BELIZEAN CREOLE FOLK SONGS

Author(s): ERVIN BECK

Source: Caribbean Quarterly, Vol. 29, No. 1, Caribbean Traditional Music (MARCH, 1983), pp.
44-65
Published by: University of the West Indies and Caribbean Quarterly
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44

BELIZEAN CREOLE FOLK SONGS

by

ERVIN BECK

WorkSongs
The worksongin traditional Afro-American culturesis a call-and-response songin which
who
the lead singer, frequently does no manual labour,sings out the call whilea group
of labourersreturns the one-line as
response theyperform the work. The functionof the
songis to regulate the actual flow of the work. Likewise,working tools sometimes add
a regularpercussiveeffect to the rhythm of the song.1
This essentiallyAfricanuse of song is illustratedby the "diggingsings" of
Jamaicaas collectedbefore1907 by WalterJekyll2and as stillused in Trinidadin the
1930s3 and in the Jamaicancountryside as late as 1968.4 RogerAbrahamshas also
studiedsimilarsongs used by fishermen in Nevis,Tobago, and St Vincent.5The call-
and-response work song survived into the 1930s in the UnitedStatesprimarily because
of the convict-leasesystem in southern prisons, which preserved the traditionof com-
munallabourin work gangs. John and Alan Lomax gave "special attention"to these
songsin theirimportant collection, American Balladsand Folk Songs.6
A BelizeanCreolefolksongthatseemsto fitthisdescription is thewell-known
"KellymanTown":
Go to KellymanTown,go tell dehngal me di brukrockstone
Kellenby!
Go to KellymanTown,go tell dehngal me di brukrockstone
Kellenby!
Brukdehnone by one.
Kellenby!
Brukdehntwoby two.
Kellenby!
Brukdehnthreeby three.
Kellenby!
Brukdehnfourby four.
Kellenby!
(etc.)
- Womenof the Baptistfamilyof BurrellBoom,
recorded by Shirley Wardein 1956-57.
dehn= those
di bruk= ambreaking

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 45

-Φ- - 4JJJJJ J 1J J J«Lf^^ * ^ J J Iel ____

_»■

ft û Ù Call Response Call Response

Evidencesuggests, however,that"KellymanTown" cannotbe regarded as a truly

Belizeanworksong.BothWalterJekyllandMarthaW. Beckwith havepublished
Jamaican
variantsof the same song,withJekyll'sappearingas earlyas 1907.7 Althoughone
Belizeaninformant associated"KellymanTown" withKelly Streetin Belize City,the
word"Kellyman"probablyshouldbe regarded of the"Gallo-
as a Belizeantransmutation
way road" (site of a stone in variant.8
quarry) Jekyll's the
Similarly, apparently non-
sensicalresponse,"Kellenby!"is probablya slightlyalteredversionof "Gal an boy"
ofall versionsreported byJekyllandBeckwith.
Althoughthe lyricssuggestthatthe songoriginated withthe communallabour
gamewhen
it was beingused as a songto accompanya stone-passing
of quarryworkers,
Beckwithrecordedit in Jamaicapriorto 1928. Like theotherJamaicandigging sings,
whose descendedvariantsbecame used as dance tunes in Jamaicaas well as Belize,
"KellymanTown" probablywasusedforpurposesotherthantheenhancement oflabour
fromthetimeofitsearliestuse in Belize.

Wood HarvestingActivities
The onlysongin mycollectionthatis clearlya call-and-response worksongin the
sensedescribedaboveis one fromSeferinoScott,a nativeof OrangeWalkwhohad spent
muchofhislifeas a woodsman.He calledthefollowing songa "log-rolling
song":
Run, Johnny, run,boy, caulkin [?] on your blocktoday.
da
Hey,yey!Bur-ah-yin yagga[?] .
Monkeyplay the fiddleand the baboon dance thetune.
Hey,yey!Bur-ah-yin da yagga.
- SeferinoScott, recordedby ShirleyWarde in 1956-57.

Call Response

u rcjrricJcr^Jiir^r js
r^

iJJflj
^ ^ Call ^mmífmmi t Response

j-jj-j-Γ3
_|_Ίι
-Γ3 cj-^ llf'pfIJJJljjll
1e_T

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46

No testimony thepreciseuse of thistuneby loggershasbeenpreserved.

regarding
Researchinto loggingproceduresand terminology may help clarifythe meaningof
"caulkingon yourblock"as wellas "Bur-ah-yin
da yagga".
Thus, evidenceso farcollectedsuggeststhatthe use of the traditional call-and-
responseworksonghas not been as widespread in Belizeas elsewherein Afro-American
cultures- a situationthatprobablyderivesfromthe natureof the labourassociated
withtraditional Creoleculturein Belize.The economyof Belizehas,untilrecentyears,
been based on wood-harvesting activities- firstlogwood,thenmahoganyand chicle.
Yet work songshave traditionally been foundin agricultural societies,whichrequire
muchcommunallabour,ratherthanin forest-harvesting cultures,whichrequirerelative-
ly less.For instance,in Africathecollectiveworksongis commonin theculturesof the
open savannah,but uncommonin the rain forestbelt of the Yoruba,Ewe, and Ibo
peoples.PerhapsBelizeanlabourershavetendedto resemblethebush-cutters in Liberia,
whosingwhiletheywork,butonlyintermittently andcasually.9
In thiscasual use of song,workingBelizeanshave,of course,sungsongswithno
specificconnectionwithmanuallabourin theirlyricsor percussive effects.LeonieWhite,
forinstance,recallspoundingout ricein a mortarand pestlewhilesinging the familiar
songfromAnancystories,"Me Elinor,Elinor,gai-na-yo me doh doh." Justas manysongs
can be used as quarrellingsongs,so almostany songcan becomea worksonginsofaras
it is usedto accompany, andtherefore lighten,theburdenofwork.
Belizeanshave also composedsongsabout work.Manysongs,forinstance,refer
to ordinarydomesticlabour,whetherhouseworkor fieldwork.Some examplesare
"And I Won'tGivea Damn", "And I WorkUnderneath Till He Come", "BringMe Half
a Hoe", and "You Can't WalkDa Me Planwalk".10 Of thesecall-and-response
dancing
songs,thelasttwo deal withagricultural whichmightpointto origins
contexts, or earlier
use in communal fieldlabour.
Along with SeferinoScott's log-rolling song,fourothersin my collectionwere
used in or are specifically concernedwith the loggingindustryin Belize. Since they
documentand expressthe experienceof thetypical,traditional Creolewho hiredhim-
selfout forpay in loggingoperations,thesefivesongsmorethanany othersseemto
epitomizethe uniquelyBelizean contribution to the work songsof the world.Only
Scott's is call-and-response; one is verse-and-chorus;
the otherthreeillustratemore
free,lyricalstructures.
In Scott's song,the reference to Monkeyfiddlingand Baboon dancingsuggests
that it may also have been used in an Anancystory.A songby PercyGillett,which
definitelycomesfrom Anancystory,mayalso havebeen used to accompanylogging
an
operations.In thetale,Anancyfirstsingsthesong,followedbytheladiesandthenby the
children.GillettsingsAnancy'slinesin a bold baritone,the women'sin a highvoice,
andthechildren's in a falsetto.
0, cutin a row,brother
Cutin a row,
Anda cutin a row.
- PercyGillett,recordedby ShirleyWardein 1956-57.

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 47

Λ Α m -
,__ ,__^

Gillettsingsthissongin thetale,"AnancyandBruddaCrane",11in whichAnancy

cuts down the tree holdingCrane'snest in orderto steal the treasurecached there.
Anancyfirstbuildsa "conga barbecue"aroundthe huge tree;thatis, he constructs a
platform largeand highenoughto enablea gangof woodcutters to chopat thetreewith
ease.12The words,of course,call upon a fellowlabourer,or labourers, to cut together
and/orevenly:"Cut in a row." In thenarration proper,Anancy/Gillettechoesthesound
of theaxeswiththewords,"Jujing!jing!de chop!"
It does not take muchimagination or additionalevidenceto suggestthat there
may have been some kind of tradition
of communalworksongin loggingcamps,and
thatperhapsAnancy'ssongwas one actuallyused in reallifeand thennaturally inserted
in a storythatdepictstheanimal-trickster as a wood-cuttinghero.
Afterbeingpressedseveraltimesto singa worksong,ChristabelBevans,whose
husbandEdwardworkedin loggingcamps for sixteenyears,sangthe followinglog-
cutting song:
Ο TonyBey!
Ο ho TonyBoy!
Ο MisterYorke.carrymedownto BurrellBoom [?] .
Ο ho, ho,ho.
Yeh heyTonyBoy!
Ho To-TonyBoy!
Ο MisterHighManrunme downto mya Bomba [?] home.
Ο thisda thetime,
Thisda thetime,
Thisda thetime,
Thisda thetime,
WhenCreolegoinghome.
Thisda theyear,
Thisda theyear,
Thisda theyear,
WhenCreolegoinghome.
Ο ho,TonyBey!
Ο ho,TonyBey!
Ο MisterHighManbringmedownto Bermuda, hey.
Ο ho TonyBey!
- Christabel
Bevans,26 August 1975
BurrellBoom= on theBelizeRiver
Bomba= BombaBankon theNorthern River
da = is
Bermuda= Bermudian Landingon theBelizeRiver

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 48

"
i
m f "FjlJ " Γ 1rf ^J1ι * ν κ Π 1

ft»J JjJ ^ J~JJ 1.HJ || ? Jj J, ρ ;||

j, 3 3 ÄC

J >U J JT1 ΙΓ j j j ^^
^ r-T- Ί . ι . 3

"^ J~P I
Immediately aftersingingthesong,Christabel added the spokencomment:"And
herethe log 'da da de dingdingding'- tumbledrightdown,rightdownthehill." In
contrast to thecall-and-response
songsand theshortworksongjustdiscussed,ChristabeFs
song is in a more lyricalform. As Christabelsingsit, it also becomesa wistfullament
overnotbeingable to go "home".
Lamentbecomesoutright socialprotestin two songsthatdealwithdifficult work-
ing conditions in the loggingcamps.Cleopatra White'ssong is about a foreman
logging
whooverworks hismen:
0, CaptainGinger,
I no comeya fuyou killme,
I comeya fuyouworkme.
Yes, CaptainGinger.
CHORUS: For one yearandsixmonths,
I no see me Lola [?] .
Carrymebackda Lola,
Lowlandda mecountry.
Yes, CaptainGinger, do sir,
Me no comeya fiyoubeatme.
Me no comeya fiyoukillme.
Yes, CaptainGinger.
- CleopatraWhite,8 July 1978
ya = here
fu,fi= for
da = to,of
lowland= PerhapsBelizeCity,sinceit is builton the
deltaof theBelizeRiver.
marshy

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 49

Verse ^^ ^^^

|> M f J^fJl^-ÜJJf JlfEfJJ11

Jl^-ÜJJf
a Chorus «

4 fcJfrf r I*y ΓΓ f IgfrT^Jl-rrrr^

ETC J11
One informant pointedout thatthenormalcontractforcuttinglogsin thebush
was only four,six, or ninemonths- not the eighteenmonthsof hardlabourcitedby
thepersonin thesong.

Probablythe best-knownsong about labourin Belize is "Iguana Creek",which

termsof the "contract"underwhichthe workis done:
also documentsthe difficult
I'll nevergo backto IguanaCreek
Not as longas lifeexists.
I'll nevergo backto IguanaCreek
Not as longas lifeforme.
Theyworkmenfromsixto six.
One dollar[?] twenty-five perday.
You maycarryyourwife
You maycarryyoursweetheart
Butshewon'tbe no use to you.
I'll nevergo backto IguanaCreek
Not a Waikado youneed.
You maycarryyourwife
You maycarryyoursweetheart
Butshewon'tbe no use to you.
All I plea andall I askmyfriend
To see thecaptainto slackenmycontract.
Home,home,sweethome,myboy,
Thereis no placelikehome.
- Duncan Pinkard,recordedby ShirleyWardein
1956-57.
Waika= MosquitoIndian(skilledlogger)

*
J»J -I-
fli J>j[j ιr J r JiJ' -Hi
$*i j>iJ»J
Althoughone informant saysthe songrefersto thebuildingof theWesternHigh-
waybridgeoverIguanaCreekin 1938, morepeople associateitwithlogging operations.
Ed Casasolaof Belize City,who used to drivetrucksthathauledlogsout of thebush,

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50

remembershearingthe songsungby one man whilelogs werebeingloaded by a gang

ofmenintothetrucks.

The songsand otherevidencecitedhere suggestthatthereis a definitetradition

of theworksongin Belize,but thatit does not conformto thetypicalpatternand use
of the worksongin manyotherAfro-American cultures.Overthreehundredyearsof
logging in Belize musthave generatedmany moreworksongsthanare printedhereand
that deservebeingbroughtto public attention.Such songsare not only interesting
compositions in theirown right, documentsin thehistoryof labour
but also important
in Belize.

Belizean Creole Boat Songs

Untilrecentyears,Belizehas reliedon coastaland inlandwaterways forits major
routesof transportation.As NardaDobson pointsout,thepresentnetwork of roadswas
of all-weather
initiatedin the 1930s and the firstextensivedevelopment roadsoccurred
only in the 1970s withcompletionof the pavingof theWestern HighwayfromBelize
Cityto Belmopan.13

Now thatbus and truckhavevirtually replacedtheboat in internal transportation,

Belizeansare understandably showingan interest thehistoryof boat trans-
in recreating
portationwhileoral and writtenrecordsare easilyaccessible.Hencethe significance of
VernonLeslie'sessay,whichdocumentsthebeginning of boat serviceto San Ignacio,14
as well as CharlesJohnEmond's,whichconcernsboat tripsup the coast and downthe
Northern Riverto OrangeWalkTown.15The unfortunate and untimely deathof Leslie,
who expectedto writea monograph on boat transportationin Belize,meansthatthe
history will be delayed.It is to be hopedthatsomeoneelse willbe foundto complete
theimportant workthathe began.

The writtenhistorywill not be comprehensive,however,unlessit also takesinto

accountthe way watertraffic has stimulated and artisticcreativity
the imagination of
a numberof Creolefolksongsdocument
the folkwho plied the waters.In particular,
on the coastal,Sibun and Belize Riverwaterways.For
the experiencesof travellers
the historianthey are importantbecause they retainthe names of individualboats
associatedwithwatertraffic.
andalludeto generalandlocalizedincidents

The motorized in a songlearned

doreysthatpliedtheSibunRiverarememorialized
byAdeliaDixon of BelizeCityaround1932:
Looku,threegunboatcome:
Sunrise,Radio andDominion.
Dehndi fightfibiggercoco.
Dehndi fightfibiggerplantain.
Dehndi fightfibiggerpotato.
Dehndi fightfibiggeryampa.
Shuboon,Shuboon,Shuboon.

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 51

Shuboon,Shuboon,Shuboon.
Shuboon,threegunboatcome:
Sunrise,Radio andDominion.
Dehndi fightfibiggerorange.
Dehndi fightfibiggercoco.
Dehndi fightfibiggerbukut.
Dehndi fightfibiggeryampa.
Shuboon,Shuboon,Shuboon.
- AdeliaDixon,21 July 1978
Looku = Look!
Dehn= they
= arefighting
di fight
=
fi for
coco = potato-like
vegetable
yampa= yams
bukut= long,hard,blackfruitwithpungentodour

J=aU04 , 1

^'ίΓ P"pr'V it-fC-T£j [j ι

- 3
O.i'
f>*Lríl/Lt *T |JJ
..μ, . .
cuff^
Ν. ι I I ι

rit.

gkV' *' J)γτ j) | Γ j^ 1*· J^r* J^

a tempo

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52

3 rit· .IS ι
LJ CI/ -*^ * ' CUT * ^
O.|, _j , fi κ , ΓΙ
^
v è" J 1J' Jir' ^ 1°
0 J» J 1 ι ■ Π
§
V.J.
I
These apparentlyhighlycompetitivevesselswere called "gunboats"becauseof
the explodingnoises that theirenginesmade. An alternative was "bum"
designation
boats, a termthatechoes the "boom" or refersto the "bomb"-likesound thatthey
produced.Radio was ownedby Oziah Morterof BelizeCity.The identificationof the
otherboatsrequiresfurtherresearch.
Songstersfrequently referto "Cayo boat songs",by whichtheyvariously mean
or
songssung composed on the boats that to
travelled Cayo(now San or
Ignacio), songs
thatreferto eventsand boats associatedwiththattraffic. At leastthreesongsfitinto
thelattercategory. All of themare tingedwithromanticlove,and two of themsuggest
the bilingualexperienceof Creoleswho travelledfromthe English-speaking coastinto
theSpanish-speaking interior.
The firstone refersto St James'sBoom,whichis locatedacrossthe BelizeRiver
fromBurrellBoomandtherefore waspassedearlyon thetripto Cayo:
As I wasgoingalongSt James'sBoom
I fellin lovewitha cottagegirl.
And0! AndO! And0! AndO-i-0!
And0! And0! Andall shesaidto me,
"Look at myfinger and remember me."
- OswaldSutherland, 20 June 1976
Λ ύ β· 3 ' ^ ^ I
β m η

0 % f*__ ß m m m - m 1

^
fL^4 II·Γ Sr
-(φ ill·1 1/
LTΓr
Γm Γ1
ΜΓ' ff
'> A1 ''I1
HIΓ UΓ-Γ ΓΓΓΓΓ
MlíLJΓ 1
1 1
1
j ς^ γ

Sutherlandsaysthatthespeakerin his songis a boatmanwhoproposesto a village

girl,onlyto haveherstallhisadvancesby showing himan engagement ringon herfinger.
Sutherland learnedthissong from Leslie Gentleof BelizeCity, whom Sutherlandcites
as thecomposerofmanyCayoboatsongs,including perhaps thisone.

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 53

AdeliaDixon'sCayo boat songtellsan incompletestoryof a Creolemancourting

a Spanish-speaking
girlwhosefatherapparentlydisruptstheaffairby meansof trickery.
I wentdownto Cayo inJanuary.
I metwitha niceSpanishgal.
I metwitha niceSpanishgal,myfriend.
She was theprettiest
galto me.
ThenI askherin English,
"Whatis yourname,younglady?"
Andsheansweredin Spanishto me,
"6Quiensabe?6Quiensabe,senor?"
Thensheansweredin Spanishto me,
"^Quiensabe?òQuiensabe,senor?"
Bute daddyda miwahntricky old man.
Butshewas theprettiestgalto me.
ThenI say,"Dame tu manoizquierda.
Dame tumanoizquierda.
Dame tu manoizquierda,miamor,
Que estamascercade tu corazon.
Dametu manoizquierda,miamor,
Que estamascercade tu corazon."
Yes, e daddyda miwahntricky old man.
Butshewastheprettiest gal to me.
- AdeliaDixon, 22 July 1978
6 Quiensabe?= Whoknows?
e = her
da mi= usedto be
wahn = a
Dametu mano. . . = Givemeyourlefthand,whichis
closestto yourheart.

ja j υ j j ir r 'J iJ· i-^

J > j~n J / π ι - ι- j ι
j ρ
j j * j]N * j j ιj * j ir^^
$ r r J i^J ' iJ s i4j^i

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54

AnotherCayo boat songby Sutherland makesa satiricuse of Spanishdialogue:

You yerriQuesik?You yerriQuesik?
You yerriBellonablow?
Getup,openyoudoor,
Fa youloverdi out a door,
(repeat)
Panyacallme. "Digo yo. Digo yo."
Panyacallme."Digo yo."
Getup,openyoudoor.
Fa you loverdi out a door.
- OswaldSutherland, 20 June 1976
You yerri= Did youhear?
Fa = for
di = is
Digoyo = I say.

fLh' Ji^jip ji^jip' ji|p-jY imJ i>}

* .t % 3 Fine
Η J mi J j ιj-j ^ j j j ν ίΐι
|
D.S. al Fine
Λ ^ 5

Namesof Boats
Quesikand Bellona apparently are thenamesof boatsownedby CarlosMelhado
and Sons thattravelledfromBelize Cityto San Ignacio.Whentheboats "blow" their
horns,people alongthe shoreopen theirdoorsand come to greetthem.Althoughthe
"Digo yo" could come froma "panya"(Spaniard)alongthe shore,Sutherlandsaysitis
spokenby the Creole,who uses the only Spanishhe knowsin to
trying communicate
witha potentialSpanish"lover".
This apparently discretesongis embeddedby severalinformants
in a longersong,
thefullestversionofwhichcomesfromVioletGabourelandAdeliaDixon:
[Alldehngalda] SandPointBay
Cungogo burndownHeronDale.
All dehngalda SandPointBay
Cungogo burndownHeronDale.

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55

Fi-meturkeyda fime-wahn.
Me no buyahnfimeandyou.
Fi-meturkey da fime-wahn.
Me no buyahnfimeandyou.
(more)
You yerriQuesik?
You yerriCairo?
You yerriBellonablow?
You yerriQuesik?
You yerriCairo?
You yerriBellonablow?
So getup,openyoudoor,
For you loverdi out a door.
So getup,openyoudoor,
For youloverdi out a door.
0, fi-meturkeyda fime-wahn.
Me no buyahnfime andyou.
Fi-meturkeyda fime-wahn.
Me no buyahnfimeandyou.
- VioletGabourelandAdeliaDixon,21 July1978
dehn= those
da = from
Cungo= Let's go
Fi-meturkeyda fime-wahn= Mysweetheartbelongs
onlyto me.
ahn= her
fi=for

CleopatraWhite'svariantsubstitutes
Cutish for Quesik and Colon forCairo in
the listof boats.

r iffrüiü-r ι
ffi'Trrrri^r
. SäJ.J

j^üftj)J J J1r if r i' ι

Γ' Fine 1Γ2

-f^f'CfT iJr' il' ι '"ill" ι1 11

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 56

flt»itr itr ρisr gr r if" fî-.Ur

.
r »
D.S. alFine

J ί·J'iJ" ji.i f !ii

k | |

^iiiJ'r pJ ιr j>j
One questionto ask about this songis how its threeparts- the burning, the
turkey, the boats - are logicallyconnected.Another questionconcerns the meaning
of stanzaone: Does "burndown" referto a big dance,as CleopatraWhiteinsists,or
to a literalburning? And are Sand PointBay (SunshineBayin LaurelHall'svariant)and
Heron Dale (Heron Bay for CleopatraWhite;HerringBay forOswaldSutherland)in
Jamaica,as Sutherlandclaims?on the Belize River,as Dixon and Gabourelinsist?or
on theNorthern River,as CleopatraWhitesays?
Some evidencetowardanswering thesequestionsmaybe containedin a songabout
coastalboat trafficsungby HubertGardnerand composedbyhisbrother Georgearound
1946.
CHORUS: Be carefulhowyou talk,gal,
Be carefulhowyou talk.
Although you dreamsayHeronburn,
Be carefulhowyoutalk.
The scandalstartda market
Whenwahnwomantelle dream.
Ε say,"Old Heronburnrightup
Ande letout lot a steam."
(CHORUS)
You dreamsayHeronburnup
Ande letout lot a steam.
You see wehyou cause,youwoman,
Withyounastyslippery tongue.
(CHORUS)
- HubertGardner,26 July 1978
da=at
wahn= a
e = her,she
weh= what
a ,i A Chorus ο
J
. - ^-
0 a iffji γλ ^_l ^""1

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57

Λ Λà Verse 3

g'* J κ'Π iti 'Π J>]IAl ΓΙ IJ^

'
I
According to Gardner,one day the Heron H was severalhoursoverduein its
regulartripto BelizeCityfromPuntaGordaTown. A womanin CentralMarketbegan
a rumourthatthe boat had burnedup, causingmuchconsternation amongthosewho
heard the report.However,shortlyafterthe rumourhad spread,the boat appeared,
unharmed.
So perhapstheline"burndownHeronDale" in theGabourel-Dixon songoriginal-
ly referredto the presumedburningof the HeronH - as theopeninglinesof Laurel
Hall'svariantwouldindeedallow: "I lightme candleda SunshineBay/Figo burndown
the Heron Dale [italicsmine]." Followingthis line of thought,Sand Point (or its
equivalent)was locatedbetweenPuntaGordaand BelizeCity,and "burndown" refers
both to the rumouredfireas well as to the intensedancing(withone's "turkey")that
usuallyaccompaniedthis song when it was mostpopularin BelizeanCreole culture.
Concernslike thismay be moreconvincingly clarifiedthroughmore researchin
oral and writtensourcesforthehistoryofboat transportation in Belize.And,conversely,
theseboat songsmay also contribute to the reconstructionof thathistory.Theywill
certainlyadd thehuman,expressivedimension to thehistoricalfacts.
Five Kinds
In severalearlieressayson BelizeanCreolefolksongsand earlierin thisessayI have
triedto identifydifferentgenresof songsandofferrepresentativeexamplesofeachtype.
I havedescribedsongsin termsof structural features function
(call-and-response), (work
songs,quarrellingsongs)and content(topicalsongs,boat songs).16I willnowsurveyfive
additionalkindsof songsand,in mostcases,illustrate each typewitha singleexample.
The NurserySong
Since "nurserysong" designatesfunctionratherthan structure or content,any
songthat a motheror nursemaid maychooseto singto an infantbelongsin thiscategory.
The designation is imprecise,
as is also thecase withworksongsand quarrellingsongs.
Nevertheless, some songsare obviouslynurserysongsbecause of contentand/or
restricted
use. One modestexamplecomesfromVioletFullerof BelizeCity,who,like
hermother, was a nursemaidformanyyears:
Kurachi.Kurachi.
Babycan playkurachi.
Kurachi.Kurachi.
Mamacan playkurachi.
Grannycan playkurachi.
- VioletFuller,3 July1978

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58

JL^ ί?gιr J Jgιr* J «/ι Π f a« ιfy J^

The songis foruse witha veryyoungbaby,rattlein hand.Whenthe nursesings

"Kurachi",she turnsher hand,thusencouraging
the baby to imitateherand activate
therattlein a patterned
way.
The Salvation ArmySong
Oswald Sutherlandof Belize Cityknowsthree"SalvationArmy"songsthathe
saysarosefromand wereused in theworshipandevangelistic
services
of thatProtestant
group,whichremainsactivein Belizetodaybut was evenmoreinfluentialin 1920-25.

Althoughsome such songs were no doubt broughtto Belize by missionaries,

manyapparentlywere composedin Belize in the courseof regularworshipservices.
membersof the audiencewould pick up a key phrasefrom
Accordingto Sutherland,
thepreacher, it
repeat with andthenimprovise
hand-clapping a catchytuneforit.

Of Sutherland'sthree songs - which also include"Look Here, Sinners"and

"WhenI Go to Heaven" - the following has themostcelebrative,
liltingtuneand the
mostimaginative
lyrics:
I'll putmyfingeron thegoldenpen,
The goldenpen,thegoldenpen.
I'll putmyfingeron thegoldenpen
Andwritemynameup there.
Writemyname,
Ο writemynameup there.
Writemyname,
I'll writemynameup there.
So I'll putmyfingeron thegoldenpen,
The goldenpen,thegoldenpen.
I'll putmyfingeron thegoldenpen
Andwritemynameup there.
- OswaldSutherland, 20 June,1976

V j j J J JJ r r f fι

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 59

Fine

γ u D J iirr r }'uu r ι
Λ ω ι- -ι _- D.C. al Fine
)l ffΓ
fe r r
Ι i>" ».ι1 *
h
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Sutherlandalso recallsthistunebeingplayedby the trumpetof ι SalvationArmy
bandbetweensingingsofthestanzasby members of thechurch.

The Kunjai Song

Some Creolesongshave lyricsthatcall upon dancersto imitatecertainactions.
VioletGabourelof Belize Citycalls themkunjaisongs.Her designation, whichis not
in widespread use amongCreolesongsters,maybe relatedto gunjai,thewordtheCaribs
of Belizeuse to referto a dramaticdanceperformed
together bya manand a woman.17
Such Cariband Creolesongshavein commonan imitative actionperformed by persons
dancingto thesongs.
Since primeexamplesof thekunjaigenrehavebeen printed(but not calledsuch)
in earlieressays,nonewillbe givenhere.All arecall-and-response
songswhoseimprovised
lyricsin the"call" focusupona relatedsetof activities.
For example,"Guruzondo"calls upon the dancing"younggal" to shakevarious
of
parts her body: "O younggal, shakeyou belly." "PalmerWilliam"asksdancersto
imitateludicrousactionsattributedto relatives:"Show me how you grampadance."18
And many,but not all, of the linesof "CyaanPeepee" describestepsthatthe dancers
shouldexecute:"Wheelam back way." "Chemise0" and "JuniorCall Me to Shashay"
mayalso be partof thistradition.19

The School Song

OswaldSutherlandand also knowsthreesongsthathe learnedin 1926-27 when
he was a studentin Standards5 and 6 at theHoly RedeemerPrimary School in Belize
City. They are "Jubilee!","Merry,MerryChristmas", and "We Are the Boys of the
Sisters'School". All werecomposedby Fr. BarnardAbeling(d. 1947), a priestin the
AmericanJesuitMissionfrom1898 to 1901 andthenagainfrom1907 to thelate 1930s.
He wrotethe songson the blackboardand thentaughtthemto his students,usually
in connectionwitha specialevent,such as a school Christmas programme. Abelingis
also remembered in Belize as the composerof " 'Twas theTenthDay of September",
whichis sungbyBelizeanson NationalDay every10 September.
These school songssomewhatstrainthe traditionaldefinitionof "folk song",
whichusuallyrefersto a songthatexistsin a numberof variantformsbecauseit was
passedon orallyfromsingerto singerafterbeingcomposed- but not writtendown-

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60

by an author,whose identityis often unknown. But since the writtenversionsof these

school songs were soon erased, and since the songs have survivedexclusively through
theycan legitimatelybe regardedas folk songs.
oral transmission,
"We Are the Boys" representsthe traditionand also contains some interesting
historicalreferences:
We are the boys of the sisters'school.
Belize is our home.
Happy are we to welcome you
And hope you will be glad you've come.
Ho! Ho! McConkey!
And the wind is blowingstrong.
Ho! Ho! McConkey!
You mustcome along.
We are the C.O.F.
You mustunderstand.
Loyal and true
We will always be to you
And the C.O.F.
Then let us march,march,march.
Keep the flagheld higher.
Fly the right.
Keep your flagon highand
Fly [flee?] the wrong.
Let your heartsbe evertrue and strong.
Three cheersforthe C.O.F.
- Oswald Sutherland,23 July 1978

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 61

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lrr r rjlJJrr1rir
J JJlJJfi^Ë
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-4φ- VA ===^=^====^ ===i==
The songwas composedfortheChristmas programme at HolyRedeemerSchoolin
1926. "C.O.F." standsfortheCatholicOrderof Foresters,
a fraternalorderbegunby the
CatholicChurchin Belize in orderto counterthe influenceof the popular,but non-
religious,AncientOrder of ForestersFriendlySociety,which offeredits members
insuranceand othermutualaid. The reference to "McConkey"- used as a by-word
-
here is obscure.
The Creolized SentimentalBallad
Justas the school songshowsacademicculturemovinginto the folktradition,
so theCreolizedsentimental balladshowsa genrefrompopularculturebeingassimilated
intofolkart.
Whenaskedto sing"old" songs,manyinformants firstrespondedby singingtheir
versionsof sentimental balladsfromlate nineteenth- and earlytwentieth-centuryBritain
and America.Such songswerecommercially producedand reacheda mass marketby
being printedin songbooksand sheet music. They found theirway into Belizean
homesand schoolsby beingsungaroundthepiano,heardovertheradioor playedon
phonograph records.
Key lines fromsome informants' sentimental
ballads suggestthe flavourof this
populargenre: "Once I loved with fond as sungby Violet Fuller;"In her
affection",
hairtherewas moonlight", by Eulalio Smith of Rancho Dolores; "Lightof myheart,
like thesun",by RositaSutherland of RanchoDolores;and "0, heream I aloneto die,
Love", by Doris Young of Rancho Dolores.Even thoughthesesongshave survived in
Belize throughoral transmission, theywere sung almostentirelyin standardEnglish
dictionand performed in an especially"sweet" manner- not muchCreolizedat all.
The best exampleof the way the sentimental ballad can be absorbedinto the
Creolefolktradition is a long,complexsongfromLeonieWhiteof BelizeCity:
San Jonescamedowntheothernight
Fromgoddieknowswhere.
Invitedeverybody was to havea gamblinggame.
Says!
MissJonescameback,
MissJonescameback,
MissJonescameback
Whenthemoneygetslack
To paybackBaby- Babyandhisown.
SaysI, "You coon - you terraccoon.
You coon thatlivenextdoor."

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62

SaysI, "You coon - yourterraccoon

You coon thatlivenextdoor."

O, youjumpina room
Andyoujumpout ofbed.
Baby,comeandkissyourpapa.
You jumpedinaroom
Andyoujumpout ofbed.
Baby,comeandkissyourpapa.

Mothergoneandleesme.
Sorrowsbreakmyheart.
0, Mother,layme downto sleep
For I haveno mothertonight.

Takegoodcareofyourmother, myboy.
Takegoodcareofyourmother, myboy.
For it is a blessingGod givento you,myboy.
For itis better, betterthangold.

I thought I heardwhenthechurchbellring.
Li-ning!Li-ning!
I thought I heardwhenthechurchbellroll.
Roll! Roll!

Standfathemidnight.
Comein thedarknight.
Cap'nande wifecamedownto see.
Standfathemainline.
Standfathebackline.
Anda cunjierockupone cunjie.

Cunjierockupone cunjie.
Cunjierockupone cunjie.
Rockupone cunjie,
Rockupone cunjie,cunjie,
Cunjierockupone cunjie.
- LeonieWhite,10 July,1978

goddie= godmother
lees= leave
fa= for
e = his
cunjie= hammock

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 63

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 64

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Looked at as a whole, the lyrics,of course, make little coherentsense. They are
- mostly popular sentimental
apparently a hodgepodge of lines from various songs
ballads, as indicated by the admonitions to "my boy" and the cliche' referencesto
mother,orphanedchild,gamblinggame and churchbells.
Leonie, however, would not agree that the song suffersfrom incoherence. She
hesitated not a bit in moving from line to line and stanza to stanza. She has melded
disparate elements from songs that, being heavily didactic, sometimes make too much
explicit sense and has created a suggestive,hauntinglyric that retains the "emotional
core" of the songs,if not theirliteralsurfaces.
Leonie calls the song a "lullaby", a designation that is supported by frequent
referencesto baby and motherbut that is made most apparent in the especially careful
and tenderway in which she singsmost of the song.

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 65

From the firstline, Leonie flirtswith Belizean diction and rhythm.But only near
the end, with the "Cunjie rock" section - which is most explicitlythe "lullaby" of the
song - does she finallybreak into genuinelyCreole diction and beat. Even though the
syncopated beat there underminesthe lullaby effect,such a conclusion is fittingand
even symbolic,since it signalsthe Creole assimilationof and masteryover alien cultural
materials.

NOTES
Some of the workupon whichthisessayis basedwassupported fromthePenrose
bygrants
Fund of the AmericanPhilosophical
Societyand the FacultyResearchFund of GoshenCollege.
1. JohnStormRoberts,BlackMusicof Two Worlds(NewYork:Praeger, 1972),pp. 28, 67, 133.
2. JamaicanSongandStory(1907; rpt.NewYork:Dover,1966).
3. p. 67.
Roberts,
4. OliveLewin,"Jamaican
FolkMusic,"Caribbean 14 (1968),p. 50.
Quarterly,
5. Deep theWater,Shallowthe Shore:ThreeEssayson Shantyingin theWestIndies(Austin:
ofTexasPress,1974).
University
6. (NewYork:Macmillan,1934),p. xxxiv.
7. JamaicaFolk-Lore,Memoirsof the AmericanFolk-LoreSociety,
Jekyll,p. 199; Beckwith,
21 (NewYork:American Folk-LoreSociety,1928),pp. 90-91.
8. One variantin Beckwith
refers
to "ManiwellBay",p. 90; theother,to "Manuelroad",p. 91.
9. Roberts,p. 140.
10. For a textof "Won'tGive a Damn",see ErvinBeck,"The AnswerSongsof LeonieWhite,"
BelizeanStudies,8 (July1980), p. 14; for "Planwalk"see Beck, "Call and Responsein
BelizeanCreoleFolkSongs,"BS, 8 (March1980),p. 15.
11. ShirleyWarde,"WeJusCatchUrn."Folk StoriesfromBelize(Goshen,IN: Pinchpenny Press,
1974),pp. 29-32.
12. For a drawingof a congabarbecue,see PhilipSherlock,Belize: A JuniorHistory(London:
Collins,1969),p. 81.
13. A HistoryofBelize(Trinidad:Longman Caribbean,1977),p. 9.
14. "TheFirst'CayoBoat'Trip,"BelizeanStudies,5 (March1977), 16-18.
15. "OfBoatsandtheRiver,"BelizeanStudies,7 (November
1979),2 1-28.
16. "Call and Responsein BelizeanCreoleFolk Songs,"BelizeanStudies,8 (March1980), 10-20;
"The AnswerSongsof Leonie White,"BelizeanStudies,8 (July1980), 10-22; "Belizean
CreoleQuarrellingSongs,"SouthernFolkloreQuarterly, "Folk Historyin CreoleTopical
Songs,"BelizeanStudies,8 (November1980), 17-24.
17. RichardE. Hadel, "CaribDance Musicand Dance," NationalStudies,1 (November1973),
pp. 4-10.
18
Fortextsof"Guruzondo"and"PalmerWilliam"see "CallandResponse",pp. 17, 19.
19. For textsof"CyaanPeepee","ChemiseO," and "Junior"
see "TheAnswerSongs",pp. 15, 16,
20.
20. TristramP. Coffinuses thisphraseto referto the "impact"thatis preserved throughoral
transmissionof a balladeventhoughnarrative detailsarelostor changed.(" 'MaryHamilton'
and the Anglo-American Ballad as an ArtForm,"Journal of AmericanFolklore,70 (1957),
pp. 208-14.

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