Transformer

 Printed Circuit Board, mounted audio impedance matching transformer.

Application of Transformers
 Principle of Transformer
 The word Transformer refers to transfer something from one place to other .
 A Transformer is a static or stationary piece of apparatus by means of which electric power in
one circuit is transformed into electric power of the same frequency in another circuit.
Although transformers have no moving parts, they are essential to electromechanical energy conversion. They make it
possible to increase or decrease the voltage so that power can be transmitted at a voltage level that results in low
costs, and can be distributed and used safely.

Main Part of a Transformer:

A typical transformer is constructed with three basic parts (i)

Primary winding .
(ii) Secondary winding.
(iii) Magnetic core.

Primary winding: This is a simple coil which is wound by copper wires. This winding generates the required magnetic flux
whenever a active AC source is connected across it. It is a closed coil, so whenever an AC voltage is applied across it, current starts
flowing. And this flow of current leads to develop an alternating magnetic field surrounding the coil. This winding is used to
develop the main magnetic field into the transformer. As the flux generation and creation of magnetic field is initiated from here,
so this winding is termed as the primary winding. The primary winding is the input section of a transformer.
Core: Core gives the strong mechanical support for the windings as well as serves the necessary path for the magnetic fluxes. Core
is generally made up with soft iron or laminated silicon steel. When the magnetic fluxes are generated in the primary winding, it
confines them and after that those fluxes are passing through the core. Both primary and secondary windings are connected with
a common core. As this magnetic core offers a low reluctance path for the generated magnetic fluxes, so most of the fluxes will go
through the core. So they are guided to the secondary winding through the magnetic core.
Secondary winding: This is also a copper winding similar to the primary, but the number of turns are different. The generated
magnetic fluxes will link this secondary winding by mutual induction method after passing through the magnetic core. Output of a
transformer is always taken from the secondary winding terminal that is the load is always connected with this terminal.

Working Principle of Transformer

Whenever a closed conductor is placed into a varying magnetic field, a potential difference is developed across the terminals of
the conductor.
Faradey’s law:
This law states that, if a closed conductor is subjected to a varying magnetic field, then the induced emf in the conductor is equal
to the rate of change of flux linkages of that magnetic field.
𝑑𝜑
The Induced Voltage, 𝐸 = −𝑁
𝑑𝑡
 Types of Transformer
According to the core construction:
(a) Core type (b) Shell type (c) Berry type
According to the voltage ratio :
(a) Step Up transformer (b) Step down transformer
According to the phase:
(a) Single Phase Transformer (b) Three Phase Transformer According
to the method of cooling:
(a) Self Cooled (b) Air forced cooled (c) Oil cooled (d) forced oil cooled
According to the frequency groups:
(a) Power frequency transformers (b) Audio frequency transformers (c) Radio frequency transformers
There are many other types of transformers are present according to the specific applications.
Distribution Transformer: Distribution transformers are used in distribution network to step down the voltage level for feeding
the local consumers.

Power Transformer: Power transformers are used at each end of transmission line in generating stations and substations for
stepping up or down the voltage level.
Current transformer: This transformer is used for the measurement of electric current.
Potential transformer: These type of transformers are used to step down the voltage to low value which can be fed to relay for
protection purpose.
Instrument transformers: Current transformers and potential transformer both are called the instrument transformer because
their main fuction is to transform high currents and voltages to a standardized low and easily measurable values.
Auto transformer : It is a single winding transformer and a common winding is used as both primary and secondary winding.
Consider an ideal transformer [Fig. 32.13 (a)] whose secondary is open and whose primary is connected to sinusoidal alternating voltage
V1. This potential difference causes an alternating current to flow in the primary.0.

Transformer on No Load
Even ,when the transformer is on no-load, the primary input current is not wholly
reactive. The primary input current under no-load conditions has to supply (i) iron
losses in the core i.e. hysteresis loss and eddy current loss and (ii) a very s1nall amount
of copper loss in primary ( there being no Cu loss in secondary as it is open). Hence,
the no-load primary input current I0 is not at 90° behind VI but lags it by an angle Φ0 <
90°. Noload input power –

𝑊0 = 𝑉1 𝐼0 cos(𝛷0) where cos Φ0 is primary power factor under no-load

conditions. No-load V1 condition of an actual transformer is shown vectorially in Fig. 32.16.
As seen from Fig. 32.16, primary current I0 has two components:
(i) One in phase with V1. This is known as active or working or iron loss component I,r because it mainly supplies the iron loss
plus small quantity of primary Cu loss. 𝐼𝑤 = 𝐼0 cos( 𝛷0) (ii) The other component is in quadrature with V1 and is known as
magnetizing component Iµ because its function is to sustain the alternating flux in the core. It is wattless.
𝐼µ = 𝐼0 sin( 𝛷0) Obviously, I0 is the vector sum of 𝐼𝑤 and 𝐼µ , hence I0 =
(𝐼µ2 + 𝐼𝑤2).
The following point should be noted carefully:
1. The no-load primary current I0 is very small as compared to the full-load primary current. It is about 1% of the full-load current.
2. Owing to the fact that the permeability of the core varies with the instantaneous value of the exiting current, the wave of the
exciting or magnetizing current is not truly sinusoidal. As such it should not be represented by a vector because only sinusoidally
varying quantities are represented by rotating vectors. But, in practice, it makes no appreciable difference.
3. As I0 is very small, the no-load primary Cu loss is negligibly small which means that no-load primary input is practically
equal to the iron loss in the transformer.
4. As it is principally the core-loss which is responsible for shift in the current vector, angle Φ0 is known as hysteresis angle
of advance.

The secondary current sets up its own m.m.f. (=N2I2) and hence its own flux Φ2 which is in opposition to the
main primary flux Φ which is due to I0. The secondary ampere-turns N2 I2 are known as demagnetising
amp- turns. The opposing secondary flux Φ2 weakens the primary flux Φ momentarily, hence primary back
e.m.f. E1 tends to be reduced. For a moment V1 gains the upper hand over E1 and hence causes more
current to flow in primary.
Let the additional primary current be I2’ It is known as load component of primary current. This current
is antiphase with I2’ The additional primary m.m.f. N1 12 sets up its own flux Φ2’ which is in opposition to
Φ2 (but is in the same direction as Φ) and is equal to it in magnitude. Hence, the two cancel each other out.
So, we find that the magnetic effects of secondary current 12 are immediately neutralized by the additional
primary current I2’ which is brought into existence exactly at the same instant as I2. The whole process is
illustrated in Fig. 32.17.
Hence, whatever the load conditions, the net flux passing through the core is approximately the same as
at no-load. An important deduction is that due to the constancy of core flux at all loads, the core loss is also
practically the same under all load conditions.
 𝛷2 = 𝛷2′ ∴ 𝑁2𝐼2 = 𝑁1𝐼2′ ∴ 𝐼2′ = 𝑁𝑁21 × 𝐼2 = 𝐾𝐼2

Fig 32.17

It will be observed that Φ1 is slightly greater than Φ2. But if we neglect

I0 as compared to I2’ as in the figure, then 𝛷1 = 𝛷2. Moreover under this
assumption. 𝑁1𝐼2′ = 𝑁2𝐼1 = 𝑁1𝐼2.
𝐼 𝑁 𝐾
𝐼2 𝐼2 𝑁1

Tansformers with Winding Resistance but no Magnetic Leakage:

An ideal transformer was supposed to possess no resistance, but in an
actual transformer, there is always present some resistance of the primary and secondary windings. Due to this
resistance, there is some voltage drop in the two windings. The result is that:
(i) The secondary terminal voltage V2 is vectorially less than the secondary induced e.m.f. E2 by an amount I2R2 where R2 is the
resistance of the secondary winding. Hence, V2 is equal to the vector
difference of E2 and resistive voltage drop I2R2.
∴ 𝑉2 = 𝐸2 − 𝐼2𝑅2
(ii) Similarly primary induced e.m.f. E1 is equal to the vector difference
of V1 and I1R1 where R1 is the resistance of the primary winding.
∴ 𝐸1 = 𝑉1 − 𝐼1𝑅1

Equivalent Resistance:

The copper loss in secondary 𝐼22𝑅2

This loss is supplied by primary which takes a current
of 𝐼1. Hence if is the equivalent
2′ resistance in
primary which would have caused the same loss as 𝑅2 in secondary, then
𝐼2
𝐼22𝑅2′ = 22𝑅2 𝑜𝑟 𝑅2′ = 2 𝑅2
𝐼1
Now, if we neglect no-load current 𝐼0 , then 𝐼𝐼2 1 = 𝐾 𝐼 , Hence 𝑅2′ = 𝐾𝑅22 .

Similarly, equivalent primary resistance as referred to secondary is 𝑅1′ = 𝐾2𝑅1. In the figure below, secondary resistance has been
referred to primary side leaving secondary circuit resistanceless. The resistance 𝑅1 + 𝑅2′ = 𝑅1 + 𝐾𝑅22 is known as the equivalent or
effective resistance of the transformer as referred to primary
and may be designated as 𝑅01.

𝑅01 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2′ = 𝑅1 + 𝐾𝑅22

Similarly equivalent resistance of the transformer as referred
to secondary

𝑅02 = 𝑅2 + 𝑅1′ = 𝑅2 + 𝐾𝑅12

This fact is shown in Fig. 32.25 where all the resistances of the transformer has been concentrated in the secondary winding.

It is to be noted that.
1. A resistance of 𝑅1 in primary is equivalent to 𝐾2𝑅1 in secondary. Hence, it is called equivalent resistance as referred to
secondary i.e. 𝑅1.
2. A resistance of 𝑅2 in secondary is equivalent to 𝐾𝑅22 in primary. Hence, it is called the equivalent secondary resistance as

referred to primary i.e. 𝑅2′.

3. Total or effective resistance of the transformer as referred to primary is

𝑅01 = primary resistance + equivalent secondary resistance as referred to primary
= 𝑅1 + 𝑅2′ = 𝑅1 + 𝐾𝑅22
4. Similarly, total transformer resistance as referred to secondary is,
𝑅02 = secondary resistance + equivalent primary resistance as referred to secondary
= 𝑅2 + 𝑅1′ = 𝑅2 + 𝐾2𝑅1 Note: It
is important to remember that
(a) when shifting any primary resistance to the secondary, multiply it by 𝑅2 i.e. (transformation ratio)2.
(b) when shifting secondary resistance to the primary, divide it by 𝑅2.
(c) however, when shifting any voltage from one winding to another only K is used.

Magnetic Leakage

From the rightmost figure: 𝑍1 = √(𝑅12 + 𝑋12) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑍2 = √(𝑅22 + 𝑋22)

𝑉1 = 𝐸1 + 𝐼1(𝑅1 + 𝑗𝑋1) = 𝐸1 + 𝐼1𝑍1

𝐸2 = 𝑉2 + 𝐼2(𝑅2 + 𝑗𝑋2) = 𝑉2 + 𝐼2𝑍2
It may be noted that leakage rectangles can also be
transferred from one winding to the other in the same
way as resistance
= 𝐾 2 𝑋1

2
2
2
1

Eqivalent Circuit: (fig. 32.37)

Current 𝐼 is simulated by pure inductance 𝑋0 taking
the magnetising component 𝐼µ and a non-inductive
resistance 𝑅0 taking the working component 𝐼𝑤
connected in parallel across the primary circuit. The
value of 𝐸 is obtained by subtracing vectorically 𝐼1 𝑍1

𝑋2′ = 𝐾𝑋22 and 𝑋1′

and

𝑋01 = 𝑋1 + 𝑋2′ = 𝑋1 + 𝐾𝑋

𝑋02 = 𝑋2 + 𝑋1′ = 𝑋2 + 𝐾 𝑋

fig. 32.37

from 𝑉1. The value of 𝑋0 = 𝐸𝐼01 and of 𝑅0 = 𝐸𝐼𝑤1. It is clear that 𝐸1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐸2 are related to each other by expression 𝐸21 = 𝐸𝐸12 = 𝐾
Transfer Voltage, Current, and Impedance either to the primary or secondary
The primary equivalent of the secondary induced voltage is
fig. 32.38

𝐸2′ = 𝐸𝐾2 = 𝐸1. Similarly, primary equivalent of the

secondary terminal or output voltage is 𝑉2′ = 𝑉𝐾2.

Primarily equivalent of the secondary current is 𝐼2′ = 𝐾𝐼2. For

transfering secondary inpedance to primary 𝐾2 is used.
𝐸2′ = 𝐾𝐸22 , 𝑋2′ = 𝐾𝑋22 , 𝑍2′ = 𝐾𝑍22

The same relationship is used for shifting an external load impedance to the primary.
The total equivalent circuit of the transformer is
obtained by adding in the primary impedance as
shown in Fig. 32.39. This is known as the exact
equivalent circuit but it presents a somewhat
harder circuit problem to solve.
It should be noted that in this case 𝑋0 = 𝑉𝐼µ1 .

Further simplification may be achieved by

omitting

𝐼0 altogether as shown in Fig. 32.41(b) fig. 32.39 fig. 32.40

From Fig. 32.39 it is found that
total impedance between the input ′ ′ 𝒁𝒎 (𝒁𝟐 ′ + 𝒁𝑳 ′ )
terminal is. 𝒁 = 𝒁𝟏 + 𝒁𝒎 ||(𝒁𝟐 + 𝒁𝑳 ) = ( 𝒁𝟏 + ′ ′ )
𝒁𝒎 𝟐 + 𝒁𝑳 )

+
(𝒁

Where, 𝑍2′ = 𝑅2′ + 𝑗𝑋2′ and

fig. 32.41

𝑍𝑚 = impedance of the
exciting circuit
This is so because there are two
parallel circuits, One having an impedance of 𝑍𝑚 and
other having 𝑍2′ and 𝑍𝐿′ in series with each other.

𝑽𝟏 = 𝑰𝟏 [𝒁𝟏 + 𝒁 𝒁𝒎𝒎+ ((𝒁𝒁𝟐𝟐′′++𝒁𝒁𝑳𝑳′′))]

Transformer Tests
Open Circuit or No-Load test:
The no-load
vector diagram is shown right side 
If 𝑊 is the
wattmeter reading then 𝑊 = 𝑉1𝐼0cos (𝛷0)

𝑊
𝐺 or 𝐺 =
 ∴ cos(𝛷0) = 𝑉 𝑊1 0
𝐼 𝐼µ = 𝐼0 sin(𝛷0),
𝐼𝑤 = 𝐼0 cos(𝛷0) ∴ 𝑋0 = 𝑉𝐼µ1 and 𝑅0 = 𝐼𝑉𝑤1

Or since the current is practically all exciting current when a transformer is on no-load (i.e. 𝐼0 ≅ 𝐼µ) and as the
voltage drop in primary leakage impedance is small, hence the exciting admittance 𝑌0 of the transformer is given
by 𝐼0 = 𝑉1𝑌0 or 𝑌0 = 𝑉𝐼01 . The exciting conductance 𝐺0 is given by 𝑊 = 𝑉12 0 0 𝑉12

The exciting susceptance 𝐵

Separation of Core Losses:

The core loss of a transformer depends upon the frequency and the maximum flux density when the volume and the thickness of the
core laminations are given. The core loss is made up of two parts (i) hysteresis loss 𝑊ℎ = 𝑃𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥1.6 𝑓 as given by Steinmetz's
empirical relation and (ii) eddy current loss 𝑊𝑒 = 𝑄𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥2 𝑓2 where Q is a constant. The total core-loss is given by

𝑾𝒊 = 𝑾𝒉 + 𝑾𝒆 = 𝑷𝑩𝟏𝒎𝒂𝒙.𝟔 𝒇𝟐 + 𝑸𝑩𝟐𝒎𝒂𝒙𝒇𝟐

If we carry out two experiments using two different frequencies but the same maximum flux density, we should be able to find the
constants P and Q and hence calculate hysteresis and eddy current losses separately.

Shot-Circuit or Impedance Test:

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| It may also be noted that 𝑽𝟐 = 𝑲𝑽𝟏 − 𝑰(𝑹𝟎𝟐 + 𝒋𝑿𝟎𝟐) = 𝑲𝑽𝟏 − 𝑰𝟐𝒁𝟎𝟐
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| Total Approximate Voltage Drop in Transformer:
| With O as the centre and radius OC draw an
arc cutting OA produced at M. The total
voltage drop 𝑰𝟐𝒁𝟎𝟐 = 𝑨𝑪 = 𝑨𝑴 which is
approximately equal to AN. From B draw B
D perpendicular on OA produced. Draw
CN perpendicular to OM and draw BL
parallel to OM.

---------------------------------------------------------- Approximate voltage drop

Simplified Diagram = 𝐴𝑁 = 𝐴𝐷 + 𝐷𝑁
= 2𝑅02𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛷 + 𝐼2𝑋02𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛷

Where 𝛷1 = 𝛷2 = 𝛷 (𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑥).
 The approximate voltage drop for leading power factor becomes
(𝐼2𝑅02𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛷 ± 𝐼2𝑋02𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛷)
In general, approximate voltage drop is (𝐼2𝑅02𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛷 ± 𝐼2𝑋02𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛷). It may be
noted that approximate voltage drop as referred to primary is
(𝐼1𝑅01𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛷 ± 𝐼1𝑋01𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛷)

% voltage drop in secondary is =

𝐼2𝑅02𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛷 ± 𝐼2𝑋02𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛷
× 100
0𝑉2
100 × 𝐼2𝑅02 100 × 𝐼2𝑋02
= cos 𝛷 ± 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛷 = 𝑉𝑟 cos 𝛷 ± 𝑉𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛷
0𝑉 2 0𝑉2

Where, 𝑉𝑟 = 100 ×0𝑉𝐼22𝑅02 = percentage resistive drop = 100×𝑉𝐼12𝑅01

𝑉𝑥 = 100 ×0𝑉𝐼22𝑋02 = percentage recative drop = 100×𝑉𝐼11𝑋01

Exact Voltage Drop in Transformer

It is to be noted that exact voltage drop is AM and

not AN. If we add the quantity NM to AN, we
will get the exact value of the voltage drop.
Considering the right-angled triangle OCN, we get
𝑁𝐶2 = 𝑂𝐶2 − 𝑂𝑁2 = (𝑂𝐶 + 𝑂𝑁)(𝑂𝐶 −
𝑂𝑁) = (𝑂𝐶 + 𝑂𝑁)(𝑂𝑀 − 𝑂𝑁) = 2 𝑂𝐶 × 𝑁𝑀
∴ 𝑁𝑀 = 𝑁𝐶2 Now, 𝑁𝐶 = 𝐿𝐶 − 𝐿𝑁
= 𝐿𝐶 − 𝐵𝐷
2.𝑂𝐶 (𝐼2𝑋02 cos𝛷 − 𝐼2𝑅02 sin 𝛷)2

∴ 𝑁𝐶 = 𝐼2𝑋02 cos 𝛷 − 𝐼2𝑅02 sin 𝛷 ∴ 𝑁𝑀 = 20𝑉2

For a lagging power factor, exact voltage drop is

(𝐼2𝑋02 cos𝛷 − 𝐼2𝑅02 sin 𝛷)2

= 𝐴𝑁 + 𝑁𝑀 = (𝐼2𝑅02 cos 𝛷 + 𝐼2𝑋02 sin 𝛷) + 20𝑉2

For a leading power factor, the expression becomes

= (𝐼2𝑅02 cos 𝛷 − 𝐼2𝑋02 sin 𝛷) + ( 𝐼2𝑋02 cos𝛷2 +0𝑉 𝐼22𝑅02 sin 𝛷)2

In general, the voltage drop is

= (𝐼2𝑅02 cos 𝛷 ± 𝐼2𝑅02 sin 𝛷) + ( 𝐼2𝑋02 cos 𝛷2 ±0𝑉 𝐼22𝑅02 sin 𝛷)2

Percentage drop is
 = (𝐼2𝑅02 cos 𝛷−𝐼2𝑋02 sin 𝛷) × 100 + (𝐼2𝑋02 cos 𝛷 ± 𝐼2𝑅02 sin 𝛷)2 ×
100
0𝑉2 20𝑉2

The upper signs are to be used for a lagging power factor and the lower ones for a leading power factor.

Regulation of Transformer
The voltage regulation of the transformer is the percentage change in the output voltage from no-load to full-load.
The voltage regulation can be defined in two ways - Regulation Down and Regulation up.
Regulation down: This is defined as the change in terminal voltage when a load current at any power factor is applied, expressed as
a fraction of the no-load terminal voltage.
|𝑉𝑛𝑙| − |𝑉𝑙|
𝑅𝑒𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
|𝑉𝑛𝑙|
Regulation up: Here again the regulation is expressed as the ratio of the change in the terminal voltage when a load at a given
power factor is thrown off, and the on load voltage
|𝑉𝑛𝑙 | − |𝑉𝑙 |
𝑅𝑒𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
|𝑉𝑙 |

𝑉1 = 𝐼2 ′ (𝑅𝑒 + 𝑗𝑋𝑒 ) + 𝑉2 ′
𝑂𝐷 = 𝑉1 = √ [𝑂𝐴 + 𝐴𝐵 + 𝐵𝐶 ]2 + [𝐶𝐷 ]2
′
2 + 𝐼2 ′ 𝑅𝑒 cos 𝛷 + 𝐼2 ′ 𝑋𝑒 sin 𝛷 ]2 + [𝐼2 ′ 𝑋𝑒 cos 𝛷 − 𝐼2 ′ 𝑅𝑒 sin 𝛷]2

−1 𝑋𝑒
𝑅𝑒
′
1 2 (𝑅𝑒 + 𝑗𝑋𝑒 ) + 𝑉2 ′
′
2 + 𝐼2 ′ (cos 𝛷 − 𝑗 sin 𝛷)(𝑅𝑒 + 𝑗𝑋𝑒 )
|𝑉1 |−|𝑉2 ′ |
|𝑉 ′ |
= √ (1 + 𝑉1 )2 + 𝑉2 2 − 1

𝐼1 = 𝐼2′.

= √[𝑉

Φ = power factor angle,

Θ = internal impedance angle = tan
Also, 𝑉=𝐼
=𝑉

Hence RegulationR =
2