UNIT – II

ELASTICITY OF DEMAND

Elasticity of demand explains the relationship between a change in price and consequent change in
amount demanded. “Marshall” introduced the concept of elasticity of demand. Elasticity of demand shows
the extent of change in quantity demanded to a change in price.

In the words of “Marshall”, “The elasticity of demand in a market is great or small according as the
amount demanded increases much or little for a given fall in the price and diminishes much or little for a
given rise in Price”

Elastic demand: A small change in price may lead to a great change in quantity demanded. In this case,
demand is elastic.

In-elastic demand: If a big change in price is followed by a small change in demanded then the demand
in “inelastic”.

Types of Elasticity of Demand:

There are three types of elasticity of demand:

1. Price elasticity of demand

2. Income elasticity of demand
3. Cross elasticity of demand

1. Price elasticity of demand:

Marshall was the first economist to define price elasticity of demand. Price elasticity of demand measures
changes in quantity demand to a change in Price. It is the ratio of percentage change in quantity
demanded to a percentage change in price.

Proportionate change in the quantity demand of commodity

Price elasticity = ------------------------------------------------------------------
Proportionate change in the price of commodity
There are five cases of price elasticity of demand

A. Perfectly elastic demand:

When small change in price leads to an infinitely large change is quantity demand, it is called perfectly or
infinitely elastic demand. In this case E=∞

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The demand curve DD1 (right side Figure) is horizontal straight
line. It shows the at “OP” price any amount is demand and if price
increases, the consumer will not purchase the commodity.

B. Perfectly Inelastic Demand

In this case, even a large change in price fails to bring about a

change in quantity demanded.

When price increases from ‘OP’ to ‘OP’, the quantity demanded

remains the same. In other words the response of demand to a change
in Price is nil. In this case ‘E’=0.

C. Relatively elastic demand:

Demand changes more than proportionately to a change in price. i.e. a
small change in price loads to a very big change in the quantity
demanded. In this case E > 1. This demand curve will be flatter.

When price falls from ‘OP’ to ‘OP’, amount demanded in crease

from “OQ’ to “OQ1’ which is larger than the change in price.

D. Relatively in-elastic demand.

Quantity demanded changes less than proportional to a change
in price. A large change in price leads to small change in
amount demanded. Here E < 1. Demanded carve will be
steeper.
When price falls from “OP’ to ‘OP1 amount demanded increases
from OQ to OQ1, which is smaller than the change in price.
E. Unit elasticity of demand:

The change in demand is

exactly equal to the
change in price. When both
are equal E=1 and
elasticity if said to be
unitary.

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When price falls from ‘OP’ to ‘OP1’ quantity demanded increases from ‘OP’ to ‘OP1’, quantity demanded
increases from ‘OQ’ to ‘OQ1’. Thus a change in price has resulted in an equal change in quantity
demanded so price elasticity of demand is equal to unity.

2. Income elasticity of demand:

Income elasticity of demand shows the change in quantity demanded as a result of a change in income.
Income elasticity of demand may be slated in the form of a formula.

Proportionate change in the quantity demand of commodity

Income Elasticity = ------------------------------------------------------------------
Proportionate change in the income of the people

Income elasticity of demand can be classified in to five types.

A. Zero income elasticity:

Quantity demanded remains the same, even though money income increases. Symbolically, it can be
expressed as Ey=0. It can be depicted in the following way:
As income increases from OY to OY1, quantity demanded never
changes.

B. Negative Income elasticity:

When income increases, quantity
demanded falls. In this case,
income elasticity of demand is
negative. i.e., Ey < 0.
When income increases from OY to OY1, demand falls from OQ to OQ1.

c. Unit income elasticity:

When an increase in income brings about a proportionate increase in quantity demanded, and then income
elasticity of demand is equal to one. Ey = 1.
When income increases from OY to OY1, Quantity
demanded also increases from OQ to OQ1.
d. Income elasticity greater than unity:

In this case, an increase in come brings about a more

than proportionate increase in quantity demanded.
Symbolically it can be written as Ey > 1.

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It shows (Right Side Figure) high-income elasticity of demand. When
income increases from OY to OY1, Quantity demanded increases from
OQ to OQ1.

E. Income elasticity leas than unity:

When income increases quantity demanded also increases but less

than proportionately. In this case E < 1.
An increase in income from OY to OY, brings what an increase in
quantity demanded from OQ to OQ1, But the increase in quantity
demanded is smaller than the increase in income. Hence, income
elasticity of demand is less than one.
3. Cross elasticity of Demand:

A change in the price of one commodity leads to a change in the

quantity demanded of another commodity. This is called a cross
elasticity of demand. The formula for cross elasticity of demand
is:

Proportionate change in the quantity demand of commodity “X”

Cross elasticity = -----------------------------------------------------------------------
Proportionate change in the price of commodity “Y”

a. In case of substitutes, cross elasticity of demand is positive. Eg: Coffee and Tea

When the price of coffee increases, Quantity demanded of tea increases. Both are substitutes.

Price of Coffee

b. Incase of compliments, cross elasticity is negative. If increase in the price of one commodity leads to
a decrease in the quantity demanded of another and vice versa.

When price of car goes up from OP to OP!, the quantity demanded of petrol decreases from OQ to OQ!.
The cross-demanded curve has negative slope.

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c. In case of unrelated commodities, cross elasticity of demanded is zero. A change in the price of one
commodity will not affect the quantity demanded of another.

Quantity demanded of commodity “b” remains unchanged due to a change in the price of ‘A’, as both are
unrelated goods.

Factors influencing the elasticity of demand

Elasticity of demand depends on many factors.

1. Nature of commodity:
Elasticity or in-elasticity of demand depends on the nature of the commodity i.e. whether a commodity is
a necessity, comfort or luxury, normally; the demand for Necessaries like salt, rice etc is inelastic. On the
other band, the demand for comforts and luxuries is elastic.

2. Availability of substitutes:
Elasticity of demand depends on availability or non-availability of substitutes. In case of commodities,
which have substitutes, demand is elastic, but in case of commodities, which have no substitutes, demand
is in elastic.

3. Variety of uses:
If a commodity can be used for several purposes, than it will have elastic demand. i.e. electricity. On the
other hand, demanded is inelastic for commodities, which can be put to only one use.

4. Postponement of demand:
If the consumption of a commodity can be postponed, than it will have elastic demand. On the contrary, if
the demand for a commodity cannot be postpones, than demand is in elastic. The demand for rice or
medicine cannot be postponed, while the demand for Cycle or umbrella can be postponed.

5. Amount of money spent:

Elasticity of demand depends on the amount of money spent on the commodity. If the consumer spends a
smaller for example a consumer spends a little amount on salt and matchboxes. Even when price of salt or

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matchbox goes up, demanded will not fall. Therefore, demand is in case of clothing a consumer spends a
large proportion of his income and an increase in price will reduce his demand for clothing. So the demand
is elastic.

6. Time:
Elasticity of demand varies with time. Generally, demand is inelastic during short period and elastic during
the long period. Demand is inelastic during short period because the consumers do not have enough time
to know about the change is price. Even if they are aware of the price change, they may not immediately
switch over to a new commodity, as they are accustomed to the old commodity.

7. Range of Prices:
Range of prices exerts an important influence on elasticity of demand. At a very high price, demand is
inelastic because a slight fall in price will not induce the people buy more. Similarly at a low price also
demand is inelastic. This is because at a low price all those who want to buy the commodity would have
bought it and a further fall in price will not increase the demand. Therefore, elasticity is low at very him
and very low prices.

Importance of Elasticity of Demand:

The concept of elasticity of demand is of much practical importance.

1. Price fixation:
Each seller under monopoly and imperfect competition has to take into account elasticity of demand while
fixing the price for his product. If the demand for the product is inelastic, he can fix a higher price.

2. Production:
Producers generally decide their production level on the basis of demand for the product. Hence elasticity
of demand helps the producers to take correct decision regarding the level of cut put to be produced.

3. Distribution:
Elasticity of demand also helps in the determination of rewards for factors of production. For example, if
the demand for labour is inelastic, trade unions will be successful in raising wages. It is applicable to other
factors of production.

4. International Trade:
Elasticity of demand helps in finding out the terms of trade between two countries. Terms of trade refers
to the rate at which domestic commodity is exchanged for foreign commodities. Terms of trade depends
upon the elasticity of demand of the two countries for each other goods.

5. Public Finance:
Elasticity of demand helps the government in formulating tax policies. For example, for imposing tax on a
commodity, the Finance Minister has to take into account the elasticity of demand.

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6. Nationalization:
The concept of elasticity of demand enables the government to decide about nationalization of industries.

Demand Forecasting

Introduction:

The information about the future is essential for both new firms and those planning to expand the scale of
their production. Demand forecasting refers to an estimate of future demand for the product.

It is an ‘objective assessment of the future course of demand”. In recent times, forecasting plays an
important role in business decision-making. Demand forecasting has an important influence on production
planning. It is essential for a firm to produce the required quantities at the right time.

It is essential to distinguish between forecasts of demand and forecasts of sales. Sales forecast is
important for estimating revenue cash requirements and expenses. Demand forecasts relate to
production, inventory control, timing, reliability of forecast etc. However, there is not much difference
between these two terms.

Types of demand Forecasting:

Based on the time span and planning requirements of business firms, demand forecasting can be classified
in to 1. Short-term demand forecasting and
2. Long – term demand forecasting.

1. Short-term demand forecasting:

Short-term demand forecasting is limited to short periods, usually for one year. It relates to policies
regarding sales, purchase, price and finances. It refers to existing production capacity of the firm. Short-
term forecasting is essential for formulating is essential for formulating a suitable price policy. If the
business people expect of rise in the prices of raw materials of shortages, they may buy early. This price
forecasting helps in sale policy formulation. Production may be undertaken based on expected sales and
not on actual sales. Further, demand forecasting assists in financial forecasting also. Prior information
about production and sales is essential to provide additional funds on reasonable terms.

2. Long – term forecasting:

In long-term forecasting, the businessmen should now about the long-term demand for the product.
Planning of a new plant or expansion of an existing unit depends on long-term demand. Similarly a multi
product firm must take into account the demand for different items. When forecast are mode covering
long periods, the probability of error is high. It is vary difficult to forecast the production, the trend of
prices and the nature of competition. Hence quality and competent forecasts are essential. Prof. C. I.
Savage and T.R. Small classify demand forecasting into time types. They are 1. Economic forecasting, 2.
Industry forecasting, 3. Firm level forecasting. Economics forecasting is concerned with the economics,

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while industrial level forecasting is used for inter-industry comparisons and is being supplied by trade
association or chamber of commerce. Firm level forecasting relates to individual firm.

Methods of forecasting:

Several methods are employed for forecasting demand. All these methods can be grouped under survey
method and statistical method. Survey methods and statistical methods are further subdivided in to
different categories.

1. Survey Method:
Under this method, information about the desires of the consumer and opinion of exports are collected by
interviewing them. Survey method can be divided into four type’s viz., Option survey method; expert
opinion; Delphi method and consumers interview methods.

a. Opinion survey method:

This method is also known as sales-force composite method (or) collective opinion method. Under this
method, the company asks its salesman to submit estimate of future sales in their respective territories.
Since the forecasts of the salesmen are biased due to their optimistic or pessimistic attitude ignorance
about economic developments etc. these estimates are consolidated, reviewed and adjusted by the top
executives. In case of wide differences, an average is struck to make the forecasts realistic.
This method is more useful and appropriate because the salesmen are more knowledge. They can be
important source of information. They are cooperative. The implementation within unbiased or their basic
can be corrected.

B. Expert opinion method:

Apart from salesmen and consumers, distributors or outside experts may also e used for forecasting. In
the United States of America, the automobile companies get sales estimates directly from their dealers.
Firms in advanced countries make use of outside experts for estimating future demand. Various public and
private agencies all periodic forecasts of short or long term business conditions.

C. Delphi Method:
A variant of the survey method is Delphi method. It is a sophisticated method to arrive at a consensus.
Under this method, a panel is selected to give suggestions to solve the problems in hand. Both internal
and external experts can be the members of the panel. Panel members one kept apart from each other
and express their views in an anonymous manner. There is also a coordinator who acts as an intermediary
among the panelists. He prepares the questionnaire and sends it to the panelist. At the end of each round,
he prepares a summary report. On the basis of the summary report the panel members have to give
suggestions. This method has been used in the area of technological forecasting. It has proved more
popular in forecasting. It has provided more popular in forecasting non-economic rather than economic
variables.

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D. Consumers interview method:
In this method the consumers are contacted personally to know about their plans and preference
regarding the consumption of the product. A list of all potential buyers would be drawn and each buyer will
be approached and asked how much he plans to buy the listed product in future. He would be asked the
proportion in which he intends to buy. This method seems to be the most ideal method for forecasting
demand.

2. Statistical Methods:

Statistical method is used for long run forecasting. In this method, statistical and mathematical techniques
are used to forecast demand. This method relies on post data.

a. Time series analysis or trend projection methods:

A well-established firm would have accumulated data. These data are analyzed to determine the nature of
existing trend. Then, this trend is projected in to the future and the results are used as the basis for
forecast. This is called as time series analysis. This data can be presented either in a tabular form or a
graph. In the time series post data of sales are used to forecast future.

b. Barometric Technique:
Simple trend projections are not capable of forecasting turning paints. Under Barometric method, present
events are used to predict the directions of change in future. This is done with the help of economics and
statistical indicators. Those are (1) Construction Contracts awarded for building materials (2) Personal
income (3) Agricultural Income. (4) Employment (5) Gross national income (6) Industrial Production (7)
Bank Deposits etc.

c. Regression and correlation method:

Regression and correlation are used for forecasting demand. Based on post data the future data trend is
forecasted. If the functional relationship is analyzed with the independent variable it is simple correction.
When there are several independent variables it is multiple correlation. In correlation we analyze the
nature of relation between the variables while in regression; the extent of relation between the variables is
analyzed. The results are expressed in mathematical form. Therefore, it is called as econometric model
building. The main advantage of this method is that it provides the values of the independent variables
from within the model itself.

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 QUESTIONS

1. What is meant by elasticity of demand? How do you measure it? What are determinates of
elasticity of demand?

2. What is the utility of demand forecasting? What are the criteria for a good forecasting method?
Forecasting of demand for a new product? ‘ Economic indicators’

3. What is promotional elasticity of demand? How does if differ from cross elasticity of demand.

4. Explain in law of demand. What do you mean by shifts in demand curve?

5. What is cross elasticity of demand? Is it positive for substitute or complements? Show in a

diagram relating to the demand for coffee to the price of tea?

6. Income elasticity of demand and distinguish its, various tapes. How does it differ from pure
elasticity of demand?

7. What is meant by demand? Everyone desires a Maruti 800 Car – Does this mean that the
demand for Maruti Car is large?

8. Calculate price elasticity of demand:

Q1= 4000 P1= 20
Q2= 5000 P2= 19

9. What is demand analysis? Explain the factor influencing the demand for a product?
What are the various factors that influence the demand for a computer.

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 QUIZ

1. Who explained the “Law of Demand”? ( )

(a) Joel Dean (b) Cobb-Douglas
(c) Marshall (d) C.I.Savage & T.R.Small

2. Demand Curve always ________ sloping. ( )

(a) Positive (b) Straight line (c) Negative (d) Vertical

3. Geffen goods, Veblan goods and speculations are exceptions to___. ( )

(a) Cost function (b) Production function
(c) Law of Demand (d) Finance function

4. Who explained the “Law of Demand”? ( )

(a) Cobb-Douglas (b) Adam smith
(c) Marshall (d) Joel Dean

5. When PE = ∝ (Price Elasticity of Demand is infinite), we call it ___. ( )

(a) Relatively Elastic (b) Perfectly Inelastic
(c) Perfectly Elastic (d) Unit Elastic

6. Income Elasticity of demand when less than ‘O’ (IE = < O), it is
termed as _______. ( )
(a) Income Elasticity less than unity (b) Zero income Elasticity
(c) Negative Income Elasticity (d) Unit Income Elasticity

7. The other name of inferior goods is _______. ( )

(a) Veblan goods (b) Necessaries
(c) Geffen goods (d) Diamonds

8. Estimation of future possible demand is called ______. ( )

(a) Sales Forecasting (b) Production Forecasting
(c) Income Forecasting (d) Demand Forecasting

9. How many methods are employed to forecast the demand ( )

(a) Three (b) Four
(c) Two (d) Five

10. What is the formula for Price Elasticity of Demand? ( )

(a) % of change in the Price (b) % of change in the Demand
% of change in the Demand % of change in the Income

(c) % of change in the Demand (d) % of change in the Demand of ‘X’

% of change in the Price % of change in the Price of ‘Y’

11. When a small change in price leads great change in the quantity demand,
We call it ________. ( )
(a) Inelastic Demand (b) Negative Demand
(c) Elastic Demand (d) None

12. When a great change in price leads small change in the quantity demand,
We call it ________. ( )
(a) Elastic Demand (b) Positive Demand
(c) Inelastic Demand (d) None

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13. “Coffee and Tea are the ________ goods”. ( )
(a) Relative (b) Complementary
(c) Substitute (d) None

14. Consumers Survey method is one of the Survey Methods to forecast the__. ( )
(a) Sales (b) Income
(c) Demand (d) Production

15. What is the formula for Income Elasticity of Demand? ( )

(a) % of change in the Income (b) % of change in the Demand
% of change in the Demand % of change in the Price

(c) % of change in the Demand (d) % of change in the Demand of ‘X’

% of change in the Income % of change in the Price of ‘Y’

16. What is the formula for Cross Elasticity of Demand? ( )

(a) % of change in the Price of ‘X’ (b) % of change in the Demand
% of change in the Demand of ‘Y” % of change in the Price

(c) % of change in the Demand of ‘X’ (d) % of change in the Demand

% of change in the Price of ‘Y’ % of change in the Income

17. When PE = 0 (Price Elasticity of Demand is Zero), we call it ___. ( )

(a) Relatively Elastic demand (b) Perfectly Elastic demand
(c) Perfectly Inelastic demand (d) Unit Elastic demand

18. When PE =>1 (Price Elasticity of Demand is greater than one),

We call it ___. ( )
(a) Perfectly Elastic demand (b) Perfectly inelastic demand
(c) Relatively Elastic demand (d) relatively inelastic demand

19. When PE =<1 (Price Elasticity of Demand is less than one),

We call it ___. ( )
(a) Perfectly inelastic demand (b) Relatively Elastic demand
(c) Relatively inelastic demand (d) perfectly Elastic demand

20. When PE =1 (Price Elasticity of Demand is one), we call it ___. ( )

(a) Perfectly Elastic demand (b) Perfectly inelastic demand
(c) Unit elastic demand (d) Relatively Elastic demand

21. When Income Elasticity of demand is Zero (IE = 0), It is termed as ___. ( )
(a) Negative Income Elasticity (b) Unit Income Elasticity
(c) Zero Income Elasticity (d) Infinite Income Elasticity

Note: Answer is “C” for all the above questions.

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