Werner & Sonne (1947) - The Philosophy and Theory of Music in Judaeo-Arabic Literature

THE PHILOSOPHY AND THEORY OF MUSIC IN JUDAEO-ARABIC LITERATURE
Author(s): ERIC WERNER and ISAIAH SONNE

Source: Hebrew Union College Annual, Vol. 16 (1941), pp. 251-319
Published by: Hebrew Union College - Jewish Institute of Religion
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Dedicated Dedicated to President Julian Morgenstern on the occasion
of his 60th birthday.
THE PHILOSOPHY AND THEORY OF MUSIC

IN JUDAEO-ARABIC LITERATURE
ERIC WERNER and ISAIAH SONNE,* Hebrew Union College, Cincinnati, O.
The Position of Music in the Jewish Culture

of the Middle Ages.
REGRETTABLE as it may
■ musical theory be, we know
and philosophy ofvery little about
the medieval the
Jewish
authors. Nonetheless, it would be a gross exaggeration were we
to assert a total lack of musical literature in medieval Judaism.
Statements have frequently been made to this effect, although
a few glimpses into Steinschneider's bibliographies could teach
us better.1 We cannot deny, however, that by comparison with
*For technical reasons, it was impossible to publish, in this issue of the
HUCA,HUCA, the Hebrew texts, their translations, and the critical apparatus pre
pared by Dr. Sonne. These will be used later, in the continuation of this
article. Sections I to V of the present instalment are the work of Werner;
the appendix was prepared by Sonne: while section VI was written by both
authors in close collaboration. Dr. Werner is greatly indebted to Dr. Sonne
for his numerous suggestions, his helpful counsel, and his unflagging interest
in this onerous task.
The Texts to which we refer are the following:

Honein-Alharizi, The Maxims of the Philosophers (‫)םיפוסוליפה ירסומ‬,
Text A.
Saadya Gaon, Emunot Vede'ot (Ibn Tibbon's and anonymous translations),
Text B 1, 2.
Moses Maimonides, Responsum concerning Music•, the Eight Chapters,
Text C 1, 2.
Shemtob Falaquera, ReUt Hokma; Hamehakkesh, Text D 1, 2.
Isaac Ibn Latif, Ginze Hammelek, Text E.
Moses Abulafia, (quoted by Shemtob ben Isaac, cf. Steinschneider, Hehr.
Bibliographie Bibliographie XIX, 43. Also Steinschneider's Hebr. Uebers., 410, 689),
Text F.
Isaiah ben Isaac, Commentary on Avicenna's Al-kanun, Text G.
11 refer here to such erroneous statements as that made by Miss Lent
schner, in the Reconstructionist, Nov. 10, 1939.
251
252 WERNER-SONNE [2]
the great and comprehensive literature on music among the

Arabs, and with the efforts of the Western theorists of the 10th
to the 14th century, the Jews have shown but a scant interest
in this subject.
What are the reasons for this neglect? Many answers have
been offered, but none can satisfy us completely. Let us examine
them one by one. This apparent indifference cannot be due to a
dearth of musical accomplishment; for we know that the Jews
created and developed the best part of their traditional liturgical
music in those very centuries.2 Nor can the chief reason be the
absence of an established musical notation. For neither the Arabs
nor the European theorists possessed a fully developed system
of notation until the twelfth century, and even then the Arabic
system was no more than a primitive tablature based on their
favorite instrument, the 'ud.3 For all that, the theoretical achieve
ments of the Arabs are both remarkable and extensive.
Adequately to explain the paradox we must briefly notice the
general attitude of scholars, Jewish as well as non-Jewish, toward
the music of their times and their environment. For it was these
scholars whose views on music either fostered or impeded the
growth of musical disquisition.
In the Middle Ages, music was supposed to be not so much a
practical art as a "scientia" well embedded in the quadrivium
educationist which contained the four mathematical sciences,
2 Of the literature on the development of traditional chant, we note only

the following: Idelsohn, Thesaurus, vols. 2, 4, 5, 7, 9, 10, and Jewish
Music Music in Its Historical development pp. 132-200. Birnbaum, Liturgische Stu
diendien II. Nettl, Alte juedische Spielleute und Musiker. Vogelstein-Rieger,
GeschichteGeschichte der Juden in Rom II, 120 ff. Steinschneider, Hebr. Uebersetzungen,
p. 698 ff. Werner, Die hebr. Intonalionen des B. Marcello, in MGWJ 1937.
Idem,Idem, Notes on Jewish and Catholic Musical Punctuation, in HUCA 1940.
‫ נ‬Cf. H. G. Farmer, History of Arabian Music, p. 95, and Facts for the
Arabian Arabian Musical Influence, pp. 305-16.
4 About the number of the sciences in the Jewish world cf. Guedemann,
Das Das Juedische Erziehungswesen waehrend der Spanisch-Arabischen Epoche,
p. 38 n. 1. The inclusion of music in the quadrivium dates back to M. Varro.
Augustine opposes the general practice of the science of music, when saying:
"Aliud igitur putas esse artem, aliud scientiam. Siquidem et in sola ratione
[3] MEDIAEVAL JEWISH MUSIC THEORY 253
viz. Arithmetic, Geometry, Astronomy, and Music. Boethius

made this classification fairly commoft. His works De Institutione
MusicaMusica and De Institutione Arithmetica belonged to the standard
books of the Middle Ages. He gave the classic definition of Music
from which eight hundred years of musical theory drew.5 Accord
ing to Boethius, Music has the following genera: (1) Musica
mundanamundana representing the movements of the heavenly spheres
and the order of the elements and seasons. This Music is insep
arably connected with the mathematical order of the universe.
(2) Musica humana is the power which links body and soul in a
kind of mathematical harmony, mirroring the macrocosmic
Musica Musica mundana in the microcosm of human existence.6 (3) Mus
icaica instrumentalis is music in our own sense of the term, namely,
the art of musical composition yielding music which can be
heard and felt. Such music is not "real" in the Platonic sense
but only an imitatio Musicae mundanae. Its task is to unify the
movements of the soul and to attune them into a perfect har
mony. It is the lowest form of Music.7 Quite different is Cassio
dorus' division into scientia harmonica, rhythmica et metrica. Here
we find no reference to melody or to musical forms; everything
is dealt with "more arithmetico." This purely abstract method
did not, however, deter the monk, Cassiodorus, from a strictly
theological interpretation of the effect which music has upon the
human soul.8
Regino of Pruem formulated the classification musica arti
ficialisficialis et naturalis, also resorting to ecclesiastical speculation.
Here natural Music is that which emanates from God's creatures,
esse potest, ars autem rationi jungit imitationem." Cf. Pair. Lat. (Migne)
XXXII, 1086.
5 Cf. G. Pietzsch, Die Klassifikation der Musik von Boethius bis Ugolino
von von Orvieto, p. 40.
6 Ibid., p. 42.
' Boethius' formula "quibusdam instrumentis ut in citharis vel tibiis"
is perhaps an allusion to 1 Sam. 10.5.
8 Cassiodorus closely follows the allegorical representations of the late
Alexandrian school, which claimed a personal affinity, almost identity be
tween Orpheus, David, and Jesus, although Cassiodorus himself did not go
quite so far. Cf. Pietzsch, op. cit., 14.
while artificial Music is performed upon instruments devised

by man.9
The influence of the Arabic theorists, especially of Alfarabi,
is recognizable in Gundissalinus' (ca. 1150) classification into
musicamusica speculativa et activa whereby a rigid distinction is drawn
between the meditative (philosophy) and the active (singing,
playing) capacity of the musician.10
In all of these definitions, the theoretical viewpoint greatly
prevails over practical musical performance. Considering the
enormous part which authority played in mediaeval thinking,
we need not to be surprised that the definitions mentioned were
quoted recurrently.11 This is equally true of the world of the Near
East; and Spengler is certainly right in calling Plato, Aristotle,
and Pythagoras the prophets of the Western orbit, including
Syria and Arabia. "Whatever could be traced back to them was
inevitably thought to be the truth."12
Judaism also, to a certain degree, accepted those Greek sages
as authorities, but set high above them the Bible and the tal
mudic Rabbis.13 Still, in the attitude toward music, we may
find a considerable difference between the Jewish scholars of
Central and Eastern Europe on the one hand, and the Hebrew
sources of the Arabic sphere on the other. While Jewish scholars
within the domains of Arabic culture participated in all phases
of that culture, even in the secular and the artistic, the rest of
European Jewry had to limit itself to theological and exegetic
studies based exclusively on rabbinic doctrines. Those Rabbis
knew of musical art only the traditional elements of the synagogal
chant and were interested in the proper rendition of music purely
' Ibid,., 64.

10 Cf. L. Baur, D. Gundissalinus' De Divisione Philosophiae in Beitraegen
zurzur Philosophie des Mittelalters IV, pp. 96-102. See also Pietzsch, op. cit., p. 79.
11 Cf. Clemens Baeumker, Geist und Form in der Mittelalterlichen Philo
sophie,sophie, p. 60.
" Spengler, Der Untergang des Abendlandes II, 303. However, Spengler is
quite mistaken in some of his conclusions concerning the invention of "work
ing hypothesies."
15 "The understanding of Aristotle is the highest a man can ever achieve,
excepting the wisdom of the prophets." (Maimonides to Samuel ibn Tibbon,
cf. Steinschneider, Hebr. Uebers. 40/41.)
from the rabbinic point of view.14 It even seems that the boundary
line between the two different attitudes corresponds to the geo
graphic frontier between the Spanish and the Parisian areas.
R. Joseph ibn Caspi, a learned writer of Provence which was then
the exact line of demarcation between Spain and France, says:
‫תונויגש ל"ר תומה ולא רשא יתוניגנב חצנמל‬. ‫ל*ר תויריש תולמ םה חצנמלו‬
‫הנוכמה תלכשמה שפנה ריעהל םיושעה ןוגינה ילכב תינוהנה רישה תכאלממ‬
®1.‫הזה המכחה הדבאנ לבא אקיסומ םדק ימיב‬
Accordingly, we limit this study to the Jewish sources within
the Arabic sphere among whose intellectuals the scholastic works
on musical theory were almost common property. Judaeo-Arabic
literature placed music among the sciences at a fairly early time.
Already the Karaite Nissim ben Noah in the ninth, David
Almokainmez in the tenth, and Bachya ibn Pakuda during the
eleventh century mention music as a part of scientific study.16
Much more is to be said about Joseph ibn 'Aknin, the disciple
of Maimonides who, differing appreciably from his almost anti
musical master, gave in his "Tabb-ul-nufus" (Recreation of Souls)
a precise description of the curriculum of musical studies preva
lent in his day. We shall later deal with this work in detail.
Suffice it for the present to cite a remark interesting for its inde
pendence of judgement. In Ibn 'Aknin, Music finds a place after
the study of Writing, Torah, Mishna, Grammar, Poetry, Talmud,
Philosophy of Religion, Logic, Mathematics, Optics, and Astron
omy.17 And he continues: "The practice of this science (Music)
precedes the theory. The former must come chronologically first,
because its healing power cannot show itself except by its actual
performance. Thus theoretical speculation is in place only after
practical accomplishment. The priority of practice is imposed by
14 Cf. Epstein, Die Wormser Minhagbuecher, p. xxii, Sejer Hasidim, #302,

also Idelsohn, Jewish Music chap. viii.
15 Cf. Joseph ibn Caspi, ‫ףסכ ינדא‬, ed. Last, p. 120. Note that the author
does not refer to the traditional cantillation of the Psalms, but to the ‫המכח‬
(science) of Music.
16 Cf. Guedemann, op. cit., (note 4), p. 158.
17 Cf. David Kaufmann, Gesammelte Schriften III., p. 343, See also ‫יתפש‬
‫םינשי‬, p. 7. Cf. also Steinschneider's words about Ibn Aknin in Hebr. Uebers.,
p. 33, and HB XIV, 10, 38.
law and nature."18 To give precedence, even chronological prece

dence, to ars, perhaps even to us us before scientia, was by no
means a common view. The great Roger Bacon was of quite a
different opinion: "In the same manner as children can under
stand the mathematical method of figuring or counting, it will
be easier and even necessary for them to understand numbers
before singing, because in the relationship of numbers to each
other, all the ideas of musical numbers serve as explanatory
examples."19
A singular position concerning the place of music is taken by

Yehuda Halevy. In his Cusari he deals with music as part of
astronomy and the calendar (II #64-65). But he also links it with
metrics and with poetry (II #70-73), later with natural science
(IV #24-25), and finally with the speculative disciplines (V #12).20
Apparently his ideas about musical science are based on Alfarabi
and Ibn Sina with whom music similarly occupies a double posi
tion, subsumed partly under grammar and partly under the
speculative and natural sciences. Hence, we need not wonder
that this ideology appears in remote occidental scholars like
Vincent of St. Beauvais or Roger Bacon, both of whom are well
conversant with Alfarabi and Avicenna.21
Yehuda Alharizi, an older contemporary of Ibn 'Aknin, pro

posed, in a translation from Arabic sources, a concise curriculum
18 Like his Arabian and Latin fellow-theorists, Ibn 'Aknin identifies the
science of Music with musical theory, the art of music with musical practice.
Cf. H. Edelstein, Die Musikanschauung des Augustinus nach seiner Schrift
De De Musica, pp. 75-81.
l» Cf. Roger Bacon, Opus Mains, N. E. by J. H. Bridges, Oxford 1897,
pp. 100, 178/79, 237/8.
20 Cassel (Cusari) p. 393, claims that Yehuda Halevy while enumerating
several disciplines, makes veiled allusions to some works of Aristotle. I cannot
agree with him; for Aristotle did not write about Music in his quaesliones
mechanicaemechanicae (genuine?) nor in his De Coloribus. About the influence of the
Pseudo-Aristotelian Problems, see infra, chap. III.
21 At least one of Vincent's works was available to the Jews; cf. Stein
Schneider, Hebr. Uebers. #299. About Alfarabi-quotations in Vincent's work
see see Pietzsch, op. cit., p. 30. Roger Bacon, too, quotes Alfarabi's writings on
Music: Cf. his Opus mains, transi, by R. B. Burke, I, 259/60.
of learning. In his 11 § ‫ םיפוסוליפה ירסומ‬he states: "Aristotle says

concerning education : The first matter in which a teacher should
instruct his disciple is Greek script. In the second year he may
teach Grammar and Metrics; in the third year Law and Religion;
in the fourth year, Reckoning; in the fifth year, Mathematics;
in the sixth, Astronomy; in the seventh, Pharmacology (Medi
cine) ; in the eighth, Music; in the ninth Logic. In the tenth year,
he may proceed to Philosophy. The disciple shall learn these
ten sciences in ten years, each in one year."22 We see with amaze
ment that secular science occupies a larger part than religion in
this educational program. Yet soon thereafter the reaction toward
a more religious attitude followed which finally culminated in a
limited ban, pronounced by R. Solomon ben Aderet (1305), upon
all secular studies.
An inkling of this more orthodox feeling is to be found in the
curriculum, suggested by Yehuda b. Samuel b. Abbas in his
book "Yair Natib" (Illumination of the Path).23 According to
this author, the student ought first to become familiar with the
Bible, the Talmud, and the writings of the best rabbinical author
ities." Then may follow the study of Geometry, of Optics, and
of Music. Of the latter science, some parts ought to be studied
in conjunction with Medicine, because of pulsation and its
rhythm."
Three decades later, Shem-Tob Falaquera could still, in the
face of orthodox reaction, emphasize in his Reshit Hokrna the
pursuit of the secular sciences, including music. But in his later
book, the didactic novel Mebakkesh, he had to qualify his pro
gram with the cautious admonition: "Take care and beware lest
thou forget the words of Scripture. Believe nothing of the state
ments based only on the conclusions of reason which might con
tradict Scripture. For the faithful, belief in Scripture is para
mount, since Scripture comes from God and is above the syllo
gisms of mere reason." Then he proceeds: "The student may
study Bible, Mishna, and Talmud for five years . . . Afterwards
the diligent disciple leaves his master in order to study, with
2222 Guedemann, op. cit., (note 4), p. 37/8.

*‫ נ‬Ibid., p. 146. The work is still in MS, available in the Bodleiana.
another teacher, the science of Mathematics, which he will pur

sue in this order: Arithmetic, Geometry, Optics, Astronomy,
and Music."24 We may recognze here the growing prevalence of
orthodoxy which placed the study of Bible and Talmud above
everything else. This swing to the dominance of the Bible was
accompanied by the decline of Arabic scholarship. Thus the
Cabalist, Abraham b. Isaac of Granada (ca. 1400), could discern
reference to the secular sciences in the same scriptural verse,25
in which talmudic interpretation saw an allusion to the six
sedarimsedarim of the Mishna.26
‫תמכח תעושי ןסוח ךיתע תנומא היהו‬

‫ורצוא איה 'ה תארי תעדו‬:
Abraham ben Isaac interprets the verse as follows: "Certainty

(‫ )תנומא‬means Arithmetic, Fate (‫ )ךיתע‬means Astronomy, Strength
(‫ )ןסוח‬means Geometry, Salvation (‫ )תעושי‬means Music, as it is
written: (II Ki. 3.15) 'But now bring me a minstrel. And it came
to pass, when the musician played, that the hand of the Lord
came upon him.' Wisdom (‫ )תמכח‬means Ethics" etc.27
The upshot of this antisecular dogmatism was the practice
of referring interminably to the music of the Temple, which
served as a keyhole through which the Jews peeped into the outer
musical world. But since these passages are not of much conse
quence for our subject, we cite here only a few, hoping that these
will shed light on the opinions of the medieval Jewish scholars.
« Ibid., p. 156/7.
2s Ibid., p. 41, quoted from Abraham b. Isaac's work ‫ החונמ תירב‬cited by
Shabbetai Bass, ‫ םינשי יתפש‬introduction, p. 7b.
26 The talmudic passage is from Sab. 31b. The allusion is to Isa. 33.6.
2‫םינשי יתפש‬, ‫'ת'נוטא 'ונו ךתע תנומא היהו קוספ לע 'א 'י קרפ החונמ תירב רפסבו 'ז‬
‫רפסמל זמר‬. ‫הנוכתל זמר ך'חע‬. ‫תרובשתל זמר ן'סוח‬. ‫ש'מב ןוגינל זמר ת'ועושי‬: ‫יל וחק התעו‬
‫יה חור וליע יהתו 'ונו ןננמ‬. ‫תודמל זמר תיססח‬. ‫עבטל זמר תיערו‬. ‫זמר ורצוא איה 'ה תארי‬
‫םיהלאה תמכחל‬. ‫'וסו ריבאל אלא םיקרפ ישאר ןירסומ ןיא םרמאכ‬: I was, however, un
able to locate the original passage in the ‫( החונמ תירב‬Ed. Amsterdam 1648,
Ed. Warsaw 1883). Yet Azulay states that he once saw a copy of the MS
of this work which contained twice the material of the printed book. The
first printed source of our passage is undoubtedly Moses Bottarel, introduc
tion to his commentary on the ‫( הריצי רפס‬Ed. Warsaw, p. 24). About the
prophetic virtue of music see Infra, ch. III.
Of the older exegetes, it is Saadya who, commenting on the

Psalms, deals frequently with musical terms and expressions.28
Yet, with all of his output, he does not enlighten us much about
contemporary musical theory. In his chief work, Emunoth
Wede'ot,Wede'ot, he gives a terse, but interesting description of the
musical modes of his milieu.29
In Italy, Serahya b. Isaac, a contemporary of Manuello of
Rome interprets Prov. 9:1 as follows: "The seven sciences are
the four mathematical ones, viz. Arithmetics, Geometry, Music,
and Astronomy, and the three philosophical ones, viz. Physics,
Metaphysics, and Politics."30 Manuello himself in his exegesis
of Proverbs seizes the opportunity for bitter complaint about the
decay of musical art and science. His words (to Prov. 26.16)
are: "Truly a miracle that we still possess the twenty-four books
of Scripture! It is very probable that Physics, Metaphysics, and
the other sciences, of which Plato and Aristotle are today said
to be the masters belonged originally to Solomon. Indeed, we
see that Music, an excellent science and art, was at home origi
nally in our religion, performed by men like Asaph, David, and
Samuel. But today nobody among us knows anything about it.
It has been left to the exclusive possession of the Christians."31
We have cursorily sketched the place of musical science in
the Jewish system of education during the Middle Ages.32 In so
doing, we have encountered two questions of major importance.
A. Did Hebrew theory, like Western Civilisation between
the 8th and the 12th century develop a system of musical nota
tion? The answer is — unfortunately — "No." Hebrew theory
28 Abraham Ibn Ezra curtly recognizes Saadya's musical Knowledge in

the words: ‫ןוגינ ילכ םעטהו דחא אוהש םינודא 'ר רסאיו םיניפ ומכ ןואגה רמוא םינמב‬
‫דחא )רתי תפש‬, ‫ תמא ןואגה ירבדו‬..., Ed. Pressburg, p. 32).
2' Cf. our Texts B, 1,2.
30 Guedemann, Geschichte des Erziehungswesens und der Cultur der Juden
in in Italien, p. 160.
31 Ibid., p. 120. Cf. also Manuello's caustic verse: (Div. VI, 49) ‫תרמוא המ‬
‫םירצונה לא ןוגינה תמכח‬. :‫םירבעה ץראמ יתבנונ בונג‬: (Gen. 40.15).
32 Salomon Almoli, already under the spell of the Renaissance, does not
quite belong to the Middle Ages proper. In his ‫ תונחטה לכל ףסאמ‬he compromises
between religious and secular sciences, suggesting a very elaborated and ambi
tious educational program. Cf. Steinschneider, Hebr. Uebers. #9.
closely followed the Arabic lead which never created a truly

popular or practical notation, limiting itself to some inconse
quential sporadic attempts.33 The Arabs likewise failed to use
full harmonies — at least full harmonies in the European sense.
Although they knew of chords, they seldom went beyond a com
plex heterophony.34 Thus, the Jewish and Arabic theory of
consonances was little more than a matter of mathematical
speculation.35
B. Did Hebrew theory contribute in any way to the advance
ment of medieval musical science? Here the answer is: Directly,
No; indirectly, Yes. And it was a Jewish figure of significance
who furthered the theory of music by devious ways. Gersonides
( —Ralbag = Leo Hebraeus) wrote a Latin treatise De Numéris
HarmonicisHarmonicis the title of which is somewhat misleading, inasmuch
as it does not deal with the numbers of the overtones. Actually,
it lays the foundation for the new rhythmic theory of Monsignore
Philipp de Vitry, the outstanding personality of the "Ars nova"—
a much misunderstood work with which we shall elsewhere deal
extensively.36
33 The discussion about the clarity and the value of the Arabic notation
is still going on. Kiesewetter, a hundred years ago, condemned it sharply.
{Musik{Musik der Araber, p. 66-68) He wrote:
"Allein,"Allein, es scheint den Orientalen zu alien Zeiten die Eitelkeit eigen gewesen
zuzu sein, das sick ihnen darbietende Einfachere und Leichtere von der Hand zu
•weisen,•weisen, urn kuenstlichere, . . . auf die Bewunderung der Laien berechnete
ErklaerungenErklaerungen und Methoden aufzusuchen.
H. G. Farmer, in our day defends the Arabic system of notation and calls it
a letter-notation, not a tablature. He furthermore attempts to prove that this
complex and awkward system influenced the European notation of Hucbald
and his followers. Cf. History of Arabian Music, p. 95, also An Old Moorish
Lute-Tutor,Lute-Tutor, p. 27.
34 Infra, chap, v on Harmony!

35 Cf. G. Reese's excellent work on the Music of the Middle Ages, p. 118,
where he states: "In the Middle Ages, Music was looked upon as a branch of
Mathematics, — a view that never has been and probably never will be alto
gether discarded, since there is much truth in it."
36 The term numerus harmonious has already been used as ‫ תוניגנה ךרא‬by
Abraham Ibn Ezra, as we see in his ‫ רפסמה רפס‬ed. Silberberg, p. 47 flf. The
editor of Gersonides' work, Joseph Carlebach, admits freely, (p. 142, note 3).
that he was unable to detect the musical implications of Gersonides' book,
This was due to the misleading title which is a musical as well as a mathe
[11] MEDIAEVAL jewish MUSIC THEORY 261
After this digression, we resume our discussion of the Hebrew

conception of music, as expressed by the few medieval sources
which are immediately available.37
MusicaMusica est exercitium arithmeticum occultum nescientis se

numerate numerate animi. Errant enim qui nihil in anima fieri putant,
cuius cuius ipsa non sit conscia.— Leibnitz.88
II
Definition and Classification of Music
In general, medieval Jewish literature knows of two more or less

opposing conceptions of music, between which a third, an eclectic
conception attempts to mediate. Since the Jews were largely
under the spell of Arabic writers in all secular issues, we need
not marvel that views of music which appear in Arabic theory
should be identical with Jewish views. Ancient Greek ideas, in
turn, dominated the Arabs. As a result, those Greek principles
are to be encountered again and again in Hebrew literature. The
matical term. The solution of this problem, i. e., the relation of the book to
musical theory lies, we believe, in the system of rhythmic division and nota
tion, as created by Philipp de Vitry. I cannot fully explain here the impor
tance of Gersonides' thesis for Vitry's sytem, but in my opinion there is no
doubt that it conceded the strictly mathematical foundation of Vitry's quatre
prolations.prolations. I shall explain the real meaning of Ralbag's great contribution to
the new system of the ars nova in a special study.
37 Of the MSS which were not available to us we mention the following:
Abu'l Salt's treatise on Music, MS P 1037, cf. Steinschneider, Hebr. XJebers.
p. 855.
Yehuda b. Isaac, cf. Steinschn. Hebr. Uebers. p. 970, and notes 158,159.
Anonymous treatise ‫ אקישוממ םיללכ‬MS Halberstam 49 f. 388, cf. Steinschn.
ibid.ibid, note 58.
I am convinced, however, basing my belief on Aubry's Iter Hispanicum,

(Sammelbde.(Sammelbde. d. Internat. Musik-Gesellschaft 1906/7) and the latest discoveries
of Higini Angles, (Cf. Mus. Quarterly 1940 p. 524) that some Judaeo-Arabic
MSS on Music still repose undiscovered in the libraries of Spain, probably in
Toledo, in Cordova, or in the Escurial.
38 Epistolae ad div., ed. Korthold, p. 239.
representatives of the three ancient attitudes were: (1) The Neo

Platonists and the Pythagoreans, (2) the Aristoxenians, and
(3) mediating between the two, the followers of the Peripatetic
school of Aristotle. Since the last, employing in his ideas on
music elements of both the Pythagoreans and Aristoxenians,39
was considered by the Arabs one of the highest authorities on
everything but matters religious, we find his ideas, sometimes
modified, sometimes amplified, in both the Arabic and the Jewish
treatises on musical theory. For all that, the old dispute between
the Neoplatonists and Pythagoreans on the one hand, and the
Aristoxenians on the other, outlasted all attempts at mediation.
And that perennial controversy -— even if in an indirect way —
determined not a few of the Arabic and the Jewish notions. Since
we shall frequently refer to those antithetical conceptions, we
think it suitable to explain briefly the chief differences between
them.
According to the Pythagoreans, the human soul is in constant
motion. This motion is defined by certain numerical proportions
which attend the harmonic relations of the tones.40 Therefore,
certain tunes evoke corresponding motions of the listener's soul.
The mathematical analogy between the ratios of the soul's mo
tion,tion, the vibration of strings, and finally the movements of the
heavenly bodies, constitutes the basis upon which rests the
principle of ethical power — e7rar0p#axns των ■ήϋών. The idea of
the moral katharsis of the emotions,41 as proclaimed by Aristotle
and his followers, is closely related to the older Pythagorean
ideology. The connection between body and soul is improved
and "harmonized" by properly selected tunes, and this involves
also the idea of music as effective medical treatment. The motions
of the celestial bodies, of the Macrocosmos, are supposed to be
‫ ני‬On Aristotle and Music cf. A Kahl, Die Philosophie d. Musik nach
Arist.Arist. H. Abert, Die Lehre vom Ethos in d. Griech. Musik §§4 and 5; Th. Rei
nach, La Musique Greque; W. Vetter, Die antike Musik in d. Beleuchtung
durchdurch Arist. (in Archiv fuer Musikwissenschaft 1936, 2) — to quote only the
best and most recent studies.
40 CI. Ptolemaeus, Harmonica, III, chap. iv.
41 We are using in this study the term emotion in place of the more correct,
but unusual affectus. The terms are not quite identical, however, and we apolo
gize for this lack of correctness.
113] MEDIAEVAL JEWISH MUSIC THEORY 263
paralleled by those of the soul.42 Thus a complicated numerical

calculation in musical astrology begins to take shape.43
Much more practical was the ideology of the Aristoxenians.
The Aristoxenians approached music entirely from the acoustic
point of view, relying upon the ear rather than upon mathe
matics. The conception of a human microcosm, brought into
harmony with the universal macrocosm by means of music, was
not among the teachings which the Aristoxenians stressed.44
The Platonic, and still more, the Aristotelian theories attempt to
reconcile the aforementioned philosophies by conceding the
effect of music upon the human soul, but cautiously avoiding
definite commitments concerning mathematical and astronomical
concepts.
Many of these speculations entered into Hebrew literature.
Even in the realm of definitions and classifications of music we
shall encounter some of them and shall compare them with
Jewish and Arabic statements.
However, a word of caution may be in place. The ideas with
which this study is concerned refer to the somewhat artificial
music of the Arabs and the Jews and do not necessarily apply to
their genuine folk-music. We have every reason to assume that
the folksong of the Near East, as we know it today, with all of
its tendencies toward the ecstatic and the wild, (in short, toward
the Dionysic) is not much different from that which prevailed
in the Middle Ages. The artistic music with which we are dealing,
was originally under suspicion by the vast majority of the ortho
dox, chiefly on account of its secular attitude and its patronage
« Cf. Plato, Timaeus, 34 B.

« If H. Abert in his Lehre vom Ethos in d. griech. Musih disposes of this
entire system with the words "gelehrte Tifteleien" (learned hairsplitting),
then let us remember the enormous influence of this great conception upon
philosophy, aesthetics, music, and astronomy until Newton. Even in such
sober books as those of the modern astronomer Eddington we may find specu
lations, which are closely related to Pythagorean ideas. At any rate, Abert's
rash statement could hardly be sustained in our times.
« Cf. Westphal-Rossbach, Die musischen Kuenste der Hellenen• (still the
best paraphrased edition of Aristoxenos). Also Winnington-Ingram, Aristo
xenosxenos and the Intervals, (in Classical Quarterly 1932, p. 195). H. Abert, op. cit.,
and Laloy, Aristoxène de Tarent.
by the courts of the Caliphs.45 Nonetheless, in the course of

centuries, it gained popularity and strongly influenced the music
of the people. Perhaps there occurred a certain assimilation to
popular taste. Still, the simple Arab or Jew did not trouble much
about musical theories, certainly no more than the average
American troubles about musical science today.
In general it is a science (‫ )המכח‬of propaedeutics, seeking
powers that go far beyond the aims of the other sciences. The
other sciences comprise merely knowledge and information.46
Following the Platonic principle that knowledge conduces to
virtue, we read: "Music leads to spiritual knowledge."47 It is
sometimes called "An occupation" (48.(‫ הכאלמ‬Above all, it is sup
posed "to be a mathematical science, involving arithmetical and
geometrical proportions."49
Much more simply and with deliberate restraint, Bottarel
defines it thus: "‫ — ןוגינהו רישה תמכח‬this is Music; the science of
melody, the motion of ascending and descending tones, as well as
the study of intervals."50 Quite in the same vein, which is closely
Aristoxenian, Izaiah b. Isaac states in his commentary to Avi
cenna's Al-kanun: "The task of Music is the composition of
lahanim.51 lahanim.51 The elements of which the lahanim consist are divisible
into two groups: 1. the individual tones (‫)תומיענ‬, and 2. structure
or shape (‫)רובח‬. The first one is the matter (‫ )רמוח‬and the second
is the form of completed melodies (52".(‫ םינחל‬Yehuda Halevy
45 Cf. Julian Ribera, Music in Ancient Arabia and Spain, chap, iii (end),
vi (end), p. 72 et passim.
46 Infra, chaps, iii and iv.
47 Cf. Texts A, XIX, 13. Beethoven's proud words: "Musik ist hoehere
OffenbarungOffenbarung als aile Weisheit und Philosophie" expresses exactly the same idea.
See See infra appendix of translated passages!
48 Cf. Texts A, XIX, 24. See infra appendix of translated passages!
49 Cf. Abr. Ibn Ezra: ‫דאמ תראופמ המכח איהו תוניגנה תמכח יכרע ישילשה ךרדהו‬
‫ תורסה יכרעו ןובשחה יכרעמ םיבכרומ היכרע יכ‬... (cf. Silberberg, ‫ רפסמה רפס‬des
Ibn Ezra, Hebr. part, p. 46.)
50 Cf. Bottarel, Comment, on the Sefer Yezirah. (according to the ‫תירב‬
‫ החונמ‬of Abr. of Granada.)
51 For all following terms cf. infra chap. VI., (Terminology).
52 Cf. Texts G, #2.Compare with it the first definition of Aristides Quinti
lianus: "Music is the science of the melodies and of their parts and properties."
(Arist. Quint, ed. Meibom p. 6.) See infra appendix of translated passages!
recognizes both of the Pythagorean aspects of music, the ethical

as well as the mathematical. "Music was then (in David's time)
a perfect art. It wielded that influence upon the soul which we
attribute to it, namely, that of moving the soul from one mood
to another." Again: "Measures, weights, the proportions of
various movements, the harmony of Music, everything is in
number." (53.(‫ רפס‬Likewise following the Greek trend of thought
is the definition to be found in Honein-Alharizi's "Maxims of
the the Philosophers" : "Music is an art which links every species
with its own ... it stirs up that which is at rest and brings to
rest that which is in motion."54 The difference of opinion men
tioned in the discussion of the Greek Schools can also be found
in the classification of music in which, we believe, the genuine
spirit of the Greek authors still lives, though somewhat faded
and obscured. Jewish literature, as well as Arabic literature,
knows of three ways of classification: 1. by separating theory
and practice, 2. by distinguishing between natural and artificial
music, and 3. by noting the effects upon the listener. Ibn 'Aknin
represents the first category; likewise Falaquera who offers in
his Resit Hokma almost the same text as Ibn 'Aknin. We shall
later refer to that classification as a classic example of the con
tinuity and virtual identity of the Greek-Arabic-Hebrew-Latin
tradition of musical philosophy. The second method is employed
chiefly by Saadya Gaon and his commentators, especially Abra
ham b. Hiyya, the Pseudo-Berehya, and the three disciples of
Frat Maimon, viz. Jacob b. Hayyim, Salomon b. Yehuda and
Nathanael Caspi.55 Saadya himself, in the introduction of his
EmunotEmunot W'de'ot divides music into natural and artificial types.56
The third method, which is somewhat frequent in Arabic litera
ture, is employed by Honein-Alharizi, by the Ikhvan es-Safa and
53 Cf. Yehuda Halevy, Cusari, ed. Cassel, II §65 and IV. §25.
Cf. Texts A, XX, 4. It is not by matter of chance Euclid, the Pythagorean,
who is here credited with such a statement. Compare with this maxim Texts
A XVIII 3, and Aristides Quintilian, (ed. Meibom), p. 107, where the same
characteristic is affirmed. See infra appendix of translated passages!
53 Cf. Steinschneider, HB XIII, p. 36 ff.
56 Cf. Texts B 1. See also Jacob Guttmann, Die Religionsphilosophie des
SaadyaSaadya Gaon, p. 286. A very similar classification is given by Cassiodorus,
Patrol. Lat. LXX, 1208 ff.
by Alfarabi.57 It is, as we shall presently see, the favorite method

of the Arabic writers. In Honein-Alharizi's "Maxims of the
Philosophers"Philosophers" we read: "There are three sorts of arts: 1. those
in which speech preponderates over action; 2. those in which
there is more action than speech; 3. those again in which speech
and action are equipollent. To the first belongs the telling of
stories and fables . . . The arts in which there is more action
than speech are represented by the physician . . . The art of
Music is that in which action is equipollent to speech. Music,
therefore, is the best art, provided that its speech comports
entirely with its works, as in the case of a lute-player whose
melody corresponds with his movements."58
This evaluation of music is obviously based on hermeneutic
principles. We find similar ideas in Pseudo-Aristotie's Problems
XIX, 27. And quite unequivocally the authentic Aristotle states:
"We approve of the classification of all tunes and melodies . . .
into such as possess ethos (ήϋτκαί), such as express energetic
action (7τρακτι,καί) and such as evoke enthusiasm (Ινϋουσίασ
tlkcll)."*9tlkcll)."*9 Classification on the basis of expression appears also
in Alfarabi, in Ghazzali, in the Ikhvan es-Safa, and, above all,
in the Kitab al Aghani, that rich treasury of musical facts and
theories extant among the Arabs.50 To that "expressionistic"
classification we shall occasionally revert.
Of those three ways of classifying music, there is no doubt
that, down to the seventeenth century, the first method, repre
senting a very old tradition, wielded the strongest influence upon
Western civilisation.
In order to exhibit the steady stream of tradition within the
science of music, we compare, in the following pages, the classi
57 Cf. Texts A XIX, 1, 2 et Passim. XVIII, passim. See infra appendix

of translated passages!
5' Cf. Texts A XIX, 24. See infra appendix!
59 Cf. Aristotle, Politics VIII, 6, 1341 B 32.
60 Alfarabi, Kitab al musigi, ed. D'Erlanger, I., p. 13.
Al-Gazzali, in Ribera, op. cit., p. 90.
Die Die Enzyklopaedie der Lauteren Brueder, (Jkhvan es-Safa — encycl. of the
Brethren of Purity) ed. Dieterici, chap. Music.
Kitab al-Aghani, in Ribera, op. cit. p. 89, et passim.
[17] mediaeval JEWISH MUSIC THEORY 267
fications of music proposed by a Greek (Aristides Quintilianus),

an Arab (Alfarabi), a Jew (Falaquera), and a Spanish Christian
(Dom. Gundissalinus).61
TABLE 1
Aristides Quintilianus (ed. Meibom, p. 7 ff.)
Music as a whole admits of subdivision into a theoretical part

and a practical part.
The theoretical part is that, in the first place, which compre
hends, with precision and exactness, the technical rules. These
include the highest postulates as well as the derivatives. This
part also undertakes observations relating to the highest, the
most general principles; which means the elements and their
ultimate source in Nature as well as their consonance with
the things of Existence.
The practical part is that which, operating in accordance
with the technical rules, pursues the end and aim to which music
is dedicated; wherefore this part is characterized as pedagogical.
The theoretical part admits of subdivision into the physical

(the natural) and the technical (artificial). One portion of the
physical comprises the doctrine of numbers. The other portion
61 The sources of our tabulation:

1. 1. Aristides Quintilianus De Musica, translated by R. Schaefke, p. 167.
Idem,Idem, ed. Meibom, pp. 7/8.
2. Alfarabi, De Ortu Scientiarum, ed. Baeumker, in Beitr. zur Philos, des
MittelaltersMittelalters XX, pp. 3/ff.
Alfarabi, De Scientiis, in Farmer, Alfarabi's Arabic-Latin Writings on

Music,Music, pp. 21-31.
3. Falaquera, Reshii Hokma, cf. Texts E 1.

4. D. Gundissalinus, De Divisione Philosophiae, ed. L. Baur (in Beitr. zur
Philos.Philos, d. Mittelalters IV., pp. 96-102). Here Aristides is recognised as
source of Alfarabi. Cf. pp. 240-46.
That Falaquera translated almost literally Alfarabi's De Scientiis,
(Ihsa' al-'ulum), is well known, cf. Brockelmann, Geschichte d. arab.
Literatur, I. Supplem., p. 377; see also L. Straus in MGWJ 1936.
268 werner-sonne [18]
bears the same terminology as the genus which includes it,

namely, "physical." It is this latter portion that undertakes the
surmises regarding the things of Existence. The divisions of the
technical are Harmony, Rythm, and Meter.
The practical part subdivides into:
1. 1. The application of the aforementioned three technical

divisions to the process of musical composition.
2. Directions as to the manner in which these divisions should
be presented.
The subdivisions of the first point are: Construction of Melo
dies, Formation of Rythm, and Poetry. The following is the
systematic classification according to Schaefke, Aristides Quin
tilianus,tilianus, p. 67.
ί φυσικόνφυσικόνφυσικόν
jj μελοποαα
χρηστικόνχρηστικόν {ρυϋμοποίία
νυσίκον [άρ^μητικόν [ποίησίϊ
I.I. ϋίωρητικόν II. τρακτικόν
ρυϋμικόνρυϋμικόν ρυϋμικόν
. , Ιώδίκόν
6ξα77€λ™0„ όργαηκό;,
τεχνικοντεχνικον
Ιαρμονικόναρμονικόν
μβτρικόνμβτρικόνμβτρικόν
παώ,υηκον [ir0KpiTiK0v
TABLE 2
Alfarabi, Ihsa'al-'ulum (De scientiis), ed. Farmer,

Glasgow 1934
"Scientia vero musice, comprehendit in summa, cognitionem

specierum armoniarum; et illud ex quo componuntur, et illud ad
quod componuntur, et qualiter componuntur, et quibus modis
oportet . . . Et illud quidem quod hoc nomine cognoscitur, est
due scientiae. Quam una est scientia musice activa, et secunda
scientia musice speculativa. Musica quidem activa, est ilia cuius
proprietas est ut inveniat species armoniarum sensativarum in
instrumentis que preparata sunt eis aut per naturam aut per
artem. Instrumenta quidem naturalia, sunt epiglotis, . . . deinde
nasus. Et artificialia sunt sicut fistule et cithare, et alia. Et opifex
[19] MEDIAEVAL JEWISH music THEORY 269
quidem musice active, non format neumas, et armonias, et omnia

accidentia eorum, nisi secundum quod sunt in instrumentis
quorum acceptio consueta est in eis. Et speculativa quidem dat
scientiam eorum, et sunt rationata, et dat causas totius ex quo
componuntur armoniae, non secundum quod sunt in materia . ..
et secundum quod sunt remota ab omni instrumento et materia
... Et dividitur scientia musice speculativa, in partes magnas
quinque. Prima eorum, est sermo de principiis, et primis quorum
proprietas est ut administrentur in inventione eius quod est in
hac scientia ... Et secunda est sermo de dispositionibus huius
artis, et est sermo in inveniendo neumas, et cognitione numerum
neumatum quot sint, et quot species eorum ... Et tertia est
sermo de convenientia que declaratur in radicibus cum sermon
ibus et demonstrationibus ... Et quarta est sermo de speciebus
casuum naturalium qui sunt pondéra neumatum. Et quinta est
de compositione armoniarum in summa, deinde de compositione
armoniarum integrarum ... in sermonibus metricis ... et quali
tate artis eorum secundum unamquamque intentionem armoni
arum, et docet dispositiones quibus fiunt penetrabiliores, et
magis ultime in ultimitate intentionis ad quam facte sunt."
TABLE 3
Falaquera, Reshit Hokma (ed. David, p. 46-47)
The science of Music falls into two divisions, that of theory and
that of practice.
Musical practice consists in producing audible tones by means
of instruments, natural and artificial. A natural instrument is
the throat and the organs of the mouth together with the adja
cent nasal passages. Artificial instruments are such as harps,
psalteries and the like.
The expert at musical practice devises such melodies and
harmonies as are customarily extracted from musical instruments
because they are latent in those instruments.
Musical theory yields systematic knowledge regarding the
causes of melodies and their relationships. It considers melodies
not as physically mediated but melodies in general — detached
from all instrumentation or material embodiment. It ponders

melody in the abstract, as something heard, regardless of the
instrument or the organism that may function incidentally.
Musical theory admits, in turn, of five large subdivisions:
1. 1. The first discourses on the principles used by investigators,
on the manner in which those principles are employed, on the
way in which research is initiated and the steps by which it is
brought to completion, and on the proper methods of inquiry.
2. The second discourses on the elements, that is, on the
manner in which melodies are produced as well as on the number
and the variety of their modes. This division explains the pro
portions which melodies bear toward one another. It provides
the needed demonstrations. It also considers the various dis
positions and sequences by means of which melodies are con
structed, thus enabling one engaged in musical composition to
choose what he desires.
3. The third division deals with the consonance between the
aforementioned elements, discourses, and proofs on the one hand.
On the other hand, it deals with the instruments devised for this
art and with the production of melodies and their instrumental
performance according to the proportions and the sequences
explained in division two.
4. The fourth division discourses on the various musical pat
terns in nature by which melodies are measured, i.e. rhythmic
qualities.
5. The fifth division discourses upon the construction of
music in its completeness, that is, the adaptation of melodies to
words composed with meter and rythm. This division also
ponders the question of rendition in accordance with musical
intent. It considers what melodies are suitable and adapted to
the respective purposes for which songs are designed.
Systematic classification (E. W.) gives us the following:
THEORY PRACTICE
1. Principles 1. Teaching of music, to be played

2. Arithmetical elements on instruments, either natural or
3. Rules of instrumental composition artificial.
4. Rhythmic measures and modes 2. Practical composition of tunes.
5. Composition of metrical tunes
[21] MEDIAEVAL JEWISH music THEORY 271
TABLE 4
Dom. Gundissalinus, De divisione philosophiae

(ed. L. Baur, p. 98)
(In this text we have adapted the common Latin orthog

raphy for the sake of convenience.)
Partes vero alias habet theorica, alias practica. Partes practicae

sunt très: scientia de acuto sono et scientia de gravi et scientia
de medio. De his enim tractat ostendens utilitatem eorum et
comparationes inter se, et quomodo ex eis componuntur can
tilenae.
Partes vero theoricae sunt quinque, quarum prima est sci
entia de principiis et primis, quae debent administrari in accep
tione eius . . . secunda est doctrina de dispositionibus huius
artis, scil. inveniendi neumata et cognoscendi numéros eorum . . .,
tertia est doctrina de convenientia principiorum et de sermonibus
et demonstrationibus specierum, instrumentorum artificial
ium . . ., quarta est doctrina de speciebus casum naturalium,
quae sunt pondéra neumatum. Quinta est doctrina de com
positione armoniarum in summa ; deinde de compositione armon
iarum integrarum, scil. illarum, quae sunt positae in sermonibus
metricis compositis secundum ordinem ... et qualitatem artis
eorum secundum unamquamque intentionem armoniarum.
Systematic classification. (E. W.)
THEORETICA PRACTICA
1. Principia De acuto sono

2. Dispositiones arithmeticae De gravi sono
3. Convenientia et compositio De medio sono
musicae instrumentalis utilitates tonorum ac modorum
4. Elementa rhythmica Melopoiia practica
5. Compositio cantuum metricorum
Surveying Gundissalinus' classifications, we realize that he,

eclectic as he was, employed all three methods of classification.
In the quotation above, he copies Alfarabi's De Scientiis almost
verbatim. Again, in the paragraphs preceding this quotation, he
uses Boethius' famous classification of musica mundana, humana
et et instrumentalis. In the paragraphs following this quotation, he
employs the evaluative classification given by Alfarabi in
272 werner-sonne [22]
De De Ortu Scientiarum62 and by earlier sources, e. g. Isidor's

Etymology.63
It is clear that Alfarabi had already altered the Greek source
somewhat and, what is more, that Gundissalinus had apparently
gotten matters mixed. Incidentally, we may mention that
Gundissalinus collaborated with a Jewish translator, Johannes
Hispalensis.64
As a whole, however, we recognize the uninterrupted flow of
musical philosophy from the Greeks down to such late medieval
authors as Johannes de Mûris or Ugolino de Orvieto — through
Syrian, Arabic, Jewish, and Spanish writers.
Ill
Philosophy of Music
Since music belongs to the propaedeutic sciences, it is frequently

associated with physics. In fact, the interest of Arabic and
Jewish philosophers in acoustics exerted a fruitful influence upon
the development of musical theory and philosophy. Accordingly,
before entering upon the discussion of their philosophical ideas,
we shall give a short account of acoustic theories as set forth by
the medieval philosophers. In general, these rest upon a valid
empirical foundation which, without the help of our modern exact
sciences, sometimes lead to surprisingly correct conclusions re
garding the nature of sound and of tone.
As with the other natural sciences, the ancient Greeks were
the recognized teachers in this field. According to Aristotle, his
disciples, and commentators, especially Porphyry, sound is a
movement of the air, caused by the percussion of objects that
are struck. With the diffusion of the vibrating air in three dimen
sions—-according to Priscian — sound, carried by the air,
reaches the ear, unless it is dulled by excessive distances or
6262 Recently Alfarabi's authorship for De Ortu Scientiarum has been dis
puted, cf. Farmer, "A Further Arab-Latin writer on Music" in JRAS 1933.
63 Cf. L. Baur, op.cit., p. 247.
64 Cf. Steinschneider, Hebr. Uebers., pp. 261, 282, 292.
obstructed.65 Sound, in contradistinction to music, is due to an

unregulated multiplicity of tones. This comes fairly near to our
modern acoustic theories.66
Turning from the physical to the physiological, we meet the
somewhat strange conception that music affects the "humors"
of the human body. Here the Arabs and the Jews went far beyond
the original Greek idea. The Greeks, as we have seen, asserted
a close relationship between music and medicine, ascribing to
music a distinctly therapeutic effect both upon body and upon
soul. But, while Plato, Aristotle, and the Neo-Platonists were
content to state the fact, explaining it by the cathartic and
sedative influence of the musical art, the Arabic and the Jewish
philosophers went boldly and almost materialistically into physi
ological details. They emphasized the effect of music on the
humors, blood, phlegm, yellow bile, and black bile. Let us com
pare some of the most significant statements on these points.
Leaving aside the many legends of the Greeks, Arabs, and Jews,
telling how music cured some highly phantastic ailments, we
turn to the ideas which lie behind these stories.
The Greeks linked medicine and music in two different ways:
1. The Pythagoreans consider number and proportion as

instruments of the imitative principle (μίμηση) which prevails
in all of the arts. This is somewhat similar to the thought of the
Aristotelians.67 Thus Music, Medicine and Mathematics employ
the same fundamentals; Music in rhythms, intervals and propor
tions, Medicine in the proportion of the humors and medica
ments, and, particularly, in the mysterious ratios of human
pulsation,68 while in Mathematics, number and proportion are
65 On the ancient theory of acoustics see: C. v. Jan, Musici scriptores
Graeci,Graeci, 3-35, 50 ff.; E. Hommel, Untersuchungen zur Hebr. Lautlehre, p. 35 ff.;
Diels, Ueber d. Physikalische System d. Straton, p. 144; D. Kaufmann, Die
Sinne,Sinne, p. 127 ff.
66 Cf. Saadya, Emunot WDe'ot, ed. Slucki, p. 4. (introduction.) Also
Alfarabi, Kitab al musiqi, ed. D'Erlanger, I., p. 80. (Henceforth Kitab.)
Cf. Aristotle, Metaphysic I., 6, 987 b 11., 01 piv yap llvdayopeLOL μιμή
σα τα 'όντα φασίν ΐΐναι των άριϋμών.
68 Aristides Quint, elaborates upon the theory of pulsation in true Pythag
orean spirit: "The pulsation which corresponds to normal circumstances —
analogous to the octave 1:2, or to the ·fifth 2:3, or to the fourth 3:4, — does
the working material itself. Plato expresses similar ideas in his

Timaeus.Timaeus.
2. The other link between Music and Medicine is more

physiological. It is based chiefly on the term Katharsis in a
medical sense. Aristotle as well as Galen use this word with the
connotation of "purgation." Considering how Jacob Bernays has
exhibited the predominantly medical background of the entire
cathartic idea, we could characterize this principle as that of a
treatment basically homoepathic.69 The Neo-Platonists, Proclos
and Jamblichos, accepted Aristotle's explanation. Cure was
accomplished, according to the Aristotelian prescription, by play
ing, before the insane corybantes, frantic melodies on the orgi
astic instrument, the Phrygian aulos. Thus, Katharsis was
brought about homoepathically. The Pythagoreans, however, pre
ferred the playing of solemn, soothing melodies for the maniacal
listeners in order to impress upon their disorganized souls, the
magically numerical and cosmic order, attuning them, as it were,
to the proportions of the Universe. This is the type of Katharsis
that is allopathic.''0
The literature of the Arabs and the Jews discusses only the
allopathic allopathic form of treatment although, in their philosophy, ca
thartic elements still play a part. But, for therapeutic purposes,
Arabs and Jews seem to have relied entirely on Pythagorean
principles, which they stressed to the limits of the absurd. Being
good physicians, keen observers, and consistent logicians, the
Arabs zealously embodied everything in their Pythagorean con
not necessarily endanger life . . . Those pulsations, however, which present

themselves in an entirely non-consonant ratio . .., are dangerous and may
bring death." (ed. Meibom, p. 127.) The entire medieval theory is full of
similar statements. Cf. Boethius, De musica, (Patr. Lat. LXIII, 1170) who is
the chief source for all further speculation.
6‫ י‬Aristotle, Pol. VIII, 1341 b 32. We give here part of his report:
"We see that if those insane persons (hâovaiacrTiKotlisten to enthu
siastic melodies which intoxicate their souls, they are brought back to
themselves again, so that their catharsis takes place exactly like a medical
treatment." He relates how corybantes were cured by listening to cory
bantic tunes. (Ibid., 1340 b 8.)
70 Aristides Quint, ed. Meibom, (henceforth AQM), pp. 103-107.
cept. Accordingly, each musical mode, even each string of their

chief instrument, the 'ud, had to be seen sub specie mundi. The
four seasons, the four humors, the four cardinal virtues, and
the four elements had to be embodied in their musical theory.71
We find in Honein-Alharizi's Maxims of the Philosophers a
characteristic statement: "The reason for our making four strings
is their correspondence to the four temperaments of which man
is composed."72 The author goes on to associate with every
string of the 'ud a special effect upon some special humor. No
less specific is Falaquera, and also Saadya who, in his Emunot
wede'otwede'ot chapter 10 (end), connects every rhythmical mode (Arab.
naghama,naghama,naghama, Hebr. ‫ המיענ‬,‫ )הניגנ‬with one humor and one virtue
respectively. Since Saadya explains certain technical points in
that passage, we shall deal extensively with his statements later
on. A highly important source for our subject is also the Ikhvan
es-Safaes-Safa from which Saadya may possibly have borrowed.73
We quote now a few sentences from the Ikhvan es-Safa by
way of illustration :
"The musicians restrict the number of the strings of the lute to
four,74 neither more nor less, in order that their work might
1‫ י‬Although Greek literature offered the basis for the scheme, it was the
more radical Arabs and Jews who tried to link anything and everything to
their musical system. Whatever the Christian writers wrote in this fashion
was always borrowed from the Arabs, even with the help of Arabic words.
Thus, in Odo de Clugny's and in Hucbald's writings occur words like scembs,
kaphe,kaphe, neth, caemar, clearly recognisable as Arabic terms. Yet the Christian
authors do not know their origin or their meanings. Cf. Gerbert, Scriptores I,
249. Even in our day it could happen that a scholar like G. Lange, (on his
article on solmization, SIMG, I, 539 ff.) did not recognize the Arabic origin
of Odo's syllables.
72 Cf. Texts A XX, 1, and D 2, third question. See infra appendix of trans
lated passages!
‫ מ‬Cf. Jacob Guttmann, Die Religionsphilosophie des Saadya Gaon, p. 287
ff., stresses the almost verbal similarity of the Ikhvan with Saadya's text in
the musical portion. Since Honein is older than both Saadya and the Ikhvan,
we have to look for a common (probably Syrian) source, from which all the
three authors drew. Cf. Baumstark, Aristoteles bei den Syrern, I., pp. x-xii.
74 Cf. Farmer, An old Moorish Lute-tutor, p. 38: "Ziryab claimed to have
added a fifth string to the lute . . . Naturally, he had to connect it with the
cosmic scheme and hence associated it with a fifth nature — the soul. What
resemble the things of sublunar nature in imitation of God's

wisdom.
"The treble string is like the element of fire, its tone

being hot and violent.
"The second string is like the element of air; its tone
corresponds to the humidity of air and to its softness.
"The third string is like the element of water; its tone
suggests water-like moisture and coolness.
The bass string is like the heaviness and thickness of the
element earth."
Subsequently, the treble string corresponds to the yellow

bile, the second string to the blood, the third string to the saliva,
the bass string to the black bile, as elaborately explained.
Our source continues: "If one employs these tones in appro
priate melodies and uses these melodies at those times of the
night or day the nature of which is opposed to the nature of a
virulent disease . . ., they assuage the sickness, breaking up its
force and relieving the sick ones of their pains."75
Thus music was generally considered a strictly allopathic,
pain-relieving, or invigorating medicine corresponding to the
mixtures of the humors and of the elements. Ibn-Sina refers to
these matters frequently in his Alkanun.6‫ י‬Throughout Arabic
literature, the Pythagorean relationship between Astronomy,
Music, and Medicine is consistently maintained.
Falaquera's Mebbakkesh (39b) closely follows these ideas. This
work is a poetic revision of his aforementioned earlier work
would have prompted this association? In the Pseudo-Aristotelian De Munào

(393a) we find a fifth element,— ether, which occurs in the De Musica of
Aristides Quintilianus."
'5 Ikhvan es-Safa, ed. Dieterici, (henceforth Diet.) Die Propaedeutik der
Araber, pp. 126-28. Also infra, appendix of translated passages.
76 The medico-musical system, as accepted by Arabs and Jews, admits of
this tabulation.
STRING ELEMENT HUMOUR QUALITY SEASON
Zir,Zir, (treble) fire yellow bile hot summer
Mathnâ,Mathnâ, (2nd) air blood humid spring

Mathlath,Mathlath, (3rd) water phlegm cold winter
Bam, (bass) earth black bile dry autumn
Resit Resit Hokma, with a stronger emphasis on the Pythagorean

point of view."
The Christian theorists of the thirteenth and fourteenth
century, perhaps even earlier, adopted Judaeo-Arabic concepts
to such an extent that a considerable influx of Semitic theory
into the medieval world can not be denied. As an important
translator from the Arabic, we have already mentioned Gundis
salinus. We give one other example by quoting a passage of
Aegidius Zamorensis, an author of the thirteenth century, who
in his Ars Musica says:78 "The joining of the elements comes to
resemble a harmony such as results from a fitting consonance
of strings and a clear combination of tones. The seasons likewise
correspond to the elements and vice versa. Air corresponds to
Spring, Fire to Summer, Earth to Autumn, Water to Winter.
Thus the eternal God grants us seasons, linked with most fitting
melodies, in order to alleviate man's labors. Air, furthermore
corresponds to Blood, Fire and Summer to Yellow Bile, Earth
and Autumn to Black Bile, Water and Winter to Phlegm . . ."
From here it is only a short step, in fact an imperceptible
gradation to a detailed and elaborate theory of the influence of
music upon the individual emotions. We also find in the Jewish
77 On the relation between Falaquera, Ibn 'Aljnin, and Alfarabi, see

Farmer, Alfarabi's Arabic-Latin Writings on Music, p. 6, 57, where a very
clear picture is given. Also Steinschneider, Hebr. Uebers., §12. Thus, Guede
mann's assertion of an allegedly Averroes-influence is no longer tenable.
78 Cf. Gerbert, Scriptores II, 376. Of the many fitting instances we selected
just this one in order to refute Pietzsch' statement "that this treatise, in con
tradistinction to the others previously mentioned, does not show a recognizable
influence by the Arabian theory" {op. cit. p. 95). The connection with the
medico-musical theories of the Arabs is quite unmistakable. However, the
general general extent of Arabic influence upon Western theory is still greatly disputed
and some caution in this matter is certainly desirable. Cf. the controversy
between K. Schlesinger and H. G. Farmer in his book, Historical facts for the
influence influence of Ar. Music. See also O. Ursprung, TJm die Frage nach d. arab. Ein
flussfluss auf d. abendlaendische Mus. d. Mittelalters, in Zeitschrift f. Mus.- Wiss.
1934, p. 129 ff., with whose conclusions we disagree entirely. Cf. Ribera, op,
cit.cit. chaps, vii-xii. A brief and cautious summary of this disputed question in
Reese, op. cit., p. 118 ff., 245 et passim. In Ath. Kircher's Musurgia universalis,
(17th cent.!) we find all of the Graeco-Arabic ideas taken up and elaborated.
(.Liber diacriticus, Erothema VI-VIII).
and Arabic authors originally Greek doctrines expanded and

augmented. It seems however that, in this field, the oriental
nations preferred less of system and more of detail, fewer explana
tions and more plain statements. There are even more significant
differences which we shall consider presently.
We are confronted now with a perennial problem of philos
ophy and aesthetics, a problem which concerns us today as much
as it did three thousand years ago, and a problem which is un
likely ever to be solved objectively. Since it cannot be our task
to discuss that problem here, we shall only describe the different
attitudes toward the problem found in Greek, Arabic, and
Hebrew Literature.
The problem to which we refer poses two chief questions
which we shall cite cursorily:
1. 1. Does music express emotions, and if so, how?
2. Does music evoke emotions, and if so, how?
We may, again in a cursory way, name the first question as
one relating to the expressive powers of music and the other as
relating to the impressive powers. The very approach to these
problems differs and shows unique characteristics for Greek,
Jewish, and Arabic authors, although the answers frequently
sound similar. But these apparently similar answers must not
deceive us about the fundamentally different attitudes assumed.
The Greeks consider the issue either from the psychological
ethical side exemplified by the Pythagoreans, Platonists, Aris
totelians, or from the purely aesthetic-formalistic side as exem
plified by the Sceptics and the Sophists. Both questions are
answered in the affirmative by the first group, while the Sophists
deny at least the first question and restrict their affirmative
answer of the second to a few cases. They explain the influence
of music upon the emotions by a materialistic theory of the
association of words and ideas.79 Furthermore, the Greeks are
7‫ י‬Cf. Abert, op. cit., §4, 5, 9, 11. The problem itself has created an enor
mous literature, of which we can not here give a comprehensive bibliography.
We mention only the works, in which such bibliographies may be found:
A. Aber, Handbuch d. Musikliteratur, pp. 470-90; E. Kurth, Musikpsychologie,
(Index). It was this perennial problem, which created the famous struggle
for and against Richard Wagner.
far more interested in the second question than in the first.

Both questions were answered in the affirmative by Aristotle.
To the first he applied the principle of μίμηση, i. e. imitation
of the emotions. In dealing with the second, he modifies and even
contradicts Plato's explicit evaluation or negation of certain
modes and their ethos.*0
Very clear in this respect is the doctrine of Aristoxenos, a
disciple of Aristotle, who probably gave the first characterization
of the three τρόποι, (styles) viz. the systaltic, the diastaltic, and the
hesychastic.hesychastic. The first is described as paralysing human energy.
It includes love-songs as well as funereal lamentations. The second
is strong and virile, spurs to action and thus becomes the heroic
style employed in tragedy. The last is in between. It indicates
and at the same time stimulates balance of mind and feeling.81
We notice here, as a decisive criterion, the effect which music
has upon human will-power. A priori Aristoxenos assumes that
music expresses the same ethos which it is to evoke in the listener.
In all cases, only such music is supposed to be good which arouses
ethical powers and eventually dissipates emotions that are harm
ful or evil.82 In short, the Greeks aim not to evoke stormy or
violent feelings but to banish them, thus creating a happy philos
ophical balance of the soul.
Quite different is the Arabic approach and different again the
Jewish approach. It is here that we find perhaps the only really
important departure of the Jewish attitude from Arabic influ
ence in the entire realm of musical problems. The Arabic writers
either consider the question in its psycho-physiological, even in
its materialistic aspect, or view it from the lofty tower of their
metaphysical or mystical speculations.83 If we ask which attitude
80 Cf. Plato, Pol. Ill, 398 C-402. Aristotle, Pol. VIII, 7, 1342 a, b.
81 Cf. H. Abert, op. cit., pp. 67-69.
88 Cf. Plutarch, Quaest. conviv. Ill, 8th question., c. 2. "The wailing-song
and the funeral-flute excite pain and bring about tears, but afterwards attune
the soul to compassion, gradually mitigating and annihilating the painful
emotion."
88 Cf. Arabian Nights, ed. Lane, p. 400: "Ibn Sina hath asserted that the
lover's remedy consisteth in melodious sounds, And the company of one like
his beloved . . ." Ibid., p. 129, 302, et passim. Compare with this Shakespeare,
Twelfth Night, I act, 1st scene: "If Music be the food of love, play on!..
in Arabia was not that of the esoteric scholars but that of the
people in general, there can be no doubt that the materialistic
concept represented the common outlook.84 The Arabs in general
prefer emotional excitement to eudaemonic pacification. The
philosophers discarded the sentiment of the masses and adopted
much of the Greek ideology even if with some change of emphasis.
However, the question of expression in music is deemed impor
tant by Alfarabi, though all but disregarded by the Greeks
whose distinction between expressive and impressive Alfarabi
had adopted.85
Arabic thinkers raised no issue about harmful and unpleasant
emotions: "Other good melodies evoke such emotions as satis
faction, ire, clemency, cruelty, fear, sadness, regret, and other
passions."86
While we find some aesthetic speculations in Arabic theory,
Hebrew theory, though differing but slightly, is not concerned
with aesthetics at all. This, to be sure, is nothing but an argumen
turn turn e silentio. Yet, considering the scantiness of Jewish literature
in this field, the fact that genuinely aesthetic statements are
altogether lacking, might hold some significance. The Jews set
another principle as their highest, namely that of the ‫התכ‬. This
applies to medieval scholasticism as well as to the literature of
the Cabalists and the Hasidim.87
84 Cf. Doughty's statement about the polar nature of Arabic culture which
is both rude and refined, containing materialistic and mystic elements at
the same time. Also: "Music is in constant connection with everything
intoxicating: wine, love, and ecstasy . . ." (Lachmann, Musik des Orients,
pp. 98-101.)
8585 Kitab I, p. 13; also Texts A XX, 3. See infra appendix of translated
passages.
86 Kitab II., p. 89 ff.
8' It is with regret that we have to record the lack of serious scholarly
efforts in the difficult field of musical elements pervading the literature of the
Cabalists and the Hasidim. Yet some useful references are given in Idelsohn,
Jewish Jewish Music, pp. 410-434, and Thesaurus, vol. X, introduction; A. v. Thimus,
Die Die Die harmomikale Symbolik des Altertums, 2 vols., a very interesting and stimu
lating, if somewhat confused book, filled with polyhistoric knowledge; A.
Farwell, "The Sonata form and the Cabbala," (in Musical Quarterly 1941,1);
E. Hommel, op. cit., pp. xvi, xxvi, 31, 33, 70, 127, et passim.
This antinomy between the Arabic and the Jewish conception

of music becomes most perceptible in Maimonides. What we have
said about the state of Arabic music in his time sheds a new light
on his known responsum. It becomes clear that Maimonides had
in mind chiefly the exciting and sensual songs of the Arabs and
the Arabian Jews.88
Maimonides makes three distinctions: 1) He admits that
there are some few connoisseurs who study Music as a
suitable means of reaching a higher wisdom (the Greek δι,ανόη
σΐϊ). But, he continues, one must not base one's conclusions on
these individual cases. The laws of the Torah were written not
for exceptional people but for the majority. 2) The prohibition
of secular music is based on Hos. 9.1; Isa. 5.12; Amos 6.5; and
Ber. 24a, emphasizing that, in most instances, music does no
thing but excite lust. It makes no difference whether the texts
of the songs are in Arabic or in Hebrew; for not the language,
but only the content of utterances matters. The Jewish people
must become a holy nation, and must avoid everything which
does not lead to perfection. 3) The music which is mentioned
and even recommended by the Gaonim is of a purely religious
character and consists of psalms, hymns, and songs of exultation.
Secular music ought not to be tolerated; surely not when it is
performed in a tavern and by all means not when performed by
a singing female. Elsewhere, however, music as a therapeutic
measure89 recieves Maimonides' commendation.
All that separates the ideology of Jewish philosophers from
the Arabic view is clearly recognizable in this responsum. Mai
monides endorses religious music. He wishes to eliminate all
secular music regardless of the few individuals whrf study such
music in order to achieve a higher wisdom. He stresses the biblical
and talmudic tradition and opposes the fashion of his time. In
his preoccupation with the religio-ethical effects, Maimonides
completely ignores aesthetic appreciation. (The same is true
88 Infra appendix of translated passages. Goldziher, in MGWJ 1873 omits

consideration of the tendency of Arabic music at the time of Maimonides.
89 Here it is the physician Maimonides who speaks, the faithful disciple
of the great Arabic tradition of medicine. Also infra appendix of translated
passages. Cf. Maimonides, ‫םיקרפ הנמש‬, ed. Gorfinkle, p. 30.
as we know, of his attitude toward poetry.)'0 On the whole,

Maimonides faithfully reflects the Platonic and not the Aristo
teliantelian viewpoint. Like Plato he gives an ethical evaluation rather
than an aesthetic classification.91 Still there are also some devia
tions. The highest aim of the Greek philosopher-artist is the
world of Ideas. Music is only an instrument for ethical educa
tion,9* and has all but lost its religious function. The highest
goal of Maimonides, on the other hand, is the intellectual and
ethical perfection which leads to the prophetic perception of
the Divine. Music may, in some cases, conduct one to this goal.
Nonetheless, music has no place in ethical training. Thus there
Many centuries later, a truly Christian philosopher, a stranger to his

own contemporaries, displayed a somewhat similar attitude toward music.
In Kierkegaard's Entweder Oder we meet striking resemblances to Maimonides.
But the Danish thinker grants us a choice only between the beautiful and the
good, which becomes not a little difficult, when Kierkegaard makes Mozart
his champion of beauty.
91 We set the typical statments of both Plato and Maimonides side by
side.
Plato, Legg. II 668 A, Pol. III. 398 C, . ., " " .

Pol. II. 376 E, Legg. II. 669 etc. Maimonides, Responsum on Mus.c
Then, when anyone says that Music Secular Music is to be prohibited, be
is to be judged by pleasure this can- cause it arouses lust and wickedness,
not be admitted; and if there be any Music of a religious character and
Music of which pleasure is the cri- Music leading to ethical wisdom is
terion, such Music is not to be sought permitted. The only decisive criterion
out or deemed to have any real excel- of Music's value is its religious-ethical
lence but only that other kind of essence. The chief place of Music is
Music, which is an imitation of the in the synagogue, and generally, in
good. The chief place of Music is in worship,
the paideia. (Transi, by Jowett, IV,
p. 197.)
*2Au fond *2Au fond Plato seems to have cherished the same ideas as Maimonides
regarding the religious functions of Music, although he is not quite as out
spoken on this issue, and clothes his conception in the form of a historical
report. He says: "Among us and our forefathers .. . Music was divided into
various classes and styles; one class of song was that of prayers to the gods,
which bore the name of hymns; contrasted with this was another class, best
called dirges■, paeans formed another; and yet another was the dithyramb,
named, I fancy, after Dionysos".. . (Plato, Leg g. Ill, Transi, by Bury, vol. I,
p. 245)
are two different levels on which music appears as a spiritual

force. It is hard to avoid associating the position of Maimonides
with the function of music in the troops of ancient prophets,
where it aroused the ‫האובנ‬, the prophetic inspiration.93 Maimon
ides refers in fact to the story of the prophet Elisha: "But now
bring me a minstrel. And it came to pass, when the minstrel
played, that the hand of the Lord came upon him."94 This inci
dent is mentioned in the philosophies of music throughout the
ages, together with references to David, Miriam, and Asaph.
The Church Fathers took over the practice and passed it on to
the philosophers as an irrefutable proof that music has divine
potentialities.95 Jewish literature also refers to this frequently.
We shall limit ourselves to three quotations which elucidate
and confirm our interpretation of Maimonides' allusion.
1. 1. Isaac ben Abraham Latif, Ginze Hamelek, chap. 15.

"After this science (Geometry) there follows the science
of Music which is a propaedeutic one, leading to im
provement of the psychological disposition as well as to
3‫ י‬Maimonides mentions the story of Elisha while discussing the nature

of prophecy. Cf. More II, 32. Cf. Plotinus' great conception of the chanted
prayer: "The tune of an incantation, a significant cry . .. these too have a
power over the soul. . . similarly with regard to prayers; the prayer is answered
by the mere fact that one part and the other part (of the All) are wrought in
to one tone like a musical string which, plucked at one end, vibrates at the
other also . . ." (Mackenna, Plotinus on the Nature of the Soul, p. 96.)
« « Dr. Morgenstern, in his illuminating "Amos-studies III," looks upon
the Elisha story from quite a different angle: "And in order to divine for them
as requested Elisha proceeded to work himself into a state of ecstasy, in accord
ance with the customary technique of the professional prophets, by having
a musician play in his presence. The significance of this procedure is unmistak
able. Within two years after the death of Elijah Elisha had fallen from the
high level of prophetic standards and technique of his great master to the
much lower level of the professional prophets . . ." (HUCA XV., p. 228.)
« Of the innumerable references to the stories of David or Elisha, we
mention here only three of the most characteristic ones from Christian sources.
(1) Joanni Damasceni vita a Joanne Hierosolymitano conscripta {Pair
Graec.a,Graec-a, vol. 94, 473.)
(2) Regino Prumiensis, (d. 915) in Patr. Lat., vol. 132, 490.
(3) Roger Bacon, Opus mains, (transi, by R. B. Burke, I., 259 ff.). Here
the philosopher confounds the name Elisha with Elijah !
understanding of some of the higher intellectual prin

ciples, as was manifest in the case of Elisha, when he said :
'But now bring me a minstrel'. . ."96
2. With more elaboration, Ibn 'Aknin states: "And we
discover that those who desire the spirit of prophecy em
ploy musical instruments, playing them when they desire
the vision. The instruments bring about keenness of mind
and judgement, and invigorate the mental faculties for
the reception of spiritual wisdom. It is said: 'Thou wilt
come to Gibeah'. . ." Here Ibn Aknin refers to the story
of Saul and the prophets. (I. Sam. 10.5). Then he con
tinues: "And Elisha, the prophet, could not attain to the
prophetic vision, because he was in a rage against the
king of Israel, and the prophetic vision did not come
because passion had prevailed over spiritual perception.
Therefore he told them: 'Bring me a minstrel'. . . "97
3. Then there is Falaquera who, in his Mebbakesh, as
signs a primacy to the religious function of music as he
had not done in his earlier work Resit Hokma. Falaquera
stresses this point as follows: "Know, my son, that one
of the reasons why the wise men cultivated the science
of music was their use of it in their temples of worship,
when they brought their offerings. They also employed
melodies for their prayers and for the praise of the Créa
tor. Some of these tunes affected the heart to such an
extent that whoever heard them concentrated his mind,
repented, and turned away from his sins." Later he re
ports: "They assert also that as soon as the soul hears
music congenial to its own nature . . ., it yearns for its
Creator, longing to reach Him. It subsequently contemns
the miseries ... of the temporal world . . . and meditates
upon the world supernal."98
When it comes to the doctrine of virtue, the interrelationship
between philosophy and music becomes even more pronounced.
A realm almost mystical opens up before us when we consider
the Neo-Platonic philosophy of the movements of the soul as
affected by music. Here Greek, Arabic, and Jewish views con
verge. We confront an eclectic syndrome of ideas from Plato,
Aristotle, Porphyry, and Plotinus. In one and the same work,98a
96 See our Texts E.
97 Cf. Guedemann, op. cit. p. 97 /8.
98 See our Texts D 2.
989 Honein — Alharizi's Maxims of the Philosophers.
we may find the views of all four philosophers resting peacefully

side by side. We give but one example: "Living in solitude, the
soul sings plaintive melodies (emphasizing the vanity of the
world) whereby it reminds itself of its own superior world. As soon
as Nature (the physical world) sees this . . . she presents herself
in various forms, introduced one by one to the soul, until she
finally succeeds in recapturing the soul. The latter, busy with
wordly affairs, soon forsakes its own true essence and abandons
that which is sublime in composition and in the rhythm of
artistic molodies. At last. . ., the soul is entirely submerged in
Nature's ocean."
Very similar ideas may be found in Aristides Quintilianus
who describes the soul's solitude, the cathartic influence of music
upon it, and the temptations, such as those offered by tawdry
pleasures,100 that keep it from perfection.
Alongside of this grand and lofty vision, we find strictly
Platonic theories like those in chapter 19:15,101 and particularly
19:11, which illustrate doctrines stressed in the Republic.102
Aristotelian thoughts are also not missing: "As soon as the melody
disappears, the hearers remember it and yearn for it and do not
find repose until they have repeated it several times, by which
repetition the soul finally obtains rest, pleasure, and relief."103
Completely Aristotelian also are maxims 19:19, and 18:5, all in
the Maxims of the Philosophers.
The materialistic views seem to be genuinely Arabic.104 In the
9‫ י‬See our Texts A XVIII, 8. This thought might in a more general form
occur in Schopenhauer's Welt als Wille und, Vorstellung. Cf. Rosenthal in
HUCAHUCA XV., p. 468. See infra appendix of translated passages.
199 Cf. AQM, p. 184.
191 Cf. Plato, Timaeus 67 B; also Gellius, Nodes Atticae V., IS.
192 The famous passages of Plato's Republic III 398 C ff. breathes quite
the same spirit, also Legg. II. 669 C. It was these intolerant statements that
provoked the sharp opposition of Aristotle and Aristoxenos.
193 Cf. Ps.-Aristotle, Problems XIX., 5, 40.
194 Cf. Lange, The History of Materialism, (transi, by Thomas), p. 177.
"Mohammedanism is more favorable to materialism than Chrisianity or
Judaism." Also p. 181: "They (the Arabs) set to work with a independent
feeling for exact observation, and developed especially the doctrine of life,
which stands in so close a connection with the problems of materialism."
Hebrew sources, such are almost entirely missing.105 Details about

the individual virtues, so extensively pondered by the Greeks, are
but rarely found in Jewish literature. On the other hand, the
Arabs, particularly Alfarabi and Ghazzali, reared a considerable
hierarchy of the virtues that music was believed to promote.106
Once more, it is Saadya who follows the Arabic way. The virtues,
according to Saadya, are power to reign, fortitude, humility,
joy, and sorrow(!). Saadya closely connects these virtues with
the physiological theory which we have already noticed, the
theory of the effect which music has upon the humors. In general,
Saadya follows the Maxims of the Philosophers (20,1) and shows
striking similarities to the Ikhvan.107 However, he does not refer
to those virtues which Plato "standardized:"108 σοφία, σωφρο
σννη,σννη, δικαιοσύνη, ανδρεία. As for the rest, Hebrew literature
prefers to stress the virtues that are dianoetic or prophetic,
apparently assuming that the practical virtues, the ordinary or
civic ones, were already achieved by the performance of the
.‫חווצמ‬
If we ask which element of music was supposed to possess

the greater ethical power, melody or rhythm, we must answer
without hesitation: rhythm. On this point, Arabs, Greeks, and
Jews agree completely. That this view has generally been ac
cepted, we can see from all of the later Greek and Arabic writ
ers.109 Saadya's entire theory is based on the rhythmical con
structions common in Arabic theory.110
105 The only inklings of materialistic reasoning are such as might be found
in Saadya and Falaquera. Yet, in both instances, the materialistic trend of
thought is more than counterbalanced by a strong emphasis on religious prin
ciples.
106 Cf. Ribera, op. cit., p. 90 ff.
107 Supra, note 73.
108 Plato, Res publico, (Pol.) IV., 441 C. See also Texts A XVIII, 6.
109 Aristotle, Poetics chap, i, also AQM p. 31 very clearly.
110 This fact has been overlooked by all writers on Saadya; perhaps because
the passage about Music is a "rather dark one" (Steinschneider), "offers
difficulties" (Guttmann), "has not been properly explained" (Malter.) In
view of Saadya's emphasis upon rhythm, the statement of P. Gradenwitz
' (in MGWJ 1936, p. 463) that the Rabbis unanimously objected to rhythmical
music, cannot be upheld.
The Maxims of the Philosophers recount manifold and varied

effects, supposedly produced by music, but not belonging to the
category of philosophy or ethos. It is not easy to bring these
"tall stories" under a common denominator. In most cases we
find that these tales are ancient and famous. We cite here a few
examples :
The stories of the magic effect of music upon animals are
very old and go back to the legends of Orpheus and Arion. They
belong to the Pythagorean stock in trade."1 Rams, dogs, dolphins,
swans, and — grasshoppers! — were considered music producing
creatures.1" We find the grasshopper story repeated in Fala
quera's Mebakkesh; it goes back to Strabo, Diodorus, and
Pausanias."3 Plato and Plutarch, as well as all of the others,
mention the correct explanation, namely the sound resulting
from the rapid vibration of the wings. That camels are stimu
lated by music, as told throughout Arabic literature, is probably
based upon the fact that camel drivers used specially rhythmical
songs to keep their animals going."4
Other legends tell of the invigorating effect of music upon
entire armies, upon individual warriors, and upon race horses,
and the like."3 In most cases the explanation is simple: the
equable rhythm of martial music and the shattering blasts of
trumpets operate as directive signals effecting a coordination of
movement among the hearers."6
111 In all of these legends magical ideas play an obvious part. A good
collection of all of the Greek musical myths is to be found in Burney's General
History History of Music, I., p. 150 ff. See also Combarieu, Musique et Magie.
‫ "י"י‬Tragedy means "song of the goat;" Dolphins are glorified with regard
to music by Pliny, IX., cap. 1, Herodotus, and Plutarch. Swans, the prophetic
birds, are considered most musical by Plato, (Ph.aid.on), Aelian, and many
others. Cf. Burney, loc cit. See also W. Bâcher, Nizami's Alexanderhuch, pp. 78
80.
113 Cf. Burney, op. cit., p. 161.
114 Cf. Diet., p. 103. Also Texts A XIX, 6; Bâcher, op. cit., and Texts D 2.
Infra Infra appendix of translated passages.
115 All these stories are probably as old as music itself. We shall consider
the sources of some of our anecdotes in chap. VII.
116 See our Texts A XX. 5, 6. et passim. Infra appendix of translated pas
sages.
The comparison between the effects of music and of wine

appears many times and in many places and is, beyond doubt,
very ancient. Our first record seems to come directly from
Pseudo-Aristotle (Probl. XIX,43). More outspoken is Plutarch:
"We see that wine, like music, having intensified courage and
strength, calms and soothes reason, so that when one has over
come drunkenness, one finds one's self at rest."117 It is an old
saying: Cantores amant humores.118
IV
The Harmony of the Spheres
Closely related to the ethos doctrine is the venerable principle

of the harmony of the spheres."9 This ancient and beautiful con
ception was, as we know, one of the key-stones of Pythagorean
cosmology. But today it has begun to appear that the idea of
sounding spheres originated much earlier, in Egyptian, perhaps
also in Babylonian culture. Apparently, it belonged to the
esoteric esoteric doctrines of the priestly classes. Only in Greek philosophy
does this conception step out into the light of public discussion.
The Greeks incorporated the idea into the general principle of
harmony within the universe and within the human soul.
For Plato's cosmogony, harmony in its widest sense is an
indispensable element."0 Plato's allusion to the dance of the stars
and to their perfect proportions represents a distinctly Pythag
orean trend of thought. Aristotle was the only great philosopher
117 Plutarch, Quaesl. conviv. III., qu. 8, c 2.

118 Cf. Mose ibn Ezra, Sepher ha- 'Γarsis, ed. Ginzburg, Berlin 1886, p. 31:
‫ושפתנ תותשר ןיאמו תופוע ולפנ ונחלו רמוו ןנונ רבד לע הרכשו ובגועב ברע לוקל ןיזמ היה‬
.‫ רמזו וקא‬...
'" How inseparably these two conceptions are connected may be seen,
in the following juxtaposition of sentences: "Coelum ipsum sub harmoniae
modulationemodulatione revolvitur. Musica movet affectus." (Isidorus Hisp. in Gerbert,
Script.Script. I 20 b.)
120 Cf. Plato, Timaeus 34 Β ff. Pol. VII, 530. The word χορΐϊον used in
TimaeusTimaeus 40 c can be understood only as the rhythmic motion of the heavenly
bodies.
of his time who energetically combated the idea, although he did

acknowledge its fascinating beauty.121 Of the later thinkers, the
Neo-Platonists and the Pythagoreans again stressed this con
ception. Thence it found its way into the astronomy and the music
of the dying ancient world.122 Ptolemy and Aristides Quintilianus
fashioned very concrete and mathematically elaborate systems,
of cosmic harmony, developing some of the ideas of Nicomachus
of Gerasa.123 The last mentioned was one of the many Syrian
writers who formed the bridge between Greece and Arabia over
which Pythagorean doctrines traveled.124
The theory of cosmic harmony was not altogether as popular
with the Arabs or with the Jews as it had been with the Greeks.
Hence the concept of spheric harmony, fitting so beautifully into
the general αρμονία κόσμου of the Greek philosophers, while
accepted and mentioned by the Arabs, was not greeted by them
with much enthusiasm.123 Alfarabi, for one, opposed it. He vents
his feelings against this doctrine in the words: "The opinion of
the Pythagoreans that the planets and stars produce harmonious
sounds in their courses is erroneous."126 Nevertheless, most of the
Arabic authors adhered to the ancient idea, notwithstanding
Alfarabi's great prestige. It became a cherished tradition aban
doned unwillingly, even when not accorded much weight.
Different from this is the attitude to be found in Hebrew
literature. Allusions to the harmony of the spheres appear already
in the Bible. The Talmud also accepts the theory, though not
IM Cf. Aristotle, Be caelo, chap, ix, 290b 12.

m Cf. Heath, Aristarchus, pp. 105-115.
1‫ ננ‬Cf. Ptolemy, Harmonics, ed. Duering, III., chap, xvi-ixx; AQM III.,
pp. 145-155; Nicomachus Gerasenus in v. Jan, Script., pp. 230-43, 272, 276-80,
et et passim. A survey of the entire ideology is given in Piper, Mythologie uni
SymbolikSymbolik der christlichen Kunst, I., pp. 245-75.
"4 It is significant that three of the most important authors on music in
Greek were Syrians, viz. Nicomachus of Gerasa, (ca. 100 A.D.), Porphyrius
of Tyrus, (ca. 260 A.D.), and Jamblichus of Coelesyria, (Palestine, ca. 310
A.D.). Also infra in Chap. vi.
12s Except the Ikhvan which, being fervently Pythagorean, stresses to the
utmost the conception of spheric harmony. Cf. Diet., pp. 162 ff. On Al-Kindi's
attitude see Steinschneider, Alfarabi, p. 80.
'2« Cf. Kitab, I., p. 28.
in a straightforward unequivocal way.127 Jewish literature, ac

cordingly, links the harmony of the spheres to biblical and tal
mudical authorities rather than to a supposed harmony of the
universe. If a Jewish writer was, in addition, inclined toward
Pythagorean ideas, he would naturally support those ideas with
the available biblical statements. Philo is the most vigorous
advocate of the Pythagorean idea among the earlier Jewish
philosophers. To him, the heavens are the archetype for all
musical instruments. The purpose of the musical structure of the
cosmos is to provide the accompaniment for hymns of praise.
The seven planets are compared to the seven strings of the lyre.128
Among the texts considered in this article, only Falaquera
(in his Mebakkesh) and Latif affirm the harmony of the spheres,
though the latter alone supports the theory by biblical cita
tions."9 In his earlier work Resit Hokmah Falaquera follows Ibn
'Aknin almost verbatim or rather Ibn 'Aknin's source, Alfarabi's
De De Scientiis, not even mentioning cosmic harmony.130 It appears
that Falaquera later became more friendly to the old Pythag
orean theory. As for Latif, it is characteristic that he constantly
emphasizes the esoteric nature of his ruminations: "The psalmist
has spoken cryptically ... I can explain no more . . . This specu
lation can be grasped only by those who are initiated into both
sciences."131 The Neo-Platonists, Moses ibn Ezra and Abraham
ibn Ezra, both accepted the doctrine. The first acclaims it in
his poems;132 the latter, less ardent, is content with one or two
12‫ ל‬Ps. 19.1; 93.4, 96.11,97.6. Job 38.7,38.37. Ezek. 1.4,1.22. bjoma 20b, 21a.
128 Cf. Philo, De somn. III., 212/13. Ό τοίνυν ονραρός, το μουσικής
άρχίτυποράρχίτυπορ opyapop, άκρως ήρμοσϋαι δοκβϊ 06 oisoh trepop ή "ιρα 01 6τι
τιμή ι τιμή ι του τώρ ό\ωρ πατρός αίδόμβροι ύμροι μουσικώς δπιψάΧΚορτα.
Elsewhere he states that the idea of cosmic harmony has been developed by
the Chaldeans. See also H. Abert, Die Musikanschauung des Mittelalters,
p. 39 ff. Also I. Heinemann's article Philo in Pauly-Wissowa's Realencycl.
des des klassischen Altertums.
12' Cf. our Texts D 1.
180 Cf. Brockelmann, op. cit. Supplem. I, p. 377. Also infra chap. VII. The
decisive word in that matter was spoken by Farmer, Alfarabi's Arabic-Latin
Writings Writings on Music.
181 Cf. our Texts E.
182 Moses ibn Ezra writes in a piyut for (‫ אבצ תכאלמ 'ה 'רל השודק‬... (‫תירחש‬
‫לוקב ונעי רמזב םימש ינכוש‬.
mentions of it. Strangely enough, of all biblical passages alluding

to cosmic harmony, Abraham ibn Ezra chooses Ps. 93.4, while
he misses such inviting opportunities as those offered by Job 38.7
or 38.37.133 Simon Duran also broaches the ancient idea in the
same connection.134
The most consistent and significant opponent of the entire
doctrine is Maimonides; in his Moreh he unequivocally expresses
his antagonism.135 Thus we arrive at the surprising conclusion
that philosophers of the greatest consequence in their respective
lands viz. Aristotle, Alfarabi, and Maimonides were sceptical of
or even inimical to the theory of cosmic harmony. To what extent
the latter two did or did not follow Aristotle in that question, is
a problem with which we shall not deal. Yet the attitude of these
thinkers did not deter later generations from returning to the
old Pythagorean track. In Hebrew literature, however, Maimoni
des almost set a standard on this issue, so that the principle of
'33 Cf. Abr. ibn Ezra to Ps. 93.4. .‫םיבר םימ תולוקמ‬: ‫םיבר סיט תולוקמ רתוי‬
‫בותכ ןכו תולוק םילגלגל יכ תואל הזו םורמב םשה רידא רתוי םי ירבשמ םהש םירידא םהש‬
‫השעמ םידועה וטיבי אל רשאכ םישרחה ועמשי אל תולוקה הלאו םיבר םימ לוקכ לאקזחיב‬
‫"םיארונ םשה‬. To Job 38.7 he says simply: "‫"םחועורתו םתנר איה םתעונתו‬. To Job
38.37 '. .. ‫רפסי ימ‬: ‫םירמוא שיו קצומ יארכ ןינעכ ריפסב םתוא םש ימ ריפסמ ושוריפ‬."
134 Cf. Simon Duran, Magen Abot, 52 ff.
13s Maimonides, More II, #8, (chap, xxxii.) We may realize here to what
an extent the different translations of a single Scriptural verse have influenced
philosophy. The passage, Job 38.37 says: "‫יס םימש ילבנו הטבחב םיקחש רפס' ימ‬
‫ ■"ביכשי‬Vulgate: Quis enarrabit coelorum rationem, et concentum coeli quis quis
dormire faciat‫!־‬dormire faciat!dormire faciat! Authorized version: Who can number the clouds in wisdom? —
or who can stay the bottles of heaven? The interpretation of the Vulgate may
be found also in Hebrew literature; Cf. Abr. ibn Daud, Commentary on Sejer
Yezirah,Yezirah, chap, i, f. 27, col. 3, where ‫ םימש 'לבנ‬is derived from ‫רונכו לבנ‬. See also
Steinschneider HB XIII, 35. The Christian philosophers refer to the Vulgate
version, which is their chief basis for the doctrine of spheric harmony. Cf.
Boethius, De Musica, Patr. Lat. LXIII, 1171. Also Aurel. Reomensis, in
Gerbert, Scriptores I., 32, who refers to the passage from Job and to the seven
voces voces of the planets, linking them to the eight musical modes of the Church.
This idea occurs also in cabalistic literature in connection with Ps. 29.2-9,
where the seven voices of God are interpreted in quite the same manner.
Allusions to the astro-musical idea are very frequent. Kepler himself defended
this theory in his Harmonice mundi, and Shakespeare refers to it in the beauti
ful passage, The Merchant of Venice, Act V, sc. 1.
spheric harmony was abandoned by most of his followers.138 It

appeared instead in the camp of his antagonists, i. e. in the
literature of the Cabalists. There it received the utmost élabora
tion throughout the following centuries. We cannot discuss these
sources here, for the position of music in the esoteric literature
of the Jews would take a special study. It may suffice to refer to
the many commentaries on the Sefer Yezirah and on the Zohar,
in all of which the principle of spheric harmony plays an impor
tant part.137
Musical Theory
The struggles over the esthetics of music present a spectacle of

fiery dispute. Alongside of the conflict over the respective rank
ings of secular music and sacred music, the theory of music was
itself a field of debate. Theory in the middle ages, though always
lagging behind living music, either dominated living music or
did not concern itself with the practice of music at all.
Up to this point, we have surveyed not musical theory proper
but, so to speak, the theory of theory, i. e. the philosophy of
music. We occasionally inserted a word of caution that, so far
as we know anything about the subject, it is difficult to harmonize
the speculations of the philosophers with actual practice. Instead
of receiving the bread of living craftsmanship, we have some
times been fed with the stones of speculation. But now we have
finished our study of mixed ideologies and may proceed to con
sider musical theory itself. As music formulated its own autono
mous laws, many of the ideas which were often the product of
mystic speculation yielded to common sense. The full fruits of
this painful process did not mature until the seventeenth cen
136 Cf. Steinschneider, Alfarabi, p. 244, (note to p. 80.)

137 Cf. A. v. Thimus, Die Harmonikale Symbolik des Altertums. The entire
second volume is devoted to the acoustic and harmonic ideas of cabalistic
literature. I have to confess, however, that, in spite of the tremendous amount
of material, accumulated by the author, and the many astonishing ideas he
presents, the work as a whole did not convince me.
tury. Meanwhile music lost its universal all-embracing import,

and that loss was by no means trivial.
Pythagoreanism (which may certainly be called a religion)
and likewise Judaism forced all musical thinking into a cast
iron frame of cosmological, ethical, and theological postulates,
ignoring the aesthetic entirely. Early Christianity and Islam faith
fully imitated this ascetic pattern. Not until the tenth century
do we find the inception of independent thinking among the
musical theorists of the Christians, Arabs, and Jews. Even these
base their ideas, without exception, upon the ancient Greek
assumptions.
In concrete musical descriptions, our original sources are
poor. Whenever we are in need of additional knowledge we have
to turn to Arabic literature for analogies. There is, besides, al
most an entire lack of musical notation. Later we shall deal with
the very few instances of notation extant.
TONAL SYSTEM, INTERVALS AND THEIR CALCULATION
We must distinguish between the theoretical system of the

scale, and that of the usual modes (Gebrauchstonleiter). From our
Hebrew sources we know only of a diatonic system of eight
tones within the octave.138 Of chromatic systems we have no
sign at all, which does not mean of course that such did not
exist. The eight tones were naturally connected with numerologi
cal speculations in the manner of the Greeks and Arabs. While
we are well informed about the computation of the intervals
within the theoretical system, we know almost nothing about the
structure of the usual modes. That modes existed and were
regarded as an important part of music, we shall show later on.
But beyond this, everything is obscure.
"8 Cf. Latif's (Texts E) Interpretation of Ps. 29.4-9; all of this is paralleled
by the Christian interpretation of Vergil's verse: (Aen. VI, 545 f.)
"Nee"Nee non Thraeicius longa cum veste sacerdos
obloquiturobloquitur numeris septem discrimina vocum"
This quotation descends through most of the Christian theorists down to the
XVth century. See infra appendix of translated passages!
294 WERNER-SONNE [44!
Arabic literature on the theory of music is more extensive

than Hebrew literature on that topic. Still, it is difficult to ac
quire from the numerous descriptions of Arabic music by Arabic
writers anything like a consistent picture while, owing to the
dearth of extant sources, the situation with the Hebrew writers
is still worse. Jews as well as Arabs speak clearly and unequiv
ocally only in one regard, namely, in matters involving mathe
matics — above all, in the computation of intervals; this being
a a field in which the Arabs, chiefly Alfarabi have pioneered. We
regret that we can not credit the Jews with having equalled or
excelled them. Quite to the contrary!
Jewish calculation of intervals is as complex as it is poor
by comparison with the methods of Euclid or Nicomachus, not
to mention a master like Ptolemy. This calculation is based upon
the Euclidian division of the fundamental string into overtones
(superparticulars) which produces the intervals. With the octave,
(δια πασών = ‫ = לוכב רשא סחי‬bi-l-kull) the fifth and the fourth the
chief concern, the imperfect consonances are neglected. The
Arabs were in this respect much more thorough, for they em
ployed, besides the division of the octave, also the various divi
sions of the fourth, from which Alfarabi deduced the three favor
ite genera of Arabic music based strictly on Greek theory.159 The
Arabs also knew the mathematical proportions of all of the other
intervals within the octave itself. The Jews added to this simple
division a great deal of somewhat clumsy calculation attempting
to formulate the mathematical rule of the progression of over
tones, 2J-1 (Fifth = l+V2 = 3/2, Fourth = 1+1/3 = 4/3)·ι4° One of
our sources, Isaiah ben Isaac, could not express himself as tech
nically as he perhaps wished, because his work, a commentary
to Ibn Sina's Alkanun, was not for musicians or mathematicians
but for physicians. An advance beyond Isaiah ben Isaac is
achieved by Abulafia who investigates the relations of the two
139 Kilab, p. 55.

140 Cf. Texts G.
Farmer's remark (Facts on Arabian musical influence, p. 68.) about the
"thoughtful animadversion of Euclid by Isaiah b. Isaac" is well-meant, but
gives the Hebrew author undeserved credit. See infra appendix of translated
consonances (combined proportions) to each other.141 He too

neglects the intervals of the third and the sixth, probably because
these intervals were of no consequence in a music which lacked
chords almost entirely.142
CONSONANCE AND DISSONANCE
To this subject, our only reference is one passage in Isaiah

ben Isaac. The octave, of course, is considered the perfect con
sonance. Some hidden allusions to the value of the various con
sonances or dissonances are scattered through cabalistic litera
ture.143 Already in the manuscripts of the fifteenth century, the
entire Western theory of consonances is accepted by the Jews.
MODES, TROPI, STRUCTURAL LAWS OF MELODY
a)a) Modes of melody. We have evidence of the existence of

various melodic modes in the theory of the Jews. In fact, it would
be almost a miracle if the Jews did not employ modes, for we
know today that the principle of modality was prevalent in the
entire world of the Near and Middle East, including Greece.
Saadya tries hard to prove that already the Levi tes of the Temple
used a system of eight distinct modes for their rendition of the
Psalms.144 Elsewhere Saadya states that certain Psalms had to
be sung in specific and unchangeable modes, in accordance with
their respective superscriptions.145 The theory of modality is more
141 Cf. Texts F. See infra appendix of translated passages!

144 Infra on Harmonies!
Cf. A. v. Thimus, op. cit., chap. 3 and 4. Kiesewetter's contemp
tuous remark, {op. cit., p. 25) that the Arabs valued the consonances only
according to their arithmetical relationship is unacceptable. For one thing the
Arabs employed other criteria as well, such as the psychological effectiveness
of intervals and scales. On the other hand, the arithmetical criterion is ample,
since the more perfect consonance is always represented by the simpler pro
portion. See a so R. Lachmann, op. cit., p. 51.
144 Galliner, Saadya's Psalmuebersetzung, p. 22. Also S. H. Margulies,
Saadya'sSaadya's Psalmuebersetzungen, pp. 13, 22.
145 E. Cohn in Magazin fuer die Wissenschaft des Judentums 1881, p. 65166.
"Die zweite Anordnung war, dass gewisse Psalmen nach einer bestimmten
296 WEFNER-SONNE [46]
clearly announced by Latif who connects the tone of the octave

with the eighth mode and, at the same time, with the super,
scription Ά1 Hasminit.146 Nowhere can we find a definition of the
term "mode" (‫ עונענ‬,‫ ןוגינה ןימ‬,‫ לוק‬,‫ המיענ‬,‫הניגנ‬, Arab, naghama,naghama,
asabi',asabi', maqam.) Modern musicology identifies "mode" with
the Arabic Maqam, or the Byzanline-Syriac r!xos=ikhadia of
which Idelsohn gives a highly valuable description.148 Mode may
be explained, in short, as a fixed pattern of a melody containing
certain motives. These have the respective functions of beginning,
ending, conjunction, and disjunction.149 The composer's task is
that of arranging the pre-existing motives according to his ideas
and according to the rules of the respective Maqam, embellish
ing them and grouping them. The composer has to adhere, how
ever, to the particular properties of his chosen Maqam. Thus,
"Maqam"Maqam exists only in the sense of a Platonic idea" (R. Lach
rnann).150 The individual melodies (‫ = ןחל‬Ar. lahan\ ‫= הניגנ‬Ar.
Tonart, die nicht veraendert werden durfte, gesungen werden sollten, je nach
dem eine solche Melodie in der Ueberschrift angedeuted ist. Der Ausdruck
‫ תוניגנ‬bezeugt eine bestimmte Sangesweise."
144 Cf. Texts E. See infra appendix of translated passages.
47!47" Infra on Terminology. Cf. also Idelsohn in MGWJ 1913, 314 ff., and
Bacher in REJ Vol. 50, viii ff.
148 Cf. Idelsohn in SIMG XV, p. 11 ff. The vast field of modality contains
an equally large literature of which we can cite here only the standard works:
Syrian modality : Dom Jeannin, Les chants liturgiques de Syrie
Byzantine modality: Wellesz, Byzantin. Musik
Arabian modality : Idelsohn in SIMG, loc. cit.
v. Hornbostel in SIMG VIII, p. 1 ff.
R. Lachmann, op. cit.
R. Lach, "Die vergleichende Musikwissenschaft," in
SitzungsberichtenSitzungsberichten der Akad. d. Wissensch., Wien,
vol. 200, 1924.
Gregorian modality: P. Wagner, Die Greg. Melodien, III.
A. Gastoue, l'origine du Chant Romaine.
Jewish modality : Thesaurus, I, IV, V, VII. (Idelsohn)
Werner, "Preliminary Notes," in HUCA 1940.
14» This system is closely related to the idea of the Bible accents, (‫)תוניגנ‬
which are also divided into conjunctive, disjunctive, and ending signs.
150 Lachmann, op. cit., p. 59.
ghina)ghina) are but the various images of the Platonic idea.131 Some
scholars are of the opinion that this principle of strict modality
was not genuinely Arabic, but was imported from Byzantium,
Syria, and Persia. Although this seems improbable, considering
the fact that the entire music of the Near and Middle East is
based upon this principle, we cannot render a final judgement
until the many manuscripts of the early Islamic period which
deal with music, become available for our use.152
b)b) The Number of the Modes. In the older literature we hear,
almost invariably, of eight modes. We are, of course, inclined,
to associate the number eight with the eight tones of the diatonic
scale, thus ascribing to each tone its own mode. However, we
must consider, first, that the octave can be divided variously,
e. g. into five, twelve, seventeen, or even twenty-four parts. All
of these divisions do indeed occur. Secondly, it is not certain at
all that these modes were connected with the eight tones of the
scale, even of the diatonic scale. Thirdly, as we shall see later
on, there were eight rhythmic modes besides the melodic ones.
Here it is quite obvious that the number eight was artificially
imposed upon the rhythmic modes since, for rhythm, an equi
valent to the octave does not exist. Moreover, we have evidence
that originally the Arabs employed ten rhythmic modes153 (Arab.
iqa'at),iqa'at), but reduced them to eight, to those eight modes (Arab.
naghamatnaghamat — Hebr. ne'imah, ninnu'ah) to which Saadya and the
Ikhvan es-Safa refer so extensively.154 In the last mentioned
151 Infra, see Terminology. The term lahan has been adopted by Hebrew
poets to indicate the appropriated melodies of their piyutim, quite as the
early Protestant hymn-writers adapted their new texts to already well known
popular songs. ("Contrafacts.") On the term lafran see also Dukes in the
LiteraturblattLiteraturblattLiteraturblatt d. Orient IV, 539-542, where he quotes the following interesting
passage of Simon Duran, Magen Abot 55b. ‫ונל ראשנ הנהו םינחלה ינימ םהו םימעטה‬
‫הרותה תאירקל לדבוה דחאהו 'נ םינחלה ינימב‬, ‫'בהו‬, ‫םינימ ינש וב שי הזו םיאיבנה תאירקל‬
‫םיאיבנה ראש תאירקכ הניא הרוטפהה תאירק יכ הזל הז םיבורק‬. ‫םילהח םירפס 'ג תאירק להו‬,
‫ילשמ‬, ‫בויא‬. ‫שי םלכ םיטויפה ינימ םהש רורמתל םיטונהו רישל םיטונה ןוגכ םינחלה ראשו‬
‫ ירילקה רזעילע 'ר יריש ומכ םימודק םהמ‬... ‫םוחקל דרפס תוצראב ושדחתנ םהמ שיו‬
‫ בלה םיכשומ הברה םיברע םה םילאעמשיה ירישמ םיררושמה‬...
152 Ribera, op. cit., 77, n. 13. Also Farmer, Facts etc., p. 57, and Encyclo
paediepaedie des Islam, article "Musiqi."
155 Ribera, ibid., 79, also Kitab, pp. 150-58.
154 Cf. Texts B 1, 2 •,see also infra the appendix of translated passages.
work we find the clue for the prevalence of the number eight.
According to the Ikhvan, eight is the perfect number for Music
and Astonomy. Nature herself reveals eight qualities: hot, cold,
wet and dry; and, in combination, hot-wet, cold-dry, cold-wet,
and hot-dry. There are also eight astronomical stages.155 Here
again we encounter the influence of cosmological views upon
musical theory.
c)c)c) Details of the Modes, Musical Notation. We know very little
about the musical details of these modes. Their classification
with regard to their effects upon the emotions are not of much
aid. In Hebrew literature we have thus far only two sources
which give unmistakable indication as to the notes by which the
modes were expressed. Unfortunately both are relatively late.
Of the Ms. Jehudah ben Isaac (early 15th century) which con
tains some concrete remarks,156 there is, according to Idelsohn,
a copy in the Hebrew Union College Library at Cincinnati. But
I was not able to locate this rare manuscript.157 Steinschneider
quotes some sentences of the manuscript which include the
Latin soffeggio-names of the tones, Ut, Re, Mi, Fa, and the like.IsS
This would indicate that the diatonic system was the basis at
least for musical theory, perhaps also for practice. Such an as
sumption is supported by the oldest Hebrew musical manu
script, an elegy on the death of Moses containing neumes of the
1ss Cf. Dieterici, pp. 128-31. "True, there are many things according to the
numbers 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10. Yet we intend to awaken the slumbering ones
from their carelessness by emphasizing the eight and, at the same time, to
explain that those who prefer and represent the seven and its advantages, are
right only in part and not in general. . ." We met the same problem in the
exegesis of Ps. 29, supra note 135 and 138.
156 Steinschneider, Hebr. Uebersetzungen, p. 970, n. 159.
157 Idelsohn, Jewish Music, chap, x, note 21.
158 The famous polyhistor and friend of Pascal and Descartes, Pere Mer
senne, gives an interesting tabulation of the Greek and Latin names of musical
tones, comparing them with the ten Cabalistic Sefirot and the ten Divine
Names. In his study De Musica Hebraeorum, (Thesaurus Ugolini, Venice
1767, vol. 32, col. 531-33) Father Mersenne quotes some anonymous cabalistic
authors who had apparently a perfect knowledge of the entire of musical
theory. But since he fails to mention names or sources, we cannot evaluate
his statements.
13th century.159 The melody here is devoid of all chromatisms,

which in turn well comports with Ribera's conviction that
Arabic (and Jewish) music of the llth-13th centuries used the
diatonic scale now employed in the occident.160 Thus modern
Arabic music would have to be regarded merely as a corruption
of a classic style.1603 But we cannot follow Ribera to that extent.
Musical traditions in the Near East have, according to our
knowledge, been jealously guarded and protected.161 These con
tradictory views can be reconciled by the fact somewhat over
looked that, when Arabic culture reached its greatest splendor,
theory and artistic music, on the one hand, and popular music
on the other, were not at all identical. It may well be that
"learned" music avoided chromatisms, while the chromatic music
of the common people survived. We have reason to assume that
the popular modes of those times made as extensive a use of
half-tones as they do today. So long as we do not possess more
Hebrew manuscripts containing musical notation, we are free
to suppose that, in practice, music employed both diatonic and
chromatic elements. Theory, however, at least in the Hebrew
sources, seems entirely to have ignored chromatic usage, although
it knew such to be possible.162 The assumption of this divergence
1'‫ י‬Cf. A. Friedlaender, Facts and Theories Relating to Hebrew Music,

pp. 13-16, which includes a photograph of the MS. See also the Elkan Adler
Catalogue Catalogue MS #4096, where a more extensive analysis is given. It is regrettable
that we could not secure an exact and enlarged photostat of the MS, inasmuch
as we do not fully agree with Friedlaender's interpretation of the clef. A
thorough investigation of this valuable and unique MS is much to be desired.
160 Ribera, op. cit., p. 77. We cannot enter here into a discussion, whether
or not the Latin syllables Ut, Re, Mi, Fa etc, are of Arabic origin, as Farmer
has it. (Facts etc. pp. 72-82.) Also, An old Moorish lute tutor 27.
160a jt makes ample use of half- and even of quarter-tones.
161 Best proofs for this are the works which show clearly the close con
nection between Gregorian, Byzantine, Syrian and Oriental Jewish chants.
Supra Supra note 148. A comprehensive work on the music of the entire Near East
(including the Gregorian chant) is a desideratum.
162 Cf. Texts G. The Arabian attempts at a musical notation from Al
Kindi up to Safi ad-Din were only complex tablatures based on the 'ud. Hence,
they can hardly indicate any chromatism at all, even if there were such a
thing in the artistic and "recognized" music of those times. See also infra
appendix of translated passages!
between popular and artistic music would also account for

the many contradictory statements a propos the theory of
rhythm.
RHYTHMIC MODES
It is the rhythmic modes which present the greatest diffi

culties to the occidental musician. These rhythmic-metric for
mulae, though alike in principle throughout the entire Near and
Middle East, varied considerably at different times and places.
Moreover, the Arabic modes frequently kept their names while
changing their patterns. That is why remarks of the 12th and
13th centuries contradict descriptions of the 9th century and
the 10th century.163
Saadya gives in his 'Emunot Wede'ot (chap. X) an extensive
account of the modes as he knew them. In addition to the original
Arabic text, we possess two Hebrew translations, one by Ibn
Tibbon, and another by Abraham b. Hiyyah and, of the chapter
dealing with music, an anonymous paraphrase published by
Steinschneider.164 These four versions of Saadya's text give us
a clear picture of his theory of rhythm. As J. Guttmann first
pointed out, the Ikhvan es-Safa contains very similar, almost
identical observations.165 Probably both Saadya and the Ikhvan,
being contemporaries, drew from an older authority, possibly
Al-Kindi.166 Recent investigations point to Syrian literature as
the intermediary between Byzantine and early Arabic sources.167
Saadya (and his unknown source) borrowed their modes from
the metrical theory of the Arabs.168 This is not surprising, since
163 Ribera, op. cit., p. 80 fï. Also Farmer, History of Arabic Music, p. 147,
who says: "It is clear from the great Kitab al Aghani that an alteration took
place in the rhythmic modes . . ."
164 Cf. Texts B 1, 2.
163 Cf. J. Guttmann, op. cit., pp. 286-88.
!66 Farmer, History 0} Arabic Music, p. 150. See also Ahlwardt's Catalogue
of of the Berlin MSS, #5530.
16' Bar-Hebraeus' description of the modes shows definite resemblances
to Al-Kindi's or Saadya's presentations, although he refers to earlier Syrian
sources. Cf. Bar Hebraeus, Ethikon, (De la Cause Naturelle des Modes, ed.
Bedjan, pp. 69 ff.). See also Dom Jeannin, op. cit. I., 21.
168 Saadya emphasizes the mixture of several modes as healthful; cf. AQM,
pp. 30-31: "It is the mixtures of medicaments which bring about complete
the Greeks, notwithstanding their distinctly different prosody,

did the very same. We cite here only three instances typical
both of the Arabs and of the Greeks. (1) The metrical basis of
the theory of musical rhythm; (2) The existence of eight rhyth
mic modes; (3) The principle of the χρόνος πρώτος (unit of
measure).169 The single open or closed syllable was such a unit
for the Greeks, the Jews, and the Arabs. Later, the original
designations of the properties of the syllable had to serve for
musical purposes as well. They could indicate rest and motion,
heaviness and lightness, depth and height.170 Subsequently, part
of this metrical system, complex as it was, became integrated
with Arabic musical theory.171 Many of its rhythmic patterns,
however, are possible only theoretically and were not in practical
remedy. Quite similarly, one single tune can do but little for the uplifting
(κατόρϋωσι,ς)(κατόρϋωσι,ς) of the soul. The best influence comes from that Music which
is mixed and composed of all the various styles. "See also Ps.-Aristotle, Prob
Urns Urns Urns XIX, 38, 43.
16» These resemblances ought to be investigated further both by linguists

and by musicologists. They have the following foundations:
(1) The single syllable as the metrical and musical unit. Cf. Westphal
Rossbach, Griechische Rhythmik, I 69-95.
(2) Aristoxenos' description of eight rhythmic-metrical modes, analogous
to the Arabic system. Also the principle of conjunctive, disjunctive
and mixed rhythms. Cf. Westphal-Rossbach, op. tit., I 91 ff., and
Kitab,Kitab, pp. 152-156.
(3) The principle of Chronos protos, the unit of measure, can be found
in Aristoxenos as well as in Aristides Quint. It is well known to the
Arabic theorists like Alfarabi, the Kitab al Aghani, and others. See
also also Martianus Capella in Westphal-Rossbach, op. tit., p. 85 /86. The
Arab, passages in Kosegarten, Ali Ispahanensis liber cantilenarum,
p. 127; and Kitab p. 152. Such scholars as Dechevrens, Jeannin,
Gastoue have even attempted to introduce the term Chronos Protos
into their evaluation of the Gregorian chant, and have received wide
spread approval.
10‫ י‬We find the same attitude, regarding music as a mere part of metrical
poetry, in St. Augustine's De Musica VI. Cf. Edelstein, Die Musikanschau
ungenungen Augustin's. We must not forget that the great philosopher of the Church
was not a "Roman" but a Semitic Carthaginian.
171 J. Guttmann and even Malter, in their books on Saadya, have entirely
misunderstood the rhythmic emphasis of Saadya's musical theory, probably
because of the ambiguous terminology, with its many pitfalls.
use.172 The highly practical rule of the Chronos protos, employed

already by Saadya, was of course preserved.173
For the explanation of Saadya's schemes, we depend to a
degree upon the more complete description of the Ikhvan. Saadya
renders only the first "halves" of the modes. Moreover, the
Ikhvan Ikhvan is an excellent aid for eliminating the numerous mistrans
lations in the Hebrew text which obscured the basic ideas. Hence
we arrive at the following system :
First mode: J J J I cl (J)J~3 (j) I J J J

Second mode : JJJ|Jd(jJ"j)|JJJ
Third mode: /I J | JV | (Makhuri)
Fourth mode: /‫־‬j/wi/tji
Fifth mode: J J1 I /I J1 | (Ramal)
Sixth mode: /‫ דד‬j j (Ramal(Ramal légère)
Seventh mode: /‫ ד‬j/1 j
Eighth mode : J J J- ‫ ד‬I J J J 1? ! (Hedjaz)
Practically all Arabic authors agree that these eight modes go

back to four principal patterns, which appear in two versions,
a slow one (taqil) and a swift one (kamil). We need not discuss
here the complex Arabic theory of conjunctive and disjunctive
rhythms, since these are not mentioned in Hebrew sources.174
On the relation between metrical poetry and music in the
actual performance of Psalms, Piyutim, and Pismonim, we have
in medieval Hebrew literature only a few comments. Most of
these sources share Yehuda Halevy's view, as expressed in his
Cusari II §70, where he discusses the subject of metrical melo
"‫ ־‬Cf. Kitab, p. 152-57.

," Cf. Texts B 1, 2. "There are two beats between which there is no time
for another beat..."
1',‫ י‬Diet., p. 140; also Mas'udi in Ribera, op. cit., p. 79 ff. Ribera's tabula
tion of the principal modes, however, agrees but partially with the descriptions
of both the Ikhvan and Saadya. Idelsohn's representation of these modes
refers to the modern Arabian terminology and practice. (Jewish Music in its
Historical Development, pp. 114-117.)
[53] mediaeval JEWISH MUSIC THEORY 303
dies.175 We may conclude that, though it has at times been over

looked, musical and metrical theories in Hebrew literature are
closely interwoven and can hardly be separated from each other.
CHORDS AND harmony
This much disputed question can be answered briefly. We

have indubitable proof of the existence of chords, although these
are mentioned in only one Hebrew source. Moses Abulafia dis
tinguishes between two kinds of tonal connections. The first con
sists of the relation of two successive, discrete tones to each
other; the second consists of a simultaneous striking of two
different tones, with a chord as the result. (176(‫ גוזמ לוק‬The inhabi
tants of the Near East used that species of primitive harmony,
obtained primarily by striking the "bordun" strings of their
lutes.177 Going far beyond this, Farmer quotes a passage of Ibn
Sina which can hardly be understood as other than a description
of the early organum.'78 Our passage likewise adds to the evidence,
already convincing, that chords were known and utilized in the
Near East. But they were rather an exception than a common
feature.
VI. Terminology
The investigation of Hebrew musical sources involves certain

difficulties not the least of which is the terminology. Speaking
with but slight exaggeration, our knowledge of musical cultures
outside of the European sphere depends to a considerable degree
175 Cf. Samuel ibn Tibbon's introduction to the commentary on Kohelet.

See See also A. de Rossi, 60 § ‫םיניע רואמ‬, (end) R. S. Archivolti devotes a part of his
‫ םשבה תגורע‬to this question, (chap, xxxi) Further references may be found in
Cassel's edition of the Cusari, p. 170, note 5.
176 Cf. Texts F. Also infra appendix of translated passages.
177 A short but comprehensive discussion of the question of chords in the
music of the Near East may be found in Lachmann, Musik des Orients, pp. 85
92. Also Collangette in the Journal Asiatique 1904-06. From the standpoint
of the various musical instruments C. Sachs discusses the matter in his monu
mental History of Musical Instruments, pp. 248 ff.
178 Cf. Farmer, Facts etc., pp. 104, 108, 112, where he quotes many cor
roborative statements by Arabian authors.
upon our understanding of the musical terms used in the various

languages. The inconspicuous rank which music occupied in the
Jewish scientific world of the Middle Ages is shown by the
rudimentary development of musical nomenclature. It is charac
teristic that a Hebrew dictionary of philosophical and scientific
terms, composed at the end of the XlVth century, contains only
one musical item, namely 179.‫ המיענ‬As a matter of fact, almost all
of the other terms in use are of a vague, general character and not
scientifically exact. Since music was considered part of mathe
matics, we have in Hebrew terminology, as in the Greek and
Latin, a considerable number of auxiliary expressions, borrowed
principally from mathematics. These are usually combined with
genuine musical terms, but are sometimes omitted by ellipsis.
Below, we attempt to list the Hebrew terms occuring most
frequently in our texts, placing them in a comparative tabulation,
together with their Greek, Latin, Arabic, and English equi
valents. Naturally, complete identity of these words in five
languages with all of their implications can hardly be expected.
The Greek expressions are taken from the sources edited by
C. v. Jan. (Musici Scriptores Graeci). In addition, we included
Aristides Quintilianus and CI. Ptolemaeus. The Latin terms are
those which occur regularly in Gerbert Scriptores. The Arabic
words and their transliteration are taken from the works of
Farmer and D'Erlanger.
1" Menahem ben Abraham Bonafos, Sefer Hagedarim, (Book of Défini

fions), Salonica 1567. About the author cf. Gross, Gallia Judaica, 467.
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B. AUXILARY TERMS
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MEDIAEVAL JEWISH MUSIC THEORY 309
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MEDIAEVAL JEWISH MUSIC THEORY 311
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APPENDIX
TRANSLATION OF THE HEBREW PASSAGES QUOTED IN THE TEXT

OF THE ARTICLE
The numbers refer to the notes respectively of which the

Hebrew is here translated.
47. He also said: "reasoning leads knowledge to known ob
jects (of the corporeal world); but Music leads to spiritual
knowledge."
48 and 58. Finally, he said: "There are three categories of
professions: (1) professions in which speech preponderates over
action; (2) others in which there is more action than speech;
(3) others again in which both speech and action are of equal
importance. To the first category belongs the telling of stories
and fables, which is accomplished by words and not by actions.
The profession in which there is more action than speech is
represented by the physician whose deeds outweigh his speech.
It is in the profession of Music that action is of equal importance
to to speech. Music, therefore, is the best profession, provided that
its words coincide with its action, as in the case of a lute-player,
whose melody corresponds to his motions."
52. You should know that something of a musical nature is
found in the pulse-beat; for just as the perfection of musical
art consists of the production of tones according to a certain
proportion between them with respect to their acuteness and
heaviness, and with respect to melodic cycles and intervals
between the individual beats, so do the same proportions apply
to the human pulse.
54. Euclid said: "Music is an art which connects every me
Iodic species with its own type; it makes use of the tempera
ments; it stirs up that which is at rest, and brings to rest that
which is restless."
57.57. Favorinus, the sage, said: "He who is able to harmonize
the motions of the soul and nature, until they vibrate together
like four harmonious strings of a musical instrument, for him
[63] MEDIAEVAL JEWISH MUSIC THEORY 31 3
the joy of the world and its pleasures will be in harmony with
his own pleasure. When he wants to be joyful, his memory
encompasses the pleasures of the world, as he ponders by which
of them he may obtain his desire.
"Music is such a sublime subject that the dialectic faculty
is inadequate to its presentation, leaving the philosophers power
less. But the soul perceives Music through the medium of me
lody. As soon as the joy of the soul evoked by Music became
manifest, people yearned for that joy, paid attention to the soul
and, forsaking the contemplation of the affairs of the transient
world, hearkened to the soul.
"The significance of Music consists in the fact that it accom
panies every profession, just as an intelligent man can find an
associate in every person."
72 and 75. Third question: "Why did the musicians say that
a Kinor, if it is of good proportion, has to have four strings, each
of them thicker than the other?"
Answer: "They did it to the end, that the tones of each of
the four strings might strengthen one of the four humors. One
of the four strings called Al-Bam, consists of 64 threads of silk.
Its tone, on account of the string's thickness, invigorates the
black humor. The second string, called Mathna, consists of 48
threads. Its tone invigorates the white humor. The third string,
called Mathlath, consists of 36 threads. Its tone strengthens the
blood. The fourth string consists of 27 threads, and is called Zir.
Its tone, because of its fineness, invigorates the yellow bile."
85. Another said: "A singer has to show by his song the
mood of his soul; and a lute has to be attuned to its appropriate
melody."
88 and 89. Maimonides, Responsum on music, MGWJ 1873,
pp. 174-180. (Goldziher.)
Question: Is it permissible to listen to the Arabic Muwassahat
and to music in general?"
a Muwashah is a lyrical poem or song, very popular in Arabic literature

from the 11th century on. Originally an Arabo-Spanish form of poetry, it
later spread also to North Africa. Cf. Ribera, op. cit. pp. 119, 128-34, el
passim.
Answer: It is known that music in general and rhythmic

musicb in particular ('iqa'at ‫ )תאעאקיא‬is forbidden, even if it is
not joined with words; for the Rabbis say: ‫רקעת הרמז אעמשד אנדא‬
(Sot. 58a). The Talmud teaches expressly (Git. 7a) that there is
no difference between the hearing of vocal or instrumental music,
and music in general. Such music is forbidden, except when it
belongs to prayer which moves the soul either to joy or to sor
row. The Rabbis support this by the words of the prophet: ‫לא‬
‫( םימעכ ליג־לא לארשי חמשת‬Hos. 9.1). We explained the reason for
this prohibition elsewhere as follows: The power of desire must
be restrained and not stimulated. We need not pause for the
exceptional individual whose soul might be saved by these im
pressions and whose comprehension of intelligible things might
be facilitated, enhancing his submission to things Divine. Legis
lative wisdom shapes its statutes with regard to the majority,
i. e. the common run of people. The prophets have already ex
pressed their disapproval of the use of musical instruments in
the following passage: ‫ריש־ילכ םהל ובשח דיודכ לבנה יפ־לע םיטרפה‬
(Am. 6.5). Moreover, as we stated in our commentary on Abot
(I., 17), there is no difference between the singing of Hebrew or
of Arabic words. Permission or prohibition depend exclusively
upon the content of the words. The listening to any licentious
utterance is forbidden, even if it is only spoken. If it is accom
panied by instrumental music, it would involve three prohibited
acts: (1) The listening to licentious utterances, (2) listening to
vocal music, (3) and listening to musical instruments.
If this happens in a tavern, there is a fourth prohibition in
volved,volved, for it is said: (Is. 5.12) ‫םהיתשמ ןייו לילחו ףת לבנו רונכ היהו‬
If the singer is a woman, there is a fifth prohibition, according
to the dictum of the Talmud. (Ber. 24a) . . . ‫ ;הורע השאב לוק‬the
more so, if she sings at a banquet.
It is the intention of Divine providence that we be a holy
nation, so that we should not speak or do anything which is not
perfection or would not lead us to perfection. We must not per
b Goldziher overlooked here the significant musical term 'iqa'at which
emphasizes the rhythmical quality of a mode; actually 'iqa corresponds to
our rhythm. See also Farmer's interpretation of this responsum in the Journal
of the Royal Asiatic Society, Oct. 1933, pp. 866-884.
form anything which stimulates those mental forces which deter

us from the good, or do anything whereby we neglect (our better
ego) by vanity or dalliance . . . The songs mentioned by the
Gaonim are permitted because they are hymns and songs of
exultation, as is explained by Alfasi. . .c To extend the prohibi
tion to songs which are perfectly decent is a thing never heard
of either by Gaon or by layman . . .d
Maimonides, The Eight Chapters, (‫ )םיקרפ הנמש‬ed. Gorfinkle,
p. 30. There are, indeed, times when the pleasant may be used
for a curative purpose as, for instance, when one suffers from
loss of appetite, it may be stirred up by highly seasoned deli
cacies and agreeable palatable food. Similarly, one who suffers
from melancholia may rid himself thereof by listening to songs
and to all kinds of instrumental music, by strolling through
beautiful gardens and splendid buildings or by gazing upon
beautiful forms . . .
99. The fifth said: "Living in solitude, the soul sings plaintive
melodies, (emphasizing the vanity of this world), whereby it
reminds itself of its own superior world. As soon as Nature sees
this, and becomes aware of it, Nature presents herself with all
sorts of images (sensory beauties) introduced, one by one, to
the soul, until finally Nature succeeds in recapturing the soul.
The latter, busy with the affairs of the transitory world, will
soon forsake that which constitutes its own essence. It will aban
don sublime compositions and the rhythm of artistic melodies
and, ceaselessly allured by wordly pleasures, will become, with
all of its faculties, utterly submerged in Nature's ocean."
114. He (Plato) used to say to the musician: "Show us the
harmony of trees in their blossoms, and the harmony of flower
beds in their various perfumes."
0 This passage is entirely misunderstood in Schmiedl's Hebrew translation

of the responsum; cf. Mishne Torah Ta'anit V., §14. See also the corroborative
statements in A. Freimann's edition of Maimonides' responsa, Jerusalem 1934,
p. 338 ff. Extensive rabbinic material on this question is also offered in Boaz
Cohen's study The responsum of Maimonides concerning Music, New York
1935.
d Cf. ‫ ףסאב םינואגה תובושת‬Nr. 21, (Moses Gaon); Harkavy, ‫םינואגה תובושח‬
Nr. 60, (Hay Gaon) ; Alfasi, Ber. 25b. See also Farmer's interpretation, with
which we do not entirely agree, and Boaz Cohen, op. cit.; pp. 12-19.
116. Ephorus mentioned a general principle derived from the

experience of war, and said: "A warrior has to drink a strong
drink when he reaches the battle line. If he has done so, he will
be fit, otherwise the fire in him will be extinguished, motion will
stop, and the body will become cold to such an extent that he
will appear like a man trembling and shivering. The channels,
(i. e. the blood-vessels) will be destroyed and the warmth blocked.
But if he drinks, kindling his ardor, his ardor will move by musi
cal rhythm. And when musical rhythm has inflamed his ardor
in turn, then appears the form (i. e. the Platonic eidos) of courage.
For the movement of war is determined by the rhythm of Music.
This is a statement well known to the heroes of war, although
not every brave warrior is able to explain it, unless he is keen
and intelligent with regard to military secrets. Many of the cou
rageous men, therefore, used to drink a little wine when they
came into the ranks, in order to stir up movement, and to get
rid of fear and sorrow which they may have to meet, so that
right at the outset, when reaching the battle line they will by
virtue of the ardor resulting from wine, be provided with the
heat of the elements. Wine, therefore, is only an occasional
device, making it possible for the musical rhythms, produced
by the musicians, to move the warrior toward courage. It is
courage (not wine) that moves courageous men. For when musi
cal rhythm is generated and maintained to the end, the sublime
form (i. e. the virtue andreia) becomes manifest."
He also said: "A small quantity of wine stimulates the mind,
(i. e. its rhythmical functions), and causes pleasantness of speech
as an effect of the mind's rhythmic structure. For everything
which is measured (rhythmically) is pleasant. But it may be
that the pleasantness of speech derives from the excellence of
the spirits of those assembled."
138 and 146. The science of Music envisages eight modes
of melodies, which differ from one another because of expansion
and contraction, height and depth, and other differences in their
musical structure. The eighth mode functions as a genus which
comprehends the other seven modes: and this is the meaning of:
"To the chief musician upon Seminit." (Ps. 12.)
The Psalmist has alluded to this cryptically, that is, by means
of the number seven in the repetition of the word kol in the

Psalm: "Give unto the Lord, O ye mighty," (Ps. 29), while the
phrase: "All say: 'glory'," (v. 9) alludes to the eighth mode com
prehending all of the others. I cannot explain any further.
140. Furthermore, since the entire line AB consists of 3
imaginative lines TB; for TB makes 2/3 of CB, the half of AB,
and that which constitutes 2/3 of a half makes 1/3 of the whole.
The proportion of the tone AB will therefore equal three tones
TB. This proportion is called that of the octave and the fifth,
because it is combined from the proportion of the Octave,
(namely the double, as explained already), and the proportion
of an increase by one half, called the fifth, the explanation of
which follows here immediately: For AB equals 1)4 ZB, since
)4)4 ZB equals 1/3 of AB; it follows that AB equals l^ZB. The
tone of AB is, therefore, equal to 1 )4 of the tone ZB, and is
called the proportion of the Fifth, because the same proportion
exists in the number five. The number 5, indeed consists of 3 1/3
( = 10/3), the proportion of which to 5 equals the proportion of
ZB to AB. (10/3:5/ = ZB:AB), and a third (of 5) which makes
1, 1, )4, 1/6, the proportion of which to 5 equals the proportion of
+fTB:AB.
141. The fifth proportion is called that of a double or triple
plus two portions, as for instance the proportion of 8 to 3, for 8
is a double of 3 plus two thirds (8/3 = 2 + 2/3) ; or as the proportion
of 11 to 3, because 11 is a triple of 3 plus two thirds (11/3 = 3 + 2/3).
They are also called combined proportions, when the preceding
terms of the proportions (the numerators) are multiplied by
one another, and then the following terms (the denominators)
are also multiplied by one another.
154. Saadia Gaon, 'Emunot We-De'ot, X, end. (Ibn Tibbon's
translation.) Likewise an isolated sound, an isolated melodic
unit, or an isolated melody or mode moves but one of the dis
positions of the soul, so that through them the soul may some
times be endangered. However, a mixture of them will harmonize
the manifestations of the soul's dispositions and powers. It is
necessary to know the effects of the isolated modes in order that
they may be combined accordingly. We say that the melodies
(modes-niggunim) are of eight patterns, each of them having
a certain number of tones (beats-ne'imot). The first mode consists

of three beats tied together, one in motion and one at rest. The
second mode consists, likewise, of three beats tied together; one
resting and another moving. These two modes stir up the ardor
of the blood, and consequently the passion for rulership and
domination.
The third mode consists of two beats tied together, between
which there is no time for another beat while one beat rests.
But between every low, high, and low tone there is time for one
beat. This mode alone stimulates the yellow bile, and conse
quently the virtues of fortitude, courage and their like.
The fourth mode consists of three beats tied together, between
which there is no time for a single beat ; but between every three
beats, there is time for one beat. This mode alone stimulates the
white humor (phlegm), and consequently makes manifest the
dispositions of vileness, servility, cowardice, and their like.
The fifth mode consists of one single tone, and two different
tones between which there is no time for one beat; but between
the rising inflection (arsis) and falling inflection (thesis) there is
time for one beat.
The sixth mode consists of three tones in motion.
The seventh mode consists of two contiguous beats between
which there is no interval of a beat ; but with an interval of two
beats between every two tones.
The eighth mode consists of two contiguous beats, between
which there is no interval of a tone; but with an interval of two
tones between every two tones.
The last four modes affect the black bile, and lead to the
manifestation of various dispositions of the soul, at times to joy,
for example, and at other times to sorrow.
It is, therefore, the custom of kings to intermingle the modes
in such manner, that their souls come to a harmonious balance,
wherein these melodies may stimulate such dispositions as help
the kings in directing their kingdom, so that they may be neither
too too merciful, nor too cruel, neither too mighty, nor too timid,
neither too much nor too little given to joy.
162. Tones, furthermore, are divided into categories of inter
vais, so that some of them increase or diminish in size by com
parison with others. Everyone of these parts again can be reduced

to the smallest fractions possible where all further subdivision is
precluded.
176. The association of tones (ne'imot) determines their im
pression upon the hearer. It is either one of succession as, for
instance, when we strike one string and then, at the termination
of this sound, strike another string, producing another tone;
or it is a combination of tones as, for instance, when we vibrate
two strings simultaneously so that from both together comes
forth a composite tone, as is produced by the musical instrument,
called 'Abub.
[To be continued]

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THE PHILOSOPHY AND THEORY OF MUSIC IN JUDAEO-ARABIC LITERATURE

Author(s): ERIC WERNER and ISAIAH SONNE

THE PHILOSOPHY AND THEORY OF MUSIC

The Position of Music in the Jewish Culture

The Texts to which we refer are the following:

the great and comprehensive literature on music among the

2 Of the literature on the development of traditional chant, we note only

viz. Arithmetic, Geometry, Astronomy, and Music. Boethius

while artificial Music is performed upon instruments devised

' Ibid,., 64.

14 Cf. Epstein, Die Wormser Minhagbuecher, p. xxii, Sejer Hasidim, #302,

law and nature."18 To give precedence, even chronological prece

A singular position concerning the place of music is taken by

Yehuda Alharizi, an older contemporary of Ibn 'Aknin, pro

of learning. In his 11 § ‫ םיפוסוליפה ירסומ‬he states: "Aristotle says

2222 Guedemann, op. cit., (note 4), p. 37/8.

another teacher, the science of Mathematics, which he will pur

‫תמכח תעושי ןסוח ךיתע תנומא היהו‬

Abraham ben Isaac interprets the verse as follows: "Certainty

Of the older exegetes, it is Saadya who, commenting on the

28 Abraham Ibn Ezra curtly recognizes Saadya's musical Knowledge in

closely followed the Arabic lead which never created a truly

34 Infra, chap, v on Harmony!

After this digression, we resume our discussion of the Hebrew

MusicaMusica est exercitium arithmeticum occultum nescientis se

Definition and Classification of Music

In general, medieval Jewish literature knows of two more or less

I am convinced, however, basing my belief on Aubry's Iter Hispanicum,

representatives of the three ancient attitudes were: (1) The Neo

paralleled by those of the soul.42 Thus a complicated numerical

« Cf. Plato, Timaeus, 34 B.

by the courts of the Caliphs.45 Nonetheless, in the course of

recognizes both of the Pythagorean aspects of music, the ethical

by Alfarabi.57 It is, as we shall presently see, the favorite method

57 Cf. Texts A XIX, 1, 2 et Passim. XVIII, passim. See infra appendix

fications of music proposed by a Greek (Aristides Quintilianus),

Aristides Quintilianus (ed. Meibom, p. 7 ff.)

Music as a whole admits of subdivision into a theoretical part

The theoretical part admits of subdivision into the physical

61 The sources of our tabulation:

Alfarabi, De Scientiis, in Farmer, Alfarabi's Arabic-Latin Writings on

3. Falaquera, Reshii Hokma, cf. Texts E 1.

bears the same terminology as the genus which includes it,

1. 1. The application of the aforementioned three technical

Alfarabi, Ihsa'al-'ulum (De scientiis), ed. Farmer,

"Scientia vero musice, comprehendit in summa, cognitionem

quidem musice active, non format neumas, et armonias, et omnia

Falaquera, Reshit Hokma (ed. David, p. 46-47)

from all instrumentation or material embodiment. It ponders

1. Principles 1. Teaching of music, to be played

Dom. Gundissalinus, De divisione philosophiae

(In this text we have adapted the common Latin orthog

Partes vero alias habet theorica, alias practica. Partes practicae

1. Principia De acuto sono

Surveying Gundissalinus' classifications, we realize that he,

De De Ortu Scientiarum62 and by earlier sources, e. g. Isidor's

Since music belongs to the propaedeutic sciences, it is frequently

obstructed.65 Sound, in contradistinction to music, is due to an

1. The Pythagoreans consider number and proportion as

the working material itself. Plato expresses similar ideas in his