expressions for the heater absorber and
glass cover temperatures, effective heat gained, outlet air temperature, and the heater efficiency have been
developed as a function of time. For the system with built-in PCM, the heat load could be provided for the 24
hrs/day, at almost constant temperature. The daily average efficiency, with paraffin wax, is about 63.35% as
compared to 59% with sand as the storage material and 38.7% for the conventional flat plate heater system.
Strith et al. [45] used TIM (Transparent Insulation Material) and translucent PCM in the wall for heating the
air for the ventilation of the house. Paraffin wax (melting point 25-30 oC, latent heat of fusion 150 kJ/kg) was
used as a PCM and 60 kg was filled in a panel for space heating. The efficiency of solar energy absorbed into the
PCM and transferred to the ventilation air was 45% on average. Manz et al. [46] also conducted same study with
another PCM (CaCl2.6H2O). He developed a numerical simulation which agrees well with experimental results.
He also reported that maximum time ratio parameter could be reached with a mean melting temperature of
approximately 20 to 21OC when building does not lose energy through the south facing TIM-PCM wall.
Arkar et al. [47] also designed a solar assisted ventilation system based on PCM storage. He recommended
that paraffin - spherical encapsulations provide homogeneous porous effect in ventilation duct which can
improve the thermal conductivity of paraffin. He reported that ambient air could be cooled for 3 to 4 K in a clear
summer night.
Fig.6: Schematic diagram of the base solar energy system

Fig.7: Schematic configuration of latent heat storage tank
A theoretical model of a shell-and-tube PCM storage unit was reported by Ismail and Alves [48]. Energy
equation for the PCM is written in terms of the enthalpy. The numerical results show the effects of the Biot
number, the relative diameters of the tubes, and the inlet fluid temperature on the thermal performance of the unit.
Visser [49] developed a component model for numerical description of two different short term heat storage
vessels. In both vessels, the energy is stored as the latent heat of PCMs. The transient simulation program was
used to determine the performance of the cylindrical energy storage tank that can be used in the solar assisted
domestic heating by heat pump system. Yimmer et al. [50] also developed a numerical model for optimizing a
basic 1-D, shell-and-tube, thermal energy storage system. Again, an enthalpy approach was adopted for the PCM.
A parametric study was then conducted to assess the effects of the inner tube and outer shell radii and of the
liquid phase thermal conductivity of the PCM on the performance of the unit. Lacroix [51] developed a
theoretical model to predict the transient behavior of a shell-and-tube storage unit with the PCM on the shell side
and the HTF circulating inside the tubes. Then, parametric studies are performed to assess the effects of various
thermal and geometric parameters on the heat transfer process and on the behavior of the system.
Sagara et al. [52] estimated the long term performance of an air based solar heating system using a PCM.
Theoretical heat transfer models within a spherical capsules enclosed the PCM were studied. Effect on the
overall COP was studied with respect to the capacity of the PCM storage tank, melting temperature, collector
area and air flow rate. They reported that the simple uniform temperature model is useful for long term system
simulations. Sari and Kaygusuz [53] developed a eutectic (lauric acid 75.5 wt% + stearic acid 24.5 wt%) for
space heating. Developed eutectic melts at 37 OC with latent heat of 183 kJ/kg, thus, these properties make it an
attractive PCM used for passive solar space heating applications such as building and greenhouse heating with
respect to the climate conditions. Vakilaltojjar [54] developed computer models for the evaluation of thermal
energy storage system for space heating and cooling applications. The effect of PCM slab thickness and fluid
passage gap on the storage performance was investigated. He filled the PCMs (CaCl2.6H2O and KF.4H2O) in
thin flat containers and air is passed through gaps between them. He concluded that the air velocity profile at the
entrance does not affect the heat transfer characteristics and the outlet air temperature considerably. Using
smaller air gaps and thinner PCM slabs can obtain better performance, however, this increases the number of
PCM containers and the total volume of the storage system which will lead to higher-pressure drop across the
storage system.
4.3 Cooling
The most common storage media for space cooling are water, ice and PCMs, commonly known as eutectic
salts. PCMs have been used for various heat storage applications since the 1800s, but they have only recently
been used as a storage media for space cooling. So far, most of the PCMs for cool storage are inorganic salt
hydrates, organic paraffin waxes and mixtures of these. Literatures available on thermal storage at a temperature
below the ambient, other than for ice are limited. A theoretical simulation of cool storage was reported by
Solomar et al. [55]. BoHe et al. [56] investigated the potential for using cool storage systems using PCMs and
static and dynamic cool storage process are discussed. They reported that the Rubitherm RT5 (melting point 7 OC,
latent heat of fusion 158.3 kJ/kg) appears to be an excellent candidate as a PCM for cool storage because of its
economical cost, congruently melting, self-nucleation property, no super cooling and stable during a number of
cooling and heating cycles.
Fig.8: Solar air heater configuration with set of PCM tubes
A search for literature on commercial chemical products on PCMs for cool storage for the temperature range
15 - 23 OC was carried out [57]. Nagano et al. [58] investigated the thermal characteristics of manganese (II)
nitrate hexahydrate (melting point 25.8 OC, latent heat of fusion 125.9 kJ/kg) as a PCM for cooling systems.
They reported that almost all chlorides were effective in modulating the melting point of Mn(NO3)2.6H2O.
MnCl2 .4H2O was an effective additive with respect to modulation of melting point, reduction of super cooling
and quantity of the heat of fusion. The temperature differences required for melting and solidification from the
melting point measured by DSC are about 6 OC for melting process and 4 OC for solidification process for the
mixture of Mn(NO3)2.6H2O and 4.0 wt% of MnCl2 .4H2O The indoor air at temperature of 28 OC in daytime and
the outside cool air at night below 16 OC can be utilized to melt and solidify this mixture. Farid et al. [59] studied
the feasibility of cool storage using dimethyl-sulfoxide (melting point 16.5 OC) as a PCM in rectangular
container. Based on the experimental results and the model predictions, dimethyl-sulfoxide can be used as a
PCM for cool storage. The results also show that, cooling extraction period depends on the amount of solidified
PCM. The cool extraction period was completed when the outlet air temperature from the PCM section reached
at 25 OC. This temperature is considered the highest temperature at which the human may feel comfortable.
Saitoh and Hirose [60] studied the thermal characteristics of an encapsulated thermal storage tank
experimentally and theoretically. They used Na2HPO4.12H2O as PCM to fill cylindrical capsules with an inside
diameter of 70.7 mm. They concluded that the main factors affecting the charging process were the capsule size,
coolant flow rate, coolant temperature, and capsule material. Kondepudi et al. [61] discussed the effect of Biot
number, Stefan number and Fourier number on the thermal performance of cold storage. Laybourn [62] utilized a
concept of thermal resistance, which embraced the convective resistance, wall resistance, and ice layer resistance
to calculate the cold storage of the tank with rectangular capsules. Arnold [63] analyzed the heat transfer during
the freezing and melting process by performing a series of charging and discharging experiments. Chen [64 -66]
developed a general lump model to predict the thermal performance of a cold storage system. The results showed
that the lump model is a convenient and simple method to determine the thermal performance of cold storage
system. Ryu et al. [67] used a rectangular storage tank with copper tube container and conducted a series of
experiments using both vertical and horizontal tank to investigate the heat transfer characteristics. In the area of
subcooling of water, Chen [68] conducted a series of experiments to investigate the subcooling phenomenon and
the freezing probability of water with and without nucleation agents inside a cylinder. They verified that the
addition of nucleation agents is one of the approaches to improve the subcooling phenomenon effectively. Chen
et al. [69] experimentally investigated the pressure drop of an encapsulated thermal storage tank during the
charging process. The cylindrical capsules inside the thermal storage tank utilize water added with nucleation
agents as PCM, and the coolant is the aqueous solution of ethylene glycol. They concluded that high cold storage
could obtain by using the lower inlet coolant temperature with high flow rate. The heat transfer coefficient
increases as the coolant flow rate increases. The pressure drop flowing through tank is enlarged as the coolant
flow rate increases during the charging process.
4.4 Green house heating
Solar agricultural greenhouses have been widely used in the past two decades in order to increase plant
quality and productivity and to reduce consumption of fossil fuels for heating and cooling. The most effective
greenhouses require control of temperature, humidity, solar irradiance and internal gas composition with rational
consumption of energy. Research work in this area, involving studies of new materials, heat storage and heat
exchange devices resulted in some interesting demonstration units followed by rapid commercial applications.
The most frequently used PCM for these purposes is CaC12.6H2O, Na2SO4.10H2O, PEG, and paraffins.
Nishina and Takakura [75] conducted a research applying Na2SO4.10H20 with some additives to prevent
phase separation and degradation for heating a greenhouse in Japan. Fig. 9 shows the general view of the
experimental set-up. This study concluded that although 8°C target inside was achieved, only 40-60% of the
latent heat potential of the PCM was realized which indicated that almost half of the PCM was not used
efficiently during the energy exchange processes. Takakura et al. [70] tested polyethylene glycol and
CaCl2.6H2O as a PCMs in greenhouse heating for 7.2 m2 ground area. They compared conventional greenhouse
with PCM storage type greenhouse. Efficiency of the greenhouse with PCM storage integrated with solar
collector was 59 % and able to maintain 8°C inside the greenhouse at night, when the outside temperature
dropped to - 0.6°C. A microcomputer control system has been developed in order to establish more accurate and
more sophisticated control for solar greenhouse systems.
CNRE-France conducted a study using a glass-covered multi-span greenhouse with 500 m2 ground area,
dedicated to rose production, by utilizing 13.5 tons of CaC12.6H20 (melting at 28°C) by Jaffrin and Cadier [66]
and by Jaffrin [71, 72]. Thermal and crop performance of this greenhouse was compared with an air-bubble
double plastic-covered and a conventional greenhouse. Figure 10 shows the arrangement of the PCM containers
in underground. The containers were placed in concrete shelves with five layers in semi-circular tunnels and air
was used to transfer heat. The outcome of this study was that with this system, propane gas savings of 80 and
60% in comparison with the conventional and double-covered greenhouses, respectively, was obtained.
Electricity consumption of the fans was determined to be less than 10% of the heating load of the greenhouse.
Levav and Zamir [73] tested CaC12.6H20 in greenhouse. They reported that required air temperature in the
greenhouse was achieved without any increase in the relative humidity. It was stressed that the most important
drawback of the system was the $1.1/kg cost of the PCM. Furthermore, they indicated that the 24°C melting
temperature of the PCM could be high for some crops.
Kern et al. [74] used CaC12.6H20 as a PCM in aerosol cans to investigate energy storage possibilities both
inside and outside a 36 m2-ground area greenhouse covered with fiberglass. Results of this study indicated that
while the external unit released about 80-90% of the energy absorbed, this was 60-80% for the internal energy
storage unit. Paraffin's have also been used for energy storage in greenhouses. A study performed by Bagetinelik
et al. [78] was the only work in literature using paraffin (48 - 60 OC , Latent Heat of Fusion 190 kJ/kg ) for
greenhouse heating.
Fig.9: General view of phase change energy storage system
The latest studies on the Na2SO4.10H20 based PCM applications in greenhouses were those of Ktirklti et al.
[76, 77]. In their study, two types of a similar PCM, one with a melting range of 22 - 25°C and the other with
about 8°C, were employed, the former for the reduction of peak temperatures towards summer and the latter for
frost prevention in both greenhouses.
Fig.10: Underground tunnel: equipped with a PCM

Figure 11 shows the experimental set-up for both applications. Results revealed that about 2.5 - 3°C
temperature difference existed between the PCM greenhouse and the control one throughout the experimental
period, and that solar collection efficiency on an outside solar radiation basis was 29% for the experiments with
the PCM with higher melting temperature. Similarly, the temperature difference and solar collection efficiency
was found to be about 22°C and 30%, respectively during the frost prevention experiment, and frost occurrence
was prevented on 7 out of 9 frosty occasions. Most applications were carried out in either double-covered
greenhouses or greenhouses with one or more layers of thermal screens. The only study that barely defined the
effect of the PCM store on the environmental parameters of a greenhouse seemed to be those of Kuruklu et al.
[76, 77]. However, all studies imply that PCMs could be used for both energy storage and humidity control in
greenhouses, in a way for energy management, effectively given the right choice and design of the whole system.
Fig.11: General view of the storage used for energy management in greenhouse
4.5 Solar cooking
Solar cookers are used to cook rice, vegetables, meat, bake cakes, etc. The detailed design, testing, theory
and utility of box-type solar cookers are well developed [79 - 86]. The use of these cookers is limited because
they do not have any storage, i.e. these cookers cannot be used on cloudy days or in late evening. The use of
PCMs for storing the heat in the form of latent heat has been recognized as one of the areas to provide a compact
and efficient storage system due to their high storage density and constant operating temperature [80, 81].
A box type solar cooker with latent heat storage has been designed and fabricated for the composite climatic
conditions of India by Buddhi and Sahoo [87]. Commercial grade stearic acid (melting point 55 OC, latent heat of
fusion 161 kJ/kg) used as a latent heat storage material. Fig. 12 shows the sketch of a box-type solar cooker for
one vessel having a PCM to store the solar energy. The cooker consists of an aluminum-absorbing tray ‘A’. In
the center of the absorbing plate, a cylindrical container of 0.165 m diameter and 0.02 m in depth has been
welded (shown in Fig. 1by ‘C’), and the cooking pot is to be kept tightly in it. This container will provide a heat
transfer from the absorbing plate and PCM. Moreover, aluminum fins were also provided at the inner side of the
tray and cylindrical container. The outer tray ‘B’ is also made from the same aluminum sheet. The distance
between tray ‘A’ and tray ‘B’ was kept at 0.025 m on the bottom side. Tray ‘B’ was filled with 3.5 kg of
commercial grade Stearic Acid (PCM) and it was made sure that the PCM should be in good contact with the
bottom side of tray ‘A’. The space between tray ‘B’ and the casing was filled with glass wool to provide thermal
insulation to the bottom and sides of the solar cooker. A flat glass mirror was fixed in an aluminum cover to
serve as a booster and as a cover for the glass lid when the cooker is not exposed to solar radiation. The
aluminum tray ‘A’, cooking pot and its cover were painted with a dull black paint on the outside. The
experimental results demonstrate the feasibility of using a phase change material as the storage medium in solar
cookers, i.e. it is possible to cook the food even in the evening with a solar cooker having latent heat storage. It
also provides a nearly constant plate temperature in the late evening.
Domanski et al. [88] investigated the possibility of cooking during off-sunshine hours using phase change
materials (PCMs) as storage media. They designed the storage-cooking vessel for off sunshine hours (Fig. 13).
For this purpose, two concentric cylindrical vessels (0.0015 m thick), made from aluminum, are connected
together at their tops using four screws to form a double-wall vessel with a gap between the outer and inner walls.
The outer and inner vessel has a diameter of 0.18 m and 0.14 m. The annular gap between the outer and inner
vessels is 0.02 m. This gap is covered with a removable aluminum cover into which three circular holes were
drilled to allow inserting of thermocouples and permit direct visualization during filling or removing of the
PCMs. A circular aluminum cover is used as the lid for the inner vessel.
Fig.12: Schematic diagram of the box of a solar cooker with PCM storage
The outside surfaces of the outer vessel and the covers are painted using ordinary black paint for maximum
absorption of available solar radiation. The gap between the outer and inner vessels is filled with 1.1 kg of stearic
acid (69 OC, 95% pure), or 2 kg of magnesium nitrate hexahydrate (89 OC, 99% pure), which leaves sufficient
space for expansion of the PCMs on melting. They concluded that the cooker performance evaluated in terms of
charging and discharging times of the PCMs under different conditions. He reported that performance depends
on the solar irradiance, mass of the cooking medium, and the thermo physical properties of the PCM. The overall
efficiency of the cooker during discharging was found to be 3-4 times greater than that for steam and heat-pipe
solar cookers, which can be used for indoor cooking. In such type of design, the rate of heat transfer from the
PCM to the cooking pot during the discharging of the PCM is slow, and more time is required for cooking the
evening meal.
Sharma et al. [89] designed and developed a cylindrical PCM storage unit for a box type solar cooker to
cook the food in the late evening. Since this unit surrounds the cooking vessel, the rate of heat transfer between
the PCM and the food is higher, and cooking can be faster. For this purpose, a PCM container to hold the
cooking vessel was designed and fabricated as shown in Fig. 14. It has two hollow concentric aluminum
cylinders of diameter 18 cm and 25 cm and 8 cm deep of 2 mm thickness. The space between the cylinders was
filled with acetamide (melting point 82 OC, latent heat of fusion 263 kJ/kg) as a PCM. The dimensions of the
vessel used for cooking were 17.5 cm and 10 cm in diameter and height, respectively, and it can be inserted
inside the PCM container for cooking purposes. To enhance the rate of heat transfer between the PCM and the
inner wall of the PCM container, 8 fins (1x3 cm) were welded at the inner wall of the PCM container. They
reported that by using 2.0 kg of Acetamide as a latent heat storage material, the second batch of food could be
cooked if it is loaded before 3:30 P.M. during the winter season. They recommended that the melting
temperature of a PCM should be between 105 and 110 oC for evening cooking. Therefore, there was a need to
identify a storage material with appropriate melting point and quantity, which can cook the food in the late
evening. To store a larger quantity of heat in a PCM, more input solar radiation would be required. Hence,
Buddhi and Sharma [90] used a latent heat storage unit for a box type solar cooker with three reflectors. They
used acetanilide (melting point 118 oC, latent heat of fusion 222 kJ/kg) as a PCM for night cooking. To conduct
the cooking experiments with the PCM storage unit, a double glazed (glass covers) box type solar cooker having
50 cm x 50 cm aperture area and 19 cm deep was used. In this solar cooker, three reflectors were provided, i.e.
the middle reflector was mounted with a hinge and had rotation only about the horizontal axis. The other two
reflectors were fixed by a ball and socket mechanism in the left and right sides of the reflector. This pair of
reflectors has three degrees of freedom, i.e. they can have movement about the horizontal axis and vertical axis
and can rotate about both the axes. By these mechanisms, efforts were made to keep the reflected solar irradiance
on the absorber surface to enhance the incident solar radiation on the glass cover during the course of the sun
exposure experiments.
Following Sharma et al. [90], a cooking vessel with latent heat storage was designed and fabricated to cook
the food in night / late evening. The unit has two hollow concentric aluminum cylinders of diameter 20 and 30
cm and 12.5 cm deep of 2 mm thickness. The space between the cylinders was filled with 4.0 kg of PCM to
conduct the cooking experiments with all three reflectors. The dimensions of the vessel used for cooking were 19
and 15 cm in diameter and height, respectively, and it can be inserted inside the PCM storage unit for cooking
purposes. To enhance the rate of heat transfer between the PCM and the inner wall of the PCM container, 8 fins
(1 cm x 3 cm) were welded at the inner wall of the PCM container. From the experimental results one can
conclude that the cooking experiments were successfully conducted for the evening time cooking up to at 8 P.M.
with 4.0 kg of PCM during winter season in India.
Fig.13: Solar Cooker with PCM Cooking Container
Sharma et al. [91] developed a solar cooker based on Evacuated Tube Solar Collector (ETSC) with PCM
storage, as shown in Fig. 15. It consists of an ETSC, a closed loop pumping line-containing water as Heat
Transfer Fluid (HTF), a PCM storage unit, cooking unit, pump, relief valve, flow meter and a stainless steel
tubing heat exchanger. PCM storage unit has two hollow concentric aluminum cylinders, and its inner and outer
diameters are 304 mm and 441 mm respectively and 420 mm deep with 9 mm thickness (Fig. 16). The space
between the cylinders was filled with 45 kg erythritol (melting point 118 OC, latent heat of fusion 339.8 kJ/kg)
used as the PCM. A pump circulates the heated water (HTF) from the ETSC through the insulated pipes to the
PCM storage unit by using stainless steel tubing heat exchanger that wraps around the cooking unit by closed
loop. During sunshine hours, heated water transfers its heat to the PCM and stored in the form of latent heat
through stainless steel tube heat exchanger. This stored heat is utilized to cook the food in the evening time or
when sun intensity is not sufficient to cook the food. They concluded that two-time cooking (noon and evening)
was done in a day. Noon cooking did not affect the cooking in evening and evening cooking using PCM storage
was found faster than noon cooking. Experiments and analysis indicated that the prototype solar cooker yielded
satisfactory performance in spite of low heat transfer, the modified design of heat exchanger in the thermal
storage unit will enhance the rate of heat transfer in the present set-up.
20 cm
PCM
12.5 cm
30 cm
Fig.14: A schematic diagram of the latent heat storage unit

Ramadan et al. [92] designed a simple flat-plate solar cooker with focusing plane mirrors using energy
storage materials. In his design, a jacket of sand (1/2 cm thick) around the cooking pot has improved the cooker
performance tremendously. They concluded that six hour per day of cooking time has been recorded.
Approximately three hours per day of indoor cooking has been achieved. An overall energy conversion
efficiency up to 28.4% has been obtained. The possibility of using a PCM as a storage medium to obtain longer
cooking periods was studied. A thin layer of the salt hydrate Ba(OH)2·8H2O as a jacket around the cooking pot
was suggested. Bushnell [93] presented a prototype for solar ovens, which employs pentacrythritol as a
solid-solid PCM. He described the performance from efficiency measurement and determination of figure of
merit.
Fig.15: Outline of the prototype solar cooker based on evacuated tube solar collector with PCM storage unit
Fig. 16 (a): Sectional view of the PCM storage unit Fig. 16(b): Vertical view of the PCM storage unit
4.6 Waste heat recovery systems
Air conditioning system ejects (sensible and latent) heat, in which sensible heat accounts for about 15‐20%
of the total exhausting heat [101]. The exhausting temperature of compressor is relatively high (< 65 OC) when
using Freon as refrigerant. Therefore, it can be recovered using an accumulator and gets heat of higher
temperature. Zu et al. [32] developed a heat recovery system using PCM to recover the ejected heat of air
conditioning system and producing low temperature hot water for washing and bathing. They concluded that the
heat recovery system decreases not only the consumption of primary energy for heating domestic hot water but
also the calefaction to the surroundings due to the rejection of heat from air conditioning systems. It was
observed that the efficiency ratio of the system is improved effectively when all the rejected (sensible and latent)
heat from air conditioning systems is recovered. The technical grade paraffin wax and the mixtures with liquid
paraffin and lauric acid qualify as PCM for heat recovery of air conditioning system.
An effective utilization of urban waste heat from co-generation systems, typically available at temperatures
of 60 - 100 OC. Kakiuchi et al. have investigated erythritol (Melting point 118 OC; Latent heat of fusion 339.8
kJ/kg) [102, 103] that can be used for relatively high temperature industrial waste heat processes. Several studies
have been done on stearic acid [104, 105]. This material has a melting point between 60 - 70 OC and is expensive.
It has only found of limited use in waste heat systems. Nagano et al. [106] proposed a mixture of
Mg(NO3)2.6H2O as a base material with MgCl2·6H2O as an additive to modulate the melting point. They
reported that addition of 5‐10 wt% of MgCl2·6H2O can set the Mg(NO3)2.6H2O (melting point 80 OC, latent heat
of fusion 150 kJ/kg). Increasing the mix ratio had little effect on heat of fusion, but allowed the melting point to
be reduced to about 60 OC. No degradation in the melting point and latent heat of fusion was observed after 1000
accelerated thermal cycles. Yagi et al [107] conducted fundamental studies on heat transfer for developing a heat
storage process by latent heat for recovering the high temperature waste heat over 500 K. Heat transfer
experiments were attempted for a single encapsulated phase change materials and for a packed bed. The metal
PCMs were found to be excellent for heat storage because of uniform temperature in the capsule. Simulation
results shows that the concurrent flow for heat storage and release showed better result for effective use of storage
heat than counter-current flow.
Buddhi [108] designed and fabricated a shell and tube type heat exchanger for low temperature waste heat
recovery using stearic acid (melting point 59 OC, latent heat of fusion 198 kJ/kg) was used as a PCM for this
study. Thermal performance of this system was evaluated for charging and discharging process of PCM for
different mass flow rates. Schematic diagram of the shell and tube heat exchanger is shown in Fig. 17. Used PCM
has poor thermal conductivity, to enhance the effective thermal conductivity of the system, the radial distance
between the tubes was kept 3 to 4 cm. Shell was filled with 50 Kg commercial grade stearic acid being used as
latent heat storage media. Flowing hot water through HTF tubes started the energy-charging test, and the stored
energy was extracted by passing cold water in the HTF tubes. Ambient temperature, flow rate and PCM
temperatures of the heat exchanger were also measured simultaneously at an interval of 15 minutes. He concluded
that the experimental results show the feasibility of using PCM as storage media in heat recovery systems. Due to
poor thermal conductivity of the PCM the overall heat transfer coefficient is quite low and fins should be provided
to increase the effectiveness of the heat exchanger. Distance between tubes, fins and mass flow rates should be
selected carefully in order to optimize the performance of the heat exchanger. Paraffin wax (melting point 54 OC,
latent heat of fusion 184 kJ/kg) was also used in shell and tube type heat exchanger for waste heat recovery [109].
Fins were also used for effective heat transfer.
Fig. 17: Shell and tube type heat exchanger with latent heat storage material
5.0 Latent Heat Storage Exchanger
Latent heat storage systems mainly depends on heat storage material investigations and on the development
of heat exchangers that assure a high effective heat transfer rate to allow rapid charging and discharging. Heat
exchanger with high temperature PCM not only has a high capacity to store thermal energy, but also can make
the stored energy to be highly applicable. It is always a problem to get a sufficient rate of heat transfer from the
latent thermal energy storage systems due to the poor design of heat exchanger. So far, some different types of
heat exchangers have been developed to overcome this shortage. Double pipe heat exchanger for latent thermal
energy storage has been studied [110]. This research suggested that heat transfer rate can be enhanced by
increasing the air inlet temperature, air mass flow rate and heat exchanger length. Single full-length heat
exchanger exhibited better thermal effectiveness than two half-length and equal capacity parallel heat exchangers.
A direct contact heat exchanger with an immiscible heat transfer fluid moving in the PCM has eliminated the
permanent heat exchange surface and has been confirmed to prevent phase separation of the PCM [111 - 113].
Classical double-pipe or shell-and-tube heat exchangers have been applied in the storage energy systems and
a relevant theoretical and experimental analysis of the phase-change phenomenon has been restricted to
geometry of a cylindrical capsule [114], an annulus gap, spherical or rectangular enclosures [115]. Another novel
configuration includes the use of three types of PCMs with different melting temperature [116]. This allows for
maximum use of the HTF energy. Use of plate heat exchangers was thought to provide more efficient and
compact heat exchange configuration [117]. Erk and Dudukovic [118] presented a novel energy storage system
consisting of n-octadecane retained by capillary forces in a porous silica support. This configuration eliminates
the expensive heat exchange surface, provides higher energy density, and gives higher rates of energy storage
and release. Lecomte et al [119] presented a design method for sizing a shell-and -tube latent heat exchanger for
a thermal system under thermodynamic conditions. They concluded that high flow rates could not deliver
significant heat from PCM to the load. Discharging of heat from PCM to the load depends on the performance of
the heat exchanger and thermophysical properties of the PCM. Bathelt [120] studied the heat transfer during
melting from a horizontal cylindrical heat source with a uniform surface heat flux and a uniform surface
temperature by circulating a fluid through a multipass heat exchanger embedded in n-heptadecane and
n-octadecane. The instantaneous shape of the melt volume was recorded photographically and local heat transfer
coefficients at the solid - liquid interface were determined. For quasi-steady melting, the local and average heat
transfer is correlated in dimensionless form. Using the correlation, the solid-liquid interface position was
calculated and found to be in good agreement with experimental data.
Saxena et al. [121] presented a preliminary model for estimating possible thermal energy storage in shell and
tube heat exchanger. Effect of various parameters such as thermal and physical properties of PCM and
convective fluid, heat exchanger dimensions and heat transfer fluid flow rates both in laminar and turbulent
regime on energy storage times are discussed. El - Kassaby et al. [122] simulated the behavior of a
low-temperature PCM in a heat exchanger for short-term storage. An excellent agreement was obtained for the
outlet air temperature when compared with the experimental measurements, and differences did not exceed
0.5°C over the simulated period. This simulation approach can be used for any PCM with known thermophysical
properties and able to predict the transient moving front for freezing or melting, mass fraction of either liquid or
solid phase to the total PCM mass.
Kamimoto et al. [123] developed a latent heat thermal storage exchanger using form-stable high-density
polyethylene. In their design, the hot fluid entered into the exchanger from the top end during the charging
process, whilst cold fluid entered into the exchanger from the bottom end during the discharging process. No
explanation was given as to why such an operation mode was adopted. Bellecci et al. [124] numerically
simulated the cyclic thermal processes in a shell-and-tube latent heat thermal storage exchanger. In their design
the hot and cold fluids were introduced from the same end of the storage exchanger for the successive charge and
discharge processes. Gong et al. [125] tried to find, which operation mode is better in-between Kamimoto [123]
and Bellecci et al. [124]. They developed a finite element model to simulate the cyclic thermal process occurring
in a shell-and-tube latent heat thermal storage exchanger. This exchanger consists of a tube, which surrounds by
an external coaxial cylinder made up of a PCM. A heat-transfer fluid flows through the tube to store or extract
thermal energy from the PCM. Numerical experiments indicated that introducing the hot and cold fluid from the
same end of the storage exchanger is more desirable than introducing the hot and cold fluid from different ends
of the storage exchanger. Numerical results also provide the guidance for selection of the appropriate mode. The
results are limited to only conduction-controlled melting/freezing heat transfer in the PCM.
Hasan[126] developed a simple tube-in-tube heat exchanger for thermal energy storage with stearic acid as a
PCM. He found that the melting front moves in the radial direction inward as well as in the axial direction from
the top toward the bottom of the PCM tube. Melting front speed was enhanced by a convection heat transfer
mechanism in the melted PCM. Phase transition can also be fast by placing the heat exchanger in a horizontal
position rather than a vertical one. He et al. [127] presented a theoretical analysis and experimental tests on a
novel shell-and-tube latent heat exchanger which provides a basis for optimal design and operation of the heat
exchanger. They reported that some parameters, such as the inlet temperature, the velocity of fluid, the thickness
of the PCM and the length of the flow channel have visible effects on the heat transfer performance of the unit.
Stable heat output can be obtained by increasing the entrance temperature of heat transfer fluid, PCM thickness,
and flow channel length. Banaszek et al. [128] used a spiral heat exchanger in latent heat storage unit.
Compactness, enhanced heat transfer due to centrifugal forces, easy sealing, large heat transfer surface, and a
shorter undisturbed flow length are the most appealing features of this system. Qarnia et al. [129] presented a
mathematical model for simulating the thermal behavior of a cross - flow heat exchanger with layers of PCM
sandwiched between the hot and cold air streams to prevent frosting. Mathematical model was validated with
experimental data. It was found that thermal resistance affects the exchanger performance by reducing the
dimensionless outlet temperature of the cold air stream.
6.0 Measurement Techniques of Thermo-physical Properties
The different measurement techniques presently used for latent heat of fusion and melting temperature of
PCMs may be classified as (i) Drop Calorimeter (DC) (ii) Differential Thermal Analysis (DTA) (iii)
Differential Scanning Calorimeter (DSC). The DC method requires a long time and the accuracy of the results is
also not good [21]. In DSC & DTA techniques sample and reference materials are heated at constant rate. The
temperature difference between them is proportional to the difference in heat flow between the two materials and
the record is called the DSC curve. The recommended reference material is Alumina (Al2O3). Latent heat of
fusion is calculated using the area under the peak and melting temperature is estimated by the tangent at the point
of greatest slope on the face portion of the peak. Lots of researchers have been used DSC for measuring the
thermo physical properties of the PCMs (Flaherty, 1971; Giavarini et al., 1972;Cantor et al., 1978; Elder et al.,
1980; Salyer et al, 1986; Bukovec N. et al., 1989; Dunn J.G. et al., 1989; Aboul-Enein et al., 1991; Takahashi Y.
et al., 1991; Babich M.W. et al., 1992; Richardson M.J. et al, 1993, Gibbs et al, 1986; Feldman D. et al., 1996; Li
W. et al., 1999; Sharma S.D. et al., 1999; Sharma, A. et al. 2002; Liu et al. 2001) [130 - 146].
The above methods are, in general, appreciated as an accurate means in measuring the heat of fusion. But the
thermophysical properties of a very small amount (1-10 mg) of the sample PCM might be different from those of
the bulk materials including heterogeneous additives. As another method for determining thermo physical
properties of PCM, Zhang's proposed a T-history method [147] to be able to overcome the above limitation of
DSC. Because this method does not take a small amount of sample, it is very convenient when a cycle test is
carried out with sealed tubes containing newly developed PCMs. Nevertheless, the original T-history method has
a restriction on accuracy of thermophysical properties owing to introduction of some invalid physical
assumptions. Hong et al. [148] tried to improve the accuracy of T-history method for measuring heat of fusion of
various materials. Marin et al. [149] also improved the Zhang et method to determine temperature dependent
properties. They reported that using this method it is possible to obtain both properties and curves in a simple way
which will be of great help in selecting heat storage material and in the subsequent design of a thermal energy
storage system. The enthalpy–temperature curves represent an advance to obtain average properties of the
materials since they enable an evaluation of the variation of the thermal properties against temperature.
7.0 Thermal Cycles
For latent heat storage, commercial-grade PCMs with a purity of about 95% is preferred due to their
large-scale availability and low cost. In general, the thermo physical properties and behavior of commercial-grade
materials are found to be very different from those quoted in the literature for laboratory-grade materials (purity
more than 99%). Since limited data are available on the effect of thermal cycling on commercial grade PCMs, it is
important to study the effects of thermal cycling on the melting temperature, latent heat of fusion and the specific
heat of commercial grade PCMs. Sharma et al. [144, 145] conducted accelerated thermal cycle test for stearic acid,
acetamide and paraffin wax. They concluded that commercial grade PCMs have shown no regular degradation in
their melting points during repeated 1500 thermal cycles. Acetamide and paraffin wax have shown reasonably
good stability for the cycling process and can be considered as promising PCMs. It is recommended that before
employing a commercial grade material as PCM, its thermal cycle test should be conducted as the behavior may
change. Ting et al. [150] conducted accelerated cycle tests on a PCM unit having (Na2SO4 .nH2O) at different
ratios by weight. They studied the effect of 1000 thermal cycles on the container tube, but did not analyze its effect
on the thermophysical properties of the PCM. Fernanda [151] has also studied the thermal reliability of salt hydrate
PCMs with melting temperatures between 15 and 32OC by measuring latent heat of fusion and melting temperature
after subjection to repeat cycles.
Sharma et al. [152] tested the effect of thermal cycling on urea and noticed that it did not melt after a several
cycles. They suggested that urea should not be used as a PCM. Hadjieva [153] calculated the enthalpy of three
paraffin mixtures and found the dependence on their oil content and the distribution of atoms defined by
chemical and gas chromatographic analyses. Thermal cycle testing also carried out for the mixture of technical
grade paraffins and found stable after repeating 900 heating/cooling cycles. Gibbs [141] reported that paraffin
shows excellent thermal stability. Kimura and Kai [154] used NaCl to improve the stability of CaCl2.6H2O,
containing slightly more water than the stoichiometric composition. The salt was found to be very stable after
repeating more than 1000 heating/cooling cycles. Porisino [155] studied the thermal reliability of salt hydrate
PCMs by measuring the latent heat of fusion and melting temperature after subjection to repeated cycles. Wada
et al. [156] investigated the decreasing heat storage capacity of CH3COONa.3H2O during thermal cycling and
performed calorimetric measurements on three kinds of samples. Hasan and Sayigh [157] investigated the
thermal properties of some saturated fatty acids using the DSC technique after a middle term period that includes
heating‐cooling cycles of 450 times. The thermal energy storage capacity of Na2SO4.10H2O was investigated
with respect to thermal cycling by Marks [158]. Zhang et al. [159] studied the solid - liquid phase transitions in
lauric, palmitic and stearic acids and their binary systems. They also investigated the stability of the thermal
properties after many times of heating - cooling cycles, such as 30, 50, 80, and 100. Sari [160, 161] conducted
1200 accelerated thermal cycle tests to study the thermal reliability of lauric, myristic, palmitic, and stearic acid.
Thermal cycling tests have also been conducted for 24 wt% PCM impregnated wallboards. The samples showed
no tendency of the PCM (paraffin) to migrate within the wallboard, and there was no observable deterioration in
the thermal energy storage capacity [162].
8.0 Corrosion of the PCMs
The corrosion of some salt hydrates and salt eutectics to different materials of container and their thermal
stability were tested by Porosini [155] and Groll et al. [164]. Recently, Cabeza et al. [165 - 168] studied corrosion
resistance of five common metals (aluminum, brass, copper, steel and stainless steel) in contact with molten salt
hydrates (zinc nitrate hexahydrate, sodium hydrogen phosphate dodecahydrate, calcium chloride hexahydrate,
sodium carbonate, potassium hydrogen carbonate, potassium chloride, water, sodium acetate trihydrate, and
sodium thiosulphate pentahydrate) in an immersion corrosion test. Recently, Sari et al. [169] investigated the
corrosion resistance of some construction materials to the fatty acids (stearic, palmitic, myristic and lauric acid)
over a long period. The materials containers were stainless steel (SS 304 L), carbon steel (steel C20), aluminum
(Al) and copper (Cu). It can concluded that stainless steel (SS304L) with chromium oxide (Cr2O3) surface layer
and aluminum (Al) metals with aluminum oxide (Al2O3) layer surface are essentially compatible with the
investigated fatty acids based on gravimetric and metallographic corrosion tests results. Carbon steel (Steel C20)
and copper (Cu) metals, as storage container materials are preferentially compatible.
9.0 Heat Transfer Enhancement
In a latent heat storage system, the solid‐liquid interface moves away from the heat transfer surface during
phase change. During this process, the surface heat flux decreases due to the increasing thermal resistance of the
growing layer thickness of the molten/solidified medium. In the case of solidification, conduction is the only
transport mechanism, and in most cases it is very poor. In the case of melting, natural convection can occur in
the molten layer and this generally increases the heat transfer rate compared to the solidification process (if the
layer is thick enough to allow natural convection to occur). However, the generally low heat transfer rate can be
increased considerably by using a suitable heat transfer enhancement technique. There are several methods to
enhance the heat transfer in a LHTS system. The use of finned tubes with different configurations has been
proposed by various researchers as an efficient means to improve the charge/discharge capacity of a LHTS
system [170 - 179]. Other heat transfer enhancement techniques for LHTS systems are having the PCM inserted
in a metal matrix [180 - 185], using PCM dispersed with high conducting particles [186], microencapsulation of
PCM [187 - 188], embedded graphite matrix [189 - 190], carbon fiber brushes with a high thermal conductivity
(190 W/mK) [191], exfoliated graphite (EG) for improving the thermal conductivity of the form-stable P/HDPE
composite PCMs [192], copper plates inserted in spherical capsules for n- octadecane PCM [193], using metal
screens/spheres placed inside the PCM [194]. Erik and Dudukovic [195] presented a novel energy storage
system consisting of n-octadecane retained by capillary forces in a porous silica support. This configuration
eliminates the expensive heat exchange surface, provides higher energy density, and gives higher rates of energy
storage and release. Leoni and Amon [196] employed aluminum foam to enhance the heat transfer process in
latent heat storage system.
10.0 New PCM Innovations
Ravankar [197] presented a new testing method for satellite power using latent heat storage. PCM becomes
liquid under high temperature, which then freezes during hours of cold darkness and released its latent heat. The
released heat can used to generate electricity by driving thermoelectric units. John et al. [198] designed a novel
ventilation nighttime cooling system (a novel combination of PCM and heat pipes) as an alternative to air
conditioning. The system offers substantial benefits in terms of reducing or eliminating the need for air
conditioning. Microencapsulated PCMs can be included within textile fibers; composites and clothing to provide
greatly enhanced thermal protection in both hot and cold environments [199]. Cabeza et al. [200] reported that
the PCM can be used for transporting temperature sensitive medications and food because the PCMs capability
to store heat and cold in a range of several degrees. Several companies are engaged in the research of
transporting temperature sensitive PCMs for various applications [201 - 205].
Vasiliev et al. [206] developed the latent heat storage module for motor vehicle because the heat is stored
when the engine stopped, and can be used to preheat the engine on a new start. It is possible to reach an
optimized working temperature within the engine in a much shorter time using the heat storage than without heat
storage. Pal and Joshi [207, 208] recommended the PCM to restrict the maximum temperature of electronic
components. Tan et al. [209] conducted an experimental study on the cooling of mobile electronic devices, and
computers, using a heat storage unit (HSU) filled with the phase change material (PCM) of n-eicosane inside the
device. The high latent heat of n-eicosane in the HSU absorbs the heat dissipation from the chips and can
maintain the chip temperature below the allowable service temperature of 50 OC for 2 h of transient operations of
the PDA.
Climator [210] has developed a cooling vest for the athletes for reducing the body temperature. PCMs also
proposed for cooling the newborn baby [211]. Koschenz et al. [212] developed a thermally activated ceiling
panel for incorporation in lightweight and retrofitted buildings. It was demonstrated, by means of simulation
calculations and laboratory tests, that a 5 cm layer of microencapsulated PCM (25% by weight) and gypsum
surface to maintain a comfortable room temperature in standard office buildings. Heptadecance were tried as
PCM in this prototype set-up. Naim et al. [213] constructed a novel continuous single-stage solar still with PCM.
They reported that the productivity of a solar still can be greatly enhanced by the use of a PCM integrated to the
still. Huang et al. [214] used PCMs for thermal regulation of building-integrated photovoltaic. Depending on
ambient conditions, a PV/PCM system may enable the PV to operate near its characterizing temperature (25 OC).
They developed PV/PCM simulation model and validated with experimental results. The improvement in the
thermal performance achieved by using metal fins in the PCM container is significant. The fins enable a more
uniform temperature distribution within the PV/PCM system to be maintained. An extensive experimental test
has been undertaken on the thermal behavior of a phase change material, when used to moderate the temperature
rise of PV in a PV/PCM system [215 - 217]. Use of PCM with photovoltaic (PV) panels and thermoelectric
modules (TEMs) in the design of a portable vaccine refrigerator for remote villages with no grid electricity was
proposed by Tavaranan et al. [218]. TEMs, which transfer heat from electrical energy via the Peltier effect,
represent good alternatives for environmentally friendly cooling applications, especially for relatively low
cooling loads and when size is a key factor. Thermoelectric refrigeration systems employing latent heat storage
have been investigated experimentally by Omer et al. [219]. Duffy and Trelles [220] proposed a numerical
simulation of a porous latent heat thermal energy storage device for thermoelectric cooling under different
porosities of the aluminum matrix. They used a porous aluminum matrix as a way of improving the performance
of the system, enhancing heat conduction without reducing significantly the stored energy.
Weinlader et al. [221] used PCM in double-glazing façade panel for day lighting and room heating. A facade
panel with PCM shows about 30% less heat losses in south oriented facades. Solar heat gains are also reduced by
about 50%. Facade panels with PCM improve thermal comfort considerably in winter, especially during
evenings. In summer, such systems show low heat gains, which reduces peak cooling loads during the day.
Additional heat gains in the evening can be drawn off by nighttime ventilation. If a PCM with a low melting
temperature of up to 30 OC is used, thermal comfort in summer will also improve during the day, compared to
double glazing without or with inner sun protection. Ying et al. [222] developed the test standards for PCM
fabrics. Three indices have been proposed to characterize the thermal functional performance of PCM fabrics.
The index of thermal regulating capability can described the thermal regulating performance of PCM fabrics,
and is strongly dependent on amount of PCM. Khateeb et al. [223] designed a lithium-ion battery employing a
novel phase change material (PCM) for thermal management system in electric scooter. Developed Li-ion
battery was suggested in order to replace the existing lead–acid battery in the electric scooter with the Li-ion
battery without introducing any mechanical changes in the battery compartment.
11.0 Conclusion
This review will help to find the suitable PCM for various applications, different techniques for the
measurement of thermo physical properties of PCM, suitable heat exchanger with ways to enhance the heat
transfer and provide the various designs to store the heat using PCM for different applications i.e. heating,
cooling, cooking, greenhouse, water heating and waste heat recovery systems. Study on thermal cycles and
corrosion of the materials for long term stability is discussed. Recent innovations on PCM applications are
included for the awareness about new applications. More applications are yet to be discovered.
Acknowledgement
Dr. Someshwer Dutt Sharma is very grateful to Japan Society for the Promotion of Science for funding the
post doctoral fellowship for the year 2003 - 2005.
Nomenclature
am Fraction melted
ar Fraction reacted
∆hm Heat of fusion (kJ/kg)
∆hr Endothermic heat of reaction (kJ/kg)
m Mass of heat storage medium (kg)
Ta Ambient air temperature (OC)
Tf Final temperature (OC)
Ti Initial temperature (OC)
Tm Melting temperature (OC)
Cp Specific heat (kJ/kg K)
Cap Average specific heat between Ti and Tf (kJ/kg K)
Clp Average specific heat between Tm and Tf (kJ/kg K)
Csp Average specific heat between Ti and Tm (kJ/kg K)
Q Quantity of heat stored (kJ)
Abbreviations
c Congruent melting
CASE Compressed air energy storage
EG Exfoliated graphite
ETSC Evacuated tube solar collector
HDPE High density polyethylene
HTF Heat transfer fluid
ic Incongruent melting
LHS Latent heat storage
L Liquid state
n.a. Not available
NPG Neopentyle glycol
PCM Phase change material
PE Penaerythritol
PHPS Pumped hydro power storage
PV Photovoltaic
SHS Sensible heat storage
S Solid state
TAM Trihydroxy methyl aminomenthane
TEM Thermoelectric module
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Res. Rep. Fac. Eng. Mie Univ., Vol. 29, pp.

Phase Change Materials for Low Temperature Solar Thermal

Someshower Dutt SHARMA†, Hiroaki KITANO and Kazunobu SAGARA†

(Received September 17, 2004)

2.0 Thermal Energy Storage

† Department of Architectural Engineering, Osaka University, Suita, Osaka 565-0871, Japan

3.0 Latent Heat Storage Materials

Thermo physical properties

(i) Melting temperature in the desired operating temperature range.

(i) Chemical stability.

Fig.1: Classification of latent heat storage materials

Table 1: List of organic PCMs [94 - 98]

3.13 Fatty acids

3.14 Salt hydrates

Table 2: List of inorganic PCMs [1, 2, 12, 94 - 98]

(OC) fusion (kJ/kg) (OC) fusion (kJ/kg)

S: solid; L: liquid; n.a.: not available

(OC) (kg/m3) (k J/ kg)

Alpha Glucose 141 1544 174

(OC) (kg/m3) (W/mK) (kJ/kg)

Point (OC) (kg/m3) (W/m K) (kJ/kg) Behaviora [13]

CaBr2.6H2O 34 195635C, 219424C n.a. 115 - 138 n.a.

KAl (SO4)2.12H2O 91 n.a. n.a. 184 n.a.

n.a..: not available; c: congruent melting; ic : incongruent melting

3.16 Cross-linked polyethylene

AlCl3+NaCl+KCl 66+20+14 70 209

4.0 Latent Heat Storage Systems

4.1 Solar water heating

Fig.2: Built -in storage type heater with PCM layer

Fig.3: A domestic hot water system with separate PCM heat

PCM relief and filling connection

Water relief pipe

Water outlet for domestic use

Fig.4: Water - PCM solar collector

Fig.6: Schematic diagram of the base solar energy system

Fig.7: Schematic configuration of latent heat storage tank

Fig.8: Solar air heater configuration with set of PCM tubes

4.4 Green house heating

Fig.9: General view of phase change energy storage system

Fig.10: Underground tunnel: equipped with a PCM

Fig.13: Solar Cooker with PCM Cooking Container

Fig.14: A schematic diagram of the latent heat storage unit

4.6 Waste heat recovery systems

5.0 Latent Heat Storage Exchanger

6.0 Measurement Techniques of Thermo-physical Properties

7.0 Thermal Cycles

8.0 Corrosion of the PCMs

9.0 Heat Transfer Enhancement

10.0 New PCM Innovations

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