Design process

• conception, philosophy – loadbearing system

suitable for the architectural design – conceptual
design
– cooperation of architectural eng., designer of
loadbearing structure
• technical design
structural analysis

• iterative process
 Demands on the structure
• function
• effectivity (conceptual design)
• reliability
• economical aspect
• sustainability (recycling)
What affects choice of the structural
model
• demands on the structure
• choice of materials
• geometry – cross-section shape and
dimensions
elements´ dimensions
 Materials
• Concrete
– plain concrete
– reinforced concrete
– prestressed concrete

• Reinforcement
 Concrete
• Class of concrete according to the
environmental conditions

• in situ
• prefab

• According to strain (arch, column, girder)

 Concrete classes
C12/15 – C 100/115
LC 12/15 – LC 80/95

• High strength concrete, high- performance

concrete
 Concrete classes for particular
structures
Plain concrete C12/15 – C 25/30
Reinforced concrete C20/25 – C 50/60
Prestressed concrete C30/37 – C 60/75 (C55/67)

In situ C12/15 – C 40/50

Prefab C20/25 – C 60/75 (C70/85)
 Reinforcement
Bars Ø 5,5 (6) – Ø32
Welded mesh (fabrics) Ø 4 – Ø8,5 (9)

fy = 500MPa

weldability (cold-worked bar)

 Shape, dimensions
• In situ – simple shapes
• Prefab
– more complicated shapes,
– repeating of mould,
– decreasing of the self-weight (holes, shape)

• No
– narrow (reinforcement, compaction of concrete)
– sudden changes
 Idealisation - model
• Geometry, behaviour

• The loadbearing structure = system of

particular elements

• All load must be carried to the basement

Structural analysis

• analysis
• ???
• combination of different elements and
different materials

→ load-bearing system
→ non-bearing structures

• dissemble into members - elements

• simplification – structural analysis model
 Load-bearing structures
• horizontal
– slabs, beams, girders, lintels
• vertical
– walls, columns
 Non-bearing structures

• some of them - analysis!!!

– external wall – wind pressure
– roof cladding – wind underpressure
– anchors for cladding panels
–
–
–
 Structural model
• idealized model
• should relate the actual behaviour, to
material properties, structural details, and
loading and boundary conditions as
accurately as is practicable
 Structural model determination

• members – elements
– flexure, compression, tension
• joints
– rigid, hinge joint
• supports

• according to materials
 Structural members
• Column (central line)
• Beam, girder
• Slab
• Wall
Choice of a load-bearing system in 2D

Possibilities:

fixed support hinge support roller support

u, v = 0 v=0
u, v = 0
φ≠0 u≠0
φ=0
φ≠0
Real structure – analysis model

u, v ≈ 0
φ≠0

u, v, φ ≈ 0
Real structure– analysis model
u, v ≈ 0
φ≠0

reality

analysis model
Level of a structural model simplification

• analysed member
• type of load
• required accuracy
– roughly (preliminary calculations)
– accurately (final structural analysis)
• (system complexity (family house – super-
structure, bridge)
For example:
framed system - vertical load
→ 3D (orthogonal
system)
→ 2D

→ 1 floor

→ beam + column
(preliminary analysis)
Different load – different idealized model
horizontal load
 Structural analysis procedure
1. load-bearing system – structural model
determination (members, joints, supports)
2. counting of loads
3. determination of forces and deformations due to
applied loads
4. proportioning of reinforcement for a cross
section (element)
5. layout of reinforcement, detailing
 Structural analysis procedure

• load-bearing system –
structure
structural model determination

• effect of loads (inner forces) structure,

member
• proportioning of reinforcement cross section
(element)
• layout of reinforcement,
element
detailing
 Structural analysis procedure
• analysis proceeds from supported structures to
carrying structures – from roof to foundations
 Design documentation
• owner – designer – contractor
Tender design

A69 Architekti s.r.o.

• architectural design, preliminary structural
analysis
• local authority – application for building
permit
• working design, structural design
execution
Completion
 Conceptual design
• architect
• only integration of appearance and service
of the structure and load-bearing function
brings excellent structure
• mistakes - cost increase
• house
• bridge
 Viaduc de Millau
Lord
Norman Robert Foster

Cable-stayed bridge
Structural analysis calculations
Drawings: layout of the load-bearing structure
Layout of reinforcement
 Structural members
• Column (central line)
• Beam, girder (central line)
• Slab (central plane)
• Wall (central plane)
Choice of a load-bearing system in 2D

Possibilities:

fixed support hinge support roller support

u, v = 0 v=0
u, v = 0
φ≠0 u≠0
φ=0
φ≠0
 Spanning in the idealized model

(a) Non-continuous members (b) Continuous members

 Spanning in the idealized model

h leff

a i = min {1/2h; 1/2t }

ln
ai ln
leff
t

(c) Supports considered fully restrained (d) Bearing provided

Spanning in the idealized model

(e) Cantilever
 Reduction of moments
• above support
– continuous beam

• value at the face of support

– fixed beam
 „Environment“ of analysis

Reliability condition E≤R

• ULS
• SLS
• Durability
– Service life – sustainability (LCA, LCC)
damage of the structure

collapse
local failure
deflection
crack opening

cracking

load

C wmax fmax U1 U
 Classification of loads
• direct-acting loads (self weight...)
• indirect-acting loads (changes of terperature,
moisture, etc.)

• permanent
• variable
• impact
• Design situations
– Persistent
– Transient
– Accidental
– Seismic
• Actions
– G permanent
– Q variable
– A accidental
– AE seismic
• Representative values of actions Frep
– characteristic Fk
– accompanying ψ Fk
For variable loads
combination ψ0 Qk
frequent ψ1 Qk
quasi-permanent ψ2 Qk
 Combinations of actions
ULS
• design situation persistent and transient
• design situation
• design situation
SLS
• characteristic design situation
• frequent design situation
• quasi-permanent design situation
• Load arrangement (position, magnitude and
direction of load)

• Load case (all possible load arrangements

during service life)
 Structural analysis method
• linear analysis
• non-linear analysis
– material nonlinearity
– geometrical nonlinearity
 Concrete design

• linear behaviour
– assumption approximately agrees for SLS
– for ULS – further simplifying considerations
• elastic behaviour + redistribution
– ULS
• non-linear behaviour
– ULS, SLS
– numerical (FE) analysis
• plastic behaviour
• Discontinuity Regions and Strut-and-Tie Models
 Linear behaviour
• Linear formulation of geometric equations - loads
are calculated assuming linear behaviour;
• Linear formulation of constitutive law – material
linearity – improper for concrete – further
simplifying considerations
• Principle of superposition - final results can be
obtained by adding up the individual results
(moments, shear, deflection)
• Common structural analysis, preliminary analysis
• Reinforcement becomes active after
concrete cracks
• Redistribution of internal stresses occurs
after concrete cracks
Elastic behaviour + redistribution
• cost-effective
• different load cases
• extreme moment
 Plastic methods of analysis
Static methods
• strip method (for slabs)
• strut and tie approach
Kinematic methods
• yield hinges method
• yield lines method
 Special considerations in plastic
methods
• check strain in plastic hinges
– rotation control

– x/d ≤ 0,25 for ≤ C 50/60

– x/d ≤ 0,15 for ≤ C 55/67

• For normal operation conditions (SLS) no

plastic changes may be admitted.
 Non-linear behaviour
• geom. non-linearity: 2nd order analysis (geometry
appreciably changes)
• material non-linearity: concrete is a quasibrittle
material
• utilisation of reserves neglected in some codes and
linear calculations
• Principle of superposition non-applicable
– effect of loads, imperfections, shrinkage, creep - all
must be considered together in a load step
• (FE) numerical analysis – computer
The layout of reinforcement affects the real
behaviour of the structure.
 Discontinuity Regions and Strut-
and-Tie Models
• idealize the flow of force in a cracked concrete
element

Visualize a truss-like system to transfer load to the

supports where:
• Compressive forces are resisted by concrete
“struts”
• Tensile forces are resisted by steel “ties”
• Struts and ties meet at “nodes”
 B - region
• The design of B (Bernoulli or Beam) region
is well understood and the entire flexural
behaviour can be predicted by simple
calculation.
 D - region
• Disturbed or Discontinuity regions
• A design tool for “disturbed” regions where
the flow of stresses is non-uniform and the
usual rules of analysis do not apply
– near supports
– the points of application of concentrated loads
– holes, openings
– joints
1. How to construct a Strut-and-Tie model?
2. If a truss can be formulated, is it adequate
or is there a better one?
3.If there are two or more trusses for the same
structure, which one is better?
• Elements with nonlinear strain distribution

• Deep beams, pile caps, corbels, P/T

anchors, deep footings, pile caps
 Probability in structural analysis
• Uncertainties in
– load
– geometry
– material
– idealised model
 Method of
allowable stresses
Methods of reliability
Pre-computer age

Deterministic
assesment Method od
safety factors

Semi- Partial
deterministic coefficients
Computer age

Analytical and
numerical methods
Probability
Simulation
methods
 Limit states
= the basis for semi-deterministic and probability
design
After crossing the LS the structure doesn't comply
with demands on the structure

• ULS
• SLS
• Durability
The procedure of reliability assesment
Load Limit state

Ultimate LS Service-
Model
(load-bearing ability LS
capacity)

Effect of load Reference

function

Reliability assesment

Safety Serviceability Durability

 The principles of reliability
assesment in probabilistic method
histogram of load effects

histogram of load effects

Pd>Pf

u re
a il
e f
t h
of
i on ion
g
e re re
g
s af
 load
time

permanent load long-

machines
term

differential settlement
snow
variable load

short- term

live load
wind
engines
cranes
earthquake
explosion
 Representation of load
• nominal value + safety factor
• parameter or non-parameter distribution of load
Curves for load length
Effect of load
Effect of load
 Resistance of the structure
Depends on
• materials
• geometry
 Resistance of the structure

a PEL
b allowable cracking
and deflection
c excessive cracking,
Service
big deformations
d collapse

unallowable irreversible
deformations
 Probability of failure
Design probability of failure with respect to the
comparative level
Example Comparative Provision of Probability of failure
level functioning
(a) PEL 0.000 293
< Pd
(b) Allowable 0.000 044
irreversible < Pd
deformations

(c) Excessive Repair or 0.000 015

deformations renewal < Pperf
(d) Collapse, Replacement 0.000 008
damage < ????
Demanded values of designed
probability
Significance of the Pd - ULS Pd - SLS
structure
Insignificant 0,000 5 0,16
structures
Common structures 0,000 07 0,07

Important 0,000 008 0,023

structures
 Eurocodes
• set of unified international codes of practice for
designing buildings and civil engineering
structures (eventually replace national codes)
• Eurocode programme 1975, harmonise design
practises
• EC for structural design
• European pre-standards (ENVs)
• final Drafts
 Benefits of adopting EC
• improve the competitiveness of the European
construction industry
• provide a common understanding regarding the
design of structures between owners, operators
and users, designers, contractors and
manufacturers of construction products
• facilitate the exchange of construction services
between Member States
• to facilitate the marketing and use of structural
components and kits of parts in Member States
• common basis for research and development
• allow the preparation of common design aids and
software
 Eurocode suite
• EN1990 Eurocode - Basis of Structural Design
• EN1991 Eurocode 1 - Actions on structures
• EN1992 Eurocode 2 - Design of concrete structures
• EN1993 Eurocode 3 - Design of steel structures
• EN1994 Eurocode 4 - Design of composite steel and
concrete tructures
• EN1995 Eurocode 5 - Design of timber structures
• EN1996 Eurocode 6 - Design of masonry structures
• EN1997 Eurocode 7 - Geotechnical design
• EN1998 Eurocode 8 - Design of structures for earthquake
resistance
• EN1999 Eurocode 9 - Design of aluminium structures
 Basis of Structural Design
• EN1990 Eurocode
• principles and requirements for safety,
serviceability and durability
• basis and general principles for the
structural design and verification of
buildings and civil engineering works
• used with all the other Eurocodes
Eurocode 1: Actions on structures
• four main parts
• 1st part divided into sub-parts
– densities, self-weight and imposed loads; actions due to
fire; snow; wind; thermal actions; loads during
execution and accidental actions
• 2nd,3rd,4th
– traffic loads on bridges
– actions by cranes and machinery
– actions in silos and tanks
 Eurocode 2:
Design of concrete structures

• common design rules, detailing

• design requirements for fire
• design of bridges and liquid-retaining
structures
 National annex
• Safety remains a national responsibility.
Safety factors - may be altered by the
national annex.
• differences in geographical or climatic
conditions (e.g. wind or snow maps)
• nationally determined parameters (NDPs) -
level of safety, including aspects of
durability and economy