#1 Mayer, R. E. (2014) Introduction to multimedia learning. In R. E. Mayer (Ed.

), The Cambridge

Handbook of Multimedia Learning. (pp. 1-26). New York: Cambridge.

Mayer begins this chapter discussing the multimedia learning hypothesis, which states that learners can

learn more efficiently with the incorporation of pictures and text as it relates to multimedia. Multimedia

is defined as the incorporation of text, spoken or written formats, and graphics, static or dynamic. Static

graphics are referenced as pictures, graphs, and illustrations; whereas, dynamic graphics are exemplified

by animations and video. Multimedia also requires the use of at least two presentation devices,

computer screens and speakers for example. Multimedia use requires the assimilation of mental images

based on interpretations of text and pictures.

With technological increases becoming more influential in recent years it has become expedient to also

enhance our understanding of how learners process information. The proposal was made that the mind

contains two channels for processing information. Operating under this paradigm offers insight into the

processing of information as two channels can process more information than one.

The use of multimedia has been divided into the two categories of technology-centered and learner-

centered. Technology-centered approaches lead to focusing on how technology can be used in cutting

edge ways to meet design criteria, but has shown that it does not lead to increases in education. Rather

than using technology to meet design protocols the learner-centered model focuses on how technology

can be used to have a positive effect on learning information.

Lastly, multimedia learning was presented as three metaphors response strengthening, information

acquisition, and knowledge construction. Response strengthening references the use of multimedia to

increase or decrease the connection between stimuli and response. Information acquisition refers to

the use of multimedia to add information to memory. While, knowledge construction describes how

learners use multimedia to create a mental picture of information that is coherent.

Handbook of Multimedia Learning. (pp. 43-71). New York: Cambridge.

Mayer introduces the importance of using pictures collaboratively with words as it pertains to the

multimedia principle. Thus multimedia instruction is defined as communication incorporating pictures

and words designed to bring about learning. Words being referenced can either be spoken or written,

while pictures, or graphics, can be static or dynamic. Static graphics are pictures, charts/graphs, or any

other still frame graphic; while dynamic graphics refers to animation and video.

Developing a cognitive theory of multimedia learning was guided by four criteria: theoretical plausibility,

testability, empirical plausibility, and applicability. These criteria are defined as theoretical plausibility,

which states that the theory should be consistent with cognitive science principles of learning,

testability, which states that the theory can be tested using scientific research, empirical plausibility,

which states the theory is consistent with empirical research evidence for multimedia learning, and

applicability, which states the theory must be relevant to educational needs.

A cognitive theory of multimedia learning has three conventions dual channels, limited capacity, and

active processing. The convention of dual channels pertains to the fact that humans have separate

channels, one that processes visual information and the other processes auditory information. The

convention of limited capacity refers to the fact that humans can process limited amounts of

information that can be processed in each channel at one time. Active processing refers to humans

organizing and processing information into coherent representations and incorporating it into

knowledge.

#3 Mayer, R.E., & Anderson, B. (1991). Animations Need Narrations: An Experimental Test of a Dual-

coding Hypothesis. Journal of Educational Psychology, 3, 484-490.

illustrations. Explanative text is described as step-by-step description of cause and effect actions in a

system; whereas, explanative illustrations are frame-by-frame pictures that describe the same cause and

effect. In these experiments Mayer and Anderson found tested students that received instruction using

the delivery methods of explanative text followed by explanative illustrations and explanative text

delivered with explanative illustrations. These individuals were tested using problem solving questions

to determine how to troubleshoot the system. These results show that the simple textbook

presentation is less effective than presenting the information using simultaneous text and graphics.

Further tests incorporated the use of animation as the explanative illustration. In these experiments the

researchers were studying the single-code hypothesis vs. the dual-code hypothesis by delivering

instruction through delivering soundtrack with animation, soundtrack before animation, soundtrack

alone, and animation alone. Single-code hypothesis postulates that one common mode of

representation is used for both words and pictures, where the dual-code hypothesis indicates the

presence of separate visual and verbal modes of mental representation. Also discussed was the

integrated dual-code hypothesis, which states that the two modes of visual and verbal mental

representations can form connections between both modes.

The results of these experiments show a great effect for the integrated dual-code hypothesis. Learners

being presented with simultaneous animation and narration leads to a better connection between

verbal and visual reasoning increasing effects on problem solving skills.

#4 Schnotz, W. (2014) Integrated model of text and picture comprehension. In R. E. Mayer (Ed.), The

Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning. (pp. 72-103). New York: Cambridge.

Schnotz begins by explaining the difference in multimedia based on levels. Multimedia requires the use

of multiple modes of delivery whether it be multiple modes of technology, presentation, or sensory

and depictive. Descriptive representations are described primarily as texts, including mathematical

formulas; while depictive representations are primarily composed of pictures, graphs, paintings, and

other graphics.

Referencing comprehension of text and pictures requires the use of multiple memory systems named as

the sensory registers, working memory, and long-term memory. Sensory registers are described as the

intermediary between the sensory organs and working memory, used to process outside stimuli so

connections can be made in working memory. Working memory further processes information as it

transitions from the sensory registers, however, it also has an extremely limited capacity. Working

memory incorporates information from long term memory to make connections for nearly unlimited

storage of information in long term memory.

The concept of integrated comprehension combines the ideas of multiple memory systems, working

memory, and dual coding and operate under four main assumptions. Comprehension of text and

pictures takes place using the multiple memory subsystems. Verbal information is transferred through

visual and auditory channels that have limited capacity. Further semantic processing takes place in the

depictive and descriptive subsystems. Comprehension of text and pictures are active processes in

coherence formation.