Figure 1. Plate 9 from Benjamin, A. (1827). The American Builder’s Companion.

“A,
cavetto, or hollow; B, cavetto and astragal; C, ovolo and fillet; D, ovolo and astragal; E,
cymareversa, or ogee; F, cymareversa and bead; G, astragal; H, bead; I, cimarecta; K, L,
and M, are scoties of different projections and curves; N, O, P, are quirk ogees.”

2006 WAG Postprints—Providence, Rhode Island

 A Description of 19th-century American
Gilded Picture Frames and an Outline
of Their Modern Use and Conservation
Hugh Glover, Conservator of Furniture and Wood Objects,
Williamstown Art Conservation Center

Abstract
Picture frames are a functional component of most art collections and they are subject to wear
and tear as they fulfill their housing function for paintings. Damage to picture frames can
occur during exhibitions, storage, and travel, and is caused by handling, hanging processes,
adverse environments, neglect, and irreversible restorations.

Picture frames are maintained by a variety of preservation specialists, and despite their ubiq-
uity they have not become the domain of any one conservation discipline, and there is scant
literature devoted to their preservation interests.

This paper will focus on the analysis of 19th century American gilded picture frames, as well
as preventive care, modern modifications, and restoration/conservation treatments. The talk is
derived from the cumulative experience in treating frames at the Williamstown Art Conserva-
tion Laboratory (WACC).

The paper will address frame nomenclature and the development of popular styles and con-
structions of the 19th century. It will outline ornament forms and materials, and give an
overview of period gilding techniques. Different aspects of frame care, handling and modifica-
tions for the safety of the artwork are addressed, together with a brief overview of conservation
treatments.

Finally, the many datable frame/painting combinations that survive in American collections
provide a valuable source for understanding frame history and its rapidly changing styles and
technology. This paper outlines evidence that helps determine whether a frame is original to
its artwork.

1. Introduction

P
icture frames are a component of most art collections and they are subject to wear and tear in
their functional role surrounding paintings. Damage to frames occurs during exhibition, storage,
and travel, and it is caused by handling, hanging processes, adverse environments, neglect, and
irreversible restorations. Picture frames are maintained by a variety of preservation specialists and their
preservation interests have only rarely been addressed.

An original or appropriate frame is a contextual surround that can enhance and inform the exhibition of
a painting. Criteria for judging a frame’s historical appropriateness, however, is woefully scarce. A starting
point for understanding the technical and stylistic development of 19th century American frames can be
the examination of datable frames of the period. Datable frames, particularly those that have remained
Glover: 19th-century American Gilded Picture Frames
united with their paintings, provide valuable in- can be quickly determined as original, others take
formation about contemporaneous taste and tech- more time to assess. Some frames remain question-
nique. able, and the remainder is easily determined as not
original. Recognizing the history and appropri-
Because of the clear parallels between the tech- ateness of the pair is likely to influence decisions
niques and styles of picture frames with those of made for the preservation of the frame.
gilded mirror frames, furniture, and decorative ar-
chitectural elements, the 19th century literature of Some original combinations can be identified
gilding and decoration can provide insights into through surviving documentation, particularly
the chronology of picture frame development. photographs, but more often they will be identified
There are several known workshop manuals of the by the physical evidence on the painting, stretcher,
period describing decorating techniques, and fur- and frame. Examples of this evidence include:
ther examples no doubt remain to be discovered.
1. Corresponding period style and materials be-
Rare and important forays into frame research tween frame and framee. Many datable compo-
have been undertaken by Adair (1983), Smeaton nents and marks on painting supports have been
(1988), Kaufman and Wilner (1995), Gill (1996, described by Katlan (1992).
2003), and Wilner (2000), etc. These and the small
number of exhibitions and symposia devoted to 2. Shared wood coloring and markings on the
picture frames have brought an increased level of frame and stretcher back resulting from oxidation,
connoisseurship and scholarship to the subject. By pollution, spills, and handling. Gravity influences
bringing together existing frame and gilding schol- the deposition of grime and upper parts will be
arship with a comprehensive examination of date- darker, and coloring may have been influenced by
able period frames, we can begin to construct an dust covers and backing boards.
accurate history of 19th century American frames.
Understanding the characteristics of period frames 3. Shared nail impressions and datable nails from
will enable us to select frames that are historically fitting the painting, which can also indicate if and
and aesthetically appropriate for the paintings they how many times the painting has been out of the
surround. frame. The dating of nails has been addressed by
Edwards and Wells (1994) and Moyer (2002). The
Finally, the conservation of picture frames pro- evidence available on the frame back may have
vides a valuable opportunity to examine and ana- been altered or lost by repetitive holes from fas-
lyze them closely to identify original forms, tech- teners, replacement stretchers, and other restora-
niques, and materials. Gilding conservators have tions.
been developing more reversible and less intrusive
restoration methods for the last twenty years, and 4. Changes to a frame’s rail length or rebate size
conservators in general continue to fine tune pres- imply a different painting has been installed, al-
ervation efforts. though small increments of rebate widening can
be explained by a keyed out, altered, or replaced
2. Original and Datable Frames stretcher. The occasional use of antique frames in
Original 19th century American frame/painting the late 19th century may have resulted in their
combinations survive in quantity, particularly in adaptation to fit a new painting.
more static collections and on portraits. This is
less true of imported European examples that have
changed hands more frequently. Although there
are American painting/frame combinations that
2006 WAG Postprints—Providence, Rhode Island
3. Characterization of 19th-century last quarter of the century. The outside decent
American Frames from the knoll went from plain flat (perpen-
dicular to the wall), bevel, a small hollow within
The following section is generally organized ac-
the flat, and a full scotia, all in the first quarter-
cording to the sequence of frame construction and
century. An outside scotia with an ornamented
the chronology of techniques and material use.
back edge molding was popular during much of
3.1 Nomenclature the remaining century. The silhouette outline of
Rectangular frames have top, bottom, and side rails, frames included straight, swept sided (rococo),
and the sides can be referred to as proper left and and oval forms (neoclassical) in the first half-cen-
proper right for clarity. The rails have shaped pro- tury, and then mostly straight sided in the second
files between a sight edge and back edge, and a half-century.
rebate (or rabbet) behind the sight edge to house
the painting. The terms front molding and top Corners, centers, and sub-centers refer to enriched
molding refer to the same feature, the most for- ornament at those sites, and piercing describes
ward molding when the frame is hanging or the openings through the decoration. A mat is the
topmost molding when it is face up on a table (the liner that modifies the frame’s opening to ellipti-
term top molding is used here). The knoll, a more cal or round, and a liner is the removable inner
English term, describes the rounded sum-
mit of that molding. The top molding is
usually located closer to the frame’s outer
edge, and when it is closer to the painting
the frame is termed a reverse profile, or
bolection.

Forms for moldings derive from Greek

and Roman architecture. Recurring
frame moldings include the fillet (small
flat), fascia (large flat), cavetto (concave
quarter-circle), scotia (non-circular con-
Figure 2. Back view of a sloped main profile edge glued to a
cave), cong (combined flat and concave),
painted perpendicular outer edge, a popular form in the second
ovolo (convex quarter-circle), torus (large quarter of the 19th century.
convex half-circle), astragal (small version
of torus), cyma recta (concave to convex,
sometimes called an ogee), cyma-reversa
(convex to concave, an ogee). Examples
of molding profiles are reproduced in
many descriptions of traditional architec-
ture, e.g. Benjamin (1827) (fig. 1). Later
and more general terminology also ap-
plies, such as ogee, cove, scoop, hollow,
flat, etc.

The inside descent from the knoll is

the frame’s main profile and popular Figure 3. Front view of fig. 2. The frame is water gilded and has an
forms went from cove to ogee in the ovolo top molding, beveled main profile, cavetto sight edge, and a
first half-century, and to convex in the hollow in the yellow painted perpendicular back edge.
Glover: 19th-century American Gilded Picture Frames
 dustrial inspired patterns (after 1880). Terminol-
ogy for ornament is outlined in various sources in-
cluding, Lewis and Darley (1986), Meyer (1957),
and Stafford and Ware (1975).

3.2 Wood Substrate

The substrate of most 19th century American
frames is a relatively knot-free softwood, pre-
dominately white pine. In the last quarter-century
various plain hardwoods (generally diffuse porous)
were also used, and after 1860 the figurative mark-
ings of ring-porous hardwoods (e.g., oak, chest-
nut) were occasionally used decoratively beneath
oil gilding without gesso.

3.3 Shaped Moldings

Early frame profiles were small and prepared by
hand with planes, and wider rails after 1820 still
involved hand planes. Successful machines for
molding and shaping wood were developed in
America in 1848 by C. B. Rogers & Co. and J.
Figure 4. Back view of a four section frame with a box A. Fry & Co. (Englund 1978). The large, wide,
section recess in the main outer profile, and supporting
and clean profiles from about 1840 suggest that
glue blocks.
machine shaping may have already been in use
section of sight edge. A slip is an insert at the sight before the mid-century patent dates of these ma-
edge, and usually a later addition. chines. Machine developments continued with
cast iron frames introduced around 1850, the first
The styles of frames are described using a combi- vertical spindle molding machine patented by An-
nation of old and new architectural and decorative drew Gear (US) in 1853, and inside or center feed
art terms. Some frame styles are named by asso- molders appearing in the 1860s. Demand for ar-
ciation with a painter, e.g., Thomas Sully, Thomas chitectural moldings exceeded demand for picture
Cole, James Whistler, Childe Hassam, etc. More frames and would have spurred these machine de-
style terms and forms originated in Europe, for velopments.
which European frame history resources are useful,
e.g., Grimm (1981); Mitchell and Roberts (1996, 3.4 Rail Construction
1996); Newbery et al (1990); Simon (1996); Van- Early narrow frame rails were single pieces of wood.
Thiel and deBruyn Kops (1995). As they widened they were formed from two glued
pieces, with a slope for the main profile glued to a
The design and scale of ornament on frames evolved perpendicular top molding/outer edge (fig. 2, 3).
throughout the century in line with prevailing Popular profiles on the slope included the bevel
taste in architecture and the decorative arts. The (Thomas Sully style), cove (Grecian), and ogee,
majority of American frame ornament was derived often with an integral sight edge of an astragal and
from European and classical standards, while other cavetto. Varnished cross-veneer and faux-painted
sources included indigenous vegetation and flora veneer versions were also popular.
(1845–65), the exotic from the Mideast and Asia
(1850–90), Native American (after 1880), and in- Frame rail developments in the second quarter in-
2006 WAG Postprints—Providence, Rhode Island
cluded two-section rails, square (boxed) recessed 3.5 Corner Joinery
backs with supporting glue blocks, and lengthwise Many early-century frames relied on half-lapped
glued laminations for deeper rails. In the second corner joinery in a back frame, with applied mi-
half-century three and four concentric section rails tered front moldings. A few joiner-made examples
achieved greater widths, while rail laminations, relied on mortise and tenons in a back frame.
box recessed backs, and supporting glue blocks Most frames, however, had simple mitered corners
all remained common. The concentric sections of secured with glue and cut nails (fig. 5), with the
multiple section rails were gilded before assembly, nails in one direction that alternated around the
seated in rebates, and fastened with angled nails corners (nails in both directions implies that nails
in the back (fig. 4). Most reform styles (aesthetic have been added). Rails were assembled before the
movement, arts and crafts, etc.) after 1865 revert- gesso and gilding were applied, and overlaid corner
ed to simple single rail arrangements. ornaments could contribute to the joinery. Tapered
dovetail splines across the mitered corners were
popular in Europe but uncommon in the United
States. Late-century joinery methods included in-
ternal wood splines in grooves along the length of
the miter, and the distinctive Newcomb-Macklin
joint of thin plywood inserts over the back (fig. 6).
Frames as large as doorways were generally assem-
bled with lapped, mortised, and mitered joinery
and held with draw bolts and trapped nuts.

Oval frames, popular in the second quarter, were

mostly formed from a four-piece lap-joined or
splined back frame and front laminations that
bridged the seams, before being turned on an el-
liptical lathe.¹ Gilded wood mats and liners with
Figure 5. An opened miter corner of an outer profile rounded corners were mitered and fitted with
with a box section back recess and laminated four-part wood corner inserts that were sometimes lapped
construction. or splined.

3.6 Carved Ornament

Ornament on early Federal frames was generally
carved in the wood as small cross-cut sight edge
decoration. Carved and gilded lengths of round
rope twist ornament nailed into cove profiles were
also popular. After about 1815 most ornament was
molded. The use of low-relief carving was revived
in late-century reform styles for foliage ornament
and gouge textured surfaces, many of which were
likely to have been first prepared on shaping ma-
chinery.

3.7 Compo Ornament

Figure 6. The distinctive Newcomb-Macklin corner Compo (composition) was the popular material
joint of thin plywood inserted in the back of the miter. for molded ornament beginning about 1815 and
Glover: 19th-century American Gilded Picture Frames
Figure 7. Discontinuous design at the miter of late- Figure 8. Oil-gilded tulle net as textural decoration.
century machine pressed ornament. Sections of compo are missing and reveal the net
beneath.

its history and technology have been described by 1820, and by 1830 the ornaments had spread to
Thornton (1985) and Wetherall (1991). Compo almost connect. By 1840 continuous compo top
ornament was much faster to produce than carved moldings were popular, and scrolled foliage and
wood and it was also more stable as a substrate strap-work could entirely fill the main profile (a
for gilding, since wood in the American climate style associated with Thomas Cole). Popular top
is prone to movement. Compo was pressed into molding forms at the mid-century included the
rigid molds of reverse carved wood, molded sulfur, rustic twig, with ivy at the corners, followed by
or resin. Pressed compo ornament continues to be laurel-and-berry or reeding with corner bindings.
available today, and the dough-like material is eas- In the third quarter diaper patterns filled the cove,
ily prepared (Thornton 1985). and more geometric designs followed. In the last
quarter detailed foliate compo was applied as dis-
The form, placement and detail of compo orna- tinct bands, separated by plain fillets, flats, and
ment evolved in fashion during the century in hollows (Barbizon style).
conjunction with developing rail forms and gilded
effects. Early compo was more globular, and later The compo was applied to assembled and ges-
examples became finely detailed. Logical early soed rails and it could be bent to conform to the
placement was to cover the corner joinery, visu- rail shape and curvature. It was secured with hide
ally strengthening the joints, and then the next glue or its own tackiness after steaming, and larger
vacant space, the centers, were filled after about pieces were held with nails/sprigs. Undercutting
2006 WAG Postprints—Providence, Rhode Island
 rail lengths (Hünkel 1991), as
many ornaments on frames have
been made since. Examples can
be distinguished by their thin
compo cross-section, mitered
corner cuts through the compo
and gesso, and discontinuous or-
nament designs at the miter (fig.
7). Sometimes these features are
hidden beneath compo corner
overlays.

3.8 Tulle Net

Figure 9. Stenciled rustic patterns of rocks (repeated patches) initially filled Tulle net as textural decora-
the main cove after about 1840. tion was popular in the second
quarter-century (fig. 8). Strips
of machine woven tulle lace were
applied with glue to the gessoed
frame rails (before the compo),
a technique that was used in
Munich in the 1840s (Hün-
kel 1991). The textured surface
is reminiscent of 18th century
European cross-hatching cut in
gesso. The weave pattern in the
lace is generally a plain square 2
to 3 mm wide, but more com-
plex and decorative weaves devel-
oped on the theme. Bolder cross-
Figure 10. Stylized wave and foliate sand patterns were used in the third hatched effects at the end of the
quarter. century were cast directly in
the surface of compo or plaster.
was only achieved by raising parts from the sub-
strate or backing it with putty fills. Compo is char- 3.9 Sand Texture
acterized by its pale brown raw umber-like color, Sand textured surfaces were popular after about
its thickness varying from 1/16˝ to 1˝, the absence 1840. Fine sand was applied to oil size to produce
of undercutting, and the development of propor- a contrasting texture and reflection. Stenciled rus-
tional shrinkage cracks on drying. tic patterns of rocks (repeated patches) initially
filled the main cove (fig. 9), which were later rele-
The dried compo was prepared with a thin gesso or gated to smaller moldings. More stylized wave and
clay (Gilders Manual 1876, 12), or gilded directly foliate sand patterns were used in the third quar-
using oil gilding for the larger part and water gild- ter (fig 10). A plain narrow band of sand texture
ing on bole for forward features. positioned towards the sight edge was eventually
popular, as it had been in 18th-century European
Mechanized processes in the later century used frames. Softer grit textured effects were also used
rollers and dyes to produce compo ornamented in the mid-century, and on later revival styles.
Glover: 19th-century American Gilded Picture Frames
 same frame continued to be of denser compo.
Early plaster ornament is bulky and less modeled,
and may be oil gilded only, while later examples
have dramatic undercut foliage, leaf turnovers,
and lively surface effects of oil gilding against bur-
nished and matte water gilding (fig 11).

As with compo, it was not essential to prepare

plaster with gesso, although sealant coatings of oil
or glue size were recommended (Gilder’s Manual
1876, 27). Similarly, its surface was generally oil
gilded with forward features water gilded and
burnished. Some late century examples were also
gilded with brass leaf and powders.

3.11 Gesso
Gesso is the animal glue-bound white preparation
for wood, filled with inert white pigment, most
commonly calcium carbonate (chalk). Some late
century reform style frames have red pigmented
gesso to influence the color of the final gilding, or
to reduce color contrast when the gesso is chipped.
New gesso was smoothed and shaped with rushes,
fish skin, damp cloth, shaped pumice stone forms,
Figure 11. Lively late-century plaster ornament on a or other abrasives. By the third quarter manufac-
top molding (the corner leaf turnover is missing), and a turers were supplying framers with whitened up
small inside band of compo bead-and-reel. (gessoed) stock moldings prepared with templates
(Gilder’s Manual 1876, 11), although the regular-
3.10 Plaster Ornament ity of earlier surfaces suggests already well devel-
Cast plaster ornament was popular after about oped production methods.
1870, corresponding to the development of wax
and gelatin mold techniques (Millar 1897). These 3.12 Gesso Recutting
reusable molds were flexible and allowed for new Gesso recutting is rare on American frames since
undercut forms, and presumably still cheaper and the primary gesso was used on unadorned surfaces,
faster production. Glue is often absent under the and detail in ornament was derived from a mold.
plaster, as are corner seams, suggesting that the An exception is the gesso-cut fluted cove that was
plaster could be added simultaneously in a single popular as a main profile in the third quarter. Flat
pour onto all four gessoed rails. bands of incised, gilded, and selectively burnished,
or punched gesso were popular on high-style frames
Plaster ornament is characterized by its white inte- from 1860 to 1885 (fig 12). Incised patterns of
rior, full length forms, and its greater weight and white within a dark pigmented gesso surface (not
bulk, usually more than an inch thick due to its gilded) were popular with Eastlake styles.
inherent weakness. Internal wire armatures were
sometimes incorporated for support. Common 3.13 Bole
plaster placement was as a convex half-round top Bole is colored clay mixed with glue size and a
molding (torus), while smaller moldings on the small fat component applied as the preparation for
2006 WAG Postprints—Providence, Rhode Island
water gilding (The Painter, Gilder, and Varnisher’s
Companion 1883, 78). Different bole colors were
popular throughout the century, beginning with
shades of mauve, grays after about 1830, and later
red colors. Red oil paint was used to prepare for
some late-century oil gilding. Some modern re-
productions of early-century styles are inaccurately
prepared with red bole.

3.14 Water and Oil Gilding

The term gilding is used here in the broad sense to
describe all applied metallic finishes on frames and
some of these finishes do not include gold.

Nineteenth-century use of water and oil gilding

was an integral part of the frame’s decorative de-
velopment. Water gilding alone dominated until
about 1820, and then faster oil gilding was intro-
duced for the compo parts.

Popular second-quarter plain molding frames

that had no compo were typically profiled with
Figure 12. Incised, gilded, and selectively burnished
an ovolo top molding, a main cove or bevel, and
flat bands were popular on high style frames during
a small fillet or torus before a cavetto sight edge. the 1860s to 1880s (the main outer profile has been
They were water gilded on mauve bole and bur- removed).
nished along the top molding and the fillet/torus
close to the sight edge. A similar contemporane- The solid gilded and matte effect common on flat
ous profile decorated with compo corners/centers liners popular after 1840, wide bevels and flats
would be oil gilded only on the compo, and water popular in the last quarter, and other plain surfaces,
gilded between the ornaments. An exception is were achieved with double water gilding and mat-
found on some of the earliest compo that may be ting size (Gilder’s Manual 1876, 17; Savory 1875,
only water gilded. 67). Burnished sight edges next to a painting were
rare but they were used for works on paper that
The proportion of oil to water gilding on frames were spaced away from the gilding with a paper
increased with the introduction of more compo, mat (Gilder’s Manual 1876, 16). Oil gilding alone
but water gilding continued to be the choice for was unlikely to have been used for an entire frame
the plain matte or burnished surfaces between the until the last two decades of the century.
compo/plaster bands, and for burnished highlights
on forward features of the compo/plaster. Plain small 3.15 Oil Size
moldings between the bands of ornament, such as fil- Recipes for 19th century oil size included resin
let, torus, and hollow, were usually burnished water mixtures and aged linseed oil, colored with red or
gilding, and flats were usually matte water gilding. yellow resins and pigments (The Painter, Gilder,
In all cases of combined oil and water gilding it was and Varnisher’s Companion 1883, 65, 78). A vi-
practical to complete the water gilding before the sual assessment of the period’s oil size suggests that
oil gilding since the brushed oil size could be neatly most was lightly colored yellow, if colored at all.
lapped onto the edges of the water gilding. Chrome yellow colors were used occasionally by
Glover: 19th-century American Gilded Picture Frames
Figure 13. Mecca gilding of faded yellow varnish on silver leaf on an outside ovolo, with oxidized silver where the
varnish is thin or broken.

mid-century, and brighter red pigmentation was from Thomas Cole to Asher B. Durand in 1837,
used in the late century. where he specifies: “…the best gold not the pale.”²
Domestic gold beaters were also producing cooler
3.16 Coloring yellow shades of gold (Fennimore 1991, 140). Lemon/
Coloring yellow, a distemper prepared with yellow green shades were popular for reform styles, and
pigment in glue size, was used during the first half are specified in James Whistler’s correspondence of
of the century to economically color the outside the 1870s (MacDonald et al 2003). A late-century
plain wood profile, usually a flat, bevel, or scotia, example of lemon/green gold on such a frame ex-
and it was used to prepare recesses for water and oil amined by x-ray fluorescence spectroscopy (XRF)
gilding (The Painter, Gilder, and Varnisher’s Com- revealed a high zinc component, rather than silver.
panion 1883, 79; Gilder’s Manual 1876, 12).
True gold powder (shell gold) is described in most
3.17 Gold leaf gilding manuals (e.g., The Painter, Gilder, and
Gold is alloyed today with copper for red shades, Varnisher’s Companion 1883, 74) but its use for
and silver for lemon/green shades. More shades of gilding frames was likely limited.
gold leaf are probably available today than were
available for most of the 19th century. The color of 3.18 Non-gold gilding
most 19th century gold leaf visually corresponds The terms “mecca gilding” (origin uncertain) and
to the present day red colors of about 23½ K, al- “changing varnish” refer to resin or pigment col-
though the color of old gilding is now altered with ored varnish glazes (The Painter, Gilder, and Var-
grime, oxidized coatings, and handling. A pref- nisher’s Companion 1883, 64). The technique of
erence for a redder color is indicated in a letter coating burnished silver leaf with yellow varnish to
2006 WAG Postprints—Providence, Rhode Island
imitate gold was popular before the mid-century 3.19 Tone and varnish coatings
and in the last quarter. Stenciled matte patterns Gilded surfaces, except burnished parts, were
on the varnish were occasionally used to represent brush coated with a thin size layer to matte and
fluting, etc. Examples of mecca gilding are visu- even the finish, adding contrast to the bright bur-
ally recognized by the faded yellow varnish coat- nished passages. Coatings varied from plain glue
ing, and oxidized silver where the varnish is thin size (The Painter, Gilder, and Varnisher’s Com-
or broken (fig. 13). panion 1883, 110-111), glue size or water colored
with resin/dye/pigments, termed ormolu (Gilder’s
Brass-leaf gilding became popular in the last quar- Manual 1876, 10; Savory 1875) or vermeil (The
ter-century, generally applied using the oil gild- Painter, Gilder, and Varnisher’s Companion 1883,
ing technique and always protected from oxida- 80), or the later use of thinned shellac (Ford and
tion with a varnish coating. Brass leaf gilding was Mimmack 1909, 59). Thick and glossy varnish
initially used on secondary surfaces (e.g., outside was not applied on gold leaf as it would interfere
coves) but by the end of the century it could be with the gold color and reflection, but thick and
used overall or in combination with mecca gilding evenly applied varnish was a necessary barrier for
and Roman gilding with bronze powders. Brass non-gold gilding to prevent tarnishing.
leaf is visually recognized by its varnish coating,
sometimes a wrinkled appearance due to its thick- The gilding on some reform style frames of the late
ness, large leaf size of more than 5-inches (gold century was mildly abraded and toned with col-
leaf is 3 3/8-inch square), and general or localized ored varnish to better complement the painting.
darkening due to oxidation. The gilding of mainstream frames was intended
to be clean, bright, and only subtly toned. The
Mass production of bronze powder and its prepa- practice of using stronger pigment, stain, and dye-
ration as paint in a de-acified varnish was devel- toned coatings purposefully pooled within design
oped in mid-19th century London by Sir Henry recesses to mimic collected grime (antiquing) may
Bessemer in answer to costly German imports have seen occasional use in the late-century, but
(Bessemer 1905). Bronze powder gilding is found it has been more common since the 20th century
on American frames after about 1880 and the for effects and reproductions. Equally, intentional
technique has been termed Roman gilding since at abrasion of gilding for the ageing effect (distress-
least 1909 (Ford and Mimmack 1909, 42). Meth- ing) was uncommon until the 20th century.
ods varied from applying the powder as paint in
a glue or varnish medium, to dusting the powder
4. Frame Wear, Care, and Use
onto oil size (The Painter, Gilder, and Varnisher’s
Companion 1883, 120), and various varnish coat- 4.1 Environment
ings were applied for protection from oxidation Gilded wood objects are ultra-sensitive to envi-
(Ford and Mimmack 1909, 43, 58). Examples can ronmental conditions and they are probably more
incorporate a modest burnish within the bronze, sensitive than most paintings. In adverse climates
and brighter burnished highlights of water gild- gilded wood experiences detachment and loss of
ing on bole. Roman gilding is visually recognized gilding/ornament, while an accumulation of grime
by its dull and oxidized color, UV fluorescence of leads to surface darkening and cleaning campaigns
coatings, and broken particles under magnifica- that may well cause damage.
tion. The tin-based gold powder, aurum mosaicum
(The Painter, Gilder, and Varnisher’s Companion The protected bright gilding that survives on
1883, 75), probably had little application on gild- shadow-boxed frames of the second half-century
ed picture frames. illustrates how more exposed gilding has now

Glover: 19th-century American Gilded Picture Frames

been altered by grime, abrasion, and staining from peated screw holes, but events can lead to new
moisture and grease during handling. holes in the frame and stretcher backs, and care is
necessary to avoid excessive holes or obscuring his-
4.2 Handling toric evidence. A direct-reading caliper is useful for
All gilded objects should be handled with non-mar- optimizing the length of screws added to a frame.
ring gloves to avoid abrasions and staining, and even Redundant early hardware can be preserved on the
paper towels or cotton cloth will suffice. In practice, frame, or stored separately if necessary.
however, gilded frames are still handled with bare
hands as the frame is considered a safe means of A heavy-duty hanging scale was used to crudely
handling the artwork. Other handling precautions measure the failure point of a common D-ring
include using soft support pads, not lifting empty with a stand-up wire loop (item U711, United
frames by the thin sight edge, and avoiding con- Manufacturers Supplies Inc.). The wire loop failed
tact with loose parts. Ziploc-type bags labeled with by unwinding from its strap at around 520 lbs,
marker pens are useful for saving detached parts. despite the strap being fixed with only small screws
in softwood (No. 8 x 1 in. screws in sugar pine).
4.3 Dusting With safety margins that include an allowance for
Occasional dusting of frames with a clean soft one hanger to temporarily hold the whole weight,
brush and vacuum is recommended to remove the perhaps 150 lbs is a reasonable maximum loading
dust that eventually becomes grime and attracts for a pair of these D-rings. Most framed paintings
moisture. Light-weight dust covers can help in weigh less than 150 lbs, even when they are fitted
dustier storage areas (e.g. clear 0.35 mil (9 µm) with laminated safety glass. A record of the weight
polyethylene). Over-zealous dusting results in pro- of heavier objects can be useful, as would further
gressive abrasion that removes the gold (<1ų thick) load tests of hanging devices. Old braided steel
and reveals the bole and gesso preparation layers. wire corrodes and becomes brittle and should be
Varying degrees of this condition are very com- replaced with a stainless type. A single wall fixture
mon, especially on the shelf of the bottom rail. combined with a connecting wire on the back of
Aqueous cleaning results in the removal of water the frame is less secure than two wall fixtures, one
gilding and toned coatings which is another com- for each D-ring. Failures within the hanging ar-
mon condition. rangement can be disastrous.

4.4 Hanging hardware 4.5 Labels

The early 19th century hanging device was a ring Frame makers can be identified from the occa-
and screw combination located singly or as a pair sional inscriptions found on the frame back. These
in the top rail. Simpler early devices included can be printed paper glued on the wood, pencil
wire, leather, and sheet metal loops, located in the inscriptions, and late-century marks applied by
top rail. Some rural portraits were not originally carving, ink stamp, and engraved metal coupons.
framed and had the loop device attached to the A selection of late century marks are illustrated by
top stretcher bar. Paired screw eyelets located in Smeaton (1988), and many New York and Bos-
the side rails were popular after about 1825, and ton makers have been recorded by Katlan (1987).
heavier frames could have custom hardware. Other frame back inscriptions record dimensions,
style, owner, and hanging location, etc.
Modern practice is to fit steel D-rings for hang-
ing, Oz-clips for some crating, and mending plates Ideally, owner records should include copies of
for securing the artwork, attached with pan-head maker’s labels/marks since they are fragile and sub-
sheet-metal screws (countersunk screws for Oz- ject to loss. Surviving labels can be protected in
clips). Secure fittings reduce the incidence of re- place with an overlay of 5 mil (0.127 mm) Mylar
2006 WAG Postprints—Providence, Rhode Island
attached with double coated tape (3M 415) on an Strips of polyester felt tape with an adhesive back-
isolation layer (B72), and detached labels can be ing (e.g. Decco tape) are now generally fitted to
encapsulated in Mylar envelopes. rebates to cushion the edges of the painting. At-
Exhibition labels have traditionally been placed on tachment of the felt is improved by first dusting
frame and stretcher backs. A less intrusive and longer the rebate with a brush, and/or coating it with thin
lasting location is on the painting’s backboard encap- varnish (e.g., B72, shellac).
sulated in Mylar, and/or placed in the owner’s records.
Modern inventory marks are applied between 4.7 Glazing
soluble varnish coatings to a discreet part of the Glazing is added to frames for the protection of
frame, usually an outside corner and/or the back. artwork, generally for specific exhibitions and
Troublesome old inventory labels include gummed travel. Modern glazing materials are light-weight
paper on water gilding, and pressure adhesive la- thermoplastics (acrylic or polycarbonate) or heavi-
bels or masking tape on oil gilding. er-weight laminated glass, and most have propri-
etary coatings to reduce UV light and reflection.
Gilding that has been covered with a title plate is A glossary of glazing terms and a comparison of
usually better preserved than adjacent surfaces and glazing materials are available as technical leaflets
indicates an earlier condition. The silhouette re- on WACC’s website.³ Glazing is fitted in the re-
vealed when plates are removed may need to be bate (or in front of a liner) and is backed with dark
masked with pigments. The introduction of new colored and felted wood or acrylic spacers. The in-
title plates will eventually result in the same irregu- creased protrusion of the painting in the back can
lar coloring to the gilding. be enclosed within an added build-up (see 4.9).

4.6 Rebate Modifications 4.8 Microclimates

Frame rebates are sometimes modified to improve Sealed microclimate enclosures are used to stab-
the fit of a painting. When an aperture is too large alize environmental influences during exhibition
to neatly and safely house a painting the sight size and travel. The history, development, and design
can be reduced by fitting flat or L-section wood of various enclosures have been described in recent
slips (or a liner) within the rebate. Mitering the literature: e.g., Kamba (1993); Richard (1995);
ends of the slips is often sufficient to hold them in Wadum (1995); Sozzani (1997); Phibbs (2002).
place, rather than adding fasteners or adhesive. L- The painting is enclosed behind glazing within the
section slips can double-serve by also centering the frame (or travel frame), or larger enclosures such as
painting. The decision to only paint the reveal of vitrines can also include the frame.
the new slip, include a cavetto profile, or gesso and
gild the reveal with oil or water gilding depends on Sozzani demonstrates that the moisture content
the frame’s existing gilding quality and the extent of wood within the enclosure (i.e. stretcher, panel,
of the reveal. Linen covered liners were popular in cradling, interior frame and build-up, etc.) helps
the second half of the 20th century and they can control RH during temperature variations, and
be original to a 20th century frame, but they are a silica gel component can be a hindrance. The
a later addition to a 19th century frame and were method described uses gaskets fitted between the
added to modify the sight size. glazing and rebate, and between the back of frame
or build-up and an aluminum sheet backing, plus
A keyed out stretcher or a larger painting can re- additional seals as needed.
quire the widening of the rebate. Wood may need
to be removed with a sharp chisel or router, al- Phibbs describes a simple method that uses a single
though this obviously involves the loss of original piece of Marvelseal covering the object’s back and
material and detail. sealed to the front edges of the glazing with double-
Glover: 19th-century American Gilded Picture Frames
coated adhesive tape. Phibbs also describes a more a successful presentation of the painting, and less
labor intensive method that involves two pieces of visible frame damage may be left untreated. Quick
Marvelseal per edge, bonded to the front and back restoration methods using different materials are
edge of the glazing with hot melt adhesive, and fold- often applied when they are reversible and reason-
ed and heat sealed over the painting’s backboard. ably durable, such as inpainting gesso losses, or
filling dimensional losses with wax.
Factors influencing the choice of microclimate
method include size, weight, shape of the pack- Reversible gilding techniques have been in devel-
aged artwork, rebate size of the frame, the exhi- opment since the 1980s, initially published by
bition environment and duration, and individual Herbert and Small (1991) and Thornton (1991),
preferences. A small data logger enclosed within and their development continues for the preserva-
the envelope can give an after-event assessment of tion of all historic gilding. The following is a brief
temperature and RH. description of gilded frame restoration methods
for common situations.
4.9 Build-up
A build-up is an addition on the frame back that 5.1 Loose structure
extends the rebate’s depth to improve the housing Loose frame corners can compromise the structure
of protruding artwork. A build-up is usually made and lead to loss of local decoration. The condition
from four pieces of straight grained and light- of the joinery is assessed by gently manipulating
weight wood (e.g. sugar pine, tulip poplar), ½–1½ an empty frame on a table. The original 45˚ angle
inch deep, and attached to the frame back with of most miter joints has been reduced by wood
a minimum number of woodscrews. Joining the shrinkage and regluing with hide glue is not gen-
corners of the build-up with splines or lap joints erally effective. One method of supporting loose
adds useful support to the frame’s own corner join- frame corners involves adding birch plywood L-
ery, and beveling and painting the outside perimeter plates, or a full build-up to the back, secured with
reduces visibility. A build-up for an oval or round hide glue and/or woodscrews. Flat metal L-plates
frame can be prepared from birch plywood cut to a fitted with screws are less practical since the joint
circle with band saw and jig saw. Reasons for adding usually remains flexible. Half lapped corner joints
a build-up include protecting the back of protrud- can be reglued with hide glue, or supported with
ing artwork, as a component of glazing and micro- plywood L-plates.
climate set-ups, and as a support for failing frame
joinery. Build-ups do push the hanging object away Glue failure in laminations within a rail sometimes
from the wall, but they also hold hardware and can leads to gesso losses along the seams. The lamina-
provide an insulating air space behind. tions can be glued with hide glue after isolating
the gilding with temporary varnish, or they can
5. Restoration be secured with woodscrews from the back. Gesso
Frame restoration/conservation treatments address loss can also be caused by wood shrinkage against
structural and surface security, the housing accom- the long grain of glue blocks on the back, and the
modation, and the restoration of appearance. The blocks may need to be shortened before the dam-
condition of gilding on frames is rarely perfect and age is restored.
it reveals its history of use as a patina. A complete
restoration to its original bright condition is gen- 5.2 Loose decoration
erally impractical and often undesirable. Breaks or splits within wood parts are generally se-
cured with hide glue, and connections with gaps
The extent and location of restoration interventions or end-grain can be secured with carvable epoxy
to a frame are generally weighted toward achieving between isolation layers of B-72 (Ellis and Hegin-
2006 WAG Postprints—Providence, Rhode Island
Figure 14. Micro-flaking in oil gilding at the base of compo ornaments resulting from insufficient sealant or an
excess of glue or oil size.

botham 2002). Loose compo ornament is effec- 5.3 Inpainting

tively and reversibly secured with B-72/acetone Small losses of gesso and gilding are masked by in-
adhesive (Koob 1985), as are small sections of painting with stable and soluble pigment systems
plaster. Adhesives to consider for larger sections of that can incorporate mica pigments (e.g. acrylic
loose plaster include hide glue, PVA emulsion, and emulsions, MSA and PVA colors, watercolors,
polyvinyl butyral. etc.). Coloring all the revealed white on a frame fa-
cilitates monitoring new losses, and can be useful
Loose gesso on wood is a common condition before events when frames are frequently handled
where wood movement is greatest, such as edges of and their conditions are inspected and reported.
outside angles and convex forms. Loose gesso can
be successfully secured with gelatin or rabbit skin 5.4 Gesso Fills
glue size (about 4%), applied with a small brush Gesso losses on frames are common and their res-
without contacting the gilded surface. toration can be prioritized to address those that
are most prominent in the hanging position. Fills
Micro-flaking in the top surface of oil and water within bright or flat surfaces are more demand-
gilding layers also occurs. In water gilding it is rare ing to execute than fills within ornament or dark-
and probably results from ineffective sizing of the er toned gilding. Several methods for filling the
gesso or excess glue in a coating on the gold leaf. losses in gilding have been described by Thornton
Micro-flaking in oil gilding is more common par- (1991).
ticularly at the base of compo ornaments and in
the interstices of tulle net, resulting from insuffi- Polymer binders prepared with inert fillers (cal-
cient sealant, excesses of glue and oil size (fig. 14), cium carbonate, calcium sulfate, kaolin, micro-
or contraction of over-coatings. Careful handling balloons, cellulose powders, etc.) are used for re-
of these surfaces may be the most practical means versible fills. Shelton (1996) has described the use
of their preservation. of Aquazol (poly(2-ethyl-2-oxazoline), Thornton
Glover: 19th-century American Gilded Picture Frames
(1991) describes the use of B-72, and polyvinyl al- Options for the casting material include new
cohol has been used by Herbert and Small (1991) compo or plaster, or thermosetting polymers such
and Thornton (1991). Acrylic resin (previously as polyester, polyurethane, or epoxy resin. At the
cellulose ether) is used in Kolner brand burnishing Williamstown Art Conservation Center (WACC)
clay. The use of regular protein gesso is also popu- we generally use a low-viscosity epoxy resin (West
lar due to its reliability and performance, and Sa- System) bulked with microballoons, or a proprie-
limnejad (2002) has demonstrated that a protein tary bulked epoxy resin (Woodcast). Steps that aid
bound gesso prepared with zinc oxide (35%), bis- the casting process and reduce air pockets include
muth oxide (10%), and calcium carbonate (55%) prepainting the mold with a base color, and warm-
provides an x-ray dense material. The drying of ing the mold and the precatalyzed casting mate-
polymer gessoes tends to result in strata within the rial under a heat lamp. The back and edges of the
fill’s thickness, something that is not apparent in cured casting are reduced with files and abrasives
regular protein gesso that sets initially by gelling. until it fits the lacunae. Parts that fit well are se-
cured with B-72/acetone adhesive, and parts that
Gesso putties for deeper fills and proprietary that have only a small contact with the substrate
spackle compounds like Modostuc (calcium car- are secured with small spots of carveable epoxy on
bonate, small amounts of barium sulfate, a polyvi- a B-72 isolation layer. Wax, gesso, or spackle type
nyl acetate copolymer binder) can be quick to use, fills may be necessary to complete the edges of the
and wax for small fills can be quicker still. Recipes new fill before the gilding is applied.
for fills are designed for the size and location of the
loss, reversibility, less density than original mate- Carved wood fills for American frames are rarely
rial, working properties, and the gilding layers that necessary since the medium is less common, and
will be applied. late century carving is generally in low-relief and
more robust. Options for fills in carvings include
5.5 Ornament fills new wood, carvable epoxy, wax, or casting methods.
The reproduction of ornament losses by molding Fill selection considers the type and size of the loss.
and casting is common restoration practice, and
small losses can be reproduced by direct modeling 5.6 In-gilding
of a fill material. For molding and casting extant New fills are gilded and colored to match adja-
ornament is used as the pattern for producing flex- cent surfaces. Dull and toned gilded effects can be
ible molds. Quick setting dental putty (vinyl poly- quickly achieved by inpainting with pigments that
siloxane impression material) probably reduces the include mica or shell gold. Brighter effects require
risk of silicone oil contamination, and RTV sili- gilding with a corresponding shade of leaf applied
cone rubber poured within dammed boundaries is on a matching base color and surface quality. The
useful for larger molds. In both cases the original selection of leaf shade is aided by temporarily fix-
surface is coated with a temporary isolation coating ing small pieces of each option onto the extant
(B-72, B-67, petroleum jelly, wax, etc.). Extant or- gilding with B-72.
nament patterns do not always survive and it may
not be possible to fill the loss accurately. In these A gilding method for attaching new leaf is selected
cases similar frames can provide a pattern, and for its gilded effect and reversibility. Sawicki (2002)
sometimes fills can be creatively modeled based has compared the performance of non-traditional
on adjacent patterns. Historically appropriate new mordants and concludes with the successful ap-
compo from a modern supplier may also be con- plication of Plextol B-500 (an aqueous emulsion
sidered. Images of damaged repeat ornaments can of ethylacrylate/methyl methacrylate copolymer)
be overlaid in Photoshop to help visualize the parts for reproducing matte gilded effects (and it can
that do not survive. be manipulated to produce shinier effects). Oth-
2006 WAG Postprints—Providence, Rhode Island
ers have described the use of acrylic resins, acrylic usually to hide grime rather than other damage.
emulsions, Aquazol, polyvinyl alcohol, and wax Bronze overpaint is visually recognized by its even
(Thornton 1991; Moyer and Hanlon 1996; Shel- and dull brown oxidized color, and its untidy ap-
don 1996). In some circumstances traditional oil plication. Bronze powder pigment was prepared in
and water gilding methods can be reversible, and many different varnish-like mediums and solubil-
garlic juice (Cennini (1960), 97) and glair could ity of the aged paint varies considerably.
perhaps also be considered. Reversible gilding sys-
tems are also used to apply new leaf onto original Its safe removal depends on the difference in solu-
bole where old leaf has been abraded. Newly-leafed bility between the overpaint and the underlying
passages are then toned with abrasion if necessary, layers which often include both water and oil gild-
followed by colored coatings. ing. It is generally easier to remove the overpaint
from water gilding where non-aqueous solvent
5.7 Cleaning systems can be used more safely, than from sol-
An undisturbed distribution of moderate grime vent sensitive oil gilding. Some bronze paints are
on gilding is perceived as a desirable and histor- soluble in aromatic hydrocarbons (e.g. petroleum
ic patina. Naturally acquired grime concentrates benzine, xylene), but others require tailored clean-
on upward facing surfaces although some frames ing systems that can include more polar solvents,
have been inverted to show the cleaner underside. chelating agents, and surfactants.
Cleaning the gilded surface is considered when
the grime is excessive relative to the painting and 6. Conclusions
exhibition environment. Factors that complicate There are many American frame/painting com-
cleaning treatments include solubility of gilding binations surviving in collections which provide
and toning layers, the risk of abrasion, embedded a standard against which less well-matched com-
grime, loose gesso and ornament, cleaning system binations can be compared, and they can enable
residues, and the need for an even result on an more accurate pairings and reproductions. Origi-
often topographically irregular surface. nal, historic, or otherwise appropriate frames de-
serve identification and publication, as well as the
An initial cleaning involves dusting with soft particular care that conservation can provide.
brushes and a vacuum; the next level involves safe
solvent wipes (e.g. petroleum benzine on cotton), Acknowledgements
and finally tailored aqueous and solvent systems The author is grateful to the many WACC staff
can be used to reduce grime further. members and interns who have shared an interest
in the history and conservation of picture frames,
5.8 Previous treatments with particular gratitude to Michael Heslip.
Common previous treatments to frames include
the introduction of different adhesives, crude fills, Notes
bronze overpaint, and over-cleaning. Other exam- 1. Pictured at the website of The Old Schwamb
ples include frame size changes, and over-gilding Mill: www.oldschwambmill.org
with leaf. Only the all-too-common bronze over-
paint will be briefly discussed here. 2. Thomas Cole to Asher B. Durand, November 2,
1837. Asher B. Durand Papers, New York Public
Partial or complete bronze overpaint was applied Library, microfilm Archives of American Art). As
generously to gilded frames in the 20th century. noted by Annette Blaugrund.
Its removal usually reveals a superior gilded surface
and this implies the motive for its application was 3. WACC’s website: www.williamstownart.org

Glover: 19th-century American Gilded Picture Frames

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frame. San Francisco, CA.: Chronical Books. International Dental Supply
8205 West 20th Ave.
Sources of Materials Miami, FL 33014
Compo:
Decorators Supply Corp. RTV silicone rubber encapsulant:
3610 S. Morgan St. Dow Corning 3110, catalyst #1:
Chicago, IL 60609 Museum Services Corp.
385 Bridgepoint Drive
J. P. Weaver & Co. South St. Paul, MN 55075-2466
941 Air Way
Glendale, CA 91201-3001 About the Author
HUGH GLOVER is conservator of furniture and
Decco felt: wood objects at the Williamstown Art Conserva-
Testfabrics, Inc. tion Center (WACC), where he has been work-
PO Box 26 ing since 1988. He received diplomas in Antique
West Pittston, PA 18643. Furniture Restoration from West Dean College in
1979, and Conservation and Restoration of Wood,
Direct reading caliper: Stone, and Polychrome from The City and Guilds
Veritas Tools, Inc. of London Art School in 1985. Address: William-
1090 Morrison Dr. stown Art Conservation Center, 225 South St.,
Ottawa, Canada K2H 1C2 Williamstown, Massachusetts, MA 01267. email:
[email protected]
D-rings (item U711) and hanging hardware:
United Manufacturers Supplies, Inc.
80 Gordon Drive
Syosset, NY 11791

Low viscocity epoxy resin:

West System, Inc.
102 Patterson Ave.
PO Box 665
Bay City, MI 48707-0665

Microballoons:
Conservation Support Systems
924 West Pedregosa St.

2006 WAG Postprints—Providence, Rhode Island