Non Ideal
Non Ideal
Non Ideal
L t
Lecture 22
Non‐ideal behavior
NC State University
Free energy and entropy of mixing
We can calculate the free energy of mixing for an ideal
solution based on the chemical potential. The free
energy of mixing is
ΔmixG = Gsln((T,P,n
, , 1,,n2)) ‐ G1*(T,P,n
( , , 1)) ‐ G2*(T,P,n
( , , 2)
ΔmixG = n1μ1sln + n2μ2sln ‐ n1μ1* ‐ n2μ2*
ΔmixG
G = nRT(x
nRT(x1lnx1 + xx2lnx2)
The free energy of mixing is always negative because x1
and x2 are always less than one. An ideal solution will
and x are always less than one An ideal solution will
always form spontaneously. This is due entirely to the
entropy of mixing The entropy is given by
entropy of mixing. The entropy is given by
ΔmixS = ‐(∂ΔmixG/∂T) = ‐ nR(x1lnx1 + x2lnx2)
Definition of ideal behavior
Definition of ideal behavior
This result is exactly the same as the mixing entropy for
This result is exactly the same as the mixing entropy for
an ideal gas. For an ideal solution we find further that
ΔmixV = (∂Δ
V = (∂ΔmixG/∂P) = 0
G/∂P) = 0
and
ΔmixH = Δ
H = ΔmixG + T Δ
G + T ΔmixS = 0.
S=0
The volume change and enthalpy of mixing are zero for
an ideal solution because the size and shape and
an ideal solution because the size and shape and
intermolecular potential of the two species being
mixed are nearly the same as the pure species.
i d l th th i
A model of molecular interactions
A model of molecular interactions
We can express the behavior in real solutions as a
We can express the behavior in real solutions as a
deviation from Raoult's law. For example, in the figure
below we have component 1 with a vapor pressure of
below we have component 1 with a vapor pressure of
50 torr for the pure component.
That is P1* = 50 torr. Likewise, P
That is, P = 50 torr Likewise P2* = 100 torr.
= 100 torr
We can consider two cases. Deviations from Raoult's
We can consider two cases Deviations from Raoult's
law can be positive or negative. Positive deviations (i.e.
greater vapor pressure than ideal) mean that the unlike
t th id l) th t th lik
molecules have a repulsive interaction.
Positive deviations from Raoult’ss law
Positive deviations from Raoult
A mathematical model for the
d
deviations from ideality
f d l
To obtain the plots we use the following expressions.
p g p
P1 = x1P1*
P2 = x2P2*
P1 = x1P1*exp(αx22)
P2 = x2P2*exp(αx12)
where the term exp(αx22) represents a deviation from
ideality (α = 0.5 in the plot above). Negative deviations
f
from Raoult's
R lt' law are also observed as shown in the plot
l l b d h i th l t
below (α = ‐2 in the plot below).
Negative deviations from Raoult’ss law
Negative deviations from Raoult
Limiting behavior
Limiting behavior
For either positive or negative deviations from Raoult's law, if we
look at component 1 we can see that as x1 → 1 and x2 → 0 we
recover Raoult's law, P1 = x1P1*. In other words when 1 is the
pure solvent we have nearly ideal behavior for substance 1.
l t h l id l b h i f bt 1
However, at the opposite limit as x1 → 0 (and x2 → 1) we have,
P1 = x1P1*exp(α). In this case substance 1 is the solute and it
p( )
behaves non‐ideally. This has been expressed as Henry's law.
Henry's law states that P1 = x1kH,1 as x1 → 0. Thus, Henry's
describes the non‐ideal behavior of a solute in a dilute solution.
Note that for the explicit model above we can equate
kH,1 =
= P
P *exp(α).
H1 1 exp(α)
Explaining activity
Throughout the entire range of concentration we can redefine
activity, a1. Activity is an effective mole fraction. That is we can
define
P1 = a1P1*
for a real solution. Our simple model above shows that the
deviation from ideality can be treated by fitting to expressions of
th f
the form P P1 = x1P1*exp{αx β 23 3 + …}}
{ 22 + βx
The chemical potential for this type of solution is
μ1 = μ
= μ1* + RTln x + αRTx22 + βRTx
+ RTln x1 + αRTx + βRTx23
We see from the definition of activity as a1 = P1/P1* that we can
p p
express the chemical potential as μ μ1 = μ μ1* + RTln a1
Thus we can see that a1 = x1exp{αx22 + βx23 + …}.
The activity coefficient
The activity coefficient
We can define an activity coefficient γ
y γ1 such that
γ1 = a1/x1.
Therefore γ1 = exp{αx22 + βx23 + …}.
Clearly, a1 → x1 and γ 1 → 1 as x1 → 1. Thus, the solution
approaches ideal behavior as the composition approaches that
of the pure solution. This definition is based on a Raoult's law
standard state. This is also known as a solvent standard state.
The activities or chemical potentials are meaningless unless we
The activities or chemical potentials are meaningless unless we
know the standard state. The solvent or Raoult's law standard
state holds for substances that are miscible in all proportions.
state holds for substances that are miscible in all proportions.
μ1 = μ1* + RTln a1
Raoult’ss law standard state
Raoult law standard state
Up to now we have implicitly discussed only Raoult's law
p p y y
standard states.
Strictly speaking, we should use the words solute and solvent to
describe a binary solution only when one component is sparingly
soluble in the other. In this case that standard state may be
based on Henry's law rather than Raoult's law. Assuming that
component j is the sparingly soluble component we can write
μ1 = μ
= μ1* + RTln (P
+ RTln (P1/P1*)
We calso think of this as the standard state for an ideal solution.
Henry’ss law standard state
Henry law standard state
For the solute j we use Henry's law P
j y j → xjkH,j
H j as xj → 0 where
kH,j is the Henry's law constant for component j. Thus we have.
μj = μj* + RTln (xjkH,j/Pj*) = μj* + RTln (kH,j/Pj*) + RTln (xj) (xj → 0)
We define the activity of component j by
μj = μj* + RTln (kH,j/Pj*) + RTln aj.
Just as above for the Raoult's law standard state
aj → xj as xj → 0.
Thus we define aj = P
Thus, we define a = Pj/kH,j. The standard state then implies that
The standard state then implies that
kH,j = Pj*. This standard state may not exist in practice, so it is
called a hypothetical standard state.
called a hypothetical standard state.
Standard state for activity
Standard state for activity
The numerical value of the activity depends on the standard
y p
state. This is best demonstrated using an example. We consider
a solution of CS2 and CH3OCH2OCH3. The Henry's law constants
for this solution are kH,CS2 = 1130 torr and kH,dimeth = 1500 torr.
Based on vapor pressure data we can calculate the activity and
the activity coefficient based on each standard state (Raoult's
(
Law and Henry's Law).
Henry's Law
a CS2 = PCS2/ kH,CS2
H CS2 = 357.2/1130 = 0.316
a dimeth = Pdimeth/ kH,dimeth = 342.2/1500 = 0.228
γ CS2 = a CS2/x CS2 = 0.316/0.539 = 0.586
γ dimeth = a dumeth/x dimeth = 0.228/(1‐0.539) = 0.494
Excess free energy
Excess free energy
We can calculate the Gibbs energy of mixing of binary solutions
gy g y
in terms of the activity coefficients to obtain a free energy of
mixing for non‐ideal solutions. As above for ideal solutions we
can define
ΔmixG = n1μ1sln + n2μ2sln ‐ n1μ1* ‐ n2μ2*
However, in this case we must use the definition of chemical
potential in terms of activity (rather than mole fraction)
μj = μ
= μj* + RTln a = μj* + RTln x
+ RTln aj = μ + RTln γj
+ RTln xj + RTln γ
leading to the expression
ΔmixG
G = RT(n
RT(n1ln x
ln x1 + nn2ln x
ln x2 + n ln γ1 + n
n1ln γ n2lnγ2)
The first two terms represent the Gibbs free energy of mixing of
an ideal solution To focus on the effect of non ideality we
an ideal solution. To focus on the effect of non‐ideality, we
define an excess Gibbs energy of mixing ΔGE.
ΔGE = ΔΔmixi G
G ‐ Δmixi Gid
Thus, ΔGE = RT(n1ln γ1 + n2ln γ2)
If we divide by the total number of moles n1 + n2, we obtain the
molar excess Gibbs energy of mixing ΔGE.
ΔGE = RT(x1ln γ1 + x2ln γ2)
Using the definition of the activity coefficient for the solution
example above we can calculate the excess free energy for the
model solution above.
d l l ti b
γ1 = exp{αx22}
and
and
γ2 = exp{αx12}.
The origin of excess free energy
is the enthalpy
SSubstituting these activity coefficients into the
b tit ti th ti it ffi i t i t th
expression for the excess free energy we have
ΔGE = RT(α + α x2x12) = α
= RT(α x1x22 + α ) = α RTx1x2
using the fact that x2 = 1 ‐ x1.
If components 1 and 2 are distributed randomly throughout the
p y g
solution then the entropy of the ideal solution and the non‐ideal
solution will be the same. Such a solution is known as a regular
solution. In a regular solution ΔHE ≠ 0 and ΔSE = 0. Thus, the
difference in the Gibbs energy is due to an interaction energy
term (a contribution to the enthalpy of solution).
( b h h l f l )
Molecular model for
non‐ideal solutions
d l l
We can express the potential energy of the solution in the form
p p gy
U = N11e11 + N12e12 + N22e22
where Nij is the number of neighboring pairs of molecules of
type i and j and where eij is the interaction energy of a pair of
molecules of type i and j when they are next to each other. We
assume a coordination number z where z is between 6 and 10.
There are N1 component 1 molecules in solution so the number
of 1 1 neighboring pairs is N11 = zN
of 1‐1 neighboring pairs is N = zN1x1/2 where the factor of used
/2 where the factor of used
to avoid counting each 1‐1 pair twice. Similarly, for component 2
we have N22 = zN
we have N zN2x2/2. The same value of z is used because we
/2. The same value of z is used because we
assume that molecular sizes are about the same.
Aspects of the microscopic model
Interaction energies
e11 self interaction
e22 self interaction
e12 cross term
This leads to the expression
This leads to the expression
μ1 = μ1* + RT lnx1 ‐zwNAx22/2
μ1 = μ
μ1* + RT ln(x
( 1e ‐zwx22/2kT)
where we have used the fact that k = R/NA.
Our simple model of a solution has led directly to an expression
for the activity in terms of the interaction strength w,
coordination number z, mole fraction x2, and thermal energy kT.
Definition of a critical point
Definition of a critical point
The activity is a
y /P1* = x1exp(‐zwx
1 = P1/ p( 2/2kT))
2 /
The activity coefficient is γ1 = exp(‐zwx22/2kT)
The expression derived is exactly analogous to the expressions
used above for deviations from Raoult's law provided
α = ‐zw/2kT.
This simple model not only allows us to calculate activities from
molecular properties, but it also includes the possibility of phase
separation A critical point in a two component phase diagram
separation. A critical point in a two component phase diagram
indicates that there is a region of temperature or pressure
beyond which the solution separates into two phases.
beyond which the solution separates into two phases.
Phase separation
Phase separation
In the case of the model liquid discussed here phase separation
q p p
will occur if zw/2kT > 2 or in other words if the parameter α < ‐2.
We first show the relationship between the activities of two
species in a non‐ideal binary solution and then use all of the
γ
information to discuss the free energy of mixing. This leads
naturally to the idea of limited solubility even with this very
simple model.
Application of the
Gibbs‐Duhem
bb h equation
At this point, you might well ask whether the activity coefficient
p ,y g y
for component 1 has any bearing on the magnitude of the
activity coefficient for component 2. In fact, they are related as
we now prove using the Gibbs‐Duhem relation. The Gibbs‐
Duhem equation states that
n1dμ1 + n2dμ2 = 0.
Dividing through by n the Gibbs‐Duhem equation is
x1dμ1 + x
+ x2dμ2 = 0.
=0
dμ2 = ‐ x1dμ1 / x2
with μ1 = μ
with μ μ1* + RT ln(x ) where α = ‐zw/2kT,
RT ln(x1e ‐αx22) where α zw/2kT,
Application of the
Gibbs‐Duhem
bb h equation
μ1 = ‐ RTdx1//x1 ‐ 2α(1‐
dμ μ2 = ‐ RTdx1//x2 ‐ 2αx1dx1
( x1))dx1 and dμ
Change variables from dx1 to ‐ dx2.
dμ2 = RTdx2/x2 + 2α(1‐x2)dx2
Now we integrate,
μ2 ‐ μ2* = RTlnx2 + α(1‐x2)2
and finally
μ2 = μ2* + RT ln(x2e –αx12)
which shows that the activity of coefficient of component 1
which shows that the activity of coefficient of component 1
implies the magnitude of the activity coefficient for
component2.
γ1 = exp(‐zwx22/2kT) implies γ2 = exp(‐zwx12/2kT)
Parameter for non‐ideal
Parameter for non ideal solutions
solutions
As a result of our model for the interaction energy of particles
in a non‐ideal solution we can calculate ΔmixG.
For a two component solution
ΔmixG = n
G n1RTln x
RTln x1 + n RTln x2 ‐ zwNA/2(n2x12 + n
+ n2RTln x + n1x22)
ΔmixG = n1RTln x1 + n2RTln x2 ‐ zwNA(n1 + n2)x1x2/2
Our final expression for Δmixi G is
Our final expression for Δ G is
ΔmixG = nRT(x1ln x1 + x2ln x2 ‐ zwx1x2/2kT)
which is clearly separable into an ideal part and the excess free
energy discussed previously. We can plot ΔmixG/nRT for various
values of zw/2kT as shown below.
Parameter for non‐ideal
Parameter for non ideal solutions
solutions
Phase separation and critical point
Phase separation and critical point
Note that for α < ‐2 the curvature is negative in the
central region (around a mole fraction of x1 = 0.5). This
corresponds to a region where mixing is not spontaneous.
I th
In other words, there will be a phase separation in this
d th ill b h ti i thi
region.
By assumption, the entropy of mixing is still equal to the
By assumption, the entropy of mixing is still equal to the
entropy of mixing of an ideal solution. Thus,
ΔmixS = ‐nR(x1ln x1 + x2ln x2)
and therefore the non‐ideality appears in the enthalpy
ΔmixH = ‐ zwNAx1x2/2.