Tanta University

Faculty of Science
Physics Department

An Essay on

Photovoltaic Theory

By
Sara Abdullah Ahmed Osman
Material Sciences
3th level

Under supervision of
Dr. Mohamed Hamza

2016-2017
 Contents

Titles Page
Introduction 2-3
Photovoltaic effect 4-5
p-type and n-type materials 5-6
p-n junction 6-7
Photovoltaic generation 7-8
Advantages of solar photovoltaic 8-9
Disadvantages of solar photovoltaic 9-10
Principle of electricity generation by pv cells 10-11
Kinds and characteristics of pv cells 11
Pv generation output 12
Pv cell production in the world 13
Types of pv cells 13-15
Cost of pv cells 15
Energy payback time 16

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 INTRODUCTION
1. Introduction to Photovoltaic (Solar) Cells
Photovoltaic (PV) cells are made of semiconducting materials that can
convert incident radiation in the solar spectrum to electric currents. PV
cells are most commonly made of silicon, and come in two varieties,
crystalline and thin-film type, as detailed in Table 1.

Table 1 - Crystalline (Wafer-Based) and Thin-Film Photovoltaic

Cells

When a photon is absorbed by a semiconducting material, it increases the

energy of a valence band electron, thrusting it into the conduction
band. This occurs when the energy of incident photons is higher than the
bandgap energy. The conducting band electron then produces a current
that moves through the semiconducting material.

Figure 1 – Cross-Section of a PV Cell

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The amount of current generated by photon excitation in a PV cell at a
given temperature is affected by incident light in two ways:
 By the intensity of the incident light.

 By the wavelength of the incident rays.

The materials used in PV cells have different spectral responses to

incident light, and exhibit a varying sensitivity with respect to the
absorption of photons at given wavelengths. Each semiconductor
material will have an incident radiation threshold frequency, below which
no electrons will be subjected to the photovoltaic effect. Above the
threshold frequency, the kinetic energy of the emitted photoelectron
varies according to the wavelength of the incident radiation, but has no
relation to the light intensity. Increasing light intensity will
proportionally increase the rate of photoelectron emission in the
photovoltaic material. In actual applications, the light absorbed by a solar
cell will be a combination of direct solar radiation, as well as diffuse light
bounced off of surrounding surfaces. Solar cells are usually coated with
anti-reflective material so that they absorb the maximum amount of
radiation possible.

PV cells can be arranged in a series configuration to form a module, and

modules can then be connected in parallel-series configurations to form
arrays. When connecting cells or modules in series, they must have the
same current rating to produce an additive voltage output, and similarly,
modules must have the same voltage rating when connected in parallel to
produce larger currents.

Figure 2 - Solar Panel Configurations

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1.Photovoltaic effect
Photovoltaic effect, process in which two dissimilar materials in
close contact produce an electrical voltage when struck by light or
other radiant energy. Light striking crystals such
as silicon or germanium, in which electrons are usually not free to
move from atom to atom within the crystal, provides the energy
needed to free some electrons from their bound condition. Free
electrons cross the junction between two dissimilar crystals more
easily in one direction than in the other, giving one side of the
junction a negative charge and, therefore, a negative voltage with
respect to the other side, just as one electrode of a battery has a
negative voltage with respect to the other. The photovoltaic effect
can continue to provide voltage and current as long as light
continues to fall on the two materials. This current can be used to
measure the brightness of the incident light or as a source of
power in an electrical circuit, as in a solar power system.

The photovoltaic effect in a solar cell can be illustrated with

an analogy to a child at a slide. Initially, both the electron and the
child are in their respective “ground states.” Next, the electron is
lifted up to its excited state by consuming energy received from the
incoming light, just as the child is lifted up to an “excited state” at
the top of the slide by consuming chemical energy stored in his
body. In both cases there is now energy available in the excited
state that can be expended. In the absence of junction-forming
materials, there is no incentive for excited, free electrons to move
along a specific direction; they eventually fall back to the ground
state. On the other hand, whenever two different materials are
placed in contact, an electric field is generated along the contact.
This is the so-called built-in field, and it exerts a force on free
electrons, effectively “tilting” the electron states and forcing the
excited free electrons into an external electrical load where their
excess energy can be dissipated. The external load can be a
simple resistor, or it can be any of a myriad of electrical or
electronic devices ranging from motors to radios. Correspondingly,
the child moves to the slide because of his desire for excitement. It
is on the slide that the child dissipates his excess energy. Finally,

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when the excess energy is expended, both the electron and the
child are back in the ground state, where they can begin the whole
process over again. The motion of the electron, like that of the
child, is in one direction. In short, the photovoltaic effect produces
a direct current (DC)—one that flows constantly in only a single
direction.

2.How does PV Cells Work

2.1 p-type and n-type materials

Solar cells are running on junction effect principle. To understand

junction effect, we should understand n-type and p-type material.
Doping process is needed to obtain n-type or p-type material.

Doping means inserting another atom into the bulk crystal.

Consider silicon crystal: each silicon atom has four electrons in its
valance band and these electrons make bonds with other Silicon
atom. You can see the silicon crystal in the left side with valance
electrons of each Si atom. Note that we call that structure as
crystal since all Si atoms are perfectly aligned. We can convert this
structure in to n-type or p-type by doping different atoms. For
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example let’s dope it by boron. Boron atom has 3 electrons in its
valance band. When we insert B atom instead of a Si atom, one
bond between B atom and a Si atom will be very weak. To
complete the prefect symettry in this structer, crystal willbe aimed
to catch an external electron.

As you can see an electron is missing since B atom has 3 electron

in its valence band. This missing bond can be treaeted a positively
charged particle called ‘hole’. This material is called p-type
material. What if we dope Phosphoroous atom instead of Boron
atom? Phosphorous atom has 5 electrons in its valance band.

When P atom is inserted into the Si lattice, 4 electrons will be able

make bond with neighbour Si atoms. However 5th electron wil be
hanged on. So, it will be in an energy level that very close to
conduction band since it will be nearly free. This nearly free
electron can easly leave P atom with a small thermal energy. Note
that there is an extra electron in this new structure. So we call this
new material n-type material. In contrast to p-type material, n-
type material has a tendency to give electrons. Consequaently we
have two types of maerials. One wants to give electrons and the
other wants to receive electrons. We can create a p-n junction by
bringing them together.

2.2 p-n junction

When we bring p-type and n-type material together, a diffusion
occurs on the surface between them. Electrons starts to diffuse
from n-type to p-type. Similarly, holes diffuses from p-type region
to n-type region. This diffusion creates aelectron-hole free region
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in a very short distance at the interface region. This thin layer is
called depletion region.

You can see the diffusion in depletion in figure. Blue line indicates
the electron concentration while red line indicate hole
concentration trough semiconductor material. As you see there is
an electric field from the n-side to the p-side of the depletion
region. Since the electrons are negative charges this electric field
applies a force to an electron entering the depletion region. Any
electron generated by sun light in the vicinity of the depletion
region may pass to the n-side of the junction very easily. If we
connect a wire or any load between the ends of n-type and p-type
region with metal contacts, this electron will flow to the p-type
through this external load. So we need an external energy to
create this current: something should energize the electrons in the
p-type region to enter depletion region. Solar radiation is an
excellent energy source to do this job.
The solar cell type explained above is the example of first
generation, wafer based Crystal Silicon solar cells. There are some
differences in the structure of other solar cell types. But the basic
principle is the same: some kind of p-n junction (or similar
potential energy profile) has to be used to conver the solar
radiation to electrical energy.

3.What Is Photovoltaic Generation?

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4.Advantages and disadvantages of Solar Photovoltaic
solar Photovoltaic (PV) Panels are undoubtedly what comes to peoples’
minds when they talk about solar energy. Considering that in an hour, the
sun radiates solar energy enough to cover for human energy consumption
for a year then going green with solar Photovoltaic (PV) panels is
perhaps in the right direction! However, with solar energy systems’
technology, we are still behind in capturing this naturally free vast
amount of energy provided by nature.
Herein you can review some basic advantages and disadvantages of solar
energy panels (PV panels)

4.1 Advantages of solar PV – in a nutshell

 PV panels provide clean – green energy. During electricity

generation with PV panels there is no harmful greenhouse gas
emissions thus solar PV is environmentally friendly.

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  Solar energy is energy supplied by nature – it is thus free and
abundant!
 Solar energy can be made available almost anywhere there is
sunlight
 Solar energy is especially appropriate for smart energy networks
with distributed power generation – DPG is indeed the next
generation power network structure!
 Solar Panels cost is currently on a fast reducing track and is
expected to continue reducing for the next years – consequently
solar PV panels has indeed a highly promising future both for
economical viability and environmental sustainability.
 Photovoltaic panels, through photoelectric phenomenon, produce
electricity in a direct electricity generation way
 Operating and maintenance costs for PV panels are considered to
be low, almost negligible, compared to costs of other renewable
energy systems
 PV panels have no mechanically moving parts, except in cases of –
sun-tracking mechanical bases; consequently they have far less
breakages or require less maintenance than other renewable energy
systems (e.g. wind turbines)
 PV panels are totally silent, producing no noise at all;
consequently, they are a perfect solution for urban areas .
 Because solar energy coincides with energy needs for cooling PV
panels can provide an effective solution to energy demand peaks –
especially in hot summer months where energy demand is high.
 Though solar energy panels’ prices have seen a drastic reduction in
the past years, and are still falling, nonetheless, solar photovoltaic
panels are one of major renewable energy systems that are
promoted through government subsidy funding (FITs, tax credits
etc.); thus financial incentive for PV panels make solar energy
panels an attractive investment alternative.
 Residential solar panels are easy to install on rooftops or on the
ground without any interference to residential lifestyle.

4.2 Disadvantages of Solar PV – in a nutshell

 As in all renewable energy sources, solar energy has intermittency

issues; not shining at night but also during daytime there may be
cloudy or rainy weather.
 Consequently, intermittency and unpredictability of solar energy
makes solar energy panels less reliable a solution.

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  Solar energy panels require additional equipment (inverters) to
convert direct electricity (DC) to alternating electricity (AC) in
order to be used on the power network.
 For a continuous supply of electric power, especially for on-grid
connections, Photovoltaic panels require not only Inverters but also
storage batteries; thus increasing the investment cost for PV panels
considerably
 In case of land-mounted PV panel installations, they require
relatively large areas for deployment; usually the land space is
committed for this purpose for a period of 15-20 years – or even
longer.
 Solar panels efficiency levels are relatively low (between 14%-
25%) compared to the efficiency levels of other renewable energy
systems.
 Though PV panels have no considerable maintenance or operating
costs, they are fragile and can be damaged relatively easily;
additional insurance costs are therefore of ultimate importance to
safeguard a PV investment.

5. Principle of Electricity Generation by Photovoltaic Cells:

A photovoltaic cell comprises P-type and N-type semiconductors with

different electrical properties, joined together. The joint between these
two semiconductors is called the "P-N junction."
Sunlight striking the photovoltaic cell is absorbed by the cell. The energy
of the absorbed light generates particles with positive or negative charge

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(holes and electrons), which move about or shift freely in all directions
within the cell.
The electrons (-) tend to collect in the N-type semiconductor, and the
holes (+) in the P-type semiconductor. Therefore, when an external load,
such as an electric bulb or an electric motor, is connected between the
front and back electrodes, electricity flows in the cell.

6.Kinds and Characteristics of Photovoltaic Cells:

Kind Conver Reliabi Co Energy Other Major
sion lity st product characteri applications
Efficien ion stics
cy
Single- ◎ ◎ △ △ Abundant Satellite use
crystal- records of Power-
silicon cell 14?17％ use generation use
Polycrystal ○ ◎ ○ ○ Suitable for Power-
line-silicon 12?15％ volume generation use
cell production
in future
Amorphou △ ○ ◎ ◎ Tends to Consumer-
s-silicon 6?9％ deteriorate product use
cell rapidly. (Electric
Suitable for calculators,
flexible wristwatches,
products etc.)
Single- ◎ ◎ × △ Heavy and Satellite use
crystal- fragile
compound
cell
(GaAs)
Polycrystal ○ ○ ○ ○ Low Consumer-
line- material product use
compound availability.
cell (CdS, Some
CdTe, materials

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CuInSe2,et contain
c.) environmen
tal
pollutants.

7. Photovoltaic Generation Output

Photovoltaic generation output varies depending on weather. On rainy or

cloudy days when sunlight is not available, generation capacity drops.

Electrical energy that can be extracted from sunlight shining on the earth
is approximately 130 W/m2 on a fine day (assuming a photovoltaic
efficiency of 13%).

However, considering temperature increase and power conditioner

efficiencies, the actual amount of electrical energy available from
photovoltaic generation is approximately 100 W/m2 at most.

Therefore, a large photovoltaic module area is needed to generate a large

amount of electric power.

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Photovoltaic Cell Production in the World

8.Types of Photovoltaic (PV) Cells

All photovoltaic (PV) cells consist of two or more thin layers of semi-
conducting material, most commonly silicon. When the semiconductor is
exposed to light, electrical charges are generated and this can be
conducted away by metal contacts as direct current (DC). The electrical
output from a single cell is small, so multiple cells are connected
together to form a 'string', which produces a direct current.

In many roof-integrated applications, strings are encapsulated (usually

behind glass) to form a module (commonly referred to as a 'panel'). The
PV panel is the principal building block of a PV system and any number
of panels can be connected together to give the desired electrical
output. However, two types of PV are best deposited as a thin film, and
usually sold encapsulated in a polymer bonded to a substrate that can
be used as part of the roofing material.

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Here, we only look at commercially available types of PV cell or film, any
of which might be found in a module or film used on an active solar
roof. We do not consider:

 Gallium Arsenide cells. Due to their toxicity and potential

carcinogenic properties, these are only used in rare applications
such as satellites or demonstration solar-powered cars.

 Organic-based PV solutions that are still under research.

8.1 Monocrystalline silicon PV panels

These are made using cells sliced from a single cylindrical crystal of
silicon. This is the most efficient photovoltaic technology, typically
converting around 15% of the sun's energy into electricity. The
manufacturing process required to produce monocrystalline silicon is
complicated, resulting in slightly higher costs than other technologies.

8.2 Polycrystalline silicon PV panels

Also sometimes known as multicrystalline cells, polycrystalline silicon

cells are made from cells cut from an ingot of melted and recrystallised
silicon. The ingots are then saw-cut into very thin wafers and assembled
into complete cells. They are generally cheaper to produce than
monocrystalline cells, due to the simpler manufacturing process, but
they tend to be slightly less efficient, with average efficiencies of around
12%.

8.3Thick-film silicon PV panels

This is a variant on multicrystalline technology where the silicon is

deposited in a continuous process onto a base material giving a fine
grained, sparkling appearance. Like all crystalline PV, it is normally
encapsulated in a transparent insulating polymer with a tempered glass
cover and then bound into a metal framed module.

8.4 Amorphous silicon PV panels

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Amorphous silicon cells are made by depositing silicon in a thin
homogenous layer onto a substrate rather than creating a rigid crystal
structure. As amorphous silicon absorbs light more effectively than
crystalline silicon, the cells can be thinner - hence its alternative name of
'thin film' PV. Amorphous silicon can be deposited on a wide range of
substrates, both rigid and flexible, which makes it ideal for curved
surfaces or bonding directly onto roofing materials. This technology is,
however, less efficient than crystalline silicon, with typical efficiencies of
around 6%, but it tends to be easier and cheaper to produce. If roof
space is not restricted, an amorphous product can be a good option.
However, if the maximum output per square metre is required,
specifiers should choose a crystalline technology.

Other thin film PV panels

A number of other materials such as cadmium telluride (CdTe) and

copper indium diselenide (CIS) are now being used for PV modules. The
attraction of these technologies is that they can be manufactured by
relatively inexpensive industrial processes, certainly in comparison to
crystalline silicon technologies, yet they typically offer higher module
efficiencies than amorphous silicon. Most offer a slightly lower
efficiency: CIS is typically 10-13% efficient and CdTe around 8 or 9%. A
disadvantage is the use of highly toxic metals such as Cadmium and the
need for both carefully controlled manufacturing and end-of-life
disposal; although a typical CdTe module contains only 0.1% Cadmium,
which is reported to be lower than is found in a single AA-sized NiCad
battery.

9. Cost of Photovoltaic Cells

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10. Energy Payback Time

Energy Payback Time (EPT) = Eo/Eg

Eo: Energy consumed to manufacture photovoltaic systems
Eg: Annual energy output by photovoltaic systems

Module Efficiency
Annual 10 30 100
Production Scale
(MW)
a-Si 8.0% 10.0% 12.0%
poly-Si 11.9% 12.3% 13.2%
Source: PVTEC's "Investigation to Evaluate Photovoltaic Generation"

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